CONFERENCE  REPORT

AFRICA IN HE WORLD OF POPULAR KJSIC

Klevor

in  Amsterdam, 

fourth  bi-annual  conference  of 

Trie  t i t le  of  this  report  was  the  thene  of
the 
the
International  Association  for  the  Study  of
Popular Misic  (IASPM),  held  in  Accra,  Ghana,
August  12-19th,1987. 
Previous  conferences
were  held 
the  Netherlands
{June  1961),  Reggio  Bnilia,  Italy  {September
1983),  and  Montreal,  Canada, 
(July,  1985)
Besides  Ghana,  Nigeria  and  Togo,  conference
participants  carte  from  Australia,  Belgium,
Canada,  Dermark, 
the  German  Democratic
the  Federal  Republic  of  Germany,
fepublic, 
Italy, 
Japan,  The  Netherlands,  Norway,
Sweden  and  the  United  States  of  Arerica.
Other  interested  persons  frcm  Cuba,  Egypt,
Kianya,  Tanzania  and  Uruguay  could  not  attend
due to  financial  and other  difficulties.

IASPM's decision  to  hold  the  Fourth  Inter-
national  Conference  on  Popular  Music  Studies
in  Africa  stamed  frcm  its

to  develop  maaningful 

"desire 
relations
with  African  popular  musicians  and  scholars
of  music  and  to  explore  ways 
in  which
IASPM could  meaningfully  enter  Africa  and
African  musicians  and  scholars  of  music
can  meaningfully  enter 
This
the  massive
desire 
influence  Africa  has  exercised 
the
world  of  popular  music  both  in  historical
and  in  a contemporary  sense.

is  motivated  by 

IASPM  . .. 

in 

It 

is  the  purpose  of  this  conference  to
gain  therefore  a  greater  understanding  of
that 
influencing  contribution;  to  gain  a
greater  understanding  of  the  ways  Africa
has  responded  to  and  assimilated  dominant
trends  in  popular  music 
. . ..  assess  the
political  and  economic  environment  within
which  popular  music  in  Africa  operates,

investigate  ways 

in  which  people
and 
outside  Africa  can  help 
foster  African
popular  music  in  a  creative  and  positive
manner."2

VHAT IS POPULAR KEK?

Professor  J.H. foebena Nietia3  chaired  the
f i r st  session  of  the  conference  which  began
with  a  continuation  of 
IASPM's  efforts  at
defining  popular  music. 
The  Ansterdam
conference  had opened  with  a  confession:  "We
begin  . ..  under  a  severe  handicap:  we're  not
sure  what  we're  talking  about"  (Haim,  1982:
3).4  For  the  past  quarter  century  or  so,
various  commentators  have  been  attempting  to
define  popular  music  without  success 
(see
Jones  and  Rahn,  1981).  The  proceedings  of
the  feggio  Bnilia  Conference  unoer  the" theme
"What  is  Popular  Mrsic?"  made  an  impressive
517  page  volime  (Horn,  1985)  and  included  a
paper  drawing  attention  to  t ie  opinion  of
many  writers  who  thought  defining  popular
music  was  an  exercise 
It
suggested:

f u t i l i t y. 

in 

"Perhaps  the  question, 
'What  is  Popular
Music?1  is  not  an  appropriate  one  to  pose
at  the  present  time.  Perhaps  it  would  be
more  appropriate  to  concentrate  upon  the
processes  of  studying  nusic  than  on  seme
putative  category  of  music  whose  existence
might  only  be  established  with  great
difficulty"  (Shepherd,  1985).

However  tlje  persistence  of  the  attempts  at
defining  popular music  would  seem to  suggest
notwithstanding  the  difficulty  of  achieving
precision,  that  we need  seme working  notions
about  the  subject  of  our  study.

Scms define  popular  music  in  the  negative:

"rnusic that is neither folk  nor art music"
(Tagg,  1979). 
For  others,  the  term  is
applicable  to  all  those  musics  that  are
intended for and/or censured Dy  large masses
of people.5

In the technologically  advanced countries,
irodem  camnications, especially  the elec-
tronic  mass  media  constitute  the  central
pillar of popular music culture.  In Western
Europe and  North  America,  for  example  the
measurement of  popularity  in nusic  is done
by the music  industry  in quantitative terms,
by reference to phonogram sales  records  and
the  charts  devised  by  institutions  like
Billboard.6 
These  measures,  in  spite  of
their obvious  utility, are  inadequate  even
for Wastem  Europe and North Arerica.  They
leave out of  account all  those musics  that
"...fail  in  the  market  place"  (Cutler,
1985:3);  "...  only  a  small  amount  of  the
music described  (as popular) actually reaches
masses of listeners" (Wicke, 1385:47).7

Besides,  the  overwhelming  majority  of
mankind does not measure popularity  in music
by these quantitative methods.  By focussing
on  indigenous  African  music,  the  opening
papers  of  the  Accra  Conference  sought  to
contribute sore ideas  'which  probably  could
not  have  emerged  f ran the  study  of  other
musics) that may aid the efforts at clarifying
our notions about the parameters  for deter-
mining popularity in nusic.

In  his  paper  Indigenous  African  Popular
Misic:  A  dialectical  approach  Dr.  Daniel
Avorgbedor of the School of Performing Arts,
Legon, compared  empirically,  indigenous  and
contemporary popular nusic.  B5 noted diffe-
rences and  similarities with  regard  to  the
geographical  location  of  performing  groups,
their  audiences  and  ethnic  composition,
paying  attention  to  varying  performance
contexts,  economic  benefits  accruing  to
artistes, the role of the modem  mass  madia
in publicising  popular music  events  and  in
the  transmission  of  the  various  types  of
popular music.  Hs  also drew  attention  to
the  factors  that  encourage  innovation  in
styles  and  the  acculturation  of  popular
music  forms.  Ha  observed  that  "indigenous

popuiar music  in an  urban  setting  presents
the  researcher  with  new  questions  and
challenges  that  should  help  us  understand
better what we mean by  popular music".  On
the basis of Anlo-Ewe examples  he  advocated
"sociological 
ethncmusicological
approaches that facilitate the identification
and explanation of the  sccio-cultural  para-
meters  unique  to  popular  music  in  urban
settings."

and 

In a paper Aidna's crowd: On the Character
of  the Everyday  Hsical  Cultural  of  Rural
Africa, the present writer advanced a notion
of popular music as that kind of music which
is not contextual ly bound to strictly speci-
fied occasions and functions as is the  case
with ritual and ceremonial music.  The types
of nusic which, at least  in theory, can  be
performed 
everyday:
genres of music that are most readily accessi-
ble to  large groups of people may be consi-
dered popular music.

anywhere, 

anytime, 

However special attention nust be  paid  to
the overall social and cultural ciranstances
under  which  and  the  processes  whereby  a
musical genre may beefcme accessible to  large
groups  of  listeners  and  acquire  the  status
of everyday popular music.

Could  popular  music  also  be  identified
using  structural-musical  criteria? 
It  is
true that  individual  pieces within  a parti-
cular  popular  music  genre  exhibit  certain
similarities  in  their  structural-musical
features. 
However  individual  pieces,  or
fragnents thereof, from  categories  of  non-
popular music may  'beccme' popular  if these
pieces  function  in  ways  associated  with
popular  music. 
A  Bach,  Beethoven  or
Tchaikovsky fragnsrtt used  in advertising  or
as a radio station signal becomes  (I) popular
music.

Conversely,  what  according  to  certain
criteria  are  very  popular  this  week,  the
nunber  ones  in the  charts, may  not  be  so
popular next week.  (cf. Beaud,  1962).  This
rns got very little to do with the particular
piece's 
features.
Furthermore  what  originally  may  have  been
folk or popular music may attain the  status
of the classical when  social  and  historical

structural-musical 

circumstances  change. 
therefore 
cultural 
identifying  popular  music.

Tm  conclusion
that  political,  social  and
in

factors  are  the  most  decisive 

is 

inportant 

The  most 

thing  however,  as
Professor  Nletia  pointed  out  by  way  of
surmary,  is  to  arrive  at  anorking  definition,
a  kind  of 
label  that  allows  us  to  pursue
popular  music  research,  not  the  search  for
definitions  as  an end  in  itself.

in 

SOME AFRICAN PGRJUK MUSIC TYPES fH) GENRES
Part  of  the  d i f f i c u l ty  in  identifying  and
defining  popular  nusic  arises  frcm  the  scant
attention  that  appears  to  have  been  paid  to
the  historical  processes  that  account 
for
the  emergence  and  continuity  of  popularity
in  music.  This  shortcoming  was  addressed  by
Fleming  Harev's  paper,  The  Origin  of  Urban
fest  and  Central  Africa.
Popular  Wjsic 
Harev  sought  to  establish 
long  historical
links,  frcm  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth
century,  between  different  types  of  "trans-
ethnic  popular  music 
in  wast  Africa".
These 
forms  of  music  played  on  gouitoay,
gcuite,  or  gome frame  dnms  ware,  according
to  Harev,  introduced  by  Jamaican  maroons and
gave  birth 
to  asito  and  maringa  music  in-
fest  and  Central  Africa.  By  the  1880s  the
box  guitar  had  arrived  in 
fest  Africa  via
African  sailors.  Both  the  guitar  and  the
performance  styles  developed  around 
i t,
together  with  gurte,  asito  and  narfnga  ware
in_  turn  taken  to  Central  Africa  by  West
Africans  employed  by  the  Belgian  colonial
authorities  to  build  the  Matadi-Leopoldville
(kinshasa)  railway.
^- 

B^ t t je  Casely  Hayford's  presentation

^  S? ?$???  *  WghHfe  gave an account
of  the  contributions  of  pre-colcnial  European
traders,  missionaries  and  British  Colonials
to  the  emergence of  the  wast  African  form  of
popular  music.  The  recruitment  of  Africans
to  serve  as  musicians 
in  various  European
military  and  missionary  institutions  began a
process  whereby 
indigenous  arid  European
I"8 
u K l S i ?*  Q^stalized  into  what  has
becqne  Hi^Tlife.  The  told  Coast  on  accourt
°f 
the
f i r st  anemed  and
.place  vtere 

9f°-Political  position,  beams 

the  music 

50

defined  its  social  context  and  form.

Tne presentation  by Dr.  Afolabi  Alaja-Browne

j u j u. 

through  contributions 

(Lagos  university),  Fran  'Ere  e  f a a ji  ti  o
pariwD1 to  'Ere e f a a ji  alariwoi  :  a  diachro-
nic  study  of  Change  in  Juju  Mjsic  outlined
the  emergence  and  development  of  j u ju  music
through the  creative  effort  of  young  "rascals"
in  the  Saro  (Sierra  Leone)  quarter  of  Lagos
in  the  1930s.  Prominent  among these  'rascals'
was  Tinde  King  generally  acknowledged  today
The  genre
as  the  main  originator  of 
developed 
frcm 
the
following  sources:  Christian  hymns  to  which
the  'rascals'  ware  exposed  during  Christian
wake-keeping  ceremonies;  asito, 
trans-
ethnic 
form  of  musical  expression  whose
origins  and  development  were  described  by
Fleming Harev;  the  use  of  tambourines  intro-
duced  by  the  Salvation  Army  missionary  sect
in  the  1920s  and  believed  to  have  the  power
of  stimulating  mental  and  spiritual  conscious-
ness,  hence 
sante
practised  by  the  Lagos  Brazilian  ccrmuiity
and orin  kururo,  sea  shanties.

the  Brazilian 

juju; 

the 

Having  established  a  musical  style,  Tinde
King  and  his  cohorts  practised  an  Ere  e
faaji  ti  o pariwo,  a  light  solemn  entertain-
ment  music,  mainly  for  the  quiet  exclusive
delectation  of  the  Lagos  e l i te  of  the  1930s
in  their  homes,  in  the  evenings.

In  the  1940s the  artistes  began  to  add new

leading 

musical  instnnerts  to  the 
j u ju  orchestra,
such  as  gangan,  the  Vjruba  hourglass  drun,
the  penny  whistle  flute, 
the  organ  and  the
dlwidnl  >
Frcm  the  middle  of  the  1940s,  under  the
inpetus  of  the  political  and  social  activi-
to  Nigeria's  attainment  of
ties 
independence,  j u ju  music  broke  out 
into  the
public  as  Ere  e  faaji  a l a r i »,  urban  dance
and party  music.  The  leading  artiste  during
this  period  was  I.K.  Dairo  who 
introduced
the  north  organ  and  accordion  into  the  juju
orchestra  and  led  a  movement  that  resulted
in  the  appeal  of  j u ju  music  outside  Lagos,
in  other  parts  of  Yorubaland  and beyond.

During  the  Nigerian  c i v il  war 

(1967-70)
Highlife  musicians  moved  out  of  Lagos,
the
leaving  the  popular  music 
The  Nigerian  o il  boon
dominance  of  juju. 

terrain 

to 

(1970-1960) created the conditions for  juju
to  beccme  big  business,  its  practitioners
overtly publicising the  "virtues" of  rich,
powerful  aid  influential  patrons  through
praise songs.  The music  began  to  receive
extensive  coverage  in  both  the  print  and
electronic  mass  media. 
Chief  Ccmnander
Ebenezer Obey and King Sunny Ade have emerged
as  the  best  known  juju  musicians  at  the
present mcment.

The  presentations  on  these  genres  of
indigenous  and  contemporary African  popular
music, from historical  perspectives, were  a
welcome addition to the scholarship  so  far
produced within the ranks of IASPM.
W O ©! AND POPULAR MUSIC

An  avowedly non-ferminist presentation  by
Dr.  Mosun  Cmibiyi-Cbidike  (University  of
Ibadan), Women  w  Popular Music  in Nigeria
outlined the contribution of wcmen to contem-
porary popular nusic in that country.

Until  the  late  1960s,  the  contemporary
popular music scene in Nigeria was dominated
In the  1970s,  many  more  women
by  men. 
entered  the  field. 
ihjfs,  according  to
Grabiyi-Cbidike, was probably due to changing
attitudes towards woman's traditional  roles
in music*

Besides  the  explicitly  female  forms  of
musical activity, women traditionally played
minor  roles  in  musical  life  in  general.
Even in female types of music, man  usually
provided  instrumental  accompaniment. 
With
changing social  attitudes, occasioned espe-
cially by the growth in formal education, it
has become possible for women to  play more
prominent roles in musical life.

The rise of individual performing artistes
and  super  stars  abroad  in  the  1970s  as
against the earlier  emphasis  on  the  group
identity of bands, must  also  have  had  its
effects on the Nigerian music scene.

Performances  of  visiting  foreign  female
singers  like  Millicent  Small  and  Miriam
Makeba inspired a nuiter of Nigerian artistes,
some  of  whom  performed  with  the  visitors
when  they  went  to  Nigeria. 
Sherry-Patu
Oduguwa,  alias  Queen  Decency,  a  composer,
lead guitarist and singer became the  leader

of  an  all-male  juju  band  managed  by  her
husDana. 
Mary  Mono  led  a  seven-member
all-female  band  specialising  in  highlife,
juju, ball rccm music and Congolese cha-cha-
cha.
Later female artists  like  Nellie  Uchendu,
Stella Moye, Nbna  Fini, Dora  Efudu, Christy
Essien-Igbckue,  Onyeka  Oweno  and  Patti
Boulaye and  other  female  artistes  all  with
varying levels of formal educational training
emerged in the 1970s and 80s specialising  in
newer genres of axitemporary Nigerian popular
music.  Some of those educated abroad started
their musical  careers  performing  the  works
of foreign, especially Black Anerican artistes
like Donna Suimer.

In  general  these  females  artistes  have
been  exploited  by  promoters  and  producers
and their purpose as performing artistes has
misrepresented,

HDwever their hard work, "brought a little
class into the Nigerian music  scene.  This
essentially  has contributed to  a  change  in
attitude on the part of the general  public
from  looking  at  them  as  morally  debased
people to repositories of the African heri-
tage, carmunicators, entertainers, innovators
and  fosterers  of  national  identity  and
unity".
There was no other presentation  on women
and popular music.  But John Collins1  inter-
vention drew parallels with the situation of
women  in  popular  music  in  Ghana  and  the
United States.

Female  participation 

contenporary
professional music-making  in Ghana had  been
very  limited  until  very  recently. 
In  the
recent years of  economic  decline  in  Ghana
musicians began to  be  employed  to  perform
for  worship  in  the  Africanized  Christian
Churches,  just  as  Black  Arerican  churches
attracted  musicians  during  and  after  the
depression of the  1930s.  This  has  led  to
the emergence of Ghanaian gospel music.

According to Collins, the guitar  in Ghana
had  been  associated  with  drunkenness  and
nobody  wanted  their  daughter  to  become  a
professional  musician. 
But  it  was  more
difficult to maintain this association with
church music, and young woman became choris-

in 

ters and renters of gospel bands.

Gospel music in the United States developed
into  Soul-  Collins,  a  phonogram  producer,
AFRICW PGRJLM PERFORMING ARTS: COPYRIGHT,
POLITICS, l/mifiGE MO  ROLE IN EDUCATION

A  nnter  of  conference  sessions  were
devoted  to  a  discussion  of  African  popular
arts  within  the  context  of  the  ccnplex
duality of the indigenous and the contaiporary
that the continent, on account of its history,
continues  to  experience. 
The  Ghana  Dance
Ensemble's  Artistic  Director,  Francis  Nii
Yartey  made  an  inpassioned  plea  in  his
paper,  Creation  and  Presentation  of  Tradi-
tional African Danqes, that the  totality  of
the  continent's  historical  experience  and
cultural  diversity  be  reflected  in  contem-
porary African dances.

Whilst  not  specifically  about  a  popular
performing  art, t)fotsu Adinku of  the  School
of Performing  Arts, Legon, produced  a  paper
on  Copyright  Protection  for  the  Ghanaian
Choreographer  in which  he  raised  pertinent
questions, that constituted^a  timely  inter-
vention  on  behalf  of  practitioners  of  the
dance: the urgent need for the protection  of
choreographers1 
property.
Adinku also discussed the forms  and  methods
whereby  choreographed  works  may  be  lodged
with the copyright administrator,
concluded  hunorously:  "So what  I  am  waiting
for in my' recording  studio  is  the  Ghanaian
Aretha Franklin".

intellectual 

Dr.  Kofi  Agovi,  (Institute  of  African-
Studies,  Legon)  spoke  about  The  Political
Relevance of Highlife Songs since  1957.  On
the basis of a review of the  ways  in which
political  events and  concerns  are  reflected
in Highlife songs he pointed out the validity
of these songs as a  'means of assessing  the
relevance  of  a  regime's  political  goals,
policies and  programes to the  lives of  the
intended  beneficiaries".  By  recounting  the
ups  and  downs  of  Highlife  as  an  art  form
during the Nknmah  era, Agovi concluded  that
it is the business of government to  inspire
not impose the "values of state" they profess.

52

In  the  absence  of  adequate  inspiration,
Highlife  musicians  are  reduced  to  "mere
outlets for the expression of dissatisfaction
with existing conditions by survival".

And the dissatisfaction  with  these  condi-
tions, among other things, have according  to
Dr. foesi Yankah  (Department of  Linguistics,
Legon) been  expressed  through  a  variety  of
linguistic  registers:  Standard,  Pidgin  and
Broken  English,  a  mixture  of  English  and
Ghanaian 
and
indigenous  languages,  "depending  on  the
particular variety of highlife ensemble, the
social context of the music being  played  as
wall as how close the  composer  is  in  touch
with the cultural  traditions  and  aesthetics
of traditional ccnmunication".

colloquialisms 

language 

The relevance of all these to the acquisi-
tion and dissemination  of  knowledge  engaged
the attention of two panels  which  discussed
the  place  of  popular  music  in  formal  and
non-formal education.  The  strategic  impor-
tance of  popular music, on  account  of  its
ubiquity,  as  a  vehicle  for early  childhood
instruction and as an  instnment  for  socia-
lisation  at  various  levels  was  noted.
Panelists drew attention to the  inclusion of
aspects of popular nusic  in the west African
Examinations 
and
'Advanced'  level syllabuses and also  in  the
curriculun of sore third cycle music  insti-
tutions.

'Ordinary' 

Council's 

Dr. K.N. Bame (Institute of African Studies
Legon) presented an account of Papular Music
in the Concert Party Tradition and a  report
on the use  of  the Concert  Party  in  a  1975
birth  control  campaign  programe. 
Dr.
Reebee  Garofalo  (Boston  university,  USA)
described  the  use of  popular music  in  the
rehabilitation of delinquent youth  in Sweden
and  the  United  States.  Two  University  of
Ghana  professors,  Professors  K.A.  Dickson
and  A.A.  Mensah  led  discussions  on  the
attempts  of  contemporary  Ghanaian  gospel
musicians  to  ccme  to  terms  with  Christian
theology.

Dr.  Bane's  report  indicated  that  besides
the  radio, the  concert  party  proved  to  be
the  most  powerful  means  of  successfully
comnicating  information, even on  a  subject

as  delicate  as  family  planning  whilst  Dr.
Garofalo's  presentation  demonstrated  the
effectiveness of the use of popular music  in
reorienting  "wayward"  youth  back  into
productive channels.

The -tentative nature of the  discussion  on
the  relationship  betwen  Christian  doctrine
and gospel nusic  inplied a need for  further
investigation on the supject.  Tt was however
pointed out that the rise of .Ghanaian gospel
music is a social fact that cannot be ignored.

AFRICA AM) POPULAR MJSIC ABROAD

Other conference  presentations  dealt  with
popular music  culture  in cither parts of  the
world  (Asia,  Europe,  Latin  America,  North
/Serica  and  Oceania) focussing  among  other
things on the  character  and  content  of  the
relationship between popular music  in these
geo-political  areas and their socio-econcmic
and  politico-cultural  settings  on  the  one
hand and the technology and business manage-
rrent arrangements that  facilitate  or  hinder
their  production  and  propagation  on  the
other hand.

Special attention was paid to the place of
African music in the origins and development
of  present  day  popular  music  cultures  in
other  parts  of  the  world,  especially  in
North America and Europe.

Of  particular  interest  were  the  presen-
tations made by Dr. Philip  Tagg  (Gothenburg
University,  Sweden)  and  Roland  Schratt,  a
German  radio  journalist.  Dr. Tagg's  paper
Celtic and West  African  influences  in  the
Popular  Music  of  North  America  concerned
itself with  pointing  out  that  many  musical
traits  in North  Anerica popular music,  such
as "Blue notes", call  and response, improvi-
sation  and  syncopation  which  are  carnally
believed to be African in origin can be also
found in indigenous Celtic and other European
musics.  These musical traits had been spumed
by  the  late  nineteenth  century  bourgeois
elitist 
European  -music
traditions. 
me  real  reason  why  these
traits  have been  projected  by  the  European
music establishnfent as typically  African  is
to  reinforce  seme  of  the  prejudices  and

conceptions 

of 

stereotypes about Africans and their music.

These  stereotypes,  according  to  Senmitts's
paper  "Hot,  Hotter  Africa":  Stereotypes  in
the  (re)presentation of African pop  music  in
German  and  European  media,)  make  it  almost
impossible for African  popular  music  practi-
tioners, perhaps with the exception of Youssou
N'dour, Manu Dibango, Hugh Masekela  and  Sumy
Ade,  to  achieve  any  great  successes  on  the
European popular music circuit.
WORKSHOPS

There  were two  workshop  sessions  devoted
to historical, sccio-cultural, and musicolo-
gical  analyses  of  Yaa  Anponsah,  a  very
important  piece  of  Ghanaian  popular  music,
and Hie Graphics and the Packaging of Popular
Music.

It cane to light during Mr. Beattie Casely-
Hayford's  historical 
sccio-cultural
presentation on Yaa Anponsah that Yaa Anpon-
sah  was  a  person  who  actually  lived.  She
was such an excellent performer that anytime
she was  absent,  the  group  she  belonged  to
found  it very difficult to perform.  It was
to  acknowledge  her  performance  excellence
that  Asante  Kwapong  composed  Yaa  Anponsa,
which was later popularised by  ft&me  Asare,
the  famous  guitarist  'Sam1,  in  her  honour
and memory.

and 

Rojo  Mettle-Nunoo,  Laud  Nikoi  O'lai  and
Gyedu  Blay  Arbcoley's  presentations  on  the
grannies  of  popular  music  packaging  drew
attention  to  the  need  for  popular  music
practitioners, especially phonogram  producers
to  match  the  sound  and  the  image  to  the
sccio-cultural  identity of  the  artistes  and
their art.

POPULAR MJSIC AM) CCM-UUCATIONS THHCLOGY

A pertinent issue that cropped  up during  a
visit the Ghana  Film  Industry  Corporation's
(GFIC)  sound  recording  studio  was  whether
the Third world can expect to have  analogue
recording equipment as free gifts  when  they
become obsolete  with  the  advent  of  digital
recording technology  in the West.  Unfortu-
nately, digital sound recording and reproduc-
tion technology  is  still  so  very  expensive

53

that  mast  European  recording  studios and
ccnpanies  are still  hanging  on to  their
analogue equipment.

However digitally recorded music continues
to  attain  increasing  prominence  on the
Japanese, European and North Aierican popular
music  market.  The quality  of  digitally
recorded  music  is  so  high  that  digital
copies are actually  clones of the original
recording.  This had led to some difficulties
in  protecting  the copyright  of  recording
artistes.

The  phonogram  industry  has proposed the
introduction of copy code notch  device  into
all digital audio tape equipment in the hope
of eliminating all illegal copying.  But the
system  proposed  can be  easily  oypassed.
Besides, the proposed copy code notch dete-
riorates the quality of recording.  A resolu-
tion  was passed  strongly  neccnrnending the
non-passage  of copy  code  legislation (See
Appendix).
SOUTH AFRICA
The  session on the role of popular  music
in  the struggle  against  apartheid  brought
into sharp focus the difficulties encountered
in the use of the performing  arts  in the
efforts to bring  official  racism to an end
in  South  /frica.  This is particularly so
after the publication-of Paul  Simon's  award
winning  phonogram,  Qnaceland,  which  was
recorded in South  Rrica  in contravention of
the United Nations' and the African National
Congress' policies seeking to foster cultural
boycott of apartheid by calling on foreign
artistes to stay away from South Africa and
cultural  events  sponsored  by  the  South
African regime.

The presention of Dr. David  Coplan  (State
University of New York at Westbury, USA)  on
the  subject  made  a  strong  case  for anti-
apartheid  activists  reconsidering  their
cultural policies.  For at the same time as
Simon's  South  African  adventune(?)  was
condemned  in many  anti-apartheid  circles,
"P*  only  was it successful  in bringing,
through  the mass  media,  aspects  of  South
African  popular  music to the notice of a
v e ry  iarge audience world wide (and was used

g 

i  th 

by the South  African  regime  for its own
purposes),  astute  anti-apartheid  activists
like Hugh Masekela  and Miriam  Makeba
iia  Maeba  were
f th
abl  t 
able to organise the use of the same  rrusic
to hit back  at the South  African  regi
to hit back  at the South  African  regime
This they did through their participation in
a Paul Simon live concert in Zimbabwe  yfiich
was watched by the then  Prime Minister Mr
Robert Mugabe and other important government
ministers and state officials.  This concert,
according  to several  reports, was charged
with  anti-apartheid  fervour,  very  raxln
unlike the original  Paul  Simon  phonogram-
beautiful music that was nonetheless compiel
tely oblivious to the political situation of
the African musicians with  whom  Paul  Simon
performed  and recorded. 
Stan  Rijven,  a
Dutch journalist, did a provocative analysis
of  various  popular  music  events  outside
South  Africa,  especially  in North  America
and Europe, intended as contributions to the
struggle against apartheid.  In the discu-
ssion,  it emerged  that  quite  often  the
personal ambitions of some performing artists
tended  to  undermine  their  anti-apartheid
posture.

It  was pointed  out that  the  struggle
against apartheid involved both a boycott of
the South African regime and its programmes
as well as an active exposure of the effects
of  its racist  policies.  Contributions  in
this regard can be made by non-South African
anti-apartheid  activists working  inside the
racist  republic, as two IASPM  members vix>
have  carried  out  research  within  South
Africa have done.  Thus a generalized  call
on all foreign cultural workers not to visit
South Africa at all may not be in the best
interest of the world wide struggle  against
the evils of apartheid.  The African National
Congress, it would  appear, is beginning to
realize this.

A  resolution  on  Popular  Music  and the
anti-apartheid  struggle,  reproduced  in the
appendix to this  report, was passed by the
conference.
IASPM HCPOVUR  MUSIC

It has becane customary for IASPM, which
has prided itself on being an international,

inter-professional 

conference  which 

interdisciplinary, 
and
activist organisation, to review its work at
its meetings with  a  view  to  clarifying  its
objectives  so  as to  be  able  to  decide  on
concrete  projects  for  the  realisation  of
these objectives.
The  Ansterdam 

was
strictly  speaking  not  a  IASPM  conference,
led to the founding of the association.  At
the  Raggio  Bnilia  Confenence  attention  was
drawn  to  the  essentially 
Euro-Anerican
character  of  IASPM's  internationalism,  its
lack of  resources  and  the  inevitability  of
its having to carry out projects  within  the
frameworx  of  other  existing  institutions,
building  up  doanentary  and  bibliographic
sources for popular music studies.

In his Address on the  State of the Asso-
ciation, Dr. Philip  Tagg,  IASPM's  Founding
Executive Secretary noted the organization's
continued  existence  as  a  kind  of  "NATO  of
Popular Music Studies", the possible dangers
of  careerism, and  the  association's  likely
co-optation  by  the  music  establishment.
This was at the 1985 Montreal conference.

The  continuing  growth  of  popular  music
studies, he noted, is bound to affect music
studies in general  in the same way as women
studies,  hitherto  another  terra  incognita
like  popular  music  studies,  continues  to
contribute  to  a  clearer  understanding  of
mankind and society.  Similarly,  IASPM must
also seek to become a kind of African National
Congress  (ANC),  promoting,  ultimately  the
study  of  all  musics,  just  as  the  ANC  is
dedicated to a  struggle  for the equality  of
all races in South Africa  and  indeed  in the
whole world.

On the basis of  a  paper produced  by  the
present  writer,  IASPM  and  Popular  Music:
Towards  an  Agenda,  the  Accra  conference
continued IASPM's search for clearer perspec-
tives  on  its work.  The  paper pointed  out
that just as  in Europe  and  North  Anerica,
popular music  studies  in  Ghana  is  in  its
infancy, but for different reasons.

Even though African  popular music  is not
looked  down  upon  in  Africa  as  mere  fun,
leisure and entertainment as is the case  in
Europe, there are not enough music researchers
55

in Africa for scma to  be engaged  solely  in
popular music  studies. 
The  few  available
specialists  spend  most  of  their  energies
docuuenting and analysing different forms of
indigenous African music.

But  a  fairly  representative  sample  of
contemporary African popular music is already
available  on  phonograms  and  can  be  studied
later.
It would appear that  contemporary  African
popular music  is  not  looked  down  upon  by
today's African ruling classes because  it is
the  only  form  of  music  they  can  really
identify with.  The rise of today's  African
ruling classes was  contarporaneous  with  the
emergence  and  development  of  contemporary
African popular nusic.  Besides, having  been
brought up half way between bourgeois European
and  indigenous  African  traditions,  these
classes  have  not  developed  any  musical
traditions  that  are  distinctly  theirs,  the
way European  classical  music  is  essentially
a symbol of the EuroDean bourgeoisie.

It was not exactly clear to the writer of
the  paper  why  popular  music  studies  in
Europe ana  North  Anerica  started  so  late.
Why too  is it that the the music  industry's
high level research  into popular music  cul-
ture is not matched by correspondingly  large
research efforts  for  distanced  and  critical
perspectives of the kind  favoured  by  IASPM?
There is a need to have these  issues  clari-
fied so IASPM can see its way clear.

It was  also  suggested  that  IASPM  define
its  attitude  to  the  information  provided
through research done by its members, so  as
to devise  projects through  which  the  asso-
ciation  could  consciously  and  positively
effect the obiect of  its study and activity.
Thus the association could grow out of  its
present  'stifling  scholastic  cloister'  and
participate in preparing the grounds for the
"popularisation  of  all  musical  traditions
and the withering away of popular music".
John  Shepherd,  referring  to  himself  as
belonging to a 'stifling scholastic cloister1,
on  account  of  his  being  a  full  professor
with with tenure in a music department, also
put  forward  some  ideas,  in  response  as
discussant for the session which was chaired

by Philip  Tagg.

According  to  Shepherd,  the  lowly  position
of  popular  music  studies  in  the  so-called
advanced civilizations  derives  fran the fact
that  the significance  of music  as a means of
social  and cultural  caminication  is  gene-
rally  ignored and not considered as important
for  social  existence by these  civilizations.
This  lack  of  recognition  for  the role  of
music  in  society  has arisen  with  the advent
(writing  and  subsequently,
of 
printing),  one of  the  principal 
tools  of
social  control  in  the  so-called  developed
civilizations  dominated  by  powerful  male
elites.

literacy 

Misic,  as an oral/aural  phenomenon,  goes
behind  the back  of  literacy  and through  its
very  existence  subverts 
fundamentally  the
means of ccrrmunication  in literate  societies.
Confucius,  Plato  and Saint  Augustine  have
mge  pronouncements  about  the  detrimental
effects  that  music  may have  upon  the moral
and social  order of their  civilizations.

the  scribal 

Classical  music  does  not pose a threat  to
these  civilizations  because  it  is  controlled
™xjgh 
S}frphonies,
concertos  etc. could  not  be  conceived and
reproduced  in  a  fully  oral/aural 
fashion.
r" Jy. .a r e, 
notational ly on paper and have become subser-
vient  to the exigencies  of scribal  elites.

f i r st  and  forarost  constructed

form. 

TOpular music on the other  hand is conceived

in  an  oral/aural 

^ p r a c t i s ed 
fashion.
«en  writing  and music  notation  are used  in
PpP"lar  music 
they  serve  only  as  aides
PWter  " ^ ic  can therefore

H?^50 
r*2P°l l ed  by scribal  elites 
ttra*
notation.
of  the  means  hereby  the  elites  of
developed  civilizations  seek  to
f JJ 
ped  civilizations  seek  to
u li 
™ol.popularnusic  therefore  is  to try to
onsequential  by  relegating  i t,
JfJ®  it 
inconsequential  by  relegating  i t,
&  declaration,  to  the  limto  of  mere
declaration 
?£*& 
l
leisure and entertainment,

t hf

th 

t 

zationl?  b e c a u se  ^ 

^£>rry-abcut 

'developed  civili-
*** ^ e ^ i ve  potential
ar nusic that  they  make it  difficult

research  into  popular  music  culture  on  the
other  hand  is  totally  self  serving,  f^
purposes  of  maximising 
^d
re-infonces  the dominant  ideology  in  these
societies.

profits, 

It  is  to  reverse  this  state  of  affairs

that  Professor  Shepherd  and  other 
IASFN
scholar  activists  and  activist 
scholars
engagje in popular  nusic  studies  and support
the  idea of popular music  activism.

But  activism  *hich  is  not  based  on m
informed  theoretical  understanding  of  the
nature  of  Wiat  is  to  be  changed  can be
dangerous.  At best  the activists'  projects
can be undermined or  subverted  even  without
their  knowing.  A nutter  of  supposed  revolu-
tions  in  music  education  have  fallen 
into
this  category  of  subverted  activism  because
they  were not preceded by a  f u ll  evaluation
of  the cultural  and social  significance  of
the musics that  are taught  in the classroom.
There also are problems  with  sane  activist
projects 
IASPM  has,  through  seme  of  its
nerters,  been associated  with  such  as  Rack
Against Racism.  Practically  a ll  such  activism
tends  to be directed  mainly  at  the context
of  music,  without  much attention  being  paid
to the text of the nusic  itself.

In  rock  nusic,  one finds  that  the  typical
gender  stereotypes  and gender  relations are
reproduced.  Rock  Against  Racism  dees not
seem to  address  itself  to  the  problem of
stereotyping.  And this  is  not  good  enough
since  sexism is as detestable  as racism.

A  nuiber  of  view  points  emerged  in the

discussion:

i i) 

i)  IASPM's business  is to  provide  informa-
tion on popular  music,  not to  transform
popular nusic  culture.
IASPM's  research  activities  are bound
to  affect  popular  music  culture  as
musicians, 
radio  disc
jockeys etc. use the results  of  popular
music  research  in their  work,
IASPM's  research  provides 
infemation
that  is non-aligned,  so to  speak.  Such
information  can be  used  by  different
social  groups  for  different  purposes
with  effects  that  may be  at  variance

journalists, 

i i i) 

56

with  IASPM's aims and objectives.  The
association  must  therefore 
pursue
activist  projects  aimed  at  preventing
this.

Eventually there appeared  to  be  unanimity
on the need for activism, hence the kind of
recctimendations that came up  at the end  of
the conference.  Indeed IASPM's decision  to
corns to Ghana, despite all the odds, was an
expression of activism and a  different kind
of internationalism!
PR/CTICAL ISSUES

At the conference closing session a number
of  recaimendations  aimed  at  improving  the
situation of popular music were made. These
include  the  establishment  in  Ghana  of  a
popular music archive, a  national  bi-annual
conference  and  festival  of  popular  music,
music  studios  and  recording  facilities,  an
Accra  Music  Centre  for  part-time  music
courses and tuition in the playing of musical
instrunents.

IASPM  and  the  conference  also  conveyed
their  ccmnitment  to  "a  constructive  and
positive  development  of  popular  music  in
Ghana, in Africa and throughout the world".

The  intention of  IASPM,  its branches  and
individual  matters to  take  various  actions
airred  at tackling  seme of the  problems  of
music  and  music  life  in  Ghana  was  also
announced.  Such  actions  include  cultural,
academic  and musical  exchanges  with  Ghana;
provision of information on music recording,
studio technology, its developments, prices,
durability and functions to those working  in
the  Ghanaian  music  recording  industry;
information  on  the  music  industry  at  the
request of  the  Musicians'  Union  of  Ghana;
the  provision  of  phonograms  of  music  from
other  African  countries  and  of  Ghanaian
music  produced  and  distributed  abroad  for
the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation.

In order to  avoid  the  undue exploitation
of Ghanaian nusic and musicians (this was an
issue  that  arose  very  sharply  within  the
context  of  the  conference  session  on  the
music business and industry), IASPM undertook
"to  prepare  a  formal  agreement  with  the
government  of  Ghana  containing  treasures

57

regulating the conditions  under which  music
researchers may enter Ghana for the purposes
of documenting and recording Ghanaian music,
the conditions under which performing groups
may enter Ghana from abroad  as well  as  the
conditions  under which musicians  may  leave
Ghana to perform abroad with a real  sense of
security".

IASPM  also undertook  "to  examine ways  in
which the invaluable docunentary and aesthetic
treasure of African music recorded on reel-to-
reel  tapes  and  presently  stored  at  the
University  of  Ghana's  Institute  of  African
Studies  music  archives  can  be  saved  for
posterity".

The roles played by Professors J.H. Kwabena
Nketia  and  A.A.  Msnsah  in  presiding  over
many  conference  sessions  and  orienting  the
discussion on  several  subjects  helped  IASPM
achieve this balance to a large extent.

Proceedings  of  the  conference  are  being
edited for publication both  in print and  as
a phonogram on audio cassettes.

The  Fifth  Conference  is  scheduled  for
1989.  It will be held  in Paris as  part  of

In  order  to  clarify  the  association's
objectives, and  improve the  quality  of  its
work, three amendments to the IASPM statutes
were made.  The first amendment has resulted
in the redefinition of the association as "a
non-profit  organisation  with  no  formal
political  ties". 
The  second  states  that
IASPM  "condemns the violation  of  the  human
rights,  as  defined  by  the  United  Nations
Charter, of any individual, group or nation".
The last amencment made possible the election
of  Professor J.H.  toebena  Nketia, Kco  Nimo
and John Collins as honorary  life members of
IASPM "in recognition of  (their) service  to
the world of popular music and to the Asso-
ciation".

The  conference  attempted  to  achieve  a
balance between the presentation  of  formal
scholarly  papers by  academics  and  the  less
formal  interventions of practising  musicians
like Kco Nimo, Qyedu Blay Arbooley  and  Nana
Agyeman  (Geeman),  graphic  artists,  journa-
lists, radio disc jockeys, and other popular
music enthusiasts.

r

the  activities  marking  the bicentenary  of
the French Revolution.

MOTES
1.  Served  as  chairperson  of  the  Inter-
national  Programme  Co«»ittee; Convenor,
Local Arrangements Cowittee  and  Central
Co-ordinator for the Fourth IASPM  Confe-
rence.

2.  FroM  Statement  on  Purpose  of  Conference
•ade by IASPM Executive Secretary  Profe-
ssor John Shepherd, Carleton  University,
Ottawa,  Canada.  Professor  Shepherd  has
served  as  IASPM  Executive  Secretary  for
two terns: 1983-85 and 1985-87.

3. Formerly  Director,  Institute  of  African
Studies,  University  of  Ghana,  Legon.
Presently  Andrew  Mellon  Professor  of
Music  and  Chair,  Department  of  Music,
University of Pittsburgh, USA.

k.  Professor  Charles  Ham,  Department  of
Music,  Dartmouth  College,  Hanover  USA
was  IASPM's  founding  chairperson,  a
position-  to  which  he  was'  re-elected
during the 198? conference.

5.  This  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  the
most  consumed  music  is  Host  expressive
of  the  people's  objective  needs  and
aspirations.  Actually  a  sizeable  chunk
of  popular  music  does  contribute  much
to  the  fulfilment  of  the  needs  and
aspirations of the people.
The 
Nevsvetkly 
Angeles: 
Publications, 189^-present).

Music-Record-Tape
Billboard

International 

(Los 

6. 

7. The commercial  success of certain  popular
music  practitioners  »«d  their  Merchan-
dize is often  more  a  function  of  their
business management and public relations
expertise than their msicianship.

8.  There  nave  been  only 

unsuccessful
attempts to  introduce  tn«  charts  in  the
Third  World  and  the  Socialist  World,
where  some  of  the  most  consumed  pieces
of  popular  music,  like  A.B.  Crentsil's
Moses,  are  not  allowed  air  time.  This
is  not  to  talk  about  those  popular
musics that  are  not  available  on phono-

58

grans.  A  lot  of  scepticism  has 
a^s
been  expressed  in  the  capitalist  world
about  value  of  the  charts  as  a  true
measure  of  popularity  in  music.  ($e
Hamnr, op.  cit.).

9.  The  performance  of  the  Akan  adova,  for
example  was  until  recently  done  only
once  a  year,  in  certain  areas,
reserved  for the entertainment of  parti-
cular  royal  households.  (See  Nketia
1973: 
become
accessible to  a  larger  public.  Nketia
(fl96Z:  17  and  1963:  69)  includes  the
adeva genre under  his  category  of  popular

It  has 

however 

88) 

The  Southern  Ewe  agbadza  was  also
originally  performed  for  military 
pur_
poses  or  during  the  funerals  of  those
who  died  in  battle  or  in  accidents.
But  it  has  since  the  last  thirty  or  so
years  become  everyday  music  performed
by voluntary associations.

Similarly the work  of  the  Ghana  Dance
Cnsemble  and  the  rise  of  the  so-called
Cultural  Troupes  in  Accra and  other  big
urban  areas  have  occasioned  the  perfor-
mance  of  previously  restricted  musical
types like  Kete, Foatoaf rota and Alcoa  in
situations  and  venues  associated  with
popular music.

10.  Certain  other  forms  of  music  like  jazz
were  in  their  origins  considered  folk
music  but  have  become  popular  or  art
music  when  they  became  available  to
large  audiences  or  received  esoteric
treatment in the hands of certain  coapo-
sers  and  performers.  M op  jazz  Musi-
cians  insisted  that  their  art  was  of
the  same  status  as  art  music.  Soae
scholars  (See  Van  der  Plas:  1985:  3)
consider  that  rock  music  can  be  art
music.

IEFEIEMCES
Beaud,  Paul,  1982. 

Et  si  l'on  reparlait
d'Adorno, in  Horn  and  Tagg  (ed.)  Popalar
Katie Perspective*.

Cutler, Chris, 1985.  What  is  popular  music?
in  Horn, David  (ed.) Pepelar  Hasie  Pers-
pectives 2.

Hamm, Charles, 1982.  'Some  thoughts on the
measurement  of  popularity  in  Music'  in
Horn and Tagg  (eds.) Popular  Music  Pers-
pectives.

Horn,  David  and  Philip  Tagg  (eds.) 1982.
Popular  Hasie  Perspectives:  Papers  from
the  First  International  Conference  oa
Popular  Music  Research,  Aasterdaa,  Jane
1981,  IA5PH, Goteborg ami Exeter.

Horn, Darttf ed. 1585.  Popular Music Perspec-
tives  2: Papers  froa  the  Second  Inter-
national  Coafereace  oa  Popalar  Masic
Studies,  Reggio  Eadlia  September  19-2*,
1983,  IASPH,  Goteborg,  Exeter,  Ottawa,
Reggio Eailia.

Jones, G. and J. Rahn 1981.  Definitions of
popular  ausic:  recycled,  in  Battock,  G.
ed. 
Breaking  the  Sound  Barrier, New
York.

Nketia, J.H., 1962. African  Music ia Ghana,

Accra:  Longmans.

1963-  Drwaing  in Akan Coeau-

nities of Ghana, London: Thomas Nelson.

1973: 

Folk  Songs  of  Chant,

Accra:  Ghana Universities Press.

Van der Plas, Vim 1985.  Can  Rock  be  Art?
in Horn, D. Ed. Popular Music  Perspectives
2.

Shepherd, John 1985.  Definition  as Mystifi-
cation:  a  consideration  of  labels  as a
hindrance  to  understanding  significance
in Music, in  Horn, D. ed. Popalar  Music
Perspectives 2.

Tagg,  Philip  1979.  Kojak:  50  Seconds  of
Television  on  Nasic,  Goteborg:  Musikve-
tenskapliga Institutionen.

Wicke,  Peter  1985.  Popularity  in  music:
SOMB  aspects of a  historical  Materialist
theory for popular Music, in Horn, D. ed.
Popular Music Perspectives 2.

APPENDICES

I

copy code legislation be introduced.

RESOLUTION OH THE BffflTJDUCTIGN CF COPY CODE

DEVICES INTO DIGITS  ADIO  WE

EQUJBBir

With the introduction of copy code devices
into  digital  audio  tape  equipment, the
phonogram  industry  hopes to eliminate the
home taping and piracy of compact discs.  In
doing so not only  does the industry  impede
the general progress of audio hardware; they
are  also in practice  proposing  a  deterio-
ration  of sound  quality  by  introducing  a
frequency  notch  in  all  compact  discs.
Moreover since the copy  code  notch  will be
extremely  sinple  to bypass  at  negligible
expense to the consumer, the only  result
will be to increase the cost and lower the
quality of both digital  audio tape equipment
and compact discs.
While  wa  fully  support  the  right  of
authors, composers, musicians and workers in
the recording and phonogram  industry, we see
no way in which copy code will help them.

We  therefore  strongly  reccmrend  that no

II

RESOLUTION ON POPULAR HJSIC  IN THE

STRUGGLE

Whereas popular music is a vital  cultural
resource  in the struggle  for freedom in
South  Africa, and whereas  cultural  workers
are  developing  an  effective  culture  of
resistance to apartheid within South Africa.
Be it herewith  resolved  that  the Inter-
national Association for the Study of Popular
Music  pursue all practical  avenues  to aid
the cultural struggle in South Africa through
the promotion of popular music and to isolate
and combat the political and cultural  repre-
ssion practised by the South African regime.
These avenues should  include the collabo-
ration of cultural  workers and institutions
throughout Africa as well as other continents
in the struggle against apartheid.

59