Black Drama and Revolutionary Consciousness: What a Difference a Difference Makes FLOYD GAFFNEY Tfeea-tte ii potentially the. mo&t iocial o{ a.11 the. aiti. It ii an inte.gn.a.1 pant o{ the. iocj.atj.zi.ng p/iocza. THE BLACK AESTHETIC Kddiion Gayle., 3K. It is critical to the meaning of this essay that the vague and ambiguous term 'black theatre1, articulated by many Western scho- lars and playwrights alike, be examined with some care. Defini- tions tend to be predictable and generally reflect social and political, cultural and economic biases which exist within par- ticular systems. I propose an alternative prospective towards understanding th« essence of the term as it is used within the context of this paper. 'Black theatre' is concerned with those broad movements of ac- tion, ideas, concepts and symbols which have crystallized in mor- al and ethical guidelines that are significant to a given people. A primary emphasis of this paper is to examine those dramatic characteristics and textual aspects which are culturally and soc- ially based; that serve either to relate or differentiate 'black theatre' fron 'white threatre' in America, Ralf Dahrendorf suggests that black artists represent a fiotce.. ion change, in American society, through xe.ii.iti.ng coe.ic.ion by domi- nant groups, and by creating within a Euro-American tradition that which expresses an alttinative aesthetic. By nature art is integrative, but from the perspective of the dominant culture Afro-American art represents a disintegrative force, often resul ting in conflict and disagreement as to its merits1. 'Black thea- tre' has endured as a medium of expression for the popular work- ing class Afro-American in the face of a society which is predom- inantly 'white', 'eurocentric', and 'culturally dominant'. This essay examines socio-political consciousness as a foundation CtUicai A/iti Vol 3 No 3 !9«5 25 affecting Afro-American drama and theatre. Dramatic theory, lit- erary criticism and theatrical production are discussed in rela- tion to aspects of these American cultural systems2. Ignoring political realities affecting Afro-American artists, one may as- sume that these individuals share with other American performing and creative artists an equal advantage, or disadvantage, in a highly competitive field. However, historical documentation re- veals a discounting of the work of these artists while, simultan- eously, using their creative ideas which often result in large gross receipts at the box office. A review of American dramatic literature and theatrical production indicates the presence of such biases, as well as flagrant lack of recognition of serious artistic achievements by Afro-Americans. There is historical evi- dence of a close connection between socio-cultural dominance and politico-economic control of a 'mainstream' tradition which is often obscured by narrow critical judgements regarding the rela- tive merits of Afro-American artistic expression. Longevity of the creative role played by Afro-American artists in American society is recognized only by an informed minority. A knowledge of the historical relationships of Afro-American drama to other areas of our socio-cultural and political life will serve to enlighten that part which these artists have played toward cre- ating indigenous American arts and culture. • Hopefully such an ap- proach will clarify some of the problems faced by this artistic minority in comtemporary American society. Radical changes have occurred in the lives of Afro-Americans since the emergence of the Black Consciousness Movement articulated in the early 1960s. Recent political ideologies and material realities have greatly altered traditional idealist and humanist tenets of art in asses- sing Afro-American creativity. Cultural expression of this u.nde.1- pi-iv-i.ti.dgtd group cannot be adequately described or evaluated with- in Euro-American notions of art and artistic conventions which were created by and for Euro-Americans', Any meaningful examina- tion of Afro-American theatre must proceed from an inquiry which is partially operative outside of Euro-American concepts of thea- tre and culture. Separate a person from his/her history, from the context of his/ her culture, from the words that are extensions of hin/herself, from the specifics of his/her life; and no way is left to pro- vide him/her with a true identification of him/herself related to that history, culture, language and life. There are sub-cul- , ture groups in America that have little access to decisions which affect their survival as citizens and human beings; while on the other hand, an exclusive and elite group of individuals maneuver power and control with ruthless autonomy. Division among races, groups and individuals is indicative of our technological society. These changes have created value conflicts wherein individuals are losing a sense of identification with themselves, with their fellow human beings and with their culture. A loss of relevant values in the culture of colonized people occurs when they are obliged to assume cultural values of the ruling class. The separation that exists between Afro-Americans and Euro-Ameri- cans is imposed through class and racial division. It has been established by the dominant culture and reflects its ideological behaviour towards Afro-American creative traditions in contrast to Euro-American traditions. The racial mixture of black people C/UtictU \HXA Vol 3 No 3 1985 26 in America indicates that the primary factor through which Afro- American identity is established is in shared cultural and h i s- torical experiences rather than along racial lines. This mode of reasoning explicates the term 'Afro-American' as representing a multitude of influences and experiences common to people of African ancestry. No matter what the ingredients, the truest form of Afro-American dramatic sensibility is modified by an African World view, although the term 'drama' applies to most aspects of performance in broad conceptual terms and connotes a cultural tra- dition that is Western in origin. Instead of proceeding with an examination of opposing viewpoints of what Afro-American Theatre should be, we will attempt to understand the nature of the theatrical event and the application of those basic materials which are the essence of its form and context. While descriptive and comparative studies are ultimately important, the primary focus of this essay is theoretical in seeking to understand how Afro- American people interpret 'reality' as translated through the fictive images of theatrical production*. A critical look at Afro-American theatre involves some understand- ing of black African cultures (tradition/history/myth/image) and their contemporary presence in the diaspora5. Knowledge of a u- dience expectations is essential in an attempt to identify these elements. There exist identifiable determinants that characterise the function and form of this type of theatre as a cultural expres- sion. Margaret Wilkerson has spent years researching black theatre history and observes that "what...makes a theatre 'black' is its attention to its audience. The extent to which it takes direction for its theatrical events from the hopes, dreams, value systems and cultural patterns of the black audience it serves.,."*. Afro-American theatre as a concept embraces a collective body of experiences that extends far beyond mere considerations of style and form based on ethnicity. It attempts to reveal some answer, some aspect of the human predicament, some revelation, some shock of recognition, but always within the particular context of e s- tablished guidelines of values and mores. Even though the focus of this essay is not a sociological study of theatre, neverthe- less, there exist relationships that are present in its form, style, theme and tradition which have been influenced by social determinants. The Revolutionary Movement of the early 1960s identifies, in many ways, the attitudes of Afro-American theatre audiences that are mirrored through the fictive images of theatrical experience. The nature of this type of popular theatre is basically political and ideological in revealing the truth of contemporary life in American society. One cannot apply the same criteria or expecta- tions to the work of most Afro-American writers who perceive art and politics as being synonymous. Any comprehensive study of Afro-American theatre will reflect real problems of racial ideolo- gy at its core. When one speaks of Afro-American theatre, the point-of-reference is necessarily different from Euro-American threatre, Paul Carter Harrison believes that "there is a future for the black theatre when we begin to accept Africa as the antecedent reference to our contemporary American folk.styles. It is the source that gives expression to our walk/dance, talk/song, and provides rhythm/ kxM Vol 3 No 5 79X5 27 silence at the Sunday chicken dinner table..."7. African slaves did not arrive in North America with one cultural identity which persisted or faded away. They were socially and culturally frag- mented, and that which resulted from acculturation was a snared experience - African origins, slavery, racism, southern culture, Reconstruction, northern urban migration—which in many respects differed from other American ethnic groups8. The black population of the Caribbean Islands have experienced the same type of cul- tural growth, based in the initial diversity of specific origins and later forged from the experiences of slavery and colonial structures. African characteristics are a large part of this process, but, in many ways, they are based on ge.ne.tat-tze.d or di.hti-tti.d structures and cultural patterns. Most Afro-American writers essentially agree with this viewpoint, but their collec- tive works indicate that the African characteristics present, outweigh all other elements in significance and pervasiveness. Dramatic expressions in people of African ancestry are similar and representative of African sources from which they originated. Traditions, values and customs are present in the rhythm, dance, song, gesture, spontaneity and creativity. Despite differences of language, culture, and religion, a pattern exists in the African confrontation with Kta.t-Lt.tj that can be traced wherever black men and women are found. Oliver Jackson describes this pattern as the "African continuum"3. It is individually and as a collective body that people of the cont.inu.um acquire and sustain harmony with their fellow men; with natural forces and with the universe. Ac- cording to Jackson, "The moral sanctity of all life derives from the idea that all is spiritual and that the Supreme Power embodies the totality of the cosmos in one spiritual unity"10. The primary source of power in people is identified as "intelligence" The supreme test of this intelligence is present in traditional religious ceremony, in which collective power summons and brings forth the forces of the ancestors, the forces of their sons, and the forces of Godu . These forces provide a mechanism through which the community is able to gain spiritual power in modify- ing and changing their moral and ethical behaviour to reflect the harmony present in universal forces. The influences of 'Chris- tianity' have been widespread among black people around the world. Many traditional African churches employ fundamental and basic modes of worship that are similar in liturgical form to Afro- American churches of the same persuasion. The Historian Leonard Barrett states that: When Evangelical Christianity and African religion met in the New World, there was a unique marriage that took place, a marriage which helped produce what we now call Pente- costalism, with its shouting, dancing, speak- ing in tongues, and receiving of the spirit,., Christianity rarely overcame the African element, but rather the reverse was usually the case: Christianity generally became Africanized12 . The ritualized event is the context of iie.atA.ty in these tradi- tional African and Afro-American religious denominations. It ex- ternalizes patterns of sensitive and emotional life which reflect the nature of human feelings which Susanne Langer describes as ClitCcat Akti Mot 3 No 3 I9S5 "giving inward subjective events an objective symbol"13 . of Ktality illuminates from the event Ritual in theatrical events often elicit the same dynamic and em- pathetic responses from audiences as those which motivate reli- gious ritual. A context which has been created to achieve power evoked in the event. There is no separation between performer and spectator. Among Afro- American playwrights who- frequently employ this ritualized mode of expression are works such as Ritual Pziioimance. by Barbara Ann Teer's National Black Theatre, Ain't Suppoie. to Vie. a Natunal Via.£h by Helvin Van Peebles, funny Hoaie. o$ a. MegAo by Adrienne Kennedy, and Gwa.t Goodnea o^ Li^e. by Imamu Baraka (Leroi Jones). Baraka's drama entitled Slave Ship is an exemplary prototype of ritual theatre. With the absence of traditional plot line and little use of dialogue and connective speech, the author has directed all his energy towards creating an environment which totally engages all human sensations. Audiences, as perfonaers, experience the same emotional responses to the horrors of a slave ship, the inhumanity of the middle passage and the historical degradation visited upon African people in America. Stavt Ship emphasizes concrete images of pain, suffering and death. According to Baraka, the play is "a historical pageant"; and the moral significance of the play, as it relates to Afro-American history, is more important than the factual accuracy of the script. Slavery is viewed as a condition through which Afro-American au- diences struggle to survive and transcend the conditions of slav- ery, as did the slaves. The action of Slave. Ship has the dynamic capacity to transform audience members from passive spectator roles into those of active participation. All the senses are en- gaged through watching, thinking, feeling, smelling, hearing and touching. This ritualized event is shared through a series of dramatized tableaux and symbolic actions, Baraka creates a pseudo- historical ritual which ultimately identifies Afro-American life as fundamental, communal and African in spirit. A succession of dramatic 'images' provide a framework through which the origin, evolution and eventual transcendence of the slave condition is ex- amined; and the entire historical spectrum of Afro-American ex- perience from the prii rdial power enacted in dance, to the final and complete communali;y of the event is celebrated by both spec- tator and performer. Wole Soyinka has, in contrast, developed an innovative theory of drama which is based upon a re-examination and modification of major ritual approaches that have been conceived and articulated in western culture. He is one of the most important contemporary writers on the African continent and also highly regarded among western writers of intellectual theory and criticism. His dra- matic theory is most useful when discussed in reference to Wes- tern theories which it modifies. A marked difference exists be- tween the dramatic theories of Soyinka and earlier theorists such as G Wilson Knight, his English mentor, and the German philosopher Freidrich Nietzeche1* . Soyinka postulates a concept which extends beyond the simple relationship between ritual and tragedy. Adop- ting a metaphorical rather than a historical link between ritual and dramatic experience provides a structure through which he is able to explore social and psychological processes of contemporary life. Soyinkian dramatic theory focuses on the dynamics of social and psychological processes within the dramatic experience. He CliXical AirfA Vol 3 No 3 J985 29 states that drama affects change by employing recognizable rites15 and theorizes that these occur through the incorporation of uni- versal ritual", audience participation", and satire.18 The theoretical grounds upon which Soyinka claims dramatic form are similar to those ideas articulated by Oliver Jackson and Paul Carter Harrison. Unlike these individuals, he has formulated a theory which embraces Aristotelian aesthetic principles but, con- comitantly, he expands the definition of ritual to include con- temporary Nigerian social and psychological systems. His work is deeply committed to traditional VoKiiba. values and those which re- flect localized African customs and mythologies. He describes the essence of theatre as: its simultaneity in the forging of a single human experience... affirmation of the communal self was the experiential goal. The search even by modern European dra- matists for ritualist roots from which to draw out visions of modern experience, is a cue to the deep-seated need of creative man to recover this archetypal consciousness in the origins of the dramatic medium" . Tke. Baccfcae o{ Eu.)U.pi.de.& by Soyinka, is an adaptation of Euripides' play by the same title and a re-inter- pretation of the Dionysian myths. Traditional Greek characters and situations are used in this script with the exception of the Slave Leader and Slave Chorus who, conceptually, are Africans. The language is poetically sophisticated, the emotions are classically controlled and the Ae.niA.bZe. form of the play is western in struc- ture. Soyinka's version of the Baachae. has many speeches that are not found in the original play, the slaves are politically aware of their position within Greek society, and three faces of deity are present in one god: Dionysus, the Yoruba god Ogun, and Jesus. The 1973 production of this play presented by the National Theatre at the Old Vic, London, England, received mixed responses from critics. Ptayi and pta.ye.ii reviewer, John Lahr, felt that the "production parades its ecstasy as laboriously as a nudist maga- zine" and that "the god Dionysus, the symbol of gratification and joy, is turned into some tantric poseur with closer links to the programme notes than the guiltless, divine, primal sexuality for which he stands"20 . On the other hand, Albert Hunt, critic for New Soc.te.ty, observes that "Soyinka sets the Greek myth inside the framework of his own response to Nigerian reality"21 . He felt that the failure of the production was due to the technical inadequacies within the company, "Faced with a text that calls for precise and strictly meaningful gesture for narrative clarity, and for a theatr language built in ritual, the director has opted for imitation or- gies, fake horror, and whooped up excitement"22 , The meaning of Soyinka's interpretation of this classic can only be fully realized through familiarity with Yoruban metaphysics and mythology of the diety Ogun: god-of metals, creativity, the road, wine and war, as a parallel to the mythological journey of Dionysus throughout Greec The Euripidean conflict between man and nature is extended in Soy- inka's play to include the conflicts existing within a cast system- The link between ritual and revolutionary social consciousness is dramatized through the collective action of slaves in overthrow- ing an "oppressive social system". Soyinka's use of traditional Greek myth and contemporary Nigerian social thought appear to va- lidate and universalize his approach to drama, which he considers to be the language of the people. The focus of dramatic perfor- C/UUcxil htU Vol 3 Ho 3 J9S5 30 mance forces audience members into a state of communal conscious- ness and provides the context from which a new sense of self may be created. Ann Davis, in her interpretation of Soyinkian dra- matic theory, observes that the "social conflict... becomes sym- bolic of what Soyinka terms the universal need of man to match himself against nature; in that both struggles are shown to de- mand solidarity, forceful challenge, and sacrifice"'3 . Aspects of culturally patterned behaviour are crucial to his concept of ritual. They illuminate the potential revolutionary -character of drama; which after all, is the most social of the art forms. Soyinka is keenly aware of the struggles with which Afro-American writers are faced in developing, sustaining and expanding a sense of community through the social values present in creative activi- ty and aesthetic principles of art. He fully comprehends why this search has led most of them back to mother Africa as the generative source of ritual from which Afro-American drama emerges. Yet, he believes that it "has bred some distortions, some superficiality, created even comic melodrama where none is intended" * . Afro- American playwrights should be cognizant that existing ritual idioms present within America's socio-political and culture sys- tems may, perhaps, provide the format necessary to explicate tra- ditional and historical references. Soyinka cautions these writers that "ritual...contains its own stringent dialectic; it is not merely a visual decorative framework. It is the difference...be- tween whether the son expresses his self-liberation by hitting his grandfather or does it by breaking a sacrifical gourd"25 . A number of Afro-American playwrights from W EB BuBois and Lang- ston Hughes to Imamu Baraka and Richard Wesley persist in reveal- ing the truth of being black in the United States, This has been achieved in spite of what has been decreed as reality for Afro- American people by the dominant culture, Baraka, for example, be- lieves that any art "must issue from real categories of human ac- tivity, truthful accounts of human life, and not fancied accounts of the attainment of cultural priviledge by some willingly pre- posterous apologist..."26 . Perhaps more than any other Afro-Ameri- can playwright, he remains a significant figure in American drama, as well as Western theatre. This status may be traced in part to his effective use of idiomatic forms, especially in his ability to mediate between the world of ideas and the language of the com- mon community. Although he has mastered the structural and tech- nical advancements of Western theatre, his plays demonstrate a social philosophy and political ideology that are basically Afri- can: nature. His plays reflect an understanding of ritualistic form as it relates to the social reality of Afro-American drama in America, Formal structure of ritual remains dynamically within recognizable socio-political idioms. in adherence to moral and ethical realities of a spiritual Baraka's advocation of African moral and ethical realities is evi- dent in his play entitled A Black Man, which dramatizes an Is- lamic myth which examines the origin of the species. It is the story of Yacub, a black scientist, who insists upon creating a "super-natural being," a being who will make its own will and d i- rection. His experiment evolves as a White Devil, a mutation. It corrupts and destroys everything within its grasp that is beau- tiful. The ritual ends with the murder of Yacub and the other magicians. On a metaphysical level the drama presents a severe Clitical K*Ub Vot 3 No 3 Z9S5 and brutal struggle between the spiritual and bestial nature of man. As a moral essay it dramatizes the subjection of blacks to "anti-spiritual" forces. Yet as a social essay it suggests that individual action, without collective consent, jeopardizes the future of the black race,and integration dehumanizes and demoral- izes black identity. Baraka accomplishes his ritualized purpose: to caution black people against the anti-humanist nature of the white man which is bestial in its drive to control, oppress and annihilate black people. Significant theatre in Afro-American communities focuses on the psychic, the emotional and the spiritual health of the audiences served. It was stated earlier in this essay that the label black thzatne. refers to a set of values and mores. Maulana Karenga, identifies seven principles which reflect a set of values expres- sing an African philosophy of life: Urtoja (Unity), Ku.j4.ch.agu.lla (Self-Determination), UjZma (Collective Work and Responsibility), Ujamaa (Cooperative Economics) , H-ia (Purpose) , Kuumba (Creativity) and Imanl (Faith)27 . These categories comprise the doctrine of Kawaida; the formal teachings of Karenga. They are consciously designed as a means for Afro-Americans to seek unity of though, feeling and action. Kaumba (creativity) speaks collectively of the arts and the func- tion of the artists in bringing truth and beauty into the life of the community. Building socio-political ties and physio-cultural bonds of an afrocentric nature is essential. Creating independent institutions which meet the needs of black people still remains a necessary dream throughout the world. Cultural values, politi- cal ideologies and social behaviour are shared by people of Afri- can ancestry who exhibit a wide range of experiences and influen- ces. Despite the particular lifestyles of black humanity, there exists an African world view of confronting life called Pan- A^/1-Lo.a.nZim. It has significantly altered the process of accultura- tion instituted by slavery, colonialism and racism. Most Afro-American theatre groups attempt to achieve cohesion be- tween the philosophical and the practical elements of theatrical events by being cognizant of their ultimate function. A play, therefore, should not be evaluated solely in terms of its "truth and beauty" apart from the needs and perceptions of the community it mirrors. Neither the script, the performer, nor the technical support systems represent the total theatrical event; they merely serve to externalize particular cultural behaviour through which values, attitudes and beliefs of Afro-Americans are manifested. The majority of plays are created to reach a select and limited popular working class audience, through a vernacular indigineous to that audience. The theatrical ism of production is often more important than the literary element of presentation in which im- ages displace verbal expression, and ritual action is symbolic, abstract and imaginative. An example of a play which externalizes and reflects this consciousness is present in Gie.at Goodne.i& o$ L-c^ (1966) by Baraka, The irony implicit in the title is mirrored in the triumph of evil over good and the oppressor over the op- pressed, Baraka's prophecy of the psychological and spiritual death of middle class Afro-Americans provides the theme for this drama. He does not, indeed cannot, arrive at a final resolution to the issues which he has raised because, contemporary existence for the Afro-American man is interpreted as a continuation of ir- Cvitlcal AJUi Vol 3 No 3 H 85 32 resolvable crises. But Baraka successfully achieves integration of ritual form through action, character, conflict, political and social moralities in dynamic tension, eventually culminating in the murder of a victim on the alter of American racism. The contributions of Afro-American artists and technicians, that enrich our 'national' artistic traditions, have been historically and aesthetically distorted, belittled and ignored. Concomitantly, African sources of creative genius have been bastardized and plagiarized for cultural and economic exploitation. For example, blues, jazz, gospel, dance and black theatre have been co-opted with little, if any, recognition of the cieators. In contrast to • this practice is the determination and strength of Afro-American theatre practitioners to speak forcefully to the needs of the com- munity it serves. Most Afro-American writers recognize that much of the tragedy visited upon black men worldwide is sociological rather than cosmological and political rather than metaphysical. Therefore, the thrust of their writings emphasize socio-political relationships between the races, rather than focusing on the com- munality of the human condition. Drama is an important factor in the development of Pan-African culture. Whether forged by North or South American, Caribbean or African experiences, it is essential that black dtama, worldwide, demand the same seriousness of aesthetic intentions and precision of artistic execution as evident in athiK cultures. This kind of clarity will be achieved through evolution capable of (1) rendering the conditions of crisis transparent; (2) illuminating collective meanings; (3) analyzing critical societal problems; and (4) sugges- ting social, moral, psychological and aesthetic alternatives of thought and action. The necessity of refining and extending Wes- tern concepts of dramatic theory to illuminate the relationship existing between ritual and drama, and between social and psy- chological consciousness, will be achieved by men and women com- mitted to the political, social and cultural liberation of black people. The dramatic expression of black African and people of African ancestry represents a significant level of achievement in the total development of western theatre. Materialistic and tech- nical elements drawn from the West have been meshed with aesthetic and ritualistic forms of traditional African theatre. The fusion of these elements has in part restored to the theatre not merely its creative power but also its ancient moral function and ritual power. Black theatre is functional only to the degree that it relates directly and intimately to the varied needs and desires of the communities served. Systematic planning, socio-political organi- zation, Pan-African Association and artistic commitment by play- wrights, technicians, performers, producers, and audiences are essential for survival. This procedure will serve to further re- capture the dynamics of their history, the context of their cul- ture, the words, and images which are extensions of themselves; and finally, the specific realities of their lives. Critical Anii Vol 3 No 3 79S5 33 NOTES AND REFERENCES In induA&iiaZ. Socl&ty. Stan- Dahrendorf, R. 1959: Ctaa and Conflict: ford University Press, Stanford, p. 19 In the context of this essay the term ciitiwiaZ iyitemi has reference to the socio-political and economic conditions of black people,.and their reactions to these conditions Unde/if»Uv-Llegid connotes the presence of ideological, political and socio- economic contradictions that are reflected in the lives of Afro-Americans The term >ieality connotes the totality of real things and events in the lives of black people, accurately represented with fidelity in art and literature Via&po/ia is a term used to describe the scattering of Africans through- out North and South America and the Caribbean with the advent of slavery Wilkerson, M.B. 1979: "Redefining Black Theatre", Slack Scholar, Vol 10 No 10, p. 35 Harrison, P.C. (ed,): 1974: Kuntu Vnama. Grove Press, New York, p. 29 Blauner, R. 1970: "Black Culture, Myth or Reality?" In Whitten, N.E. and Szivededs, O.R. (eds.): Kino-KmiAAxian Anthropology. Crowell- Collier-HcHillan, pp. 247-365 A^ttcan Continuum has reference to concepts and beliefs that are common among African peoples of the diaspora and reflected through their ritual expression. Harrison, op. cit. p. x Ibid., p. xi Barrett, L.E. 1974: Soul Fo*ce: k{Klcan H&UXage. in A^io-American Rztlglon. Anchor Press, New York, p. 85 Langer, S.K. 1957: PioblaM o& AJU. Scribner, New York, p. 8 Davis, A. 1976: No 1, p. 146 Soyinka, W. 1975: "Drama and the Revolutionary Ideal". K.L. (ed,): In VeA&on: Kchehz, Awoonoi, and Soyinka. at the. UniveA&ity o& Wukington. University of Washington African Studies Program, p. 126 Ibid., p Ibid., p Ibid. p. Ibid. p. Lahr, J. Hunt, A. Ibid. Davis, op. cit. p. 151 op. ait. p. 75 Soyinka, Ibid. Bareka, "The Bacchae", Ttayt and PtayeAA, "Amateurs in Horror", New) Society "Dramatic Theory of Sole Soyinka", B.A. Shirri, Vol 7 . 77 . 80 126 38 1973: 1973: I.A. 1966: "The Revolutionary Theatre", in Home: Social Eaau& In Morel!, October, , August, pp. 58-59 pp. 342-343 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. Critical Atei Vol $ No 3 J9S5 34 Morrow and Co, New Y o r k, p. 210 27. Baraka, I.A. 1972: Kauxuda Studiu, World Press, Chicago, pp. 9-10 Thz New NtvUonaliim. The Third NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS MM Carlin lectures in the Department of English, University of Ca Cape Town Floyd Gaffney is professor of Drama at the University of California California at San Diego. He is an actor and dancer, has pub- lished numerous articles on drama and serves on the boards of a number of drama and university associations. Thomas Guback is professor at the I n s t i t u te of Communications Research, University of Southern I l l i n o is at Urbana-Champaign. He served as the editor of Communication ?e.n.ipe.cti.ve.i and has written extensively on the international film industry and the economics of cinema Richard Haines is senior research fellow, I n s t i t u te of Manage- ment and Development Studies, University of the Transkei. An historian, he is presently working on two books on urbanisation Hilary Janks is lecturer in English education, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg John O'Kane teaches at the University of Minnesota, the editor of Enclitic Jonathan Paton is senior lecturer in education, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg Les Switzer is research professor, Department of Communication, University of Houston, Texas. He was previously the Head of Department, Journalism and Media Studies, Rhodes University He is Keyan Tomaselli is Director of the Contemporary Cultural Studies Unit, University of Natal, Durban. This a r t i c le printed here is partly drawn from his Ph.D Thesis, Ideology and Cultural Produ- ction in South African Cinema, University of the Witwatersrand, 1983 CutiaU htf& Vot 3 Ho 1985 35