An Approach to Afrikaans Film

for one thing. the purely aesthetic

The frames are of two kinds.

The pages of

for that matter,

In
having identified kitsch,
more need be said; and there is little

Robert J Greig
Introduction
Among ways of regarding South African films, derision is most popular.
aesthetic terms, this is entirely justifiable:
unless one wishes to dignify it, no
doubt that most South African films are kitsch.
Yet the problem is a little more intricate.
like the method, not least of all in a post-
judgement is itself questionable,
colonial society where aesthetics imply politics.
for this reason, if for no
others, the ungraceful eagerness with which our intellectuals employ received
frames of criticism is not without interest.
first, there is the dismissive comparison with the monuments, real, alleged or
apparent, of Western film and holding up these monuments as goals.
whatever film journal seems to be up-market come in useful.
Whether one can actually and seriously compare our works with the products of
developed industrial societies is still an open question.
whether our works can escape such comparison is as open a question.
One argument for making the comparison hinges on the mode of film production.
Here and elsewhere, it is an industrial process, or can be viewed as such, whose
division of labour and marketing can be safely compared to the division of labour
and marketing of, for examijle, motor cars.
But the analogy is only an analogy.
film may serve functions but is not tangible.
of entirely different kinds.
enthusiastic gush of reviewer's jargon.
When the house lights go down, the analogy with industrial pr~cess~s mu~t perforce
yield to another image of film - that of the network of relat1onsh1ps w~th the
society, as represented by the viewer.
This network is immensely.compl1cated,
often subtle and probably inexhaustible:
an adequate theory of f11m would have
to entJrace the complexity and subtlety ,and range as best it could •.
T11isis where the second frame of criticism comes into play.
often does so in reaction against the preciousness of aestheticism.
the dedicated, up-front follower of the latest
that of the tough neo-Marxist,
left Bank thinking - allDWi~g for the five year time lapse that intervenes.
All that actually happens is that, instead of tuning into the London hot-line,
a snobbery has been attached to other, less familiar sources.
This is not to
deny the value of insights gained from homage to the greats, from nagging
cultural inferiority or from a desire to play the international guru slumming
As long as our film is an aspect of a borrowed
it among the hicks back home.
culture and as long as it is a Whites-only affair, this will continue.
The crucial need, of course, is to connect ways of seeing film to the ways life
is actually lived in South Africa.
bound to be indifferent.

a
You cannot take a film with you, except in the

A car has functions; it is tangible:

The functions, in any case, are

Unfortunately, it
The mien is

Until this happens, our film criticism is

14

that,

trle

structuralist,

se.~iotjc,

~~~r;(i:.tt

autc~r~st,

That may be a lane

The war film is an example.

Tomaselli's argument is as follows:

they explain to the Black audience the fact of class/race domination.

~:.en
trlc':'.] tic.
; 1terary ~r even - to use a current ~'..,ear-word- tr.t: pr,,(.crit. apprc.;:nto
_outh Afr1can films is as good or bad, useful cr useless as any other.
ihe most on~ can hope for is,that whatever approach is provisionally adopted
be free of Jargon and access~ble ~o ncn-specialists.
r:q~est, but the ways of see1ng WIll only change usefully when the Objects of
Y1S10n do substantially.
This brings us to a discussion of the paradigm employed by Keyan lomaSI'lli
(1979a; .1979b).
the genre film embodies
Afrikaans
a~d afflrms the existing social relationships of a given society.
fl~ms, dependent for their eventual screening on investment capital, distrib-
u~lon and state approval, express the dominant social ideology.
"Breakaway"
fllms, on the other hand, by postulating alternatives, challenge that ideology.
Si~ilarly, films made for the Black market project the ideology of class domin-
atlon:
Afr!kaans films, he notes, are also beginning to reflect a disintegration of the
soc1ety on which the ideology is based.
Until recently, the Afrikaans film was
characterised by social withdrawal; more recent films reflect a conflict of
social roles.
Tomaselli concludes that the "goal" of the Afrikaans film is "anaesthesia"
and its function "the externalization of a disintegrating social structure,
the result of inevitable forces arising outside Afrikanerdom".
Afrikaans films and the market.
It should also be remarked here that the financial plight of the Afrikaans
filmmaker is a direct result of his unwillingness to separate himself from the
ideology-forming structures of society.
In other words, the filmmaker has tended to automatically accept the fact that he
should go to Afrikaans financiers for capital; should anticipate censorship;
and should make films with an eye to the history of Afrikaans films.
He has been reluctant to perform market research and has therefore tended to
confuse political and cultural attitudes with audience attitudes.
Obviously,
these are intertwined but there is a difference of emphasis.
Whereas political attitudes tend to be rigid, market attitudes tend to be more
fluid.
Katrina for example, was perceived by the Nationalist establishment as
controverslal and, perhaps, abhorrent.
But Katrina was seen and enjoyed as a
different kind of South African film, a welcome-rarity.
On the rare occasions that filmmakers have tried to appeal to the market for
"different" kinds of South African films, they have emphasised the political
controversy implicit in the subject matter.
interference and the timidity of distributors.
stressed the difference of the film, as a film, the results might have been
different.
Because of their incestuouS links with capital and government, the Afrikaans
filmmakers have tended to assume that capital and government are the audiences
they want to appeal to.
The result has been a static view of the ~inema-going
audience, one that assumes that the audience wants cultural or polltlcal re-
assurance; and one that, inevitably, leaves the field open for overseas film-
makers who have no exaggerated conceptions of their social roles.

Inevitably, this has provoked state
If, on the other hand, they had

15

New and Old.

Secondly, if we are

Several observations are pertinent.

Up till recently, the group
Conflict is usually in the form of

This outsider is
He is tempted to abandon his

Afrikaans films:
The.first q~estion that comes to mind is whether we are faced with a new
~frlkaans f11m.or the old A!rikaans.film.in new clothes.
lndeed faced w1th a new AfrlKaans flTm, ln what ways is it new?
Tomasel~i notes that the standard structure of the Afrikaans film is based on
a confllct ~etw:en the outsider and the group.
representat~ve 15 based upon a farm, usually a Cape wine farm.
usuall~ ~ clty-dweller and often a woman.
compet1t~on for the soul of the pure young farmer.
blonde flancee, also a farm girl, for the outsider, frequently a flashy and
unscrupulous city girl.
This Seems to be the usual formula.
First, the insider-outsider conflict is not peculiar to Afrikaans film, least
of all as a conflict between urban and rural values.
The conflict seems to
be archetypical or, to be more precise, it is found in modern English and
American fiction; it runs through European melodnama; and it is the mainspring
of Black township plays.
Without detailing the history of this theme, one can say it is common in the
narrative arts of industrialising countries, and even more strongly in th~ arts
of industrial countries.
It seems that a common feature of the urban consciousness is a tendency to
explain itself nostalgically in terms of a Fall from pastoral Grace, with
all positive values assigned to town and negative ones assigned to country.
As George Steiner V971 ) has remarked, if there is any recurrent ~th
through Western art, it is ~at
lives in amity with man and nature.
discontent and offers hope of a remedy in return.
film performs.
However, to remark that a myth is generally found does not account for its
specitic and different usages.
{This is the point where most of our local
luminaries of cultural life duck out.
The heights of Shakespeare, Bergman
et a1., however well-travelled by better minds th~n theirs still provide a~
irresistible temptation to the neo-colonial-sensibility which, at bottom, lS
as profound as an American tourist's~
To explain the precise relevance of the Eden ~th' to Afrikaners, one must look
at their history.' (The distance between the history and the Eden ~th
is an.
indication of the nature of the ideology.
Ideology is, in a sense, a s~lectlve
reading of history.
To put it another way, for an ideD1Dgy.to exist, h1s~ory
must be revised, parts turned to ~th,
the rest discarded llke soggy port10ns
of an old apple.)
Two versions of histo~
One suggests that, once upon a time, the Afrikaner was the independe~t ma~ter
of his own pastoral destiny.
He lived, as is common in myths, in amlty.wlth
nature and his surroundings.
Ne1ther
These included his Coloured servants.
Blacks nor the English distu~ed

running
of a Fall from the Garden of Eden, where man
The myth offers an explanation of urban

co-exist in what may be called "the Eden.film" •.

These functions the Afrikaans

the idyll.

i..

......

,.'

•

,

......

-

_ -

~

16

What is significant about

individual identity.

:~j5implie~, too, the absence of tne internecine quarrels t~at characterise

to onglns.

It lS essentially a myth in revolt against the

The presence of the urban visitor is an
It admits the fact

,frlkaner hlstory; the absence of the need for the Great Trek and the various
oars out of which the Afrikaner grew, as Afrikaner.
~ myth cannot be dated, of course.
It takes place "once upon a time" ("in
il1ud temp~re", as.Mirce~ Eliade (1928) calls it).
thlS myth lS tha~ ~t denles .the existence of the Afrikaner in returning so
ngorously
consciousness of
The.second version admits the Fall.
admlssion of chronological history and of social forms.
of the Trek, of urbanisation and concedes the limitations of Eden.
The .second ~ie~, also implicit in what Tomaselli calls "the key structure of
AfClk~ans f?lm , portrays the urban Afrikaner as threatening and malevolent,
Usually the urban visitor is antagonistic to the natural
ThlS 1S a glven.
harmony of relationships on the fann.
The visitor is usually a woman and
characterised by icons of a foreign way of life.
She wears nail and face
paint; she drives an open car; she "throws herself" at the man; she is
disrespectful to the matriarch on the farm; and she i~ disapproved of by the
servants.
(Again, it should be remarked, that these characteristics are not peculiar to
such figures only in Afrikaans films.
Every Mills and Boon novel, for example,
contains a villain with such equipment.)
The accent of villainnesses
A significant feature of this figure is her aCCent.
in Afrikaans films is usually the artificial, precious, slightly Frenchified
accent of Waterkloof, Pretoria.
It is contrasted with the earthy Boland accent.
(There is an additional irony here:
Afrikaans actresses, born and bred in the
Transvaal, frequent travellers abroad and to all intents and-purposes detribal-
ised, have told me that their popularity depends in part on the ability to assume
a Boland accent.
This apparently says to the audience that although the actress
belongs to a slightly disreputable profession, she is nevertheless in tune with
the traditional verities of the Afrikaner:)
In the context of Afrikaans films, however, the villainness is identified
ambiguously.
speaking actor in the role of villain or play the villains role in English.
However, the verbal signs to an Afrikaans audience are that the villain is an
outsider - a non-Afrikaner.
Whether the villain is a fallen angel or an alien
proper is unclear.
For example, it is possible to read this as a sign that the Afrikaner is split
into two streams:
Certainly, this is defensible.
In terms of this, the Eden film portrays a clash
within cultures and a reaffirmation of traditional values.
But in so doing, it
acknowledges the fact and the potency of the urban culture; it admits a strain of
South African history which contains the Great Trek, the dispossessio~ of the .
Afrikaner, the ~igration from the country to the town; the modernisat10~ of
South Africa - and the capability of the outsider to destroy the insiders way
of life.
An alternative reading is at the level of myth, where the Afrikaner is port,'ayed
as rural, threatened by the modern, urban world and yet, through his fidelity
to traditional values, able to counter this threat.

the urban and the rural and that these are antagonistic.

The Afrikaans director will not be 50 blatant as to cast an English-

,

,-

~

17

The

the boeredoqter is blonde, chaste
The boeredogter is markea, from the beginning,

But the link with the villainess is
is a witch, the boeredogter a mother' the
but the boereseu~ as

----------

The villainess

The pojnt of this discussion is that one has to tread warily in stating that
the Eden film is either a clash between cultures or a clash within a culture.
A c~ucial factor i~ de~iding is the audience.
The question is, how does the
aud1ence see the v,lla,nness and how is the audience intended to see her?
F~rst~ the ~illainness is contrasted with the blonde boeredogter.
v1lla:ness 1S dark.a~d sexy and free-thinking;
and llnked to trad:t1onal values.
as a proper ~ompanlon for the bQe(eseun.
sexual and v1olent.
boere~eun as boereseun is destined far the boeredogter,
,nd1Vldual 1S drawn to the villainess.
is portrayed, therefore, as the outward manifestation of indiv-
The villainess
In terms of the challenge
id~alism, of the forces that threaten group identity.
Literally and figuratively, she
th,S poseS.to.the farm, she must be destr~yed.
does not f1t 1n: allowed to remain, she wl1l tear down the structures of authority
and traditional values whiCh the farm represents.
To this extent, then, the outsider-insider structure is a replay of a recurring
theme in Afrikaner history - the tension between ~he individual and the group.
At the same time, this structure seeks to explain existing conflicts by suggesting
that the conflict began with the move from the farm. And finally, the structure is
allegorical, depicting, as a warning, the danger that outsiders pose to the group
identity, and the continuing value of rural-based traditional values.
Functions
From this, One can hazard a guess about the functions of such films. A limitation
is Our 1ack of knowledge about audiences.
Nevertheless, it is safe to say that in asserting traditional values, seen at
This is chiefly
source. the Eden film reinforces such values where they are held.
in the country district. where there is something of a literal connection between
the life of the viewer and life depicted on SCreen.
In the case of the urban viewer, the function is more complex.
given the short time that the Afrikaner has been urbanised. that the urban
Afrikaans viewer retains a physical memory of the farm.
have grown up on one or migrated from one to the city~ at the very least. his
parents or grandparents would have had that direct knowledge.
Though within living memory. the relationship between the film farm. ~den, ~nd
the surroundings of the urban dweller is indirect.
Eden has metaphor1cal tlnges.
Thus ~he functionof Eden films for the city film-goer is nostalgic.
viewers. the Eden film will fulfill the functions that pastoral poetry fulfllled
for a Restoration Court:
-
it provides a stylised set of values, etched w~th quaintnes~
a never-never 1and~
for the contemplation of the viewer •. The function. then is to provlde values Whlch
are, as it were, preserved in amber.
The viewer can choose whether ~~ ~ot to ~ke
them and his world.
That discretionary power llmlts thelr
the connectionbe~n
effectiveness as ideology.
On the other hand, it could be argued that it is upon those values that the
ideology
objection to that remainder.

For so~
it Is a reco1lection of things past; it represents

lhe objection that Afrikaans films are .crude" is an

It is likely,
He knows farms, he may

is based.

18

loIar Film

'tr
'omase11i's (1979.;1979b) thesis seems to be that the war film is a response to
external circumstances and the reflection of a disintegrating social structure.
ihe move is from the slightly obsessive privatization of the Eden film to the
film that deals with a conflict of social roles.
If evolution has occurred, it is within the conventions of the love-story genre.
But emphases have changed and it seems that the Afrikaans film has reached the
point where the genre itself is dissolving, revealing the tentative outlines of
a new one.
A genre breaks down according to an alter-
This process is by no means simple.
ation of existing social pressures.1 The indication of either of these, in a
work of art, may be as subtle as a change of locale or as obvious as three acts
of a play instead of five.
Nor are casual effects easily traced.
Rather than talkin9 of a change in social
circumstances leading to a change in a work of art, it could be more helpful,
if less precise, to use the analogy of an electrical field which includes ideas,
human behaviour, institutions and works as different manifestations of the field.
The problem here is partly the problem of using a language which seems bound to
subject-object relations.
The Social Circumstances
The obvious change in the last few years has been the intensification of the war
on the border.
The facts of this are generally known; suffice to say that may
white South Africans feel threatened
by the fact of the war "on the border";
and because it is a guerilla war, the exact position of the border is unknown:
the term "border" indicates a locale potential or actual conflict and not a
political or geographical or topographical division.
This means. then, that "the farm" (see Tomaselli, 1979bp.39) is no longer secluded
and safe, no longer a shrine of group values.
potential area of conflict:
Yet the war has exacerbated racial thinking:
Black and White, however tactfully it is couched in terms of communism versus
capitalism. or bad versus good.
Because of this, though, the definition of the Afrikaner has had to widen;
foreigner aRd outsider no longer mean merely non-Afrikaner:
The effect, in Afrikaans films, has been to alter the insider-outsider axis.
outsider now becomes a dark, inscrutable and inhuman enemy:
to portray the
outsider would entail humanising him and this would imply at least a partial
denial of the category of enemy.
'Caricature offers little scope to the film-maker because it depends upon rigid
,and static relations to what has been caricatured.
in the action sequences of war films.
But a large portion of war films is the
:portraya1 of relations between characters on the inside.
This is one of the chief differences between the Eden and the war film.
focus of the former was the relationship between insider and outsider; the focus
~f the latter is on relations between insiders, in the context of a war against
the outs'ide.

outsiders are Black.
The

These relations are portrayed

it, too, is a border.

The farm, like the city, is a

it is perceived as a struggle between

The

19

The audience

The industry

The actors

Thus the audience for

Changes in the Film Industry
It would be wrong to attribute this change solely to the war.
factors in the film industry are at work too.
a.
Though, by large, the filmmakers are the same and distribution and censorship
barely changed, the audience is different from what it was.
Because of TV, the rural drive-in audience, the mainstay of the Afrikaans film
in the country has shrunk.
The urban Afrikaner apparently now has an aversion to Afrikaans films.
In any
case, they are not felt to compete with overseas films in terms of entertainment
or technical skill.
In addition, for some sections of the urban Afrikaans audience, it is unfashionable
to go to Afrikaans films -a sign of being a Qlaasjapie.
the Afrikaans film diminished:
the war, with 1ts associated issues of patriotism,
provided an opportunity for filmmakers to recapture the audience.
b.
An increase in availability of foreign product and a desire in the industry to
capitalise on this, cut the amount of viewing time available to the local industry.
The industry also showed signs of feeling that only films which would also succeed
overseas were a worthwhile financial; the tendency for finance was therefore to
back overseas directors making films in English.
Then, Ster-Kinekor, the major distributors. announced that they would enter prod-
uction (see Tomaselli, I979a,~.2~,
effectively creating a monopoly that excluded
independent filmmakers, making it hard for them to secure resource, human and
financial.
c.
Why should an actor spend six weeks on location earning R3 000 to R4 000 in a
leading role in a film so bad that his future career might be damaged when a
series of commercial slots on TV will guarantee him stage work and even an income
of R36 000 over three years?
d.
The days when the Afrikaans critics loyally praised even the worst Afrikaans films
are gone.
than English-speaking
In any case, changes in the newspapers generally put the power of drawing audiences,
English and Afrikaans, in the hands of a single evening newspaper.
their critics praised Afrikaans films, few members of the urban public believed
them. (2)
Changes in the Films
Superficially, the way Afrikaans films adapted to changed circumstances were
dramatic.
intended for overseas consumption; the local rip-off of the overseas success; and
the war film, which had elements of both.
The villainness became a black guerilla and an urbanised stay-at-home comtemplating
I future in Houston, Texas.

If anything. Afrikaans critics are more damning of Afrikaans films

But that is not the only change.

More different kinds of films were made:

the local production also

The Afrikaans press

critics.

Other important

And even when

20

Like Afrikaans films, this drama was based on forms

The stereotypes

comparatively few war films have been made.

may therefore be presumptuous.

IS in the various guises assu~~d by the old fem~le siren that the chief

The men pair up as twins, one tough and hard, the other
In the Eden film, the outsider-woman died; in the war film,

:t
:lffcrences of the war film lies.
,'~radoxically, in order to discuss this, one must first discuss the "new" male
~,cro.
One caveat:
To generalise about
them, their heroes or their villains
On the
other hand, it is true that the pattern ofa genre are set early; what follows
is a sequence of minor variations.
The New Male Hero
In war films, partly because war is perceived as a male activity, women are
portrayed "at home".
sensitive and soft.
the soft, sensitive man dies.
Those females portrayed in war films are matriarchal figures - the blonde
boeredogter of the Eden film.
(At the end of Grensbasis 13, significantly
enough, the boeredogter receives a medal on behalf of her dead man.)
Again, it is worth referring again to Western art generally.
are similar.3 An illuminating parallel is between Afrikaans films and early
modernist drama in Europe.
whose sources were in a rural~urban tension and whose audiences were recently
urbanised as the result of the Napoleonic Wars.
In the drama, Woman is Cast as an antagonist, a destroyer of civilisation, a
force of nature in much the way that the Afrikaans villainness is opposed to
the manmade farm - though, of course, the outsider is a city girl. (4)
Woman is usually killed or commits suicide or is expelled from human society in
modernist drama, leaving man alone.
with men.
Similarly, the Eden film shows the elimination of the female threat.
The war
film portrays the resurrection of it as terrorist and as feminized male; both
must die for the sake of South Africa.
The latent theme of the war film is a homosexual relationship.
The relationship is marked by caring, emotional generosity, continual physical
proximity, if not intimacy, and understanding.
Yet it is illicit, not because
it is homosexual, but because it is a display of personal feeling in a context
that apparently demands group loyalty.
This tension is solved by the death of
the feminine partner.
The underlying conflict in Afrikaans films is between the safe tepidity of sentiment
- the blonde boeredogter being the subject of this - and the steamy dangers of sex
(the dark ravlsher).
In the war film the terms of the conflict are modified, but
the outlines are the same:
it is conflict about reconciling the claims of group
identity and responsibility with individual impulse, feeling and sympathy.
In the war film the conflict is couched in the symbolism of a man divided and
having to lose that side of himself that might threaten his group membership.
the extent that war is meant to involve the individual as a member of society,
the personal ties are anti-so~ial.5 Both literally and symbolically, Afrikaans
war films deal with civil war:

The next phase in the drama portrays men

within the body politic and within the individual.

To

21

The trauma this reflects, if "trauma" is not too inexact a

The Buddy System
There are strong resemblances between Afrikaans war films and the American genre
known as "the road movie" which is characterised by "the buddy system".
The prototype of the buddy system in the relationship between Huck Finn and Tom
Sawyer where the pair "light out", away from the voracious power of a woman who
represents civilisation and its constraints.
As leslie Fiedler (1974) has noted, the road movie developes the role of Jim,
the Negro servant who, ideally, is the companion of the hero escaping from a
female world.
Again, in the road movie, the relationship between the men is
doomed by a hostile world and therefore idealised.
Male bonding ends in death
and the triumph of society.
Some Conclusions
The most striking feature of the Afrikaans war film is the emergence of a homo-
sexual theme.
metaphor for conflict, is the same as that represented by the death of bad women
in Eden films.
At one level, it could be described as a trauma about sex and lost opportunities
for love in a society that demands the inadequate substitute of sentiment for its
male members.
At another, it is a trauma about the competing claims of private feeling, collective
responsibility and the demands for sexual gratification.
2. To claim that the "goal" of Afrikaans film is "anaesthesia" says too little
and too much.
not discussed, embodied.
Some of these can be traced back to the structures of the society, others only
reveal themselves in a comparative analYSis of symbols, associations, themes,
characters and situations.
In other words, a social analysis of South African film may tend to reflect the
judgements on the society, unless that analysis includes one of cultural ikons.
3. It is the lack of artistic control that makes~pular
An analysis that
social significances and ambiguities and even coa=radictions.
the risk of blurring many .
proceeds inductively, rather than deductively, ~
Though Afrikaans films do refTect a ruling ideology, they also
la~ers
They also include
reflect a broad cultural tradition in Western narrative art.
doubts about that ideology though, to be sure, those doubts are often buried in
Symbolism.
4.
1n making broad statements about their "goal" and their "function".
Perhaps, as with most mass media, one must examine not the medium but th~ relation-
ship between it and the audience and the relationship with different audlences.
To not do so, is to run the risk of assuming that the goal, of, say, Afr~kaans
films is to purvey a reigning ideology when, in fact. the ideology explalns the
way the film looks - and not how an audience perceives it.
5.
Africa is severely restricted by • reluctance of organisations

Finally, all significant research fnto the role of the narra~ive arts ~n South
11ke Ster-Klnekor.

The existence of conflicting messages in Afrikaans films must exact wariness

Within the grave limitations of a genre, crucial problems are, if

into one.

art such a mine of

22

ar,jthe Perfonnina Art~ (ou"cils to e'.!letheir mark~t research public.

by

Paladin

The S A Film

African Studies Institute Com-

their figures will not be

Myths, Dreams and Mysteries.
The Myth of the Vanishing Indian.
In Bluebeard's Castle.

..,:.~::.(,t
~ry aM :n.J',e tnem do so, w; th U,e assurance U,at
-.,.010u51y u5ed, is a major task.
:trtainly, it is beyond the capability of the individual who is not baded
,rostltuticnalsupport.
And, sadly, in South Africa, few institutions are
Interested in supportin~ such research.
Peferences
Eliade, M. 1928:
fiedler, L. 1974:
Steiner, G. 1971:
Tomaselli, K.G. I979a:
cunications No.7, Wits University Press, Johannesburg
Tomaselli, K.G. I979b: "Ideology, the State and South African Film" in Art and
tiberation, NUSAS, Cape Town
Tomaselli, K.G. I979c: "The Border War:
No.5, pp.I6-I7
!!Qill
I. Here one heads for a chicken-egg argument.
2.

Cinematic Reflections".

Faber
Industry.

Which comes first?

Its effect seems to be chiefly negative:

The Star's Tonight entertainment guide canaffect the fortunes of minority-
appeal films adversely.
is impervious to reviews, however.
For example, plays by Ibsen, Wedekind, toria and Strindberg
Hedda in Hedda Gabler;
in A Dolls House etc.
E.M. Forster's remark:
country and betraying a friend, I would without hesitation, betray mY
country" is an unconscious acknowledgement of the mutually exclusive claims.

Lulu in the Wedekind plays of the same name; Nora

"If I were given the choice between betraying ~

a Superman

---

Reality, Vol.II,

3.
4.

5.

FRONTLINE

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