ARTICLES 87. THE ATTITUDES OF THE KUSASI FARMER OF THE UPPER REGION OF GHANA TO HIS PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT by G. Benneh The traditional farmer is largely dependent on the forces of nature for his work. He grows crops which can thrive in the soils he tills because he has not learned to improve upon the soil to permit a wider selection of crops. Rainfall is the only source of water for his crops. Thus his farming activities are controlled by its seasonal distribution. The wet season is the sowing and growing season and the dry, the harvesting period. When the rains fail, there is crop failure and hunger. The exposure of his crops to natural forces which he can neither control nor predict with scientific precision has made him find solace in religious practices which are intended to appease the Supreme Being and to ensure that the natural forces will work in his favour. In this paper, the author discusses the attitudes of the Kusasi farmer to the elements of the physical environment which have direct bearing on farming. His classification and evaluation of soils for agricultural production are examined. The Land of the Kusas i Kusaug, the territory of the Kusasi covers an area of some 1,200 square miles, and lies in the extreme northeast corner of Ghana. It is bounded on the north by Upper Volta, and on the east by the Republic of Togo. The Red Volta separates itjfrom the Zuarungu district and the Gambaga scarp forms its southern boundary with South Mamprusi. The greater part of the country is floored by granitic complexes and Birrimian rocks. Voltaian sand stones occur in the extreme south around Worikambo, Sinnebaga and Zongoiri. Apart from a range of hills in the north of the country which * Dr. G. Benneh is a Lecturer in the Department of Geography. FIG. 0 40 RELIEF AND DRAINAGE 00 00 0°3Q' 0°20" 0°!0' ARTICLES rises in places to 1,500 feet above sea level greenstone of the Birrimlan system, the land dulating and attains a height of between 600 sea level. The main rivers draining Kusaug which forms its western boundary, and the Wh latter river divides the country into two cu Toende in the west and AgoIIe in the east. from north to south and join at the Gambaga diverts their flow westward (Fig. 1 ). The r their banks in the wet season and dry up In leaving a series of pools and silts. and cons ists of Is gently un- and 800 feet above- are the Red Volta Ite Volta, The Itural areas. Both rivers flow scarp wh ich ivers overflow the dry season Vegetation The natural vegetation consists of low trees and , rather tall grass but the high population density combined with an extensive farming system and the annual burning of all grass has resulted in an artificial parkland vegetation. Although it is widely held that the natural vegetation in Kusaug forms part of the Sudan zone of vegetation. Rose Innes has expressed the view that the vegetation in this area has been so altered by prolonged disturbance as to resemble the Sudan zone vegetation but belongs in fact to the Guinea savannah. He bases his conclusion on the characteristic vegetation of the protected _tj_rrg^ari (earth shrine) groves. The hills near Bawku which sixty years ago were referred to in the District Commis- sioner's diary as "well wooded" are now completely bare, save for a thin cover of trees, as a result of the demand for fire- wood. Gallery forests still persist in river valleys parti- cularly along the Morago valley but for the rest of Kusaug only trees of economic value, either for food or for medicine, are left standing. These trees Include the shea butter ^utvjl2£E£!lHi!! £a_rkj_[s and the Dawadawa ^a£^]J_JJJ_iS2MS^.• These trees show a marked adaptation to the environment. Many of them are fire- resistant and have thick barks and long roots to withstand the drought. According to Rose innesf In some areas of exceedingly heavy exploitation, the process of tree clearance has turned parkland trees into "highly combustible standing fuel, which succumb to old age; and their use for fuel has given rise to •open country with eroded improver?shed soil supporting annual grass". ARTICLES 30, With the exception of the tlngban grooves where one finds climatic climax vegetation all plant communities In Kusaug are secondary. The different species of grass which grow in the area Include, £jjtu£»» the An ('down coming1) varies from year to year depending on when the first rains come. If the rains fall In Aruj (May) but come in Ayoubu (June) the Ax2H^H be-c o m es the j>jj2J£ for that year, But if the first rains come In Ajta (March) or Anjjse (April), farmers do not describe either moon'as jjj_cN£ but regard it as a warning that jy_cnj_ cannot be far awiy. The amount of rain and its distribution in time varies from year to year. Thus rainfall in Manga Bawku in 1961 was rI* ARTICLES 91 28.92 inches as against 38.12 inches in the previous year. The dependable average annual rainfall Is about 30 Inches. The ever-present fear of famine caused by the unpredictable nature of rainfall and farmers inability to solve problems created by drought have given rise to religious beliefs and rites connect- ed with rain. When the early rains are two to three weeks late during the seventh moon, the people believe that they are beinq puni- shed by the Supreme Being and the Earth God for an unknown offence committed by members of the community. Elders of the drought stricken village meet the Jtejidana, the priest of the Earth God to discuss the problem. The _tend_ajia is then asked to consult a soothsayer. Whatever the soothsayer tells the tendana is reported back to the elders of the village and the remedying action is taken. This normally involves offering a sheep to the Earth God. On the other hand, when there is a long period of drought during the wet season, and cultivated crops begin to wither, the sannab, the rain maker is blamed for withholding the rains. The tendana Is asked to go and appeal to any sannab in the district to release the rains. When* in spite of the request, the rains do not come some people are chosen to go and beat him up and then beg him again for rains. It Is believed that after inflicting such punishment on him, he would allow the rains to fall. This appears to be a common practice amongst,,the differ- ent ethnic groups in northeastern Ghana, Cardinal 1 reported an experience he had in Navarro in 1918 as follows: "First many presents were brought to him for sacrifice, but rain came not. The people considered he was responsible and tied him up until it would fall - Kassena ties a man up in no gentle manner. Still rain came not. They then ceased to give him food. At last rain came. He made no complaint, apparently considering the people were perfectly justified". In former times no pay- ment was made to the .saruiab for bringing the rains but since the Introduction of money into the Kusaug economy, It has become the accepted practice to make a cash gift to the sannab and to give him a small portion of the harvested millet at the end of the farming season. According to Informants at Nyorogu, farmers In the nearby village of Zawze Bawku were punished by a sannab In 1969 for refusing to send part of their harvested millet crop to him. They had promised to do so when he gave them rains in ARTICLES 92. the previous year. They had to go to the same sannab to beg for rains during the growing season of 1969. The soils of the district have been broadly classified Into ten soil associations based mainly on comparable morpho- logical characteristics, relief, drainage and geological characteristics. Each soil association consists of a group of soils. A topographical sequence is found generally in the formation of these soils. The upland soils are derived either from the weathering of parent material In situ or accumulated by erosion from the upper slopes. The valley soils are of mixed alluvial and colluvial origin. Farmers' Percept ion of So II Ser ies In an attempt to find out to what extent Kusasi farmers are aware of the different types of soils Identified by soil scientists the author interviewed farmers on the soils in the Nyorogu/Manga Bawku area. The farmers mentioned five types of soils and described them In some detail. These soils are usually Identified by indicator grasses which grow on them. According to the chief, of Nyorogu, farmers have also become aware of the differences in the profiles of these soils as a result of digging up wells on the different types of soils and digging up soil for the construction of their huts. Even though Kusasi farmers (are aware of the variations In colour of soils, colour Is not always used for Identification nor do they use the texture of the soil or Its taste. The Kusasi is normally forbidden to taste the earth since he swears to the Earth God by putting some sand;in his mouth. The names and descriptions of these soils as given by the chief of Nyorogu and confirmed by other farmers Interviewed are as follows: Zfqqi: The ziggl Is found on upland sites. It is reddish in colour and gravelly. It has a poor moisture retaining capacity. The indicator grass Is Peralom (Arlstida kerstingll) FIG. 2 LOCATION OF SOIL SAMPLE POINTS. \f'r"Z09.S HILLS FOREST \ /RESERVE SLOCK 8 Forestry Division /ZORSI FOREST RESERVE.' - BAWKU UJ \ /\ A B . SAWKU • MORGO Agricultural ' Station • — Soil Sample Point Track .-•rso-~ Contour im# One mite HOC- Based on Ghana Survey Oepi. mop !'• 50,000 HO! .0 3/4. ARTICLES 3k. Yak: This occurs in valley bottoms. It is a grey clayey soil which is badly drained. The indicator grasses are pitum, (Andropogan gayanus and Mi is (Prima grass) ). Boog: is a valley bottom soil. It is dark brown to black clayey soil which is waterlogged in the wet season and cracks up In the dry season. The indicator plant is Dendeya or Dende- gia (Vetiveria nlgritiana). Zua: This is a shallow upland soil brownish in colour mixed with many pebbles. The Indicator grass is Hoza (Ctenium sp.). The identification^of the Soils In the Field The author accompanied three farmers from the village of Nyorogu to the Manga Agricultural Station near the village. The soils on the station had been surveyed by the Scientific Service Division of the Ministry of Agriculture. They were asked to Identify the soils and their indicator grasses. After a reconnaissance survey 'of the area, from the top of the slope to the valley of river Wazugu they concluded that only three of the five types of s o Ms known to the Kusasis were represented on the station. These are the jj[£9j.» the tempeelug and the boog. On each soil type a smajil soil pit was dug with a chisel at a point located on the map of the station. Sample soils were collected from the first three horizons indicated by change of colour and texture. A; specimen of the indicator plant was collected. The author then accompanied the farmers to Zawze Bawku where samples of! the Zua were collected from a soil pit dug on a farm near the forestry Department. Samples of the Yak were collected from the valley of river Wazugu near Bawku (Fig. 2 ). Specimens of indicator plants were also collected. The soil samples were analysed by the Soils Division of Volta Basin Research Unit at Legon and the indicator grasses were identified by the Botany Department of Legon. The description of the soil profiles by the soil scientist is contrasted with the description of the Kusasi farmers in Appendix !. ARTICLES 95. Agr icu 1 tura 1 Use In general the Kusasi farmer seeks out the most suit- able soil for the particular crop he wishes to grow. He uses the soil-moisture relationship and the nutrient status of soils to determine the suitability of a soil to a particular crop. According to fanners interviewed the best soil in Kusaug is £u_a because it gives good crop growth and yields and has good soil moisture relationship. The zua is parti- cularly suitable to guinea corn, although it may also be used for potatoes, late millet and early millet. The Tempeelug is in Class II. Late millet does very well on this soil. Even though the soi1-moisture relationship is poor it gives high yields in the first season of cultivation but fertility declines rapidly. The yak Is in Class III. It has a poor soil moisture relationship. It is waterlogged in wet season and cracks in the dry season. It is difficult to work. It is mainly used for cultivating groundnuts and beans. _Boog is in Class IV. it needs plenty of moisture because little moisture leads to the soil cracking. It is most suitable for rice cultivation but it is also used for potatoes. The least favoured is z i ig i which is in Class V. This gravelly soil which according to farmers has very poor soil moisture relationship is used for growing guinea corn and groundnuts. Cone I us ion The Kusasi farmer has through the slow process of trial and error learned to adjust his farming activities to the sea- sonal distribution of rainfall and to grow the crops best suited to the soils at his disposal. The present Kusasi farmer is not aware of the scientific classification of the soils he tills, nor is it vital that he knows of it because it has little relevance to his pressing problems. But the agricultural •scientist responsible for improving his farming techniques cannot afford to ignore the fund of knowledge which he has accumulated over the years on the physical environment. Apart from the fact that such knowledge may well serve as a starting point of the scientist's own investigations on the environment, it will also no doubt enable him to gain an insight Into the ARTICLES 96. reasoning behind the decisions taken by the farmer and the techniques he adopts on his farm. This is necessary if he Is to succeed in persuading the farmer to accept his new ideas and techniques. R E F E R E N C ES R..Rose Innes, _ _ g j _ _ _ _ _. 2. A.W. Cardinall, Jhe Nat [ves of_i:the Northern Jer£J tor [ of the Gold Coast, London 1920, p.27, 3. For a detailed description of the Soil Associations - See l ^ £ l d £ n d W £ t e T ^ u r^ Northern 1 Surveys, the is of F.A.O. ^^egJjOjT^^Gjiana^ and , Rome, 19o7 and Soil Soil JJaj/rOTigo-^Bawja^ Region, Ghana, Soil Research Memoir No.5» Kumasi 1969. g Vol. S.B. I I 1 Adu, _U_p_£6£ , pp I n s t i t u t e, ARTICLES KusasI Name Z I ig I (Gravelly soil). Zua (Soil on top of the hill). Tempeelug (Soil which Is wh it ish and soft) 37. APPENDIX Scientific Profile Descr ipt ion Farmers Profile Descr ipt ion Indicator Plant Agr icultural Use 0-4 inches: Light Yellowish brown (10 YR.6/4) slightly humous, leamy coarse sand rare fine quartz gravel porous, crumbly pH.5.8. 4-10 inches: Very pale brown (10 YR.7/4) loamy coarse sand, very frequent fine quartz gravel rare fine ironstone. 0-4 inches: Dark brown {id YR.3/3) loamy sand; me- dium granular structure; friable; occasional quartz gravels; traces of mica flakes and some pieces of decomposed granite; few rootlets; very slightly acid (pH.6.6) . 0-3 inches: Dark brown TT75~WJUh) coarse sand; medium granular structure; friable; few rootlets siightly acid (pH.6.4) . 3-12 inches: Yellowish 15 YR.576I coarse sand, structure and consistency as above; very slightly ac id (pH.6.6) . Reddish, gravelly soil found in upper slopes. Below 4ft. the colour changes to dark brown. The parent rock is soft and it Is about 9ft, below. Ayuugpim Heteropogon contortus Guinea corn Brownish upland soil. Shallow. Below 12 inches^ the texture is clayey. The parent rock is hard and black. Moza Cteniurn sp. Gu inea corn Dark grey soil found on lower slopes. Below 2ft. the colour is reddish. The parent rock is grey- ish in colour. Per a lorn Ar 1st ida kerst Ing Ii Late Mil let ARTICLES 96. Kusasi Name Scientific Profile Descr ipt ion Fanners Prof ile Descr i pt ion Indicator Plant Agr icultural Use Black clayey soil found on valley bottoms. The colour changes to white below the topsoil. The parent rock which is white and soft is about 5-7 feet below the top- soil. Pi tunq (Andropogon gayanus) Groundnuts Beans Hi is (Pr ima grass) Yak (Clayey soil) . 0-3" Dark grey (10 YR. V I) sandy loam; medium granular structure; friable; very few fine roots; mildly alkaline (pH.7,8). 3n-7" Dark grey (10 YR.4/1) gritty clay loam; medium moderate, subangular blocky structure; firm; medium distinct strong brown and white mottiings; occasion- al quartz gravels and pieces of decomposed mica- ceous granitic rock; very few rootlets; mildly alka- 1ine (pH.7.8). 7"-l4" Olive grey (5 YR.4/2) gritty clay; medium, moder- ate subangular blocky structure, firm, many pro- minent white and olive yellow mottlings; occasional quartz gravels and pieces of decomposed micaceous granitic rocks; rare stains of man- ganese dioxide, moderately alkal ine (pH.8.4). ARTICLES 99. Kusas i Name Scientific Profile Description Farmers Profile Description Indicator Plant -Agricultural Use Boog (Soil in the valley). 0-I0n Very dark greyish brown T K T Y R . 3 / 2) loamy sand; fine to medium granular structure; friable, very few rootlets; medium acid (pH.6.0). 10-15" Greyish brown (10 YR.5/2) coarse sand; medium granular structure; friable; few fine faint dark yellowish brown. (10 YR.4/4) mottilngs, plenti- ful fine quartz gravels and some pieces of decomposed granitic rock; few rootlets, very slightly acid (pH.6.8). Dark brown to black muddy soil found on valley bottoms. Below is sandy layer. This is followed by a clay- ey layer. The parent rock which is soft and blackish is about 9ft. below the topsoi1, Dendeya or ^Dendegj^a VetIverIa n igr it I ana Rice Potatoes ARTICLES 100, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The fieidwork for this paper was carried out between July and September 1969 as part of the Institute of African Studies of the University of Ghana and the Northwestern University Summer Project in the Bawku District. The author wishes to thank the organizers of the project for financing the survey. My thanks are also due to the chief and people of Nyorogu without whose willing co-operation this survey would not have been possible, and my field assistants, Free- man Aruk and G.K. Agbodza. ! am indebted to Mr. A.A. Nti of the Botany Department of the University of Ghana for identify- ing the indicator plants and Mr. J.K. Amematekpor of the Volta Basin Research Project for analysing the soil samples.