RESEARCH REVIEW (NS) VOL. 12, NOS. 1 & 2 (1996) UNEMPLOYMffiNT AND SOCIAL POLICY DIMENSIONS Kweku Osei-Hwedie Introductioa Unemployment is a serious problem. Many people are looking for jobs and cannot find while others have given up looking altogether. Millions of people are also employed part time while they prefer to work full"time. Associated with these conditions are economic deprivation, social strain, psychological stress and physical health problems (Shcrraden 1985). In all coon- tries, services are not adequate to meet the needs of the unemployed. In some commies, especially in Africa, mere are very isolated or no services at all for me unemployed. Definition mid type* of unemployment Unemployment is often defined as people actively looking for jobs. However, in some coun- tries such as the US only those who have actively searched for jobs in the last ftmr weeks and have not worked at all are considered -meaiployed (Persell 1987; Keefe 1984). What is not reflected in the dimensions of unemployment are those who move from full time to part time employment; those who take new jobs which are below, men* skill levels and previous income; those who move from one temporary low-wage employment to another, and those who are permanently discouraged from looking for employment. The unemployment rate does not show the instability generated by displacement and downward socio-economic mobility. Also not reflected are the anger, insecurity, violence, deprivation, loss opportunities and loss of control of significant aspects of the environment (Keefe 1984). Thus, mere are personal and interpersonal costs of unemployment These include, for ex- ample, socio-psychological costs such as loss of self esteem, feeling of powerlessness, and a sense of loss of identity. There are, therefore, social, economic health and other costs for the family, individual and community (Persell 1986). Unemployment is caused by several factors including: 1. Inflation, reflect by high prices and wages; 2. efforts to stow taflation including high interest rates, and " slowgrowth in ft© supply of money fit circulation; and 3. globalization of world economy, capital flight, cheap imports and tax breaks for multinationals. Sherraden (1985) maintains that social workers must sufficiently involve themselves in labour market issues and develop credibility to influence the policy making process; and effectively familiarize themselves with the subject matter which is essentially economic to produce an effective policy to deal with unemployment. There is need to develop conceptual clarity with respect to the nature of unemployment which is of several types. Sherraden (1985) identifies four non-overlapping types of unemployment. 1. 2. 3. Factional unemployment: This is caused by short term maladjustments in the labour market such as fluctuations in labour market demands. It results from capital and labour shifts, which are seen as essential features of a dynamic economy. Structural unemployment: This relates to deeper and longer-lasting maladjustments in the labour market. It reflects inconsistencies between skills required and those possessed by available workers. For example, - some structural job vacancies may exist because of the skills required while some people are unemployed. Cyclical unemployment: This is caused by deficiencies in labour demand due to re- cession. In short, as business declines, unemployment rises. It is therefore the differ- ence between peak and low levels of the business cycle. 4. Chronic unemployment: This relates to employment deficiencies that persist irre- spective of how the economy performs (i.e., even during good economic times) the economy may still not be able to absorb available labour. Unemployment must be measures by type so as to be able to describe it accurately for effective policy. For example, whereas Motional unemployment may require policy on labour market sources of information, structural unemployment calls for jobs training type of policy. It is necessary that basic data on types of unemployment be available, and regularly collected. There is need to develop detailed knowledge of types of unemployment as a basis for accurate analysis of unemployment problems. Social Policy and Unemployment Social policies are guiding principles for ways of life, motivated by basic and perceived hu- man needs. They evolve from the structures, dynamics and values of the ways of life and serve to sustain or change these ways of life (Gil 1990, p. 23). The central role of policy in reducing or controlling unemployment, and in resolving related problems cannot be under estimated, neither can it be ignored. The importance of policy is reflected by Gil's (1990) conception that social policy regulates and sustains social orders through regulating existential processes es~ semial to the survival andviability of a society. These processes are: 1. Development and control of lutaral nm>ox» awl teimanci^Aed material awl noo- material wealth. 2. Oi&nizatkmcfwoikneomaryforpml^^ for sustaMng We aod enhancing its qaalitT. 3. Definition, recognition and distributionof civil, social psychologictl, political, and economic ri^its. 4. Procedures for making decisions and for conducting societal af&rin (Gil 1990). Through regulating these processes, social policy indirectly shapes the cirornistaiKXs of living andqnalityofiife of members of a society. Thus the issue of unemployment is directly linked to the policy regime of a society. Social Policy and the Right to Work Gil (1981) argues that societal dominant values are crucial to the development and stabiliza- tion of social policies. Values are a product of human choice which are rooted in needs and reflect human interests. Thus, if changes in established institutional order are to come about, Societal processes establish and sanction the rights of members in that society. Therefore, rights are non-existent unless they are so- cially acknowledged and defined, and appropriate resources allocated. There arc diff ere betweenneeds and rights. For example, everyone needs food, sheher and education. However millions of people suffer fix)m lack of these. This is because their needs have not been ac- knowledged as rights and hence they have no legitimate claim against society'* stock of goods and services. Rights are established explicitly or implicitly by allocating resources to satisfy needs, either on individual or group basis. Work has become necessary in all societies as the process of gaining life enhancing resources and hence it is regulated through social policies. In the context of employment, which is another dimension of work, several policy issues arise including the right and freedom to work, and their implications. There is no unconditional right to work. Even though such right is not denied, it is, however, controUcd by poUcy regulations wMchdcternime ownership and control of re^ The use of these resources translate into work. Gil (1990) indicates that because access to work of majority of people depends on those who control societal wealth and resources, there is no right to work in the real sense. Employment and decision of owners of resources depend oa considerations of profit and capital accumulation. These considerations are seen as contrary to the concept ofright to woric because surplus labour depresses wages, anwog other things. Gil (1990) maintains further that the limitations on the right to work has led to limitations in income and on economic, social, political and psychological rights, all of which are closely tkd to income m addition, woik itself has become an exploitative activity. 11M? tigte to wont has scrims impli^^ If it refers to universal entitlement to rational and meaningful activity conducive to sdf-actnaJiza- t k^ then societal systeins of resource coimxrt and u i i l i^ However, if it nKws merer/a«oringeveiyo«apo6itk»m hi hmunfarir turns and nwly marginal nffiistmcnfti in current systems wnnld he needed In fids case, if me dominant values shift significantly towards equity, liberty, cooperation and coBectiYC orientation, the conception and organization of wott and employment will also change dramatically. The way society relates to, and uses resources will change since every- one mast have access to the social wealth and be able to utilize bat not own, accumulate and control it. This does not s em to be feasMe since Uimpttes a pobhc guarantee a g^ nation and exploitation. In short, a social system mat oppresses people must be radically transformed. Work for everyone also implies a democratic process of governance at all levels, and calls for participatory processes aad procedures (Gil 1990). Coastitatieaal Guarantee for Employment and Income A constitutional guarantee for employment means Ml employment or a guarantee income for alL This implies aa economic bill of rights, as a component to political and civil rights which must be guaranteed by the national constinition. Foil employment also means mere will be no reserve army of labour. TMs, in essence, will reduce internal competition and me senae of irtsecad^whicbcffipk)yeesarettSQaUysi*3ectedto. Again, it implies abolishing the reserved army of labour and redacing internal competition and divisions. Full employment is a challenge to the socio-ecoaoBtic status qoo. ft tests the limits of ttberal capitalism as it exists CDdirig on the size of the work fercc. 3. Recognizing the work done by all those working but are sot officially recognized, for example, caring for the sick, the children and fl*e elderly; if such activities were defined as work, then the care given could be rewarded accordingly. These measures require a political agenda concerned with the redefiohig.ieofganizattion.rado- signingcfwoikandreconipositionofmesocialimidiuAofwotiL However, it to difficult to address &e«e issues since in me absence of eopkyiiunt and income s e c i ^, people tend to protect whoever employment they have. Emptoyioent has oodi social and economic roles «ad hence the alleviation of unemployment is as much a social issue as an economic one, and both dimensions most be present m aUuncrttpk>yrnent services and progiammc (Hill 1988). Policy dealing with unemployment, in Ibe first place, mast make pnndsicms for unemployment map- ping with the aim of identifying the professions, regions, age groups, etc., which are hardest hft by unemployment (Persell 1987). Mechanisms must also be created for identifying gaps in the national employment picture so as to design programmes to meet the needs of Ihc hardcore unemployed (Moss 1982). Coleman and Cressey (1987) emphasize the desirability of employment for all which can be achieved thgough job creation, expanded public assistance, guaranteed annual income and organizing the poor and forming coalitions to push for change. Effective employment services may contribute to the development of a healthy economy. To sustain a healthy economy, policies most also include the provision of help and training for the unemployed, specific employment services for disabled employees and vocational and employment assistance for youths. Adult workers must also be retrained to move to new jobs (Hill 1988). On the whole, mere is the need for specific targeted programmes other than general economic measures. Themen^loyedmustmereforebemefocusofii^ which address the conditions and side effects of joblessness. In addition, mechanisms and pn>cedures for working with ernployers to change thcktraditional en^loymeiit/pcrsonnel prac- tices are necessary (Hill 1988; Moss 1982). Even though targeted approaches are seen as more cost effective, measures must be taken to ensure that the unemployed, rather than businesses become the direct and immediate beneficiaries of policies to promote employment (Briar 1983). The unemployed must be the focus of innovative policies and programs which address the conditions and side effects of joblessness. Guaranteed jobs must also be the objective of policies and programmes. The cost effectiveness of such guarantees may be reflected in in- creased productivity, a strong tax base and increased revenues. Measures to ensure human recovery as well as economic recovery must also be instituted. Employment policies must create a set of services which include a system of health, employment and training and retrain- ing security. Abroadagendautaensmssacontiniuumofeiigtay^ is therefore called for. Policy must also seek to address the emotional, fjnamfoi or family crisis of the unemployed workers. Writes such as Sherraden (1985) and Briar (1983) point to the important role that social work can and must play in the efforts to respond to the problem of unemployment Serial workers, among other activities, most help to find proper and accurate language to describe chronic unemployment in a way mat will induce solution; collect systematic data to assess unemploy- ment by type to aid correct diagnosis of unemployment; intensify the documentation of the negative human effects of chronic unemployment for the public, policy makers and politi- cians; emphasize the socio-economic costs of chronic unemployment more strongly - i.e., bom the direct economic costs interms of revenue costs to both the public and the individual and the indirect costs such as increased in crime, alcohol use and deflated self-image; and find new long term solutions since old ones are ineffective (i.e., create employment opportunities ia a variety of ways to enable, for example, the chronically unemployed to participate); plan Mure employment and training programme with a view of broadening the agenda to include respon- sibility for the development of a continuum of employment and training programmes; and develop policy measures and programmes to address the emotional, financial and family crises of unemployed worker. Social workers must therefore, improve their knowledge of local labour markets and vocational assessment techniques in order to be effective in this area. Conclusion Unemployment is more than the absence of jobs. It is associated with several social problems and hence it is increasingly viewed as social injustice. It does not only affect social, economic and psychological functioning but also life expectation and well being (Briar 1987). It has, therefore, become a question of fundamental human rights, and a central social worker issae because of its effects such as lack of income, lost self-esteem, depression and futility (Briar 1987). The idea that people have a right to job is not new. For example, it has been discussed in the US since the 1930s. Associated with this is also the principle that no one should suffer from lack of work. However, the implementation of foil employment policies has not been pursued in the face of concerns for inflation and the influence of trickle down economic growth and benefits policies. Jobs and incomes concerns have become a function of the economy as opposed to direct and specific government intervention. Unemployment poses a major challenge to the social workers who must address not only toe unemployment situation bat also the associated hardships. In mis regard, they most join the efforts to understand the different dimensions of unemptovmeiJi, systematically dwanrjerrt the effects of unemployment on families, communities and individuals, and initiate efforts to in- fluence the development of appropriate policies aad the values or thinking behind such poli- cies. Bibliography 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Briar, Katharine Hooper. Unemployment Toward a Social Work Agenda. Social Work, Volume 28, Number 3, May - June 1983, pp. 211 - 216. Briar, Katharine Hooper. 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