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ABSTRACT

AN INVESTIGATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
ANXIETY LEVEL AND PUPILLARY RESPONSE

A series of recent investigations have provided data to
support the existence of a relationship between pupil size
and emotional excitation. The present research was an at-
tempt to validate the pupillary response as an objective
physiological measure of the generalized response by the or-
ganism to free anxiety.

It was hypothesized for the present study that the de-
gree of pupil dilation should provide a relative measure of
the degree of anxiety present in_a subject during any given
moment in time; a positive correlation should exist between
pupil size and anxiety level.:

In order to test the hypothesis, 104 male and female
subjects, selected from an undergraduate social work course
at Michigan State University, were asked to place their eyes
against the aperture of a specially constructed, light-tight
apparatus, upon which was mounted a 16 mm. camera that pho-
tographed the pupils at a rate of four frames per second.
Immediately following this procedure, all subjects were ad-
ministered the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale.

The Pearson Product Moment Correlation was computed to

 

 

determine whether or not a positive correlation existed be-
tween the scores obtained from the TMAS and those obtained
from pupil measurement. The resultant correlation was .0599,
obviously of a magnitude too low to be of consequence.

Hence, it could not be concluded that anxiety level and pupil-
lary response were positively correlated, at least by either
measurement used in the present study. Implications of

these results were discussed, and suggestions were made for

further research.

   

 

AN INVESTIGATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
ANXIETY LEVEL AND PUPILLAEY RESPONSE

 

A Study
Presented to
the Faculty of the Graduate School of Social Work
Michigan State University

 

In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Social Work

 

by

Conway C. Hundley, Chairman
Stanley L. Bergsma

Stuart L. Capling

Arthur G. Wickersham

Dwayne C. Wilson

June 1, 1967

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish to express their sincere gratitude to
Dr. Gwen Andrew, whose classes provided the foundation of
knowledge upon which was constructed the personal and col-
lective assurance necessary for the formulation of this
study, and whose continuing counsel and advice proved in-
valuable to its execution and completion.

A very special expression of appreciation is also ex-
tended to Mr. Edward McCoy, Head of Film Production, Michigan
State University Department of Audio-Visual Aids, and to
Mr. Jack Leonard, Photographic Assistant, and Gunter Pfaff,
Film Production Supervisor, at the Campus Instructional
Media Center, whose consultation and technical assistance
made possible the construction and Operation of the apparatus.
Mr. Leonard served as camera Operator during the collection

of the data.

TABLE OF CONTENTS ‘

Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Subjects . . . . . .

Apparatus O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O 21
Figure I: Apparatu . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Procedure 0 O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O 0 Q 0 O O 23

RESULTS......................26
DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
IMPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
summer......................36
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Appendix A: Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale . . 44

INTRODUCTION

Since the turn of the century there has been increased at-
tention and research directed toward the study of psychophysio-
nomic phenomena. The human body has repeatedly proven to be
remarkably capable of demonstrating, through diverse and inter-
related physiological responses, the varied effects of both
internal and external stimuli. From experiments conducted to
test the effects of laboratory controlled stimuli on skin re-
sponse, heart palpitation, motor control, behavior extinction
and pupillary response, there remains little doubt that, not
only do psychophysionomic phenomena exist, but that such phe-
nomena are directly related to the channeling of intrapsychic
activity.

As recently as 1960, a novel mode of scientific inquiry
into the field of human emotion was innovated, and has been
rapidly evolving, coming increasingly to the foreground in the
medical-psychological disciplines, as an extremely important
concept relating to internal emotional states. This technique,
termed “pupillometrics' by Eckhard Hess and his associates at
the University of Chicago, is based upon the contention that
the pupil of the eye, being a direct extension of the central
nervous system, is entirely incapable of conscious control,

and is therefore a valid and objective measure of the generalized

2
response by the individual to emotional excitation (Hunt, 1967).

Following the development of pupillometrics, increasingly
frequent studies in the area have provided data to indicate
that pupillary response is somehow related to affective states,
i.e., to the "emotionality" of the stimuli encountered. In-
terestingly enough, however, no real attempts have been insti-
gated to provide specificity to the nature of the particular
affective state experienced by a given subject, as reflected
in his pupillary response.

It was the purpose of this study, then, to attempt to
provide increased insight into the notion of pupillary response
as an indicator of a specific affective state, by comparing
the manifest anxiety scores of a sample of normal subjects
rated according to the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, to the
measured pupil responsivity of the same subjects, in order to
determine whether or not a significant positive correlation
does, in fact, exist between the ratings provided by each
test.

The problem of anxiety occupies a central position in
the theory of psychopathology and psychosomatic dysfunctions.
It is frequently said to be an indicator of disorganization
which, in larger quantities, leads inevitably to compounded
disturbance and regression of functioning.

At all levels of anxiety, there exists various combinations

3

of degrees of loss in homeostatic control, and attempts at mas-
tery to regain such control. Of primary importance to disci-
plines concerned with human behavior, human functioning, and
with the amelioration of human misery, therefore, is not only
the degree to which an individual is under the impact of anxi-
ety, but also at which point in its development a particular
technique or method of therapeutic intervention might prove
most beneficial.

Although there exist enumerable sub-implications for
studies such as the present one, the authors feel that the pri-
mary significance of such an undertaking lies in the realm of
providing greater insight into the physiological manifestations
of psychological disruption, its measurement, and resulting in!
creased knowledge of a more accurate determination of the
organism’s total response to the anxious state. Knowledge so
gained will not only add to general personality and psychoso-
matic theory, but will necessarily contribute to the effec-
tiveness and efficiency of means by which the treatment of

anxious persons may be instigated and carried out.

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Although pupillometrics is a relatively new mode of scien-
tific inquiry, it seems that its basic principle has been rec-
ognized for centuries. The notion that the eyes provide clues
to the emotions -- "windows of the soul," as the French poet
Guillaume de Salluste wrote -- is almost commonplace in liter-
ature and in current language. Descriptive terms such as
”his eyes were like saucers" or "his eyes were pinpoints of
hate” and expressions such as "beady-eyed," "bug-eyed“ or
"hard-eyed,” are frequently employed in lay Speech to connote
feeling assOciated with eye physiology.

0n still other unsophisticated levels, individuals to
whom it is important to infer internal thoughts from external
behavior appear to have been aware of the pupil-size phenomena
for some time. It is said that magicians doing card tricks
can.identify the card about which a person is thinking by ob-
serving the enlargement of his pupils when the card is turned
up, and that Medieval Middle Eastern rug dealers and Chinese
jade merchants were aware that pupils dilated at the sight of
a particularly exquisite piece of merchandise, and veiled their
eyes in various ways to avoid betraying their enthusiasm, and
thereby causing an increase in price (Hicks, 1966).

Psychotherapists, too, have frequently stressed the

 

 

 

 

 

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5
significance of an awareness of finite movements of the client's
eyes, as indices of his felt emotion.

To the authors' knowledge, the first scientific inquiry
into the field of eye responsivity was accomplished by Charles.
Darwin, in his Expressions g; Emotion in Man and W: in
‘which he referred to the "widening and narrowing of the eyes,"
accompanying movements of the eyelids and eyebrows, as signs .
of human emotion. Yet, he apparently assumed that the 222;;
dilated and contracted only as a physiological mechanism re-
sponsive to changes in light intensity (Davidson, 1966).

Around the turn of the century, German psychologists con-
ducted rather crude experiments which attempted to illustrate
pupil dilation of subjects engaged in problem-solving behavier
(Hicks, 1966). For more than thirty years, however, relatively
little research was accomplished in this area. Various med-
ical techniques were developed -- such as testing the reaction
of the pupil to light, in detecting brain disease -- yet, the
emotional-intrapsychic responses of the pupil remained almost
totally disregarded.

Finally, in 1933. following extensive study of eye physi-
ology and response capability, W. R. Bender, in a paper on
the subject, concluded that:

...the iris is controlled by two reciprocating muscle
fibers, the circular sphincter with oculomotor innervation

of the parasympathetic type and the radial dilator muscle
fibers innervated from the superior cervical ganglion of
the sympathetic type.

Bender devised an experiment for the purpose of investiga-
ting the impact of various emotional stimuli upon pupillary re-
flex activity. He discovered that emotional stimuli, such as
a gunshot and presentation of a white rat, produced a definite
and measurable effect on pupil size. He concluded, then, that
pupillary alteration could be accomplished both psychically
and reflexly, and that "mental" or "emotional" states of indi-
viduals were capable of producing an affect on the pupil of
the eye. The results of this study, however, did not seem to
create a large impact upon scientific thinking at that time.
The methodology used was considered extremely primitive, and
statistical treatment was not applied to the data (Davson,
1962). Yet, Bender is certainly to be credited with the in-
novation of the use of motion picture frames as a means to
obtain a measure of pupil dilation and contraction in an
"emotional" situation.

. Although scientific methodology and scientific apparati
have been immensely improved upon since the early experimen-
tation by Bender, much of the literature concerning the
nature of pupillary response appears to remain somewhat of

a mass of confusion and contradiction. Certainly, the

greatest abundance of research seems to have been carried out
in the area of pupil conditioning, and, although such studies
are perhaps less applicable to the present research than more
recent endeavors in the field of pupillometrics, their signi-
ficance lies in the fact that they have contributed much im-'
portant information regarding the nature of the pupil re-
sponse.

While some reSearchers continue to state unequivocably
that the pupil is capable of conditioning, and that its re-
sponse is affected by a variety of stimuli, true scientific
corroboration.of such statements is greatly lacking. There
continues to exist a great deal of controversy and lack of
consensus as to whether or not a pupil response is capable
of conditioning at all, and, if so, what experimental pro-
cedures are necessary to obtain a conditioned pupillary re-
sponse. '

Various examiners have reported positive results in at-
tempts to condition pupil responsivity (Watson, 1916; Carson,
1922; Hudgins, 1933. 1935; Baker, 1938; Netzner and Baker,
1939; Harlow, 194C; Girden, 1942; Crasilneck and McCranie,
1956; and Gerall and Woodward, 1958). However, replications,
sometimes coupled with new and original attempts, have yielded
negative results (Stickle and Brenshaw, 1934; Stickle, 1936;
wedell, Taylor and Skolnick, 19#0; Hilgard, Miller and Olson,

8
1941; Stern, 1948; Hilgard, Dutton, and Helmick, 1949; Young,
1954; Crasilneck and McCranie, 1956; and Young, 1958). Explan-
ations of such conflicting findings are not convincing, and
they vary from procedural differences to hippus -- a disturbance
of the integration of sympathetic and parasympathetic actions
(Crasilneck and McCranie, 1956).

Other researchers (Young, 1958 and 1965; Sampson and
Boslow, 1957; Gerall and Obrist, 1955; Young and Biersdorf,
1954; Girden, 1942) have indicated that pupillary conditioning
could be obtained, but that the conditioned response was not
stable or easily elicited when changes in light intensity or
sound were used as the conditioned stimuli. Guinan (1966)
introduces, as a possible explanation for this, the fact that
the pupil response to light itself may have some of the char-
acteristics of a conditioned response. Lowenstein and
Loewenfild (1952) obtained results which indicated that pupil
response to changes in light intensity was not difficult to
extinguish.

A major criticism which may be directed against the above
studies is that in every case except one (Guinan, 1966),
there was a definite failure to adequately control the home-
geneity of the visual field. Typically, the pupil was ob-
served by use of a telescOpe, and the presence of a lens re-

sulted in differential intensities of reflected light across

9
the subject's visual field. Interestingly enough, there ex-
ist no published reports of failure to obtain conditioning when
the unconditioned stimulus was electric shock or pain. Such
stimuli are usually described as "emotional" (Young, 1965;
Hilgard, Dutton and Helnick, 1949; and Girden, 1942).

D Lewinstein and Loewenfeld (1962) have provided a descrip-
tion of the physiological mechanisms of the pupillary response,
by pointing out that the iris is representative of all smooth
muscle structures that are reciprocally innervated by the
sympathetic system, while the pupillary sphincter, which con-
trols pupil constriction, is innervated by parasympathetic
activity. Physiologically, then, there exists some evidence
to support the reasoning that pupil responsivity should be
associated with stimuli that are emotionally laden. A more
recent publication in this area (Morgan, 1965), corroborated
Lowenstein's and Loewenfeld's findings, again indicating
that a sympathetic effect which may be observed during the ex-
periencing of a strong emotion is that of pupil dilation.

There continues to exist, however, a great deal of con-
tradiction.in the literature in regard to a directionality
factor in pupil reactivity. Hess and Polt (1965), in their
experimentation.with visual stimuli, have found that there is
a range of pupil response from extreme dilation for pleasing
stimuli, to extreme constriction for unpleasant stimuli.) Yet,

10

Bender's results indicated that painful and unpleasant stimuli
elicited pupil dilation. Bender is supported by Young (1965),
who found that conditioning of pupillary constriction is im-
possible, in that such constriction is not part of the general-
ized unconditioned autonomic response to psychic stimuli.

Several authors have suggested that pupillary response
is representative of a generalized autonomic response to nox-
ious or emotional stimuli. Young (1965) pointed out that such
a response is modified during conditioning so that alter-
ations in pupil size are indicative of changes that are oc-
curring within the autonomic nervous system. Girden (1942)
stated that pupillary dilation is a function of generalized
response of the individual to noxious stimuli. McGinnies
(1956) operationally defined "emotionality" as generalized
autonomic activity, as measured by the galvanic skin response,
without the presence or absence of phenomenological content.
Hence, while it may be hypothesized that pupil responsivity
is related to emotionality, dilation or constriction in re-
sponse to specific affective states remains speculative.

A series of recent publications by Hess and Polt (Hess
and Polt, 1965; Hess and Polt, 1964; and Hess and Polt,
196C) offer evidence that pupillary response may be utilized
as a measure of affective states. In these studies, employ-

ing an improved upon photographic technique, the authors

11
were able to measure the diameter of each subject's pupil in
relation to the manifest content of the visual stimuli pre-
sented. In one report (Hess and Polt, 1964) a measurement of
the subject's pupil size was obtained during simple problem-
solving procedures. The data collected from these studies
demonstrates the existence of a correlation between pupil size
and psychological effects of visual and other stimulation
on complex mental activities, on interests and attitudes, and
on states of emotional excitation. In another study (Hess,
Seltzer and Schlien, 1965) -- his most recently published --
Hess has reported that he was able to differentiate homo-
sexual from heterosexual males by obtaining a measurement
of pupil responsivity to visual stimuli.

The above described research certainly raises some
thought provoking ideas regarding the emotional nature of
papillary reaponse. Yet, close examination of the method-
ologies involved, revealed that many objections could be
raised with regard to their scientific validity. On a pro-
cedural level, Hess and his associates have made no attempt
to differentiate, or even operationally define such varia-
bles as "interest," "emotionality," or "attitude." To the
contrary, they have hypothesized that certain visual stimuli
‘would arouse a specified affective state, e.g., interest,

and then report that the alterations in pupil size were due

12
to that particular affect. Further, the reports have been more
of a descriptive nature, rather than an experimental one. The
procedures appear to have been loosely controlled, and were
not reported in sufficient detail to permit needed replication.
The results were presented only in terms of direction and per-
centage of change, and the application of precise statistical
techniques was conSpicuously absent.

Hewever, in two more recent studies by Guinan (1966) and
Miller (1966), in which the authors attempted to provide
some elaboration on the work of Hess and his associates, ob-
vious gains were made in such procedural areas as more ade-
quate statistical analysis, tighter controls, and improved ap-
paratus. Miller introduced chromatic stimuli (red, blue and
green) and an achromatic stimulus (light grey) to a sample
composed of college students, and found that pupils manifes-
ted more responsivity, as measured by alteration in pupil di-
ameter, when exposed to chromatic, i.e., "emotional,“ than
when.exposed to an achromatic, i.e., "neutral," stimulus.

Guinan's research.was quite similar to that of Miller's,
the major difference being the nature of stimuli to which
the subjects were exposed. Instead of emotional colors as
opposed to neutral colors, Miller employed "emotionally laden
‘words" (sex, kiss, vomit) as Opposed to "neutral words"

(shelf, card, the) as his visual stimuli. The results of the

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study indicated that the emotional words elicited significantly
greater pupil responsivity than did the neutral words. Thus,
these authors, with improved techniques over those of past
researchers doing work in this area, have provided further
evidence to support the fact that particular types of emo-
tional stimuli produce affective states which result in pupil-
lary reactivity. However, again, no attempt was made to de-
fine the particular affective state produced.

There exists very little research to substantiate the
the theory that the affective state with which such authors
as Bender, Hess and his associates, and, later, Miller and
Guinan were working, was, in fact, one of anxiety. However,
in view of logical assumptions which can.be made regarding
the nature of the stimuli with which they presented their
subjects -- i.e., white rats, gun-shots, pictures of nude
figures, words such as vomit and sex, and even such colors
as red and blue -- a substantial possibility certainly ex-
ists to that effect.

Yet, numerous authors have pointed out that anxiety,
m _sg_, is something more than a reaction to a specific sit-
uational threat. In general, it seems that anxiety may be
aroused by any condition, internal or external, which
threatens the integrity of the organism (Basowitz, et al.,

1955). Such affective conditions are usually termed "free

14
anxiety" (Grinker and Spiegel, 1945).

For May (1950) "...anxiety is the apprehension cued off
by a threat to some value which the individual holds essential
to his existence as a personality.” Examined from this view-
point, any stimulus may have one status, provided that it im-
plies a threat to an "essential value.” Since these are
largely determined through individual experience and learning,
and the threat-forewarning cues are similarly individual
products (May, 1950), it follows, then, that a diverse variety
of stimuli may arouse anxiety, and that this state may be
present to varying degrees in an individual during any given
moment in time. As Karpas (1964) points out, anxiety is a
force that confronts every person to a greater or lesser de-
gree throughout his life.

The literature implies that differentiation is not al-
ways possible between the fear response to actual and real
danger, and the anxiety response so often characterized as
”objectless" (Goldstein, 1950). Again, Karpas (1964) feels
that anxiety involves more than "simple fear," and derives
from a basic apprehensive state within the individual, which
has, as its ultimate source, unresolved archaic conflicts
and strivings. Schaffer (1946) points out that anxiety is
more continuous than the sort of response experienced in

the advent of an immediate fear-threat situation. He feels

Q‘

 

15
that, here, the situation to which the individual is seeking
adjustment is not an external one, but a problem of personal
adequacy, regardless of the fact that similar psychophysio-
nomic responses may be initiated in each. Basowitz (1955)
substantiates this position, by stating that:

States of fear are conceived as temporary, more re-
lated to external events, and preparatory to appropriate

behavior of the organism; anxiety is more usually derived
from internal psychological problems and therefore is

chronically present... (emphasis supplied).

In his study of Th2,Problem 2;,Anxiet , Freud (1936) pointed
out that anxiety has a central position in body-mind relation-
ships, in that it is an affective state associated with phys-
iological changes and their perceived effects. According to
Kessler (1966), too, anxiety is an emotion which has very dis-
tinctive physiological features, which occur on an intracel-
lular level. Certainly, of the numerous studies done in the
description of the neurological aSpects of anxiety, most re-
fer to the autonomic nervous system, the sympathetic and para-
sympathetic divisions of that system, and certain bodily
changes which occur as a result of the action of these struc-
tures upon the body proper. The central element presented in
the neurological studies is the fact that the anxious indi-
vidual reacts in 393g]. to the appereeived disruption of his
homeostatic state (May, 1950). Many such reactions which do

16
occur, however, are controlled by the sympathetic division of
the autonomic nervous system, which is actually incapable of
conscious control. More specifically, biochemical altera-
tions are manifested through increased heart rate and height-
ened blood pressure, discharge of adrenalin into the vascular
system as a preparation for action, and increased visual
acu , all designed to prepare the individual for fight or
flight. As Liddell (1950) has stated, anxiety, as an affective
state involving both somatic and psychological participation,
may be conceived of as an extension of irritability and vigi-
lancs. Basowitz (1955) Provides some indication that psycho-
physionomic responses to anxiety may be used as an index to
its intensity, by pointing out that:

...measures of overt total behavior or performance
in a specified task, psychological functions such as
perception, decision, memory, etc., physiological ac;
tions of somatic musculature, cardiovascular and res-
piratory systems indicative of action or for its prep-
aration, and indices of biochemical functions, all in
some manner measure various aspects of anxiety.

Hence, on a physiological level, there exists some evidence
to support the notion that pupillary reaponse is regulated by
precisely those portions of the autonomic nervous system which
determine the organism's response to anxiety on yet other phys-
ionomic levels. Cannon (1939) described the physiological re-

sponse to the affective state of anxiety in the following

17
manner:

When the cortex of the brain is stimulated by a
threat, it sends a stimulus down the sympathetic branch
of the autonomic system to the adrenal glands. Under
the influence of e ine hrine, respiration deepens, the
heart beats more rapidly, the arterial pressure rises;
blood is shifted away from the stomach and intestines
to the heart, central nervous system and the muscles;
processes in the alimentary canal are inhibited; glyco-
genolysis is accelerated and the blood glucose level
increases; the spleen contracts and discharges its store
of corpuscles.

While Cannon's observations continue to serve as focal
points for present thinking, evidence increases to suggest that
the physiology of emotions involves the organism much more ex-
tensively, and in far more complex manners than originally rec-
ognized. Lowenstein and Lowenfeld (1962) noted an additional
physiological effect produced by the secretion of the adrenal
hormone, epinephrine. In their research, these authors found
that epippphrine and other discharges were actually liberated
into the blood stream. Such discharges were then carried to
the eye, where they stimulated the dilator pupillae, which,
in turn, elicited, reflexively, the pupillary response --
pupil dilation.

Hence, although, as indicated earlier, a degree of anxiety
is believed to be present in each individual at any given mo-

ment in time, it is reasonable to assume that certain persons

from any normal population are more anxious than others. Such

18
persons, according to what is known regarding the physiology
of anxiety, should secrete greater quantities of epinephrine
finto the blood stream, which eventually arrives at the eye,
and ultimately determines the degree of pupil dilation, as
part of their total autonomic response in preparation for the
resolution of the anxious state. The hypothesis for the pre-
sent study, then, is: Egg degree pf pppil dilation should
provide §_re1ative measure pf|ppg degree 2; anxiety present
$2.2 subject during gpy‘gpggp moment i3 pimp; a positive gppp
relatipn should ggigp between pppgl'gipp,gpg,anxiety lgpgl.

Winter, Ferreira and Hanson (1963) have indicated that,
since anxiety has been a core concept in many dynamic theo-
ries of behavior, its measurement has become a major task of
the behavioral sciences. There have been two popular approaches
to measuring anxiety: one involves the assessment of an in-
dividual's psychological functioning, or changes therein un-
der anxious states; another, his verbalized self-description
in interviews or written questionnaires. A good deal of ef-
fort has gone into the development of adequate measuring in-
struments in these areas, and into analyzing the theoretical
implications of their complex inter-relationships (Dahlstrom,
1962).

Research accomplished in the measurement of anxiety has

resulted primarily from standardized tests designed to elicit

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19
responses which provide some indication of the subject's mani-
fest anxiety level. .According to Hoyts and Hagoon (1954),
manifest anxiety is evident in:

...those behaviors or characteristics of a client
that would lead you to classify him as nervous: (i.e.,
mannerisms such as nail biting, knuckle cracking, chain
smoking, profuse perspiration, etc.); tense (i.e., un-
able to relax, continually working under pressure, hand
trembling, tics, etc.); easily embarassed (i.e., readily
blushes, stammers, etc.); and worried (i.e., apprehensive
over what will happen from day to day, doubts self con-
tinually.

Repeated reference is made in the literature to the Taylor
Manifest Anxiety Scale (TMAS) which appears to be the most com-
mon and extensively used of the indicators of anxiety (Dahlstrom,
1962). This test has been repeatedly subjected to extensive
research in order to prove or repudiate its content validity,
and, although there remain both advocates and criticizers, for
various reasons, it appears to be the test most applicable and
useful for the present study. Hence, the TMAS should provide
the authors with the necessary scores from.which to determine
the relative level of anxiety in the subjects tested. These
scores, in turn, will be correlated with those obtained from
pupil measurement, in order to determine whether or not the
hypothesized correlation exists.

It is important, therefore, to note that the TMAS has

been validated as an instrument capable of distinguishing

20
between high and low range anxiety levels among normal subjects
(Uma and Reddy, 1965). This research was accomplished through
the administration of the test to a group of 162 college girls,
ages 17-20, in order to establish high and low anxiety groups.
A supporting study by Kendell (1954) contrasted the upper and
lower percentiles of a group of hospitalized mental patients,
and found a significant difference at the .01 level of confi-
dence.

Another study which suggests that the TMAS is applicable
to the present research is that conducted by Hoyt and Magoon
(1954) who found that thirty of the fifty individual items
on the test have validity for college populations. Further,
Terwilliger and Fieldler (1958) were able to contrast signi-
ficantly, at the .05 level, very anxious from less anxious col-
lege students. This study compared students asking for help
at the counseling center with those of the normal college pop-

ulation.

METHOD

Supjepts. The subjects consisted of 10# male and female
college students, selected from an undergraduate social work
course at Michigan State University. All subjects partici-
pated voluntarily in the experiment.

Appapatps. The apparatus (see Figure I, on the follow-
ing page) was designed and constructed by the experimenters,
with technical assistance offered by the Instructional Media
Center at Michigan State University. It consisted of a
rectangular plywood box, 32" long, 18" high, and 16" wide.
At one end a projecting eye piece was mounted, so that when
the subject's right eye was in place, it could be photographed
by a camera located at the opposite end of the apparatus.
Internal illumination of the box was provided by a single 40
watt bulb; external illumination was purposefully minimized,
by darkening the room in which the experiment took place.
The exterior of the apparatus was painted a flat black; the
interior was painted an enamel white, frosted with black
primer.

The motion picture camera used was a 16 mm. Eclair 16
II. It was fitted with an Angenioux 12-120 mm. Zoom Lens,
with a Number 2 Diopter Close-Up Lens. The lens opening was
set at 2.8, allowing the photography at 4 frames per second.

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FIGURE I

Experimental Apparatus*

16 mm. Camera

 

 

 

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Aperture

*Top View. Scale: 1/8" = 1".

23
The projecting eyepiece was constructed on the exterior
of the apparatus for the purpose of maintaining the visual
axis at 36" for all subjects. The aperture was large enough
in circumference to permit the exposure of the entire eye,
yet sufficiently constricted to inhibit distraction by possi-
ble external stimuli.

grocedure. All subjects were introduced to the research
situation through a prepared oral presentation, which was read

by one of the experimenters, as follows:

Today you will be involved in a research project
conducted by a group of second year graduate students,
in partial fulfillment of their requirements for the
Degree of Master of Social Work. This project will in-
volve approximately twenty minutes of your time. There
is nothing difficult to do. Your eye will be photo-
graphed, and you will be asked to answer some simple
questions. These are statements of fact -- there are
no right or wrong answers. Please answer according to
your best judgement.

All participants will remain anonymous; no iden-
tifying information will be requested. You will be
identified only by a number to which you will be as-
signed. Those of you who wish to participate will be
called according to the rows in which you are seated.
When you are finished, please return to your class-
room quietly -- class will continue to be in session
while the experiment is in progress.

At the end of this term the results of the experi-
ment will be reported to you. Your cooperation will
be greatly appreciated.

The subjects were called according to the classroom rows,
and escorted to the photographing room, where they were in-

troduced to the apparatus and received further instructions.

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24
Those who wore eyeglasses were asked to remove them. Each
subject was then asked to place his left hand over his left
eye, step up close to the apparatus, and place his right eye
closely against the projecting eyepiece. Five preliminary
seconds were allowed at this point, in order for the sub-
ject's pupil to adjust itself to the interior illumination
of the apparatus. He was then instructed to look directly
at the small opening located at the opposite end of the box,
in which the camera lens was located, to keep his eye as
open and as steady as possible, until informed that photo-
graphy was completed. The photographing, itself, was main-
tained at an average of 12 seconds for each subject's eye,
in order to obtain a series of frames by which the mean pu-
pil size of each individual could be determined.

Following the completion of the photographing, the sub-
jects were escorted immediately to the testing room, where
the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale (see Appendix.A) was ad-
ministered, according to instructions printed on the board.
The subjects were in no way made aware of the nature of the
test which they were taking. A standard IBM scoring sheet
was used to facilitate grading.

The eye photographs were examined by use of a Bell and
Howell Analyst movie projector, selected because it permit-
ted the viewing of individual frames from the film. This

25
apparatus projected the images of the pupils, at a magnifica-
tion of 5% times, onto a screen from which they were accurately
measured with a caliper and a millimeter ruler. Four frames
per subject, selected at intervals of 12, were measured, in
order to further standardize the data gathered.

Measures were not obtainable on three subjects, either
because the boundaries of the pupil were rather indefinable,
or because the eye was closed during photography. Thus,
analysis of the data was based upon pupil measurements of 101

subjects.

RESULTS

The ratings of each of the 101 subjects was determined
on the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, and a mean score was
computed for the population. A mean was also determined from
the individual scores obtained by pupil measurement. The
ratings of each subject on both tests were identified by the
number to which he had been assigned.

The Pearson Product Moment Correlation was computed to
determine whether or not a positive correlation existed be-
tween the scores from the TMAS and those obtained from pupil
measurement. The resultant correlation was .0599, obviously
of a magnitude too low to be of consequence. Hence, it can
not be concluded that anxiety and pupil size are positively
correlated, at least by either instrument used in the present
study.

In order to determine whether or not any other relation-
ship might exist, a scatter-gram was constructed from the
data obtained from the two tests administered. This device
provided no evidence of the existence of a curvilinear re-
lationship between the variables, nor did it indicate the
possibility of any unconsidered relationships. Therefore,
in view of the results of statistical analysis, and of the
graphic representations, the hypothesis of relationship be-
tween pupil size and anxiety must be rejected.

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DISCUSSION

Although the stated hypothesis of the present study was
not supported, this does not invalidate the basic premises
upon which it was constructed. Some indication exists to
support the reasoning that the hypothesis was not borne out
in the results because of the presence of a fundamental dif-
ference between the pxpg of anxiety measured by the TMAS, and
that manifested in pupil reactivity.

The Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale may be an instrument
which only measures somatic manifestations of anxiety, modes
in which the affective state is bound in bodily activity,
discharged and, hence, perhaps to an extent alleviated. It
is possible that the test, itself, may actually provide lit-
tle or no indication in regard to the degree to which the in-
dividual is experiencing anxiety, but may merely indicate his
particular mode of channeling 1t. Theoretically, then, there
may justifiably be some question as to whether or not there
continues to exist a measurable degree of anxiety from the
pupils of subjects representing a normal population, regard-
less of the fact that they may have scored within the "anxious
range” on the TMAS. The fact that such individuals did, in
fact, achieve higher scores on this test may merely provide

some indication that they have effectively channeled off

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28
existing anxiety, through manifest symptomatology, to the ex-
tent that its presence may be imperceptible in pupillary re-
activity.

As indicated earlier, however, although criticized for
just such limitations, the TMAS continues to be the most widely
used test of manifest anxiety, and was chosen for the present
study on that basis. The preceding discussion, of course,
neither supports or rejects the test's validity for its func-
tion in providing a relative measure of manifest anxiety.

What it does imply, though, is that because anxiety may be
channeled off into manifest symptomatology such as that to
which the TMAS refers, a decreased degree is available to stim-
ulate physiological processes which might produce a measure-
ble pupillary response.

In the present study, the authors employed the term
"free anxiety" as an operational concept. It was hypothe-
sized that, at any given moment in time, such anxiety was
measurable in any individual, as evidenced by differential
degrees of pupil reactivity. In theory, it was assumed that
free anxiety was capable of producing a resultant stimulus
effect upon the bodily functions, one of which would be the
release, by the adrenal glands, of the activating hormone,
gpipgpggipg. Hence, there was reason to believe that persons

from any normal population who had a higher level of free

 

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. ‘6

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29
anxiety than others would secrete greater quantities of
epinephpipp into the blood stream, eventually arriving at the
eye, and ultimately determining the degree of pupil dilation,
as part of the individual's autonomic response in prepara-
tion for the resolution of the anxious state.

Again, however, the results of the present research did
not indicate the existence of any such physiological effect.
At least a portion of the explanation for this fact may be
derived from some basic premises of psychoanalytic theory,
which provide some insight into the dynamics of libidinal
energy and the psychodynamic structure. Psychoanalytic the-
cry indicates that libidinal energy, which presents itself
as undesirable and unacceptable to the ego, is bound and re-
pressed by the secondary processes of that structure, and
thereby retained from conscious expression. In normal indi-
viduals, this process effectively inhibits the conscious ex-
periencing of overwhelming quantities of free anxiety, and
its resultant disintegrative effect upon adequate psycholo-
gical functioning.

In view of the implications of this theory, it would
follow, then, that, because the subjects employed in the
present research were, as college students, in all probabil-
ity, mature individuals, with differentiated and supposedly

adequately functioning egos, there would exist in their

 

 

 

It.

 

 

 

 

30
intrapsychic structures little or no mobile libidinal energy
to cause the degree of free anxiety, which may be associated
with grosser forms of psychopathology, in that the adequately
functioning secondary processes had effectively bound and
discharged it through ppecisely those somatic structures to
which the TMAS refers in its measurement of manifest anxiety.

It is not inconceivable, therefore, that the adequately
functioning psychodynamic system is able to bind and discharge
the resulting tension arising from normal degrees of free
anxiety through such manifest bodily activity as measured by

the TMAS. Pupillary responsivit , however, maylpg manifested

33.2ypoint ip which the normally functioning psychodypamip
system‘;§ taxed beyond its capacity pp_bind and dischaygp

anxiety thropgh already existing psycho-physiplpgipal pappgzng
and gaping mechanisms. Such a situation might occur with the

increased anxiety reaction usually experienced with the ad-

vent of a ppecific situational threat. This assumption is
supported, to an extent, by the studies of Bender (1933).

Hess, et al. (1965), Guinan (1966) and Miller (1966), who

have dealt with correlations between specific emotional stim-
uli and pupillary response, as well as by the work of Lowenstein
and Lowenfeld (1962) who have indicated that the adrenal .
hormone, e ine hrine, is secreted as part of the organism's

total response to the stimulus of a threat. Although not

‘.

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31
mentioned in the studies of these authors, the threat to which

they were referring was perhaps not of the type experienced
by normal individuals in their attempts to bind and discharge
normal free anxiety, arising from the existence of unre-
solved internal conflicts and tensions, but of the kind of
anxiety experienced as a result of an external situational
threat, requiring the fight or flight reaction, as prepared
for by adrenal activity. H3393, i3 m_§y pg 1:323 normal, 393-
tinuing, £132 anxiety £132. internal tension 3293 933 £12-

ulate the adrenal secretion pf epinephrine pg the extent 2;,

 

that experienced with the immediate advent 23.23 external
situational threat, and, therefore, pp.the extent which would

result i3 3 measurable degree 22 pupillary responsivity.

 

 

 

Certainly, the notion that biochemical systems function
within homeostatic boundmfles is not a novel one, and it may
be that this principle is in operation in relation to hor-
monal activity accompanying the anxiety reaction, as well.
Perhaps as long as the individual is able to absorb the ef-
fects of anxiety, either physiologically, through other mani-
fest symptomatology, or psychologically, through the repres-
sive function of the ego, the homeostatic balance of the bio-
chemical system may receive insufficient stimuli to elicit
the degree of epinephrine secretion to evoke pupillary re-

sponse. Such hormonal activity may not accompany normal

 

9}.

32
free anxiety at all, but may only be present in sufficient
quantity in anxiety of the type aroused in situational threats,
when the biochemical system may be forced beyond its contin-
uing homeostatic level, in preparing the body both physiolo-
gically and psychologically for either fight or flight.

IMPLICATIONS

Anxiety has been shown to be a multidimentional problem,
and the present research has attempted to deal with but one
facet of it. Certainly, an implication for further research
should involve the determination of whether or not a correla-
tion exists between the degree of pupil dilation, and anxiety
evoked as a result of a specific situational threat. Again,
such a threat might arouse sufficient situational anxiety to
stimulate adrenal activity of the magnitude necessary to
elicit pupillary response. Here, of course -- at least in
theory -- a form of noxious stimuli would have to be intro-
duced in order to activate the needed psychological and re-
sulting physiological mechanisms associated with attempts at
resolution of the anxious state.

Further, a test other than the TMAS which, as has been
indicated, may simply measure somatic modes of channeling
anxiety, rather than the degree to which the affective state
is experienced by the individual, may either have to be lo-
cated or developed. To the authors' knowledge, however, no
such test is currently in existence.

Other variables which may be introduced on a procedural
level might involve the administration of the test for anx-

iety prior to the actual photographing of the eye. The

. 34
written test situation, in itself, could conceivably provide
sufficient situational anxiety -- especially for college stu-
dents -- to elicit a measurable degree of pupillary response.

It may be that the use of a population, in which was pre-
sent grosser forms of psychopathology, would tend to produce
a degree of anxiety sufficiently potent to be measurable with-
out the introduction of noxious stimuli needed for more nor-
mal populations. Such a population could conceivably offer
a more dramatic representation of the relationship between
free anxiety and pupillary reactivity. The results of such
a study might do much to resolve the current theoretical di-
lemma which exists between those theorists who believe that
psychotics are extremely anxious, and those who believe that
they are relatively anxiety free. An eXperiment of this
sort with psychotics might also provide some insight into
the varying degrees of anxiety prevalent in individuals clas-
sified under different diagnostic categories.

Finally, color film of the eye might prove extremely
useful, not only in more accurately determining pupil di-
ameter, but through the introduction of data enabling the
comparison of pupillary response as it is related to persons
with different eye color.

These implications certainly warrant a replication of

an investigation similar to the present one, with corrections

a
I

 

 

35
in those areas mentioned. Such studies would continue to have
specific value both in psychosocial diagnosis and in therapy
for psychiatric social work. Admittedly, however, implica-
tions are somewhat more limited due to the apparent need for
anxiety provoking stimuli to produce sufficient situational
anxiety to elicit measurable pupillary response. Yet, here
too, there exists, in theory, some applicability for the use
of the phenomenon of pupil reactivity in the interview situ-
ation. For example, a series of stimuli representative of
specifiable conflict situations could be devised, and then
an individual's pupil response to those situations could be
recorded. Larger pupil dilation would hypothetically be re-
lated to stimuli indicative of that person's problem area.
Further, alterations in emotional responsivity to conflict
situations may be utilized as a measure of movement in case-

WO rke

SUMMARY

A series of recent investigations have provided data
to support the existence of a relationship between pupil
size and emotional excitation. The present research was
an attempt to validate the pupillary response as an ob-
jective physiological measure of the generalized response
by the organism to free anxiety.

. It was hypothesized for the present study that the
degree of pupil dilation should provide a relative measure
of the degree of anxiety present in a subject during any
given moment in time; a positive correlation should exist
between pupil size and anxiety level.

In order to test the hypothesis, 104 male and female
subjects, from an undergraduate social work course at
Michigan State University, were asked to place their eyes
against the aperture of a specially constructed, light-
tight apparatus, upon which was mounted a 16 mm. camera
that photographed the pupils at a rate of four frames per
second. Immediately following this procedure, all sub-
jects were administered the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale.

The Pearson Product Moment Correlation was computed
to determine whether or not a positive correlation existed

between the scores obtained from the TMAS and those obtained

37
from pupil measurement. The resultant correlation was .0599,
obviously of a magnitude too low to be of consequence. Hence,
it could not be concluded that anxiety level and pupillary
response were positively correlated, at least by either meas-
urement used in the present study. Implications of these
results were discussed, and suggestions were made for further

research.

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.
b
. I
‘
. ~ to.
. . .
V . o .0
“ ,.
o
' 9 ‘0 .
. _ .v
. t' '
I
. _l _
. ..
I P.‘ 0'
. ‘ -
C
c
' a
g t.
. ' . ‘L .h ‘
v-Iv
O . I '
v . 3 .
~7‘ ‘
I c . 1.
o o -" ,

39

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41

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APPENDICES

10.
ll.

l2.

l3.
14.

15.
l6.

l7.

l8.

19.
2C.
21.
‘22.

23.

QULSTIQNS

I a
I do not tirn quickly.
I am about as

people.

‘I have very few headaches.

I work under a great deal of

strain.
I cannot keep my mind on one
thing.

I worry over money and
business.

I have diarrhea ("the runs")
once a uonth or more.

I frequently notice my hand
shakes when I try to do some—
thing.

I blush as

I have nightmares every few

often as others.

'niihts.

I worry quite a bit over
possible troubles.

I practically never blush.

I am often afraid that I am
going to blush.

My hands and feet are usually
warm enough.

I sweat very easily even on
cool days.

When embarras

sed I often
break out in a s

weat which

is very annoyinO.

I do not often notice my
heart pounding and I am
seldom short of breath.

I feel hungry almost all the
time.

often my bowels don't move

for several days at a time.

I have a great deal of

estomach trouble.
.At times I lose sleep over

worry.

My sleep is restless and
disturbed.

-n often sick to my stomach.

nervous as other

24.

25.
26.

3o.
’31.

32.
33.
34.
35.

36.

37.

380

39.

40.
41.

42.

I often dream about
things I don't like to
tell other people.

I am easily cmbarrassmi

My feelings are hurt
easier than most people.

I often find myself
Worrying about something.

I wish I could be as
happy as others.

I am usually caln and
not easily upset.

I cry easily.

I feel anxious about
something or someone
almost all of the time.

I am.happy most of the
time.

It makes me
have to want

At times I am so rest—
less that I cannot sit
in a chair very long.

Sometimes I become so
excited that I find it
hard to get to sleep.

I have often felt that I
faced so many difficulties
I could not overcome them.

At times have been
worried beyend reason
about something that
really did not matter.

I do not have as many
fears as my friends.

I have been afraid of
things or people that
I knew could not hurt me.
I certainly feel useless
at times. '

I find it hard to keep

nervous to

‘my.mind on-a task or job.

I am.more self-conscious-
than most pe0ple.

43.

44.
45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.
51-

{52.

53.
54.
55.

—C—

I am the kind of person who
takes things hard.

I am a very nervous person.

Life is often a strain for
me.

At times I think I am no
good at all.

I am not at all confident
of myself.

At times I feel that I am
going to crack up.

I don't like to face a
difficulty or make an
important decision.

I am very confident of myself.’

Something unusual happened to
me today which caused me to
be particularly anxious.

Generally I am an anxiuus
person.

I have an Optical problem.
I wear glasses.
I wear contacts.

 

 

ACCOPRESS'

SCORE!) HINGE BINDER

m 2507 RED
ass 2507 such!
305 2507 GREY
395 2901 GREEN
aus 2m ELLIS
aYs 2507 YELLOW
2:507 sH-Dso

358 2.507 TUROUOI“
305 3307 PALM GRIEN
3X8 8507 EXECUTIVK m
828 8507 DARK GREEN
8A5 8807 TANGERINE
835 2507 ROYAL BLUE
ASSORTED DISPLAY

 

on“. M’-—- A”

 

MIC CIH GAIN STATE UNIVERSITY LIB'IiAR'EI

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