RESEARCH REVIEW (NS) VOL. 14, NO. 1 (1998)

TRADITIONAL CONSERVATION PRACTICES: GHANA'S  EXAMPLE

Barfuo  Abayie Boatcn

Abstract

The African traditional concept of land ownership as  ex-
pressed by Dr. J.B. Danquah (1968) enjoins the living to
manage and conserve the environment for future  genera-
tions, while they have to  account for  their stewardship to
the ancestors. This concept shaped our perception of  the
environment. Thus the African, through his relationship with
nature, usually clothed in religion and  which resulted in
reverent attitudes towards nature, helped him to develop a
body of knowledge which eventually made  him the  care-
taker of his environment. Responding positively to the dic-
tates of nature, he regarded the Earth (Asase) as  'Mother'
(Asase Yaa/Efua), the provider and sustainer of life. Man,
therefore, offered prayers before cultivation and celebrated
'harvestfestivals' such as Komawo (Go), Ohum (Abuakwa)
and Odwira (Akuapem) to commemorate the generosity of
Mother Earth. In order to allow the earth to continuously
play  its mothership  role and to enhance the biodiversity,
man developed a body of  laws and regulations known  as
taboos to regulate his relationship with his environment.
Furthermore, he developed farming systems and fashioned
farm  tools, which helped him  to sustain  the biodiversity.
However, the  introduction of market  economy  in  Africa
through cash crop farming,  Christianity and Western edu-
cation, unleashed an unprecedented assault on the environ-
ment, which resulted in the degradation of the environment.
Sub-Saharan Africa  is a  living  testimony  of a  degraded
biodiversity. Meanwhile, the African population  seems to
be caught up in the drama of things, as they do not seem to
have  adequate alternatives available to  them for  the  en-
hancement of the biodiversity. Imposition of legislation to
enhance the biodiversity is  likely to  worsen the predica-
ment of the people.  Therefore, contemporary biodiversity

42

conservation needs to take into account alternative economic
activities, which will relieve the land from the constant pres-
sure it is being subjected today.

Introduction

Environmental degradation has been a major concern to mankind, especially during the last
quarter of the twentieth century; which culminated in the Rio Conference on the Environ-
ment in 1992. The Beijing Conference for women in 1995 articulated the same concern'on
the environment.  Locally, there have been several fora  on the environment  In all Ihese
cases, the fora have expressed  concern on the accelerated degradation of Ae environment
and the need to conserve the environment for sustainable economic development aimed at
the survival of mankind in the biosphere.

The environment as the home for man provides a number of services. Out of these services,
four major ones shall be identified for our discussion.

1) 

2) 
3) 

4) 

There are  the extractive resources for the production of consumer goods and sen-
ices: They include all activities geared towards production, which often lead to the
degradation of the environment; for example, fanning activities and the exploita-
tion of mineral resources.
Natural amenities for recreational use: such as waterfalls, lakes etc.
Space to  live  in,  where man has created  settlements, ranging from  hamlets  to
megacities
Space for wastes, provided by man.

These services which man exploits for his existence end up creating environmental hazards
for man himself. It is said that the blind march for science and technology has been respon-
sible for most of the environmental problems. Even in non-industrialized countries such as
Ghana, man's bid to make a reasonable living has resulted in the creation of environmental
hazards. For example, in order to feed the population, farmers have succeeded in disturbing,
permanently,  the biodiversity. Farmers are aware of this disturbance (Abayie Boaten 1996).

One aspect of human existence, which continues to cause so much damage to the environ.-,
ment, especially in developing countries including Ghana, is population growth. As human
numbers increase, there arises the need to employ more resources to feed, clothe and pro-
vide them with infrastructure such as human settlements, roads, farms md  factories, m the
countryside, large human numbers have resulted GTthe degradation of the forest environ^
ment: thus forests have given way to secondary and degraded forests, men to savannas and
finally to Sahelian conditions. Today, man's awareness of these environmental changes has
resulted in our planning strategies which do not only seek to concentrate attention on the
socio-economic benefit of projects, but also seriously consider the effects such projects may
have on the environment  In this way we see the relevance of the environmental Protection
Agency and the environmental impact assessment (EIA).

43

Why Do We Have To Worry About the Environment

We have  seen how the  environment  is being  degraded  leading to the destruction  of  the
biodiversity. This makes the above question quite relevant. For one reason, the environment
does not belong to the present generation alone. The environment is a legacy which  the
living, that is, the present generation, is enjoined  to leave for posterity better than it was
found. Danquah (1968) wrote:

Thus in our culture we do not  only hold in  trust for  the
present and OK future generations all the natural resources
on which our welfare and continuance of  the community
depend, but also are accountable to the ancestors for  the
proper management of the resources (p. 120).

It is reported that the late Okyenhene, Nana Ofori Atta I also said:

/  conceive of land as belonging to a large family  of which
many arfrdead, a few  are living and countless ones are yet
unborn (p. 99).

This very statement is also credited to a Nigerian Traditional Leader (Elias, 1956).

The import of these statements is not only the land tenure system which appears uniform in
Africa, but more importantly the concern for the proper management and the conservation
of the environment and the resources contained therein. The philosophy, which these state-
ments postulate, underpins our quest to conserve the environment.

At the Rio-Summit  in  1992, the Secretary  General of UN, Boutrous-Ghali  expressed the
same idea as Danquah:

What we do here, we do for  our grand children and beyond
for future  generation.

The Beijing Conference (1995) recorded the concerns, which have been expressed earlier
on. Part of paragraph 246 states:

....  Awareness of  resource depletion,  the  degradation  of
natural systems and the dangers of polluting substances have
increased markedly in the past  decade. These worsening
conditions are destroying fragile  eco-systems and displac-
ing communities, especially women, from productive activi-
ties and are an increasing threat to a safe and healthy envi-
ronment... the major' cause of the continued deterioration
of the global environment is the unsustainable pattern  of

44

consumption and production....

The Statement continues in paragraph 248:

Governments have expressed their commitment to creating
a new development paradigm that integrates environmen-
tal sustainability with gender equality within and between
generations.

Now we have a fundamental  obligation to ensure that  the environment bequeathed  to us
must be left in a better shape than we met it Perhaps on the day of judgement one may have
to account for one's stewardship in the management of the environment.

The Place of the Earth in African Tradition

In the African  cultures God is regarded as the creator Dboadee (Danquah  1968; Rattray
1923; Busia  1951,1954) while the Earth is referred to as Mother, Asase Yaa/Asase Efua.
the provider and the  giver  of  life.  The  sustainer of human  life.  Indeed,  the  Earth has a
spiritual power* It is her spirit that makes plants grow; besides, she has the power of fertility.
Man's dependence on the Earth is preserved in the poetry of the drum language as Busia
(1954) recorded:

Earth condolences!
Earth, condolences!
Earth and dust,
The Dependable One,
I lean upon you.
Earth, when I am about to die,
I lean upon you.
Earth, while I am alive,
I depend upon you etc. (p. 195).

Men's dependence on the Earth is further  actualized  during libation prayers. Thus in all
libation prayers the Earth is mentioned next after God, the Creator.

Oh God the Creator,
I show you a drink.
Earth Yaa take a drink,
Let me-avoidall  accidents ... etc.

So goes a libation prayer before a farmer cultivates any piece of land. These libation prayers
were the result of the realization of man's close relationship with nature. This relationship
with nature was clothed in religion, which tried to guide man's behaviour in his environ-
ment. Furthermore, it resulted in man's reverent attitudes towards nature. A farmer portrays

this attitude through the following libation prayer

// is now farming season
I am going to start weeding after which planting.
Please let me have bountiful harvest Ms season.
Protect me and my labourers from cutlass wounds.
Let me be at peace any time I am here.
This is your drink ooo! (Nona Abayie Boaten -  through ob-
servations)

Unfortunately, people trained in western ways of life have misunderstood the African  and
his way of life and have described these attitudes in derogatory terms such as ignorance 2nd
superstition. Today, however, there is the realization that these beliefs rather implied knowl-
edge that human beings are  caretakers of nature, whose very  existence  depended  on  the
maintenance of what Opoku (1978), calls "cosmic harmony wKh nature.-" Nature needed to
be safeguarded if the people are to continually live and enjoy its benefits, through the utili-
zation of its resources. It is precisely for this reason that the African regarded the eSrth as
Mother and therefore, should not be prostituted. Therefore, in order to safeguard the sanc-
tify of the earth and the phenomena in it. man instituted laws .and regulations.

Traditional  Conservation  Methods

The laws and regulations which man instituted were aimed at allowing the Earth to continu-
ously play its mothership role and to enhance the biodiversity. The body of laws and regu-
lations are known as taboos. Each locality, or community or traditional areaJiad its own sets
of taboos. It is possible to assemble the most common taboos:

i) 

Taboos on economic trees such as Odum (Chlorophora excelsa) and Africa Ma-
hogany {Kyaya ivorensis) were regarded  as trees with spirits and which  should,
therefore not be felled without some rituals being performed.

Busia wrote:

An Ashanti craftsman will endeavour to propitiate certain
trees before he cuts them. He will offer an egg, for example,
to the Odum tree, saying, "lam about to cut you down and
carve you; do not let me suffer harm " (p. 194).

Through this taboo these economic trees were preserved. Some of the trees which fell into
this category were tall palm trees (IBetene- Elaeis guineensis) (Osese -  Funtumia sp.)  (for
carving stools). Also the Shea Butter (Butyrospermum parkii) and the Dodowa (Sterculia
tragacartthd) frees, in the Northern Savanna zone. There were other trees which were not
regankd  as economic bees but had other relevance for  environmental  purposes such  as
Akomhdie  {Bambax bupnopozense) and Onyina (Ceiba pentandra) trees in the forested

46

areas and the Baobab (Adasonia digitata) in the Savanna zone.

Among some northern ethnic groups, such as the Dagomba and the Mamprusi, there are
chieftains in charge of the economic trees to ensure that the trees are not cut or destroyed, in
anyway.

ii) 

iii) 

iv) 

v) 

Days of Rest known as taboo-days during which the land was expected to rest.
People had to obey this taboo since such days had been regarded as JVjMftwte, "bad
days" (Abayie Boaten 1993, p. 46). Each locality had its day of rest. The belief was
that the spirit of the earth should be allowed to rest. In the same way some  rivers/
streams had specific days during which people should not fetch water from them.

There was a taboo against the clearing of the vegetation right up to the edges of
streams and rivers. Farmers were enjoined to leave a strip of land of Abasqfa aduasa,
that is "about 30 metres", which should not be cleared at both sides of streams and
rivers.  The benefit of this conservation method was quite obvious to any environ-
mentalists.  The people were aware that this could check  excessive  evaporation
from the rivers and streams.

The coastal ethnic groups also had their taboo days during which there was to  be
no fishing. The day set aside was Tuesday, the day the sea god, Nona Bosompo
was expected to rest.

In addition to this was a long period during which no fishing was expected to be
done in the lagoons. This resting period coincided with the period when the fishes
in the lagoons lay their eggs. Such knowledge about the seasons in which were
hedged in the various taboos was a well-known phenomenon among the indig*
enous peoples (Abayie Boaten 1990, pp. 21 - 27).

Apart from the apparent fear, which these taboos instilled in the people due to the
question of spirits, there were also physical sanctions attached to them. Since the
sanctions had to ensure the propitiation of the spirit(s) involved, they called for the
spilling of blood,.  Therefore, the culprit who infringed any of the taboos had to
offer a sheep plus two bottles of schnapps. The charge was deterrent enough to
scare people from infringing or breaking the taboos. In addition to mis, the people
were convinced of the sanctity of the taboos, therefore, they did not deliberately
break them.

vi) 

Farming system -  perhaps the best-known conservation method, which the tradi-
tkmalists practised, was the bosh fallow system. This system allowed a cultivated
pieoi of land to rest for a period long enough for the recuperation of the fertilityof
the soil. This practice was consistent with me Biblical injunction which states that,

47

"hi the 7* year there should be Sabbath of solemn for the land" (Leviticus Chapter
25:4).

The people were convinced of the efficacy  of this agro-practice. It has, therefore,
persisted till today. However, they have now realized that the practice is  efficient
only when the population is low. Today, as a result of much pressure on the land,
the bush fallow  system is no longer efficient.  A reasonable  fallow  period of ten
years is now reduced to between three to five years in low populated and less than
three years hi high-populated localities, thus leading to poor yields and the break-
down of the biodiversity.

A study of the Boti Falls area in the Eastern Region came out with a painful truth of
deteriorating biodiversity as a result of long pressure on the land (Abayie Boaten I.
1996).

The general knowledge about the area is that due to a long
period of pressure on the environment as a result of high ~
population growth, the biodiversity is broken down. This
has adversely affected the natural phenomenon of the Falls,
which now stop flowing during the dry season. Some of the
old fellows  of  the areas remember that about forty  years
ago the Falls used to flow throughout the year.  They are
aware that the present situation is due mainly to their own
system of making a living from the environment.

vii)

viii)

Farm implements -  the type of tools which the traditional farmers fashioned  and
used reflected both the level of their technology and their perception of the envi-
ronment. The hoe, the cutlass and the dibble stick, which dominated the agricul-
tural landscape, were quite suitable for the fragile tropical soils. Indeed, the use of
these simple tools coupled with the low population contributed to sustaining  the
fertility  and conserving the biodiversity.

Sacred  Groves -  these are pieces  of  land  set  aside for  spiritual purposes.  They
ranged from a few metres to several acres in sizes. These groves are reputed to be
the abodes of some respected traditional spirits. The groves had existed over the
years because of taboos associated with them. Often people were forbidden to en-
ter the groves; except  when there was.a  ritual to  be performed.  Unfortunately,
many of these groves have been encroached upon because, the fear which used to
be associated with them, does not seem to operate now. Today, it is only the human
element of traditional sanctions that is sustaining the rest of the groves. The spir-
itual  sanctions In most  cases do not  operate due to the new  social  order which
colonialism, western education and Christianity ushered into this country. Never-
theless, the remaining sacred groves serve as botanical museums from which a lot
can be learned about the original biodiversity of our countryside.

48

The Environment in the New Social  Order

The  introduction  of  the  triumvirate  of  Colonialism,  Western  Education  and  Christianity
made a great impact on the environment. Colonialism established a sustainable social order
in which a sustained population growth was the result. It also introduced commercial agri-
culture, which departed from the former subsistence economy, homial Western Education
contributed  to  a new technological  awareness, which  equipped  the people  to  effectively
exploit the resources  in the  environment.  Lastly.  Christianity  dealt a deadly blow  to  the
traditional beliefs.  The combined forces of these three alien phenomena unleashed an un-
precedented assault on the environment, resulting in the degradation of the country's envi-
ronment.

Over the past forty years the environment has changed so much that both flora and  fauna,
indeed the ecosystem, have been adversely affected.  The fragile tropical soils have been
further degraded leading to poor yields of crops. This problem is being compounded by the
indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides for the production of  commercial
food crops and vegetables. In addition to the agro-chemical, the use of heavy-duty tractors
for plowing further destroys the fertility of the soils. A typical example is the Yaa Asantewaa
State Farm near Ejisu in Asante where the tropical moist semi-deciduous forest was turned
into savanna vegetation, which is seen today.

The Ghanaian farmer, like his counterpart in the sub-region, is aware that things are not the
same as they  used to be. He is aware of the changing pattern of the rainfall  regime.  He
knows that the low rainfall is partly due to the poor vegetation. Meanwhile, he seems to be
caught up  in the  entire drama, as he  appears not to have an effective  alternative  for  the
enhancement of the biodiversity.

Epilogue -  The Way Forward

Our new way  of  life,  bestowed  on us by the triumvirate,  will  continue to influence  our
attitude vis-a-vis the traditional way of life, which is regarded by many as mundane and
retrogressive. Formerly taboos were enough to control people's attitudes towards the envi-
ronment. Now, how do we police our forest reserves, the sacred groves, the water sheds of
rivers  and streams? How  do we ensure the fertility  of the  soils? How do  we ensure  the
greening of the environment in th&face  of farming activities and logging, both legal and
illegal? How  do we  ensure a  sustained biodiversity  of the  environment  as we  introduce
exotic plants like the teak for ounafforestation  programmes?

These and other relevant questions should evoke a re-awakening spirit in all of us to criti-
cally  examine the  traditionalists and  their general perception  of  the  environment.  I  am
aware that their traditional  conservation methods are no longer applicable, since they  are
obsolete. However,  there  is one fundamental  thing  we  can  learn, from  them.  That  is,  to
regard the land not as a mere economic asset, to be milked without due regard to the entire
ownership system. Indeed, the land should be regarded as a legacy bequeathed to us  and

49

which we will have to leave for posterity. Should it not be our concern now to ensure that
we leave it in a better shape than we met it? I believe that we shall be accountable to a
superior power for our stewardship on this earth.

The traditional farmers have no answer to the on-going deteriorating processes of the envi-
ronment of which they are painfully aware. However, for their survival, they will continue
W eke out a living from the land. The survival of the farmers is the survival of the nation.
Fortunately, thcscientists have the answers to the environmental problems and we must put
mem into operation to save the land and our civilization. This is an urgent call.

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Opoku, K.A. 

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51