RESEARCH REVIEW (NS) VOL. 14, NO. 2 (1998) PERCEPTIONS OF FAMILY LIFE: A STUDY OF GHANAIAN HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS. Doreen B. Hilton Ella T. Keller Kwaku Twumasi-Ankrah Introduction As the population in Ghana continues to grow, numerous familial trends have begun to change. Fertility rates have decreased. More adults are choosing to marry at later ages. Knowledge and use of contraception have increased. Perceptions of ideal fam- ily size have changed. The present study addresses some of these changes by exam- ining the perceptions of the roles of children in families, perceptions of child rearing practices, and perceptions of husband-wife relationships in sample of 15 to 21 year old Ghanaian students. With a population of nearly 18 million in 1996. Ghana is one of the most populous countries in Western Africa. Its population is expected to reach 27 million people by 2020 (Adlakha, 1996). The rapid population growth is attributed to high fertility and declining mortality. However, there are indications from recent surveys that the fer- tility rate may be declining (Ghana Fact Sheet, 1993). The life expectancy in 1996 was 54 years for males and 58 years for females. In 1995, 37% of the population lived in rural areas and over half the population is projected to be urban by 2015 (United Nations, 1995). Improvements also have been made in literacy rates, from 30 percent in 1970 to 64 percent in 1995. However, the literacy rate for women continues to lag behind that of men, 53 percent for women and 76 percent for men in 1995 (Adlakha, 1996). Of particular interest to researchers have been the areas of marriage, family, fertility and family planning in Ghana. Data from the 1993 Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) indicate that for young people in Ghana between the ages of 15 - 19 years old, 10.5% were already married and another 9.6% were living together (Population Coun- cil, 1995). The median age for first marriage was 18.6 in 1993. However, women with 10+ years of schooling had a median age at marriage of 20.0 years (Martin, 1995). 40 Also in 1993, the mean number of children ever born to women who were craripotly age 4 0 - 49 was 6.2. The total fertility rate per woman in 1993 was 5.5, down from 6.4 hi 1988 (Adlakha, 1996; Kirk and Pillet, 1998). Twenty-three percent of women age 20 - 29 reported giving birth by age 18. McDevitt (19%) gave Ghana a ranking of 56 (1 is highest) of countries with the highest rate of births per 1,000 women ages 15 - 19. The United States was ranked 88. The Demographic and Health Survey also questioned respondents regarding their marital and fertility preferences. The mean ideal number of children among women 15 -49 was 4.4 hi 1993. For women age 15 - 19 the ideal numberwas 3.6, for women 20 - 24,3.9, and women 25 - 29,4.4 (Population Council, 1995). The ideal number of children increased with age, perhaps reflecting actual childbearing. Kirk and Pil- let (1998) report that the desired family size among married women hi Ghana de- creased from 6.0 to 4.7 from the late 1970s to the 1990s. Martin (1995) reported the mean ideal number of children as 5.4. Less well-educated women desired more chil- dren than those with more education, from 6.3 for women with no schooling to 4.5 for those with 10+ years of schooling. Data indicate that the fertility rates hi Ghana are strongly influenced by residence and education. The Population Council (1995) reported that the total fertility rate for rural residents was 6.4 versus 4.0 for urban residents. Likewise, there were differ- ences based on educational level. Women with no formal school had a total fertility rate of 6.7, those with primary education 6.1, middle school 4.7, and secondary school and above 2.9. A similar relationship is found between residence, education, and contraceptive use. "Urban married women are twice as likely (31%) to use contra- ception as rural married women" (Adlakha 1996, p. 2). Likewise, nearly one half of women with secondary or higher education used contraception compared with one out of ten women with no education. The number of married women with secondary or higher education is roughly 8 percent. Entry into Marriage, Fertility, and Family Planning Although most adults in Africa expect to marry (Gordon & Gordon, 1992), Ghana has experienced a number of marital changes in the last decades. There has been an increase in the number of individuals choosing to delay getting married until a later age. Age at marriage has been of particular interest to researchers because it is seen as the marker for transition to adulthood and the point at which certain options for education, employment, and other societal activities are foreclosed. It is also the beginning of regular exposure to the possibilities of pregnancy and childbearing (McDevitt, 1996). Adlakha (1991) has argued that age at marriage helps to explain differences hi fertility both across populations and within individual populations over time. This impact is made hi several ways. Delayed age at marriage directly affects fertility by reducing the number of years available for having children. Populations with later mean ages at first marriage tend to be more urbanized and to have higher 41 levels of educational attainment and contraceptive use. Later marriage also gives women the opportunity to complete their education, build employment skills and develop careers that compete with childbearing in marriage (McDevitt, 1996). Ac- cording to the Ghana Fact Sheet (1993), 18.9 was the median age at first marriage for women between the ages of 20 and 49. That delay in marriage is expected to con- tinue. It is predicted that by the year 2020, there will be 2,137 married females between the ages of 25 and 34 in Ghana compared to only 1,103 between the ages of 15 and 24 (Adlakha, 1996). Although the trend toward later marriage continues, teenage marriages also continue. In most Sub-Saharan countries, which includes Ghana, at least one out of every four females between the ages of 15 and 19 is married, and approximately 60% of females in these countries marry by the age of 20 (McDevitt, 1996). In recent developments, the Parliament in Ghana has concluded the second reading of the Children's Bill of Rights, with most members opposing the clause that allows for people under the age of 18 years to marry with parental consent (Ghana Review International, 1998). However, the Attorney General and Minister for Justice has argued that since basic education ends at age 15 years, he sees no reason why the education of a child should prevent children between the ages of 16 and 18 years from marrying with parental consent. The Bill is still under review. Marriage in Africa can be either monogamous or polygamous. The majority of mar- ried women in Ghana (80%) are married under customary law which permits polyga- mous relationships (Salim, 1992). Although polygyny is often misunderstood in other cultures as an indication of women's low status, it is more accurately indicative of the importance of women to the economic well-being of the family (Gordon & Gordon, 1992). By having more than one wife, the family gains both her productive contribu- tions (work) and her reproductive contribution (children), thus increasing family la- bour and allowing the family to accumulate wealth. Although women do not practice polyandry, their relationships follow the common pattern of early marriage, divorce, and remarriage. In selecting a marriage partner, Africans tend to place more importance on non- emotional factors, such as desire to have children, than on emotional and affection- ate feelings (Staples & Johnson, 1993). Both genders prefer mates who will place love for their children before their love for their spouses. Additionally, obedience is stated explicitly as an important aspect of love when selecting a potential marriage partner. Fertility decisions are among the most important ones made by couples. Women generally do not perceive themselves as being in control of their reproduction. In- stead, they perceive their husbands or older family members as being in control of it. As such, they tend to take a relatively passive role in making decisions about fertility as their husbands make those decisions (Weeks, 1996). If a wife fails to produce male children or if she has fecundity impairment, the husband may take a second wife (Kannae & Pendleton, 1994). 42 Fertility has been found to be influenced by education. That influence has been ex- plained by Cochrane (1979) and United Nations (1987) as taking three paths. First, education dampens the demand for children in that it may affect ideas of desired family size and reduce the economic utility of children. Education has mixed effects in terms of family size. While staying in school longer delays entry into marriage hi the absence of contraception, more education may have a positive esffefct on the number of children one has because more educated women are less likely to breast-feed and that do so for shorter duration. Also, education reduces barriers to the adoption of family planning, in terms of awareness and willingness to use contraception. The same pattern holds for adolescent fertility. Most authorities report that "regani- less of the absolute level of fertility among adolescents, the proportion of young women who have begun childbearing among those with secondary or higher educa- tion is only about 30% of that for women with no education" (McDevitt, 1996> p. 82). Much of the childbearing by married and unmarried adolescents hi Ghana can be explained in terms of unmet need. "Unmet need" refers to "women at risk of preg- nancy who do not want additional children or want to postpone their next birth, but are not presently using any method of contraception" (McDevitt, 1996, p. 87). Re- cent international data suggest the existence of unmet need as attributable to sexu- ally active unmarried teenagers who are not using any means of contraception. Data from seven African countries (Botswana, Ghana, Liberia, Nigeria, Togo, Uganda and Zimbabwe) indicate that approximately only 16% of ever sexually active un- married teenagers in these countries are currently using contraception. Only 8% are reported to use modem methods of contraception (McDevitt, 1996). Ngom (1997) argues that the unmet need for family planning of men should be taken into account as well. He reports that in Ghana in 1993,24% of married men who did not want to have more children were not using any modern contraceptive method. Because men play such an important, if not dominant, role in couples' fertility deci- sions. It is suggested by Ngom that satisfying men's unmet need for family planning may facilitate family planning efforts. Financial and Household Responsibilities in Families Although wealth may accumulate in families, wives often do not have a legal right to mekhusband'sma>mefortheh-children orforthemselves(Gordon& Gordon, 1992). The wealth generally is shared with other wives and children. Property holdings and inheritance are organized around blood relationships rather than husband-wife rela- tionships, and are often the property of the husband's family (Salim, 1992). Even at the death of the husband, only about two-thirds of his property is awarded to the widow and children. Although divorce is common, when it does occur, the hus- band's property is not necessarily awarded to the wife and children. Instead, it usu- 43 ally must be refunded to the relatives of the husband (Salim, 1992). In 1988, the percentage of Ghanaian households formally headed by women had increased to 29% from 22% in 1960. Economic growth in Ghana since 1960, the prevalence of polygamy, and a family structure that is characterized by strong line- age ties and weak conjugal ties all contribute to the composition and management of households (Lloyd & Gage-Brandon, 1993). According to Lloyd & Gage-Brandon (1993), households that are headed by females have fewer children and fewer adults. Approximately 50% of those households con- tain no other adults, whereas it is rare for male-headed households to be without any other adults. Individuals aged 15 years and older are considered to be adults. Female heads work an average of eight hours more per week than male heads and are respon- sible for twice as much of the household work than are men. Thus, while male heads have other adults with whom to share work and household maintenance responsibili- ties, female heads have primary responsibility for both. Domestic work is largely the responsibility of women. Lloyd & Gage-Brandon (1993) found that when men share residence with women, they spend approximately four and a half hours less per week in domestic work than men who do not share residence with women. On the other hand, when women share residence with men, their domestic work increases by one hour. Women spend an average of three to four hours per day on food preparation, cooking, and collecting water and firewood (Gordon & Gordon, 1992). Data Collection The data for this paper were obtained from a questionnaire survey on life skills and social attitudes that was conducted among first-year and second-year students in three Senior Secondaiy Schools (SSS) in Ghana during the summer of 1997. Two of the schools are in the Ashanti Region. Both schools are co-educational institutions (i.e., boys and girls schools). One of the schools is located in a large urban centre while the other is in a mid-size urban area, which is a District Administrative Centre. The third school is an all-female institution, located in an Administrative Centre in the Volta Region. A total of 251 students from the SSS1 (equivalent to ninth-graders in the U.S.) and SSS2 (tenth-graders in the US) classes volunteered to participate in the study and completed a questionnaire that was administered by a teacher in each school who worked closely with the students. The administration of the questionnaires in each school was preceded by a meeting between the teacher in-charge and the student respondents. The students were responding to an open invitation for volunteers at a school assembly that announced the project in each school. At the meeting, the teacher informed the students about the project objectives and discussed the issue of in- formed consent The students were given an opportunity to ask questions and seek clarification about any items they did not understand, as they completed the survey. 44 In each school, the survey was completed in two to three days. The students were brought together in one classroom and were instructed to independently complete the questionnaire. The average time for completing the questionnaire was 25 min- utes. Sample The sample consisted of 251 students enrolled in secondary schools in Ghana. Table 1 indicates selected demographic characteristics of the sample. Forty-three percent (43%) of the students were enrolled at the SSS1 level and the other 57% were en- rolled at the SSS2 level. Their ages ranged from 15 to 21 years with a mean age of 17.7 years. Selected Demographic Characteristics of the Sample Table 1 Category Percent Age 15 16 17 18 19 20+ Female Male Sex Class 5551 5552 Father's Education No Schooling 1.2 8.8 33.9 34.3 16.3 5.6 59.0 41.0 43.2 56.8 2.4 45 Some Elementary Completed Elementary Secondary/Technical School Post Secondary Diploma BA/BSc/LLB Post Graduate Diploma MA/MSc Ph.D/Ed.D. Mother's Education No Schooling Some Elementary Completed Elementary Secondary/Technical School Post Secondary Diploma BA/BSc/LLB Post Graduate Diploma MA/MSc Ph.D/Ed.D. Residence Small town/village Medium size town Large urban Center 46 2.0 19.9 24.8 17.1 12.2 13.0 4.1 4.5 7.3 11.4 26.4 31.7 11.4 4.9 5.3 1.6 8.6 34.3 57.1 Household Composition Parents and children only Compound house with other relatives Rented room/apt, with non-relatives N = 251 70.4 16.3 13.3 The majority of the students (70.4%) reported their residence as a large urban center where they lived in households with their parents and siblings only. No other relative lived in the household. Sixteen percent (16.3%) lived in compound houses with other relatives and 13.3% lived in rented rooms or apartments with either other renters or non-relatives. Fathers of the students were more educated than their mothers. While 50.9% of the fathers had training beyond the secondary level only 2.3% of the moth- ers had such training. None of the mothers had doctorate training, but 4.6% of the fathers did. Thirty percent (30%) of the fathers and 57.9% of the mothers were employed as skilled labourers, such as electrician, carpenter, driver, hairdresser, and trader. For fathers, other frequently reported occupations were agriculture (11%), educational administrator (11%), and professional (13%). For mothers, other frequently reported occupations were educator (11.7%), health care worker (6.1%) and businesswoman (5.3%). Interestingly, only three (1.2%) mothers were reported to be full-time house- wives. Results and Discussion Number of Children Desired The overwhelming majority of students in the sample expected to get married and have children. This finding is consistent with that of Gordon & Gordon (1992). As indicated in Tables 2 and 3, the mean number of children desired by respondents was 3.3. This figure is consistent with the 1995 Population Council data which state that the ideal number of children for 15 - 19 year olds is 3.6. There were few differences in the number of children desired between males and females, rural and urban resi- dents, and the educational aspirations of the respondents. The small differences were however, in the expected direction with females, urban residents and those better educated appearing to desire fewer children. 47 Table 2 Number of Children Desirec 1 Number of children Female N 1 -2 3 -4 5 -6 Mean (143) 25.2(36) 72.1(103) 2.8(4) 3.2 Males (99) 16.1(16) 75.8(75) 8.1(8) 3.4 Both (242) 21.5(52) 73.6(178) 5.0(12) 3.3 Table 3 Mean Number of Children Desired by Sex, Residence, and Educational Aspirations Sex (N = 251) Females Males Residence (N = 245) Small town/village Medium size town Large urban centre Educational Aspiration (N = 230) Some Elementary Secondary Technical Post secondary Diploma BA/BSc/LLB Post Graduate Diploma 3.2 3.4 3.4 3.3 3.2 3.0 3.4 3.5 3.2 3.4 48 MA/MSc Ph.D/EdD/MD Entire Sample 3.3 3.2 3.3 Perceptions of the Role of Children Respondents were asked to respond to five statements relative to the role of children in families. They were asked to indicate whether they strongly agreed, were uncer- tain, or strongly disagreed with the statements. As Table 4 indicates, a majority (77%) of both males and females, with slightly more females agreeing man males, that children make a positive contribution to marriage hi mat they make the marriage complete. Equal numbers of males and females (84%) believed that children bring pride and joy to their parents. The responses were more mixed to the statement, "Children have become expensive and unnecessary these days." Twenty percent of the females and 13% of the males strongly agreed with the statement. Slightly over 40% of both males and females strongly disagreed but over a third of both males and females were uncertain. Table 4 Perceptions of the roles of ChMdrea Category Female Males Both They make a marriage complete (N=240) Strongly agree Uncertain Strongly disagree 80.0(112) 16.4(23) 3.6(5) 73.0(73) 21.0(21) 6.0(6) 77.1(185) 18.3(44) 4.6(11) They bring joy/pride to parents (N-238) Strongly agree Uncertain Strongly disagree 84.3(118) 15.0(21) 0.7(1) 84.7(83) 15.3(15) 84.5(201) 15.6(36) 0.7(1) The more children there are, the more respect Parents have (N=238) Strongly agree Uncertain Strongly disagree 19.6(27) 41.3(57) 39.1(54) 15.0(15) 47.0(47) 38.0(38) 17.6(42) 43.7(104) 38.7(92) 49 They must save their parents (run errands, Clean-thehouse, etc.) while they are young (N=241) Strongly agree Uncertain Strongly disagree 77.9(109) 15.0(21) 7.1(10) 82.2(83) 16.8(17) 1.0(1) 79.7(192) 15.8(38) 4.6(11) They must provide economic and financial Support in parents old age (N=235) Strongly agree Uncertain Strongly disagree 83.1(113) 10.3(14) 6.6(9) 74.7(74) 15.2(15) 10.1(10) 79.6(187) 12.3(10) 8.1(19) Children have become expensive and Unnecessary these days (N=235) Strongly agree Uncertain Strongly disagree 19.9(27) 36.0(49) 44.1(60) 13,1(13) 44.4(44) 42.1(42) 17.0(40) 39.6(93) 43.4(102) Some researchers have indicated that children are valuable to their parents because of their potential productivity as workers or helpers and as a source of assistance when the parents become elderly. Approximately 80% of the respondents strongly agreed with the expectation that children should "serve their parents (run errands, clean the house, etc.) while they are young " While 7% of the females strongly disa- greed with this expectation, only 1% of the males did so. The respondents also over- whelmingly (80%) supported the statement that children must provide financial sup- port to parents in their old age. Perceptieas of CUM resting Respondents also were asked to indicate their agreement or disagreement with sev- eral statements regarding child rearing. As indicated in Table 5, more than 90% of the respondents agreed with the statement that couples who do not have the means to provide for children should limit the number of children that they have. There was far less agreement on the statement "Parents spoil their children when the children are allowed to set their own goals and do things of personal interest" Almost a third of the respondents selected each of the three choices. Males (45%) were more likely to indicate strong agreement with the statement than were females (36%). 50 Table 5 Perceptions of Child rearing Practices Category Females Males Both Parents spoil their children when the children are allowed To set their own goals and do things of personal interest. (N=238) Strongly agree Uncertain Strongly disagree 36.2(50) 27.5(38) 36.2(50) 45.0(45) 29.0(29) 26.0(26) 39.9(95) 28.2(67) 31.9(76) Parents can use whipping and beating as appropriate Punishment in disciplining children. (N=24O) Strongly agree Uncertain Strongly disagree 7.9(11) 39.3(55) 52.9(74) 13.0(13) 43.0(43) 44.0(44) 10.0(24) 40.8(98) 49.2(118) Parents may starve their children by denying them food as An appropriate punishment. (N=240) Strongly agree Uncertain Strongly disagree 8.5(12) 9.9(14) 81.6(115) 8.1(8) 12.1(12) 79.8(79) 8.3(20) 10.8(26) 80.8(194) Parents must use whatever means possible to make their Children obedient and respectful to them. (N=240) Strongly agree Uncertain Strongly disagree 80.0(112) 12.1(17) 7.9(11) 81.0(81) 16.0(16) 3.0(3) 80.4(192) 13.8(33) 5.8(14) A couple must limit the number of children they will have If they do not have the means to look after them. (N=237) Strongly agree Uncertain Strongly disagree 94.9(131) 3.6(5) 14(2) 89.9(89) 6.1(6) 4.0(4) 92.8(220) 4.6(11) 2.5(6) In reference to handling children in the household, while 80% of the respondents agreed that parents should "use whatever means necessary" to secure obedience and 51 req>ect>tfaerewas less sopport for severe piinL'aiment. Neariy 90% of the respondents disapproved of denying food as punishment and rougMy half were opposed to "whip- ping" and "beating" as appropriate punishments. Males (13%) were slightly more supportive of corporal punishment than were females (7.9%). Decttos to Marry The majority of respondents expressed a strong interest in marrying and starting then- own family. Ninety-one percent (90.5%) of females and 87% of males indicated that they definitely plan to marry and start a family of their own. Only 2.4% indicated mat they did not plan to marry and start a family. Eight percent were uncertain if they would marry. These results are presented in Table 6. These findings suggest an appreciation for the value of family as is customary in Ghana and a strong desire to continue with it. As Gordon & Gordon (1992) have stated, most adults expect to marry. Table 6 Sedsimi to Marry Category Females Males Both Do you plan to many and start own family? (N=249) Yes, definitely Uncertain No 90.5(133) 7.5(11) 2.0(03) 87.3(89) 9.8(10) 2.9(03) 89.2(222) 8.4(21) 2.4(6) Age you expect to get married? (N=248) 17-20 23-25 26-30 31-36 38 & Older 5.4(08) 63.3(93) 23.8(35) 4.1(06) 1.0(01) 21.8(22) 53.5(54) 14.9(15) 5.0(05) 3.6(09) 46.4(115) 35.9(89) 8.5(21) 2.0(05) Expected age of you (N=251) r partner at time o f marriage? 18-21 22-25 26-30 31-35 38&OMer 2.0(03) 8.8(13) 68.2(101) 13.5(20) 4.1(06) 16.5(17) 53.4(55) 24.3(25) 1.0(01) 8.0(20) 27.1(68) 50.2(126) 8.4(21) 2.4(06) 52 The age at which respondents expect to many is consistent with the trend of delaying marriage until a later age. Only 3.6% stated that they expected to marry prior to the age of 20 years. Forty-six percent (46%) (63.3% females and 21.8% males) expect to marry between the ages of 22 and 25 years. Thirty-six percent (35.9%) (23.8%) females and 53.5% males) expect to marry between the ages of 26 and 30 years (See Table 6). In considering a marriage partner, half of the respondents (50%) (68.2% females and 24.3% males) expect him/her to be between the ages of 26 and 30 years. Twenty- seven percent (27%) (8.8% females and 53.4% males) expect the partner to be be- tween the ages of 22 and 25 years. Only 8% (2.0% females and 16.5% males) expect their marriage partner to be younger than 22 years of age (See Table 6). Expectations about the age at which one marries and the age of one's marital partner were significantly related to sex of respondents. These findings suggest that not only do respondents expect to marry later but that they also expect their partners to many at a later age. Perceptions of Primary Duties of Husbands and Wives Means for questions assessing perceptions of primary duties of husbands and wives are presented in Table 7. When asked if the wife must do all of the housework, 39% of the females and 32% of the males strongly agreed. 30.8% of females and 43% of males were uncertain. Only 8.6% of the females and 5% of the males agreed that the wife must always stay at home to take care of the children instead of going to work. These findings reflect those of Lloyd and Gage-Brandon (1993) in that women have primary (but not total) responsibility for domestic household work while at the same time maintaining employment outside of the home. These dual responsibilities of the women are necessary in order to help take care of and provide for the family. The woman's employment outside of the home is of added importance because in po- lygamous relationships, the husband's earning are shared with the other wife and children (Gordon & Gordon, 1992). Furthermore, wives generally do not have a legal right to their husband's income for themselves or for their children. The major- ity (53.3%) of the respondents in this study, however, agreed that the husband must always be able to provide all the financial needs of his wife and children. Only 9 tt disagreed. This discrepancy may reflect respondents' dissatisfaction with the way financial situations in the family actually are and a desire to see a change. 53 Perceptions of the primary duties of husbands and wives Table 7 Category Females Males Both Wife must do all the housework (N=243) Strongly agree Uncertain Strongly disagree 39.2(56) 30.8(44) 30.1(43) 32.0(32) 43.0(43) 25.0(25) 36.2(88) 35.8(87) 28.0(68) Wife must always obey husband (N=238) Strongly agree Uncertain Strongly disagree 55.1(76) 31.2(43) 13.8(19) 67.0(67) 30.0(30) 3.0(03) 60.1(143) 30.7(73) 9.2(22) Wife must stay home to care for children (N=240) Strongly agree Uncertain Strongly disagree 8.6(12) 22.9(32) 68.6(96) 5.0(05) 33.0(33) 62.0(62) 7.1(17) 27.1(65) 65.8(158) Wife must bear child when husband wants (N=241) i Strongly agree Uncertain Strongly disagree 9.2(13) 24.8(35) 66.0(93) 32.0(32) 29.0(29) 39.0(39) 18.7(45) 26.6(64) 54.8(132) Husband may beat wife when she misbehaves (N=236) Strongly agree Uncertain Strongly disagree Husband may divorce wife if she cannot bear children Forhim(N=237) 5.9(08) 14.0(19) 80.1(109) 9.0(09) 15.0(15) 76.0(76) 7.2(17) 14.4(34) 78.4(185) Strongly agree Uncertain Strongly disagree 8.7(12) 23.9(33) 67.4(93) 17.2(17) 25.0(25) 53.5(53) 12.2(29) 17.9(43) 61.6(146) 54 Husband can have extra-marital affair but wife should not (N=240) Strongly agree Uncertain Strongly disagree 8.6(12) 12.9(18) 78.6(110) 13.0(13) 25.0(25) 62.0(62) 10.4(25) 17.9(43) 71.7(172) Husband must provide all financial needs for his wife and Children (N=244) Strongly agree Uncertain Strongly disagree 58.3(84) 34.7(50) 6.9(10) 46.0(46) 42.2(42) 12.0(12) 53.3(130) 37.7(92) 9.0(22) In response to questions about childbearing, sex of respondents was significantly related to perceptions about wives being required to bear children whenever the hus- band desired, even against her own wishes. Thirty-two percent (32%) of the males, but only 9.2% of the females agreed that the wife must bear children whenever the husband desired. Sixty-six percent (66%) of the females disagreed, while only 39% of the males disagreed. Yet, when asked if the wife must always obey the husband and do whatever he says, 60.1% (55.1% female and 67%) agreed. Thirty-one percent were uncertain, while only 9% disagreed. When asked if a husband may divorce his wife if she cannot bear children for him, only 12.2% of the respondents agreed, while 61.6%disagreed. These findings are particularly interesting given that husbands gen- erally make decisions about fertility in the marriage and frequently take a second wife if the fust one buMble to bear children. When asked if OK husband can have an cxtra-maritalaf&irbotiiot the wife, 71.7% (78.6% female and 62% auk) dbagrced, while 10.4% agreed Similarly, 78.4% of the rcapoadents disagreed flat me husband may beat his wife when she misbehaves. CKuy 7.2% agreed, "ftae findings appear to suggest flat respondents believe mat wives rixmld be treated with a certain level of respect. The results of this study examining the perceptions of family issues held by high school stndeats suggest that a number of me current trends of change in Ghana are likely to continue. In particular, they suggest that adults will continue to many at later ages and mat mey win have fewer children man their parents may have had. As these changes are likely to continue, the importance of family remains evident as most respondents express a strong desire to many and have children. 55 References Adlakha,A. 1996 Population Trends: Ghana. Washington, DC: US Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. (Issue Brief No. 96-1) Adlakha, A. Kumar, S. & Ayed, M. 1991 The Role of nuptiality in fertility decline. A compare tive analysis. In Proceedings of the Demographic and Health Survey* World Conference (pp. 947 - 964). Washington, DC, August 5-7,1991. Vol. 7. Colum bia MD: Institute for Resource Development/Macro International, Inc. Clearance, S.H. 1979 Fertility and eduction: What do we really know? Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press. Ghana: Greater Acceptance of Family Planning: Improved Health Conditions. (1993) DHS/Macro International, Inc. Ghana Fact Sheet 1993 DHS/Macro International, Inc. Ghana Review International 1998 Children's BUI of Rights. Gordon, A.A. & Gordon, D.L. (eds.) 1992 Understanding Contemporary Africa. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Kannae, L., & Pendleton, B.F Kirk.D.&PilletB. 1993 Fertility attitudes among male Ghanaian government employees. Journal of Asian and 1998 F e r S n ^ k ^ ^ ^ e r e n t i a ls in Sub- Saharan Africa in the 1980s and 1990s Studies in Family Planning. 29. I - 22. Lloyd, C.B. & Gage-Brandon, A.J. 1994 Women's role in maintaining households: Family welfare and sexual inequality in Ghana. Populations Studies. 47. 115- 131. 56 Martin, T.C. McDevitt, T.M. Ngom, P. 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