The Roles and Responsibilities of the Beneficiaries of Higher Education in sub-Saharan Africa Geoffrey Lungwangwa In developing nations, higher education or that segment of the educational system for the privileged few, has become a subject of critical analysis in recent years. The points of discourse on higher education have been varied. First, because this level of education is usually accompanied by significant opportunity costs, questions have been raised as to who the beneficiaries of higher education are. A number of empirical studies in different countries have increasingly found the beneficiaries of higher education to be those families in the upper socio-economic statuses. Students from such families experience very little opportunity costs especially in terms of income forgone because the families are economically well off and they do not expect financial assistance from them. A major policy issue that has developed is whether higher education should continue to be subsidised from public funds when doing so entails subsidising students from high income families whose parents are capable of meeting the costs.1 Very few countries have resolved this issue. The education authorities in Zambia recently issued a policy statement that addresses the problem of financing higher education in the country. The current policy is directed at cost recovery measures that require the beneficiaries of higher education to meet part of its costs.2 The second area of concern in higher education deals with its benefits.3 Empirical investigations at this level have indicated that when the costs and benefits are calculated, higher education has a much higher private rate of return than the social rate of returns. In practical terms this means that it is the individual graduates (and the Vol5No4 1991 13 CRITICAL ARTS immediate families) that stand to benefit more from investments in higher education than anybody else. Those that have stressed the benefits of higher education individual graduates have generally emphasized the relationship of higher education to higher socio-economic status attainments. The latter takes into account the increases in income and prestige that accrue to the beneficiaries of higher education. The beneficiaries of higher education cannot be exclusively confined to the individual graduates and their families. Rather, the employers and the society as a whole. The employers of graduates from higher education, be the government, parastatal organisations or private firms benefit from higher education through the engagement of the skills and knowledge of highly trained personnel. For society as a whole, higher education contributes to improvements in the quality of the local labour force that could be utilised for productive purposes. from higher education that benefit include those to the they The third point focuses on the relevance of higher education to its surroundings. Throughout much of the developing world especially in Sub-Saharan Africa, economies have declined significantly to the point that the quality of human life is threatened. The issue is whether investment in higher education can be rationalised on the basis of its development effect on the society when the quality of life in these societies is deteriorating to such high proportions. Fourth, the deterioration in the economies of developing nations raises questions of the capacity of these nations to sustain the systems of higher education. Higher education is generally very expensive and providing it at a certain level of quality requires enormous resources in financial, human and material terms. A number of developing nations are unable to meet such resources.4 Fifth, highly publicly subsidised higher education has major opportunity costs to society. That is, public resources directed to higher education could have been targeted to other sectors of the economy. For example, financial resources going to higher education could have been targeted towards increasing production among peasant farmers, through provision of extension services, loans for implements, fertilizers among others. Poor nations have to forego these opportunities for increasing production because part of their hard earned resources have to be channelled to support higher education. Often, financial allocations to higher education are greater than what other equally important sectors are getting from the 14 Vol5No4 1991 Geoffrey Lungwangwa national budget. The issue is not that there should be not public resources expended on higher education. Rather, it is that the ever escalating unit costs of higher education should not only be met from already constrained public resources but that the base for meeting such costs be broadened.5 The current areas of debate in higher education make the point of departure in the analysis of the issues at this level rather difficult. It is not a sweeping generalisation to state that everything about higher education in the developing nations is under critical analysis. The current thinking on higher education among planners, policy analysts, and researchers points to a need for a critical review of the role of this level of education in the development process. In other words, the ideology of manpower development which was the basis for wholesale quantitative expansion of higher education in developing nations is currently under close scrutiny. The question is whether the systems of higher education operating in developing nations are instruments of development? In the same vein, the roles and responsibilities of the beneficiaries of higher education are also subject for review. The issue is not so much about the roles and responsibilities of the graduates from the tertiary education sector. Rather, the concern is on who these graduates are and whether they are a force for meaningful socio-economic and political transformation in their societies. In order to establish a realistic discussion of the roles and responsibilities of the beneficiaries of higher education in a less developed nation like Zambia, this paper begins with a critical review of the 'manpower approach' to the development of higher education. The Ideology of Manpower Production The key concept surrounding the thinking on higher education since the fifties was the production of manpower. The assumption was that developing nations needed that critical segment of the labour force which is defined as High Level Manpower. This category consists of holders of degrees, diplomas and certificates from universities, colleges, and institutes. High level manpower was considered to be the backbone of the modern economic sector because of the strategic position that it occupies.6 High level manpower was classified in three groups. The first being the category of professionals like scientists, doctors, engineers, lawyers, educationists, architects, accountants, agronomists and so on. The second group being that of administrators, managers and Vol5No4 1991 15 CRITICAL ARTS teachers. The final category belonged to the sub-professionals and technical personnel like engineering assistants, craftsmen, skilled workers and technicians. The consensus in the fifties and sixties was that all these levels of manpower formed the cadre of leadership for social, economic, political and scientific change in the modern economic systems of the new nations. There was little empirical support for this optimism. Most of the optimism about the economic value of investing in education centred on the critical role of high level manpower in the development process. Advocates of human capital theory considered higher education as the source of professional and skilled manpower that was empowered with new knowledge which was vital for technological advancement and economic growth." The beneficiaries of higher education, it was held, were not only equipped with knowledge but they had the capacity to produce new knowledge which was the source of innovation and technical change in the new nations.8 The reason was that developing nations were in dire need of specialised scientists, technicians and researchers who could adopt, master and modify the new technologies for development purposes. The faith in the role that higher education could play in developing nations was extended to encompass the entire educational system because education: "increases productivity in all sectors of the economy, reduces fertility, improves health and nutrition status and promotes significant attitude and behaviour changes, at the level both of the individual and the community which are helpful to the process of economic development." 9 Available evidence in Sub-Saharan Africa indicate that the optimism about what the beneficiaries of higher education can do in the development struggle led to significant expansion of this sector. Enrollment figures in higher education for example increased from 21 000 in 1960 to more than 430 000 in 1983 in the Sub-region."1 It should however be pointed out here that the provision of high-level manpower might not have been the sole reason for the rapid expansion of higher education. Other factors did come into play especially those pertaining to the quest for a national identity, promotion of cultural life and the value of such institutions like universities as national status symbols almost similar to having a national airline that can land in foreign countries. The magnitude 16 Vol5No4 1991 Geoffrey Lungwangwa with which higher education was developed in Sub-Saharan Africa can best be illustrated by Zambia's efforts. Higher education in Zambia since independence Like certain other countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, Zambia did not have any system of higher education during the colonial period. The advent of political independence in 1964 led to a rapid development of a system of higher education that included the university, institutes of technology, secondary and primary teachers' colleges, trades training institutes, agricultural and natural resources training colleges to mention but a few. Some of these institutions were not in the higher education category in the true sense of the term because they admitted candidates who never completed full secondary education. The goal behind quantitative expansion of higher education was to meet the immediate needs of trained manpower. The production of trained manpower was restricted under the colonial set-up as the figures in Table 1 indicate. Table 1: Zambian University Graduates 1950-1964 by year of Graduation Year 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 TOTALS Female Numbers Graduating each year Male 1 3 2 1 1 4 7 5 6 7 4 8 6 19 30 104 2 3 5 Cumulative Totals Male 1 4 6 7 8 12 19 24 30 37 41 49 55 74 104 Female 2 5 109 Source: Government of fte Republic of Zambia, Manpower Report, 1965-66 (Lusaka; Government Printer, 1965) p,2. Vol5No4 1991 Table 1 summarises Zambia's colonial experience with respect to higher education. The country attained political independence with a total number of 109 university graduates, among whom only 5 were females. The growth in the number of these graduates from 1950 was extremely low. The colonial government's neglect of high level manpower development is further illustrated in Table 2. Distribution of Workers with PostSecondary Education in Zambia Table 2: I Agriculture Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Construction Electricity and water ) Total 124 28T Zambians Diploma i 45 947 26903 41 916 27 41 ' 2 852 2 Degree ] 7 / A*t n O • • . I Non-Zambians J_Jotel__ — —___^^__ Degree I ~ 93 Diploma 329 1156 7800 4333 2 651 | 405 7214 1800 617 310 15 1247 636 143 165 20 230 Commerce and finance Transport and communications Services; incl gwejriment__| TOTAL~^ p 17 201 138 9442 41 67604 • • _267______ '36146 —• • — .— ~517 5 o 128 — 150 . • 1 h 1 2088 235 39 9114 34 761 " 2086 5944 2173 3499 Zambia ^^SfeTffll^Lj word. At independen^TmHa graduate in agriculture seve^ST jn construction, five in'comme" transport a nd communicatTons ? not all that impressive Part of the c olo n i aI necessary for t he ^ | ****** gained Ld \ Table 2 shows that ' m the true sense of the - one Zambian university four in manufacturing, three finance, and two graduates in ""*""• at the diploma level were * a lack of concern on the the human resources from Table 2, to rely on Vol 5 No 4 Geoffrey Lungwangwa expatriate staff to formulate and execute development plans in all sectors of the economy. The extent of the severity of the manpower situation at the time of Zambia's independence was described in the following words: Among the two and half million (Zambians) there were only two medical doctors, one engineer, no graduate teachers no town planner and no economist serving either the government or private enterprise in any capacity.n In 1966, President Kaunda put Zambia's experience with colonial education this way: "As far as education ins concerned, Britain's colonial record in Zambia is most criminal. This country has been left by her as the most uneducated and unprepared of Britain's dependencies on the African continent".n Arising from the country's desperate manpower situation was an insatiable quest to produce trained manpower in sufficient numbers. The focus was on training a cadre of high level manpower that would help develop the country's economy, fill its administrative posts and teach in its schools. In practical terms, this meant a rapid expansion of university education and also a development of specialised institutions concerned with professional and technical training. The main goal for the University of Zambia identified in 1966 was "to provide the resources to enroll over 1 600 students in 1970 and develop it to take a leading part in the educational, professional and cultural life of the nation by professional training in engineering, medicine, agriculture, administration, teaching and law. "ri The development model of higher education since independence has largely been the manpower-industry matrix. To the policy makers and planners, higher education was vital in producing qualified personnel that constitutes sound administrative cadres for the upper and middle grades in government, commerce and industry. Zambia's development, it was widely held, depended upon the trained minds of its people. That is, the country's programme of industrial development and its perceived impact on social life was to depend for its success on administrative, managerial and technical skills and experience of the Zambian manpower to carry out with efficiency, dedication and effectiveness the objectives of development.14 Vol5No4 1991 19 CRITICAL ARTS documents on the considered to be conceptualised in terms of manpower was not ^S and the w as w e i1 in planning .^ t hen "t***** *"* " ?" f ^ ^ Pr°blemS °f n a t l O n aI t e r ms *> include both w as to rationalise f o r ce employment and educated J lg engaged in the t ^ ^ ^ T™ that the labour C crucial role in t and sheer hard work nidedfor manpower needs of the eTotot on the urban needs It was 7 ^^ " " "^ t he t e n d e n cy was to focus national) development. manP™er strategy for u r b an ( a nd n ot '? **"* °f t h at I a b o ur m & r k et T he dominant view was the initiative, skills p r°d u c t l o n- When estimates of the T e^ J Pg h , lable 3 sunnnariVco fo«e i^ „« ! total labour levels above Form II level From education, 32 807 (78%) J jere nationals. At the de^ee levels) o ut (93%) of them were non ZmbZ The conclusions coming^f^tnTe force was predominant^ uneducated y «»idered Jbe educatd . These were t' p sector. This was a higher educational i * in short tj raajor d er opportumties that the Provlde to those with d institutions P°s s e s sed educational a nd a b o ve ^vel of °n ly 9 475 <22%> f levels (i.e. diploma and l e V eI °f ^ucation, 9 443 W 6 re n a t i o n a l s- Z a m b i a >S l a b o Ur of the number i on °f the nationals T fi J as the manpower W ^ m o d e rn u r b an n a t i°n al Pl a n n i^ becauae P r°d u c te w-e by implication e c o^ic Z a m b ia ^ Avail«ble research *>r -eeking entrance been the Gnomic sector could In <>ther words, higher turn»«g out graduates who Vol5No4 1991 Geoffrey Lungwangwo in the have tended to respond more to the structure of rewards and privileges than to the developmental needs of the country. Again, this point is supported by research which has noted a significant process of mobility trained people. Throughout the seventies and eighties, a lot of university graduates in Zambia ended up in jobs that were irrelevant to their studies. This trend was most prevalent among university graduates in the Natural Sciences where 30% of them ended up taking jobs not directly related to their field of study.lfi labour market among highly Table 3: Actual Educational Qualifications of Persons in the Civilian Labour Force with or in Jobs Requiring Secondary Education or Above, 1965-66 Actual Educational Qual. Degree Diploma "0" Level Form II Less than Form II but in jobs requiring secondary education or above In jobs requiring Primary education or less TOTAL Zambians Non Zambians Total 150 517 1516 7 282 3 499 5 944 11965 11409 12015 1853 249 666 271 146 91 34 761 3 649 6 461 13 481 18 691 13 868 249 757 305 907 Source: Government of the Republic of Zambia, Manpower Report (Lusaka: Government Printer, 1965) p. 14, The problem with a system of education that is directed at supplying professional and technical manpower needed by the modern urban sector is that it does not adequately respond to national development needs. In Zambia, the concentration of the beneficiaries of higher education in the modern urban sector has perpetuated and enhanced the inherited structural imbalances between the modern and the rural sectors. In this way, graduates from higher institutions of learning have not been effective agents of structural transformation in society. About 90% of university graduates have generally been absorbed in the urban areas along the line of rail.17 Credentialism has been the characteristic of the Zambian labour market. The emphasis has been Vol5No4 199T 21 h ur °— p"*>»- of h iSi"» <*Wio» in Zambia at those that receive expense of so many. This means I higher education institutions of 1 produced? What ,aiim the society? To call for t society is to demand for u «3KS=s. public cost. In instituting be asked are: what type of What goes on in those of graduates are being recipients of higher education to bility of higher education to its as a catalyst to development, of higher education cannot exist *1 relationship between the society. Such a are taken to orient the . needs of the develoPmental ne ^ S "0 1"^ °annot ta^e effect tertiary education sector to rt. w Examples from other soc^K order to m o uid higher 5 ?S • development. The United S 7 l ? °n m t° an e f f e c t i ve hjgher education as embodied^ T ?*** ™ ^'^ j ^d ln jhe landgrant colleges, institutions of technology, « «* a way as to S , ' ,! 1 universities were organised in d e v e l o p m e n t » " T h eA^u l a te re8Pond to every turn of «f^dered to have beeTS^-?8 t l t U t i o n8 °f h i^h er e d«c a«on a re t h at e f f o r ts h** to be made in instrument for w h e re t he *&*>* of teachers a nd to stimulate and h S J j1* p r o d u?i nS graduates that productivity, Vol5No4 1991 Geoffrey Lungwangwa industrialisation, corporate enterprise and universal education. These developments were made possible through a careful orientation of the critical roles of higher education, namely, teaching, research and public service to local needs. The lesson for developing countries like Zambia is that higher education can be an effective tool for development if it is able to feed itself with its own scholars, researchers and teachers. These ought to be retained at all cost. Sub-Saharan African nations like Zambia have not yet undertaken a serious but realistic assessment of the role that higher education can play in the development process. The systems of higher education in these countries are nourished in good faith founded on certain expectations namely: O That tertiary institutions produce people needed to fill high level scientific, technical, professional and managerial jobs - the elites leadership a nation's development efforts. that can steer through its O That higher education produces its own high level manpower in the form of teachers, scholars and managers who can undertake teaching, research and administrative functions. That the higher level manpower tenable in the education sector itself is the core of the national capacity for producing trained manpower, setting standards, maintaining quality and adjusting the educational system to changing circumstances. O That higher education institutions generate the knowledge and innovation needed for development through O That African Universities as institutions and their faculties as for individuals can provide necessary services needed development of both the public and private sectors. O That tertiary institutions are a source of analytical perspective on social problems and their possible solutions. O That higher education institutions also encourage indigenous self expression, conserve and adapt local traditions and values and constitute important symbols of national prestige and attainment. These are important and serious roles and responsibilities which the institutions of higher education and their products ought to play in African societies. The point to note however is that these functions of higher education can only be fulfilled if the institutions are equipped with the capacity to live up to these expectations. Secondly, the societies themselves must have the openness to accommodate, and Vol5No4 1991 23 graduates. The maior caU r e s o u r c es spare SS T * e d u c a t i on °f m a t e r i aI a nd human equipment, chemicals and l in jSSXf^i g has the know-how to^ProdUCP » a case in point where the instituC r ^plications for which the ^titution c the unit cost of higher great pressure on the Hc distributed across all sS of all these factors m a£s L capacity for problem solving J Th h™f r 6 S O U r C eS t h at ^ & highly trained manpower thaf trained manpower thaf r e1u i r ed *> P">duce knowledge and i t ll knowledge and intellectualsonhi? 6?U 1 P P ed W i th 8Pecia»«ed skills, ? 6?U 1 P P ed W i th 8Pecia»«ed skills, S O p h l s t l c a t l°n are currently very meagre in countries like Zambia. i of Zambia e Mt 1 9 7 8" T h is has major ^ nd p u b Hc s e r v i ce *** t he S O c i e t^ ThM> h Merely exerting at " '^^ bein^ thi^ e d u c a t l on ^ t e m. The combination T utl gy p a r a n ^ i cl h ^? e d u c a t i on » Zambia and elsewhere in depression. This depressST™6 & V i e t im °f t he Se n e r aI economic unemployment mounting 5 ,m a n i f e s ts through massive leSS l e ss nourishment, deterioration of roads brli education and health service?68' S 3 nd i n d u s t l^ a nd declining itself f°°d' * Groduates n i a i w ^ n o Se S j! ^ is deeP»y influenced by the ^vestments in e d u cS ?T Wnd of education provSed n ^ f 't he d e t n a nd is for attention to the education a re expected ^ , ^'gher education, the recipients of the c°ntributing effectively t o T h, °" t he roie a nd responsibility of a»d res p o n s i b i l i t i es J f , , ^8 0 1"^ of Africa's problems. The roles is a d e^ "d for more T h e re nigner education graduates are not only Vol5No4 1991 Geoffrey Lungwangwa envisaged in terms of meeting the needs of self governance. Beneficiaries of higher education are expected to take a lead in planning and directing development through: O taking leadership roles in education itself as researchers, teachers, consultants and administrators; O creative application of new knowledge and innovations; O developing analytical perspectives on social problems; and O service to public and private sectors. Higher education recipients are, in other words, expected to demonstrate the capacity to manage and effectively solve the problems of development that face most African states. This is a new model of higher education development which is developmental in nature. growth, transformation, In this developmental model of higher education, the beneficiaries of this level of education ought to be dedicated to the ideals of development. These ideals are; human resource development, rural development, containment of the problems of urbanisation, institutional agricultural economic productivity and industrialisation. Products from higher education are not only expected to give guidance to development strategies but they should be effective participants in creating philosophies and strategies of development through their analytical and research skills. The challenge on higher education is how such manpower could be realistically produced. Additionally, for a country like Zambia, a major consideration is that development oriented high level manpower can only be effectively utilised if there are structural changes in the labour market. This from universities are, for example, generally deployed in service type bureaucratic jobs instead of the industrial and productive sectors.'a In other words, reform in higher education is not enough unless it is accompanied by visible structural labour market reforms which put stress on the productive sectors rather than the service industry. important because trained manpower is To produce the type of manpower envisaged in the development model it should be stated, necessitates that higher institutions of learning should maintain a certain level of quality. This calls for viable mechanisms to retain highly trained manpower within the institutions of higher learning themselves. It is worthless to expect the products of higher education to be effective agents of development if society does not adequately renumerate and support those whose role is to produce highly trained manpower. Second, resources have to be mobilised to maintain a reasonable supply of educational materials. Vol5No4 1991 25 CRITICAL ARTS Such measures might help to produce the type of manpower that can meaningfully and effectively contribute to development. In short, what is urgently needed in higher education are policy strategies that can help to restore the quality of higher educational institutions. One of the agenda items for those that are searching for such strategies is how to finance higher education in order to maintain a certain level of quality in higher education which is vital to development. A financial strategy for higher education should strive to meet several objectives. First, it should aim at retaining high level manpower in institutions of higher education. This calls for a review and national commitment to improve the conditions of staff in these institutions. Second, the goal should be to improve the quality and supply of material resources in higher institutions of learning. Third, the long term objective should be to diversify the sources of financial support to institutions of higher education. A financial strategy that wholly depends on the government is extremely unrealistic under the current economic constraints. Finally, financing higher education is not a mechanical process that is to be done by budget experts. Rather, strategies to finance higher education should seek to harness a consensus about the developmental role of institutions of higher education. It ,s in effect an attempt to strike a realistic relationship between investments in educational research, institution building, program design and implementation, and provision of software and h a v e "T VT have on the wider society. h i g h 6r e d u c a t i°n ^ctor and the impact this can JS of education is a commitment to the realisation T S 6r l e a m i ng t h r o ugh s t™t adherence to quality. e n s u r e*h at the products from institutions of higher f ^ f^ w"h the knowledge and skills to confront the d e V e l°Pm e n t- The maintenance of quality in higher th *" ^T*™ u n d e r t eking and it is to a large extent s A C*p a b"l l t i es of the present constrained government *" 7 E h er ed, Af ° "t l es in Zuribfe will therefore have to work out ^ ^ ^^ i n v o I v i nS s e v e r al alternatives. Ai ?1 V 6 S.C 0 U l d be t he strengthening of the private finaneinS of higher education in order to ease the eS0UrCeS F°r 6 X a mPl- i n s tead of having two suchl l university ponM K« *. government r!" S ernment resources could be concentrated in revitalising the quality n ed m to a Pr i v a te institution. This way, »"-»i, w ^ w m i^ u« WCK . . Vol5No4 1991 Geoffrey Lungwangwa of the University of Zambia. However, the process requires careful planning and efforts should be made to undertake research studies that can guide viable policy options. Options This paper has not provided prescriptions on the roles and responsibilities of the beneficiaries of higher education in a country like Zambia. Instead, it has provided an analytical framework within which the issue of the roles and responsibilities of the beneficiaries of higher education can be examined. What comes out of this discussion are a number of points. First, the system of higher education as currently established was designed along the lines of the manpower approach, utilising the occupation-industry matrix as a model. Second, the system of higher education and its products has tended to respond to the modern urban economic sector. Third, much of the expectations of what the graduates from higher education can do are only in theory because indications are that the capacity of higher education to meaningfully prepare people who can effect development is threatened by current economic depression. Fourth, in order for higher education graduates to execute their development roles and responsibilities, attention will have to be focused on structural issues. In particular, efforts must be made to mobilise resources that can help to maintain a certain level of quality in higher education. This makes policy strategies in financing higher education critical. The goal should be to diversify the sources of funding higher education in order to minimize overdependence of government resources. Footnotes 1. For detailed discussion of this point see: Psacharopoulos.G (1977) "The Perverse Effects of Public Subsidisation of Education or How Equitable is Free Education?", Comparative Education Review, Vol.21, No.l February, 1977, pp.69-90. Mingat, A and Jee-Peng Tan (1984) "Subsidisation of Higher Education Versus Expansion of Primary Enrollments: What Can a Shift of Resources Achieve in Sub-Saharan Africa?', Education Department, The World Bank, Washington D.C. Mingat, Alain and Jee-Peng Tan (1984) "Recovering the Cost of Public Higher Education in LDCs. To What Extent are Loan Schemes an Efficient Instrument?", Education Department, The World Bank, Washington D.C. Anderson, A.C. (1983) "Social Selection in Education and Economic Development", Education Department, The World Bank, Washington, D.C). Vol5No4 1991 27 CRITICAL ARTS 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Times of Zamiba Wednesday April 5th 1989. According to the report in this paper, government sponsored students will meet 25% of the costs of higher education, those on self or family sponsorship will pay 50% while non-residents and non-Zambians will meet 100% of the cost. The justification for the change in policy was that the quality of educa-tion was in serious jeopardy. This necessitated a shift of public resources from student welfare to the improvement of educational facilities by requiring students to contribute to their welfare costs Psacharopoulos, G (1981) "Returns to Education: An Updated International Comparison", Comparative Education, Vol.17, No.3. PP321-343. Rogers,D.C. (1972) "Student Loan Programs and the Returns to Investment in Higher Levels of Education in Kenya", Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol. 2 (January) pp.243-259. The World Bank (1988) "Education in Sul>Saharan Africa: Policies for Adjustment, Revitilisation and Expansion", The World Bank, Washington D.C. In the ease of Zamiba, for example, the amount (108 million Kwacha) allocated to the University of Zamiba in 1987, "was more than 75 percent wtne entire national spending on police services" in M.J.Kelly (1989) A Book Review Of Elitism and Meritocracy in Developing Countries: Se ection Policies for Higher Education by Robert Klitgaard, Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press 1986 ^T sodo P, sociological concept of structural functionalism which can be traced back C A- d964) Education, Manpower and l e v el manpower have their roots in the I I™?11' McGraw-HiH, New York. ArgumentTabout the FnH' miM*er*' fOle °f h i gh S T^ ^: V1S>IL a nd Moore>W-E. (1945) "Some Principles of A m e r f c an So^ologieal Review, Vol.10 No.2, April i t Sugh c L Development in Ed L ? 1Urn25° McClelland, Economic Growth" Economic ^ ^0 1*1 C^ Vol. XIV April PP.257-279. ' °" Acceler^ , a n d 4,K l9«nJ»i. « (1985. "Education and Africa: The Deration and Impact of T^ "Efucation in Sub-Sa/ujran Africa"p.l. enC* P a r ty < U N I P) 1 9 62 "The UNlP Vol5No4 Geoffrey Lungwangwa 12. Tembo, L.P. ed. (1978) The African University: Issues and Perspectives, NECZAM; Lusaka. 13. Office of National Development and Planning. First National Development Plan 1966-1970, Government Printer, Lusaka. 14. Government of the Republic of Zambia (1966) Manpower Report 1965-1966, Government Printer, Lusaka. 15. Sanyal, B.C. Case, J.H. Dox, P.H.S. and Jackman.M.E. (1976) Higher Education and the labour market in Zambia, UNESCO, Paris. Ibid p.190. 16. 17. Bardouille, R. (1982) 'The Mobility of First Degree Level Graduates of the University of Zambia: The Case of the 1976 Cohort of Graduates" Manpower Research Unit, Institute for African Studies, The University of Zambia, Lusaka. According to this study, 56.9% of the 1976 UNZA graduates found jobs in the Cental and Lusaka region, 31.6% on the Copperbelt and 3.8% in the Southern region. The regions in which the graduates concentrated are Zambia's modern urban sector. 18. Schneider, K.R. "Development Universities: Special Institutions for the New Nations", International Development Review, March 1968 pp. 17-22. 19. The World Bank (1988) Education in Sub-Sarahan Africa, p.69. 20. Ibid pp.69-71. Also see Kelly, M.J., Nkwanga, E.B., Kaluba, L.H., Achola, P.O.W., and Nilsson, K (1986) "The Provision of Education for All: Toward The Implementation of Zambia's Educational Reforms Under Demographic and Economic Constraints 1988-2000", School of Education, The University of Zamiba, Lusaka, pp.76-103. 21. See for example, Kelly, J.J. (1988) "The Financing of Education in Zambia 1970-1986" A paper presented to the Department of Education Seminar, The University of Zambia, 16 June 1988. 22. For a detailed discussion of the point, see R.Bardouille (1982) op cit p.44. Vol5No4 1991 29