THE ANATOMY or famw-tA-N BROADCASTING ' ‘ -

Thesis for the Degree of M. A.
mscmcsAN STATE umvaasn’fiv

Mary R. Jackson
19.64 ’

 

 

 

 

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ABSTRACT
THE AflA'i’C‘fiY OF BOLIVIAH BRCADCASTIIJG

by Mary R. Jackson

Broadcasting in relatively young in Bolivia. The radio
stations, which are of a limited number and power, have existed
only since the late 1930's. Recently, various educational
groups have beoun to use radio as an educational tool. Tele-
vision is nonexistent.

Information from organizations familiar either with
Bolivia or broadcasting, as well as personal interviews and
library sources, have provided most of the information for this
historical and descriptive study.

A In the first part of the thesis, I deal generally with
the history and culture of Bolivia, giving attention to such
factors as location, types of people, general history, national
government, economy, education and social welfare.

Other sections of the thesis are devoted to an analyti-
cal study and description of commercial and state-controlled
radio, the use of radio as an educational tool, and the future
role of television in Bolivia. A summary of the findings of

the thesis is included.

TEE AHATUHY OF BQLIVIAH BROADCASTIKG

By

Mary R. Jackson

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of TV, RADIO 8 FILA
COLLEGE OF COfiH'RICATION ARTS

196%

\ .
fldodun-QQ V; 0%., )I'fuéu

ACKEIOHLEDW‘WMTS

With gratitude to Professor Leo Martin for his encour-
agement in my graduate studies, to Dr. Walter Emery, my thesis
adviser and teacher, and to my parents for their help and
understanding.

Dedicated to:

Miss Ruth Larkin

TABLE OF CDHTEHTS

ACKnouLnnnthTS . . . .

INTRODUCTIOR. . . . . .

Chapter

I. A CULTURAL ERCKCRCUND OF BOLIVIA.

HiStOPY o o o n o o o 0

Revolution. .

O

O 0

National Government . .
Departments and Cities.

PEOpleo . O 0

Land and Location 0

Economy 0 a o

O O
O O C
I O
O I

Labor and Socinl welfare.

Education . o

Cowmunication and TranSportnt

00......

00......

ion

0.0.0....

Summary of Cultural Background. .

II.

ANALYTICAL STUD

Y AND DEFCRIPTIUN OF
ROLIVIRU BflflflDCACTIHQ

Physical Facilities . a
Government Regulations.

Pronrnnminv .
Advertising
Personnel 0
Penalties 0
Goals . c o
Summary . .

0....

O

.0...

1

.0...

ii

00......

0.0.0...

00......

00......

0.0.0.0....

00......

0.0.0000...

0.0.0.0....

00......

12
13
17
21
2k

27
29
30

33

33
35
39
ul
uz
«a
an
as

Page

Chapter
III. RAH->10 AS A}: EI’UCIXTI’QWAL TQOLQ . o g g g g g . ”3
Backwround. o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 “9
HBPYKROII Radio Stations. 0 o o o o o o o 50
HiStOPY o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 50
Orranization of Schools . . . . . . . . . 51
Classes 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 52
Teachinr Waterials. o o o o c o a o o o o 55
Radio San Rafael. o o o o o o o I o a o o 55
ECODOWiC Problems 9 a o o o a o o o o o o 56
RESUItB a o o o o o o o o o o o a a o o o 57
Other Stations. 9 a o o o o o . g o o o 58
5113137511“), 0 o o ‘0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 59
IV. TELEVISIQN. a o a o o o o o o a o o o o o o o 51
V. SUEZ-VARY c o o o o o o o I o o o o o o a o a a 6'4
{\PPFHDIXQ o o o a o o o o o o o o o o a o o o o o o a 73
3131.1(3CRAPNY0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 8'4

iv

NTRODUCTION

Two of the basic functions of the mass media are to
keep the public informed, and to provide a supplement for

formal education.1

These functions are important in any society--
highly develoned or underdeveloped.

According to standards established by UNESCO, an economy
is underdeveloped if the average per capita income is less than
$300.00 per year. The media are considered underdeveloped if
there are less than five radio receivers or two television re-

2

ceivers per 100 persons. UKESCO claims there is an 86% corre-

lation between underdevelopment in general (partially determined
by per capita income) and underdevelooment of the media.3
UHESCO also points out the reciprocal relationship be-
tween the media and the economy. For example, e certain level
of wealth must be reached by a country before it can afford
services less essential than food or shelter. Yet the informa-
tion media can stimulate the capacity to create further wealth

by teaching skills and raising the level of education in an

effort to improve economic development.“

A— __l

1UNESCO, Mass Media in the Developing Countries (Paris
WOPXShOpB Of UNESCO. 1951), P. 150

21b1do. P. 15.
31bid., p. 17.
“Ibido’ p. 15.

2
In this study of Bolivian broadcasting, the relation-
ship of media develonment and develOPment level in general has
been considered. Several factors hindering the develOpment of
the country have necessarily influenced the growth of its media
as well.
First of all, Bolivia's history is one of rule by the

aristocracy.5

When the Spanish discovered South America, they
found the advanced civilization of the Incas in the area now
known as Bolivia: Pizzaro conquered this area in 1538. After
Bolivia became independent in 1825, a few rich families ruled
the people. Not until 1952 was there a true social revolution.
Even today 80 percent of the pepulation is not integrated into
the national economy; a majority of these people are illiterate
and concerned only with basic necessities of life. Radio has
not been experimented with nor demanded by 'the pe0p10,' as it
has been in many other countries.

I Secondly, geographical factors deter transmission, in-
cluding the height of the Andes and the great distances between
Indian villages. Geolonically, mineral depoaits in the mountains
deflect signals, even when powerful transmitters are used.6

Thirdly. Bolivia's state of economy, cepecially since
the revolution, has been chaotic, and economic resources are

sadly limited.7

_.

sCharles Arnnde, The Emergence of the Bolivian Regublic
(Cainesville: University oT‘Tlorida Press, 19571, p. 10.

6Personal letter from Florence Thomason, March, iseu.

7Personal interview, hr. Gaston Canedo, Bolivian Mission
to the United Nations, February 18, lQBh.

3

Fourthlv, there is a language barrier between the
Indiana and the Spaniards (white Bolivinns), deny Indians are
not only illiterate in their own languages (Quechua and Aymara)
but they do not understand Spanish.8

Chapter I of this thesis is devoted to an analysis of
these factors and other nepects of Polivian culture as they re-
late to broadcasting.

Chapter II is an analytical study and description of
the radio medium, including such facets as physical facilities,
governmental regulations, programming policies, advertising
procedures, penalties, and goals of varioue stations.

Chapter III examines radio as an educational tool. It
is a description of various organizations and what they have
done through radio to educate the highland Indian.

In Chapter IV the absence of television and the possi-
bilities for future development are explained.

ChaPter V contains a sumrery of the thesis.

8Lecture on Bolivia, Dr. Ivan Alten, Urban Planning
Department, Hichigan State University, January, 196“.

.HAPTER I
A CULTURAL BACK’TROUTH) OF BULIVIA

fiistorz

The origin of man on the Bolivian Plateau has provoked
a good deal of speculation. It is thourht that theaaricultural
civilization of South America began on the Altiplano bv men who
migrated from the Troyicel Yunras.1 This area become part of
the Incan empire before the Spanish invasion of South America.
In 1532, the Soeniards conquered the Incas and shortly after
this, Diego Be Almngro (an associate of Pizzaro) led an expedi-
tion through the territory we now know as Bolivia.2

In the middle lShO's, silver deposits were discovered
in the rountein of Potosi and immediately a settlement was
founded. Other cities were repidlv developing. Le Fez was
founded in lSIB and Cochahemha (The Villa de Gropeze) was founded
in 1570.3 Bolivia's most rrominent cities were all established
before 1100.

During the eighteenth century, community interests and

traditions became strong. A growing spirit of nationalism

A _L_.._ A -

1 .
Harold Osborne, Bolivia A Land Divided (Great
Britain: Broadvater Press Et3., 195“). p. o

21bid., p. 50.

31bido' P. 51.

5

kindled the desire for independence from Spain. The Audiencia
of Charcaa, on Hay 25, 1809, issued a decree calling for free-
dou of the Americas from Spain. After an unsuccessful revolu-
tion in La Paz led by Pedro Domingo Hurillo, Bolivia attained
its freedom in the Battle of Aycucho (?3ru), in 182l. This
victory, won by Hariscal (Marshall) Antonio Jose do Sucre, was
the last of the battles for independence in South America."

However, this was not the last of Bolivia's problems.
As Charles Arnade writes, "On Saturday, August 6, 1825, Bolivia
began her life as an independent notion; she was at the thresh-
hold of a terrible and frightening history."s

Simon Bolivar was the first president of the new republic,
but shortly after he took office he turned over the presidency
to Marshall Sucre, who remained in power only a short time.
Later came an invasion from Peru, led by Andres Santa Cruz.
Santa Cruz proclaimed himself president of both Bolivia and Peru
and ruled for 10 years. He wan overthrown in 1839 by external
forces.

The period between lBhO and 1900 was a chaotic time for
Bolivia. Temporary stability was achieved by President Jose
Ballivian in lSHl. However, revolutions, international wars,
and aeaaasinationa made stability impossible for more than a
fee years at a time.

During the War of the Pacific in 1879, Bolivia lost her

qPan American Union, Bolivia, 1955, p. 9.

sCharles Arcade, The Emar once of the Bolivian Republic
(Gainsville: University of Florida Prone, 19577, p.’§0$.

6
Pacific coastline to Chile, becoming landlocked. For twenty-
five years, the country had no shipping access to a seaport.
Finally in 190R Bolivia received a railroad from La Fax to
the Chilean port of Arico, as the result of a treaty made through
the negotiations of President Aniceto Arce who served from
1383 to 1892.

The twentieth century has been one of many transitions
for oolivia. President Ismael Hontes began the exploitation
of many mineral resources, and economic development occurred
rapidly. Hontes built railroads, improved technical methods
for industry and encouraged scientific training in agriculture.
{e also tried to reduce illiteracy.

The country seemed to be moving ahead peacefully when
the Chaco war broke out in 1932. This dispute involved a sec-
tion of the Chaco Boreal (which was rich in cattle and timber)
and which was clained by both Bolivia and Paraguay. In 1938,
a treaty was sinned giving Paraguay threeofourths of the dis-
puted land, and bolivia was nranted port facilities on the
Paraguay River.

This Chaco war made the 1952 Rolivian revolution in-
evitable.6 First of all, it complately disorganized the
economy; consequently, rebellion against the semi-feudal sys-
tem of ownership in tho tin mines began to grow. Secondly, it
discredited the army. The desertoro and cowards as wall as
tho politicians who had used the army for personal gain dis-

credited the government in the people's eyes. Thirdly, the

*A A _ _L

6Robert J. Alexander. The Bolivian Rational Revolution
(How Jersey: Rutger's UniversityfiPrcso, 1958}. p. 73}

7
workers and miners began to see that there were other and
better ways to live. Fourthly, discontent was sowed among the
intelleqcntsia. flew partias with new platforma were organized,
givinfi the covernwent in power much competition.

To help remedy this situatinn, the government of
Colonel German Busch (1937-1938) tried to bring about various
reforms. One of these was to prevent the wealthy tin mine
owners from transfarring their profits to EuPOpe. A long dis-
pute between President Busch and the owners of the tin mines
resulted in his suicide.

Finally. in 1932, violence eruntcd in the mining camps.
An arm-d battle at the Patina mines at Catavi broke out. Many
miners were killed and the conflict grew evan deeper. It con-
tinued during the pvasidency of fiajcr fluxlhcrta Villarroal who
was murdered after two and one-half years in office.

A great struggle for control of the national govern-
ment follcwcd until 1951 whcn the Hoviemientc Hacionalista
Revoluclonaria gained youcr and elected Victor Pas Estenssoro
as the new president. The army, however. soon seized control
of this government and set up a military junta which lasted
until April 1952, when a three-day social revolution swept the
country and Pa: Ecteasscro was reinstated. This revalution has
baen called the ”most important indigenous revolutionary move-
ment since Hexico."7

Victor Paz Estanasoro, currently presl act of Bolivia,

served as hand of the republic from 1952 to 1956. He was

7Rcbert J. Alexander, ”Bolivia," 9.3. Policy in_Latin
America, XXXV, No. l, 1963, 116.

8
succeeded by Senor Hernan Siles from 1956 to 1960, and was then
re-elected in 1960 and 196“. Under his administrations some re-
forms have been achieved, althoufih the country is still largelv
dependent upon one product, tin. ”any of the people are still
unable to read or write and are barely selfosufficient.
Eclivia's history records nearly a dozen constitutions,

8 It is under-

60 revolts and six presidential assassinations.
standnhle that while many countries have been experimenting with
electronic communications media during the 20th century, Bolivia

has fallen behind because of her exolosive history.

Revolution

Althounh the Chaco war served as fuel for the revolu-
tion, various other factors are also ioportant: the poverty of
both the country itself and the majority of the people; the
division of one country into two nations (the city people and
the rural people): the four-century-old struggle over land;
and inequality between the over-exploited tin market and the
country's other underdeveloped resources. Such factors made
the country ripe for revolt.g

In 1952, Bolivia was taken over by rcvolutionists who
intended to incorporate the Indian of the rural areas into the
life of the nation. According to Dr. Ivan Alton in a lecture
on Bolivia, the majority of them had never bought or sold goods

in the Bolivian markets.

 

8Robert 8. Kane, South America A to 2 (Garden City:
Double Bay and Company, Inc., , o
9

Alexander, The Bolivian National Revolution, 22. cit.,
p. 21.

9

The revolution involved an armed uprising of the city
workers of La Paz, the tin miners and the national police force.
The party which led the revolution, and which is still in power
today, was the Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionerio or HER.

After the revelation, various acts took place. One
of these-othe agrarian reforno-cleimed that all land was the
prOperty of the tenants. No longer could the rich landowners
operate their semi-feudal system of organization. However, by
1963, only one-third of this land had been transferred to the
workers. The slowness of this reform has been attributed to the
shortage of persons trained to survey, divide and distribute

the land properly.10

Other parts of the agrarian reform act
gave the right to vote to illiterates, and provided organiza-
tion for peasant unions, militia grOUps and political units.

11 The three

The HHR also nationalized the tin mines.
biggest tin companies, Patina, Aramay and Hochschild, were
expropriated in 1952; this has been the most controversial act
of the HflR. The mines have been operating at a loss because
of the padding of mine workers' forces, and hiring and paving
many more miners than necessary to do the job. Labor relations
have been aggravated because of the closing of old, unproductive
mines.

Recently, the Operacion Triangular (the Bolivian govern-

ment, nest German private firms, and the International Bank and

United States Treasury) has tried to improve conditions. The

10Alexander, 22, cit.. p. 110.

111b1d., p. 111.

10
Corporacion fiinera do Bolivia, has been formed with new capital
and surposedly has been given the power to lay off surplus
workers and enforce labor discipline.”

The third act of the HER has been an attemot to develop
a more diversified economy.12 The petroleum industry has
developed so that Bolivia now produces enough to meet her own
needa. In 1956, legislation was passed which enabled foreiwn
firms to invest in Bolivian oil fields. Culf Oil has recently
discovered petroleum in Bolivia.

Another important act of the MNR was to begin develop-
ment of the eastern part of the country-«tho so-called Oriente.
Two-thirds of the land of Rolivia lies in the Oriente which
is low, tropical and hot, and capable of growing a great variety
of agricultural products. A road from Cochabamba to Santa Cruz
has helped to encourage migration. Colonies of foreigners-«
Japanese, Okinawan: and German Mennonites-«have had considerable
agricultural auccess, and highland Indians are beginning to
move east and farm there.

The political outlook since the revolution has been
one of change and controversy. One authority claims that "it
is one of the most stable governments in the history of
Bolivia,“13 while another says, 'It is progress built on a
shaky foundation, and anything can happen.'1u

One result, however, is impressive. It is the first

 

1
l

21bid., p. 113.
31bido. p. 11“.

lu'A New Success Story in Latin America,” U. 8. News
and world Report, June 15, 196%, p. 62.

11
time in history that the leader of Bolivia has not been pressured
by the decisions of the military leaders. The Armv, rather
than being "on alert" for a counter-revolution, has been put
to work building roads and other projects. It is working with
the government in trying to raise the living standard of the
peeple.

While President Paz Estenssoro has tried to allow free-
dom of speech, some violent opposition parties have forced him
to limit the degree of this freedom. Generally, these parties
have had the support in the cities while Paz Estenssoro is
supported in the countryside. One dissident political party,
the Partido Revolucionario Autentico, was formed as loyal
opposition in 1960.

The revolutionary government has run into various
economic difficulties. It has tried to spend beyond its re-
sources and, with the decline in tin production, inflation has
resulted. For example, in 1952, 200 bolivianos were worth one
American dollar. In 1956, it took 15,000 bolivianos to equal
a dollar. During the last few years the exchange rate has been
about 12,000 to the dollar.15 Another problem has arisen because
manufacturers have not taken advantage of the Opportunity to
expand markets among the Indians, while at the same time their
previous markets have shrunk, due to stabilization measures.

As the economy has become more diversified, the fiuR
has turned more to radio as a means of communication. Three

new state-ownedaand-operated transmitters are being built this

1sAlexander, £2, cit., p. 116.

12
year. They will be discussed in Chapter II of this thesis.

For the most part. the revolutionary aims and acts have
only begun to take effect, yet two points are important to
remember. First of all, this revolution of 1952 is the only
indirenous social revolution in South America since the Mexican
revolution of 1911. Secondly, the Indian has finally been given

attention and an attempt is being made to improve his condition.16

National Government

The present constitution of Bolivia is its twelfth. It
was adopted in 1938, and amended in 19u5 and 19H7. The constitu-
tion provides for a republican form of government similar to
that in the United States, divided into legislative, executive
and judicial branches.17

Voting is compulsory, and all married persons over 18
years of are and single persons over 21 years of age have the
right and responsibility to vote.

The president possesses the executive power and serves
as the chief executive of the unitarian government for four
years. The rovernnent is described as unitarian because the
states do not have separate governing facilities, as in a federal
syeten. Until this year the president was not allowed to run
for reelection; through the influence of President Paz

Estenseoro, the constitution was czhanred and Paz Estenssoro

is presently serving his second consecutive term. In case of

 

16Alexander, ”Bolivia,” U. 3. Policy in Latin America,
xxxv, no. 1, 1953, 118.

17 . , . .
Pan finerican Union, on. c1t.. n. 12.

13
death or disability, the vice-president assumes the office of
preeident. A cabinet of twelve ministers assists the Chief
Executive.

The legislative branch of the Bolivian rovernment is
similar to that in the United Stetes. ?he Congreee is made up
of two houses; the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. The
members of the Senate are elected for six years (three from
each of 27 districts). One-third of them retire every two
years. The 120 members of the Chamber are elected every four
years, one-half retiring every two years.

The judicial branch of the :ovcrncent includes the
Supreme Court, the superior district courts and the local courts
of justice. Justices are chosen by a two-thirds vote of Congress
and serve for ten years.

Perhaps it is because of the similar forms of govern-
ment that the Bolivian broadcasting rerulations are like those
of the United States' FCC. These rerulations will he discussed

in the next chapter.

Departments and Cities
There are nine departments (comparable to our states)
in Bolivia. Theee departments and their capitals are as

follows:18

lalbid., p. 15.

1Q

 

Department CaEitol

La Paz La Paz
Cochabanba Cochabamba
Potosi Potosi
Santa Cruz Santa Cruz
Chuquisaca Sucre
Oruro Oruro
Tarija Tariia

El Bcni Trinidad
Pando Cobija

Each department is divided into several provinces
(counties) which in turn are divided into sections. There
are also u,soo Indian communities headed by chiefs which are
recognized by law. They are governed according to tribal pro-
cedures.

La Paz - "Overwhelmed, speechless, etupefied, blinded
by too much light, the traveller arriving for the first time
in La Paz experiences a sense of awakening, of coming from the
vast desolate desert, as if out of a nightmare, into the Garden

Of Eden.'19

This description is of the functioning capitol

of Bolivia, “La Pax, Our Lady of Peace, La Paz of the peaceful
sky, of the peaceful air, La Paz of Illimani lit by the snows.”2O
The legal capital of Bolivia is Sucre. However, all of the
executive and legislative offices are located in La Pan, a city
of more than 325,000 people. Situated more than two and one-
quarter miles above sea level, La Pat is the highest capitol in

21

the world and one of Bolivia‘s highest cities. The oxygen

 

ngean Manzon, Miguel-Angel Asturias, and Die: de Medina,
Eplivin, An Undiscovered Leng_(3witzerlands George C. Harrap 8
tompany, Ltd.,41§61), 55.

20

 

Ibid.. p. 55.

21PM American UHiOD, 2110 Cite. P0 120

15
supply is very limited, and it is especially difficult for
tourists to adjust to the atmosphere. The Bolivian: who are
born in La Paz develop very large lungs to compensate for the
thin air.

La Paz serves as a meeting place for both the Quechua
and Aymara Indians; other tribes are also found in the market
places. There are Urua from Lake Poopo, Atacamas from Desa-
guaders, and the Chaneos.22

Some of the more beautiful and outstanding buildings
of the city are the Capitol, the Cathedral, the Church of Santo
Domingo and the Diet do Hedina Palace.
£2223_- Sucre is located at an altitude of 8,900 feet and is
the official or legal capitol of Bolivia, although the Supreme
Court is the only branch of the government which meets here.
Sucre in the country's cultural center, partially because it is
the location of the University of San Francisco Xavier (an in-
stitution which has been called the cradle of South American
independence).23

Sucre is situated in the center of an agricultural
region and serves as a distribution area. It has some small
industries.

Cochabamba - Cochahamba is the second largest city in Bolivia,
with a population of about 90,000. It is the capitol of the
department of Cochahamba. Located on the east west tranSporta-

tion route, it is in ‘tho richest agricultural region of Bolivia.

22

Manama, an. (Zita. Po 58.

23Pan American Union, 223 Cit-o P. 13'

13

Some of the products of Cochabdmba are wheat and corn
flour, wine and beer, leather and woolen goods, preserves, soap,
and earthenware.2n

Spanish colonial architectural desinn gives many of the
homes in the city of Cochabamba a distinctive arpearance.
Potosi - Potosi is Bolivia's fourth larcest city. It is one
of the nrincipal mining centers, and the town of the famous
silver hill, Cerro Rico. Potosi is the highest city in the
world, more than 13,600 feet above sea level, and it has an
avcrnre temperature of only “8 degrees Parenheit.

The Cerro Rico has produced some two billion dollars in
silver since it was discovered by the Spanish, but today it
produces mainly tin, tungsten and bismuth.25
Oruro - Oruro is one of the best known mining cities. Located
north of Lake Poopo, Oruro is the railroad center of Bolivia,
and is famous for the ”Devil Dancers” who perform during the
pro-Lenten carnival season.
ganta Cruz - Santa Cruz is the capitol of the department of
Santa Cruz. It is the larnest city in the tropics. It is the
center of commerce for tropical products because of railway
connections with Argentina and Brazil and a hirhwav to Cocha-
bamba.

Tarija, Trinidad, and Cobiia are the other capitol cities. They

are small, having only those buildings necessary for the govern-

mental work done there. Their populations are less then

2nlbida, p. 130

stanc, ‘E? Cito. p. 2150

17
ua,ooo.

The cities of Bolivia are full of contrast. In any
one city, the old world and the now stand side by side. The
mining towns of Cruro and Potosi differ from the cultural
center of Sucre, the Spanish colonicl Cochabambd, and the
modern capitol of La Paz. This is one reason why a uniform

system of communications has been difficult to establish.

Peogle
Comparing the wealthy mine owner family, Patina, and the
typical Indian of the highlands, Robert 8. Kane claina that
the only characteristic which those two groups have in common
is “that they belong to the same country.”28
With the lowest living standard in Latin America, 361
to $100 a year, the majority of the people live at a subsistence
lcval. The average life expectancy is 50 years. Seventy per-
cent of the people live on the Altiplano and thirty percent
live in the valleys and lowlands.27
The Bolivian p0pulation can be divided into three differ-
ent groups. The largest comprises the peasants or the highland
Indians. The Indian men are of medium stature, thicksat with
a large trunk and hands and small feet. Their faces are broad

with prominent cheekbones, and their almond-shaped eyes suggest

oriental characteristics. The woman have even fuller faces and

L; _ 4.“...

26Kane, 93. Cito. p. 2160

27Department of State, Fact Sheet - Aid in_§ction,
U.S. flovernment Printinn Office, Uhcember.’195f, 5.

18
their eye folds are more pronounced.28

Both the Quechua and the Aymara Indians are basically
anricultural. They know little if anythinn about any other
way of life. host of their houses are simple, simple-room
structures, approximately 12 x 8 feet, with thatched roofs and
one door. A llama pelt (perhaps with a sheepskin cover) is the
most conron type of bed.29

The Indian woman is easily reconnized by her costume.

The Aymara woven wears multiocolored skirts. 'She sleeps,
makes love, gives birth in them, and when you see one of them
crouching on the streets in some village, you know exactly what
she in doing.'30 A derby hat adds the finishing touch to the
woman's typical costume.

The Quechua woman wears only one skirt (long and not
belled). with a mantle (like a man's poncho). Usually she
wears a white straw hat which looks like a stovepipe with a
brim.

The Indians constantly chew coca, but they drink ”chicha"
made from fermented maize only on occasion. Their morals are
usually high. However, those Indians who have been brought
into the minen find their traditions are challenged. They do
not know how to react to such a different atmosphere and way

of life. Generally. they lose their pride and their moral:

28Harold Osborne, Indians ofAthe Andes (London: Rout-
ledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., Igszl. 257.

ngeter Schnid, Beggars on Golden Stools (new York:
Pracgcr, 1956). 231.

3°Ibid.

19
denenerate.3l
Most of the Indians have no interest in money as such,
but rather rrefer to barter; there is a fair or a market in
every town or villane.
The Indians still are sunnicioue of the white Bolivians.
The following conversation between an Indian and a government
(white Eolivian) investigator illustrates this.32
Indian: I am so old that I don't remember ny name. Please
(with a posture carryinn something of impatience
and eunnlication) do not bother me, because I don't

remember anything.

Invest: we are not yoinh to harm you in any way. What is
the name of your oldest child?

Indian: I have forgotten his name, too.
Invest! where is your son now? Perhaps we can talk with him.

Indian: Workine in the field. A lone way from here, a very
long way. I don't know exactly where.

Invest: how many sheen do you have?

Indian: Just 10. They are very thin. There is no paeture
here on which to grave them. Yes, I have hardly any
sheep at all.

Invest: (The herd happens to be near and a rapid count is
made. The result is 35.) You are not telling us the
truth. we have counted them and there are 35. why
don't you tell us the truth?

Indian: You are right. There are 35, just as you say.

This resistance to giving accurate information is a
carryover from the days when the Indians were merely tillers of
the soil for semi-feudal landlords. Prior to the revolution

they learned to underestimate their belongings in order to keep

L A As. . A ' L .- ... A _A_

31Osborne, 23. cit., p. 219.

32Glen D. Leonard, Bolivia, Land, Peogle and Institu-
tions (Washington, D.C.. The Scarecrow Frees, I957),lEI.

20
as much as possible for themselves. Today, when they understand
that investigators have no desire to take their property, they
become more COQperative, and with the passing of the years, the
job of making surveys of Indian possessions becones easier.

The second important group of Bolivians are the Cholos,
or Mestizos. These are people of mixed Spanish and Indian
ancestry. The Cholos, although they are looked down upon by
the Spanish Eolivians, are allowed to hold some offices and ac-
quire some prestige. A story which was told to me by a Bolivian-
American woman will better illustrate this relationship. A
Spanish Bolivian boy, who was a student in the United States,
was asked to go to visit another Bolivian student in Michigan.

He tried in various ways to avoid yoing, and finally admitted
he did not want to meet the boy because ”he was a Cholo.'33

The third group of Bolivians who make up a significant
part of the population are those of predominantly Spanish descent.
They account for approximately 15 percent of the ponulation and
hold most of the important commercial and professional positions.
The language of these people is Spanish. fiost members of this
group will admit that they are not of pure Spanish descent.

When the conquerors first arrived from Spain they often married
the native Indian women. Shin practice was ended nearly #00

years ago, and the mixing of Spanish and Indian blood since has
been very limited. Yet many Bolivians, even of the upper class,

have some Indian ancestry.

wa-g-L ‘4..___.L M M

33

v‘ . “w.

Statement by Hajory Aseltine, personal interview.

21

Land and Location

No where else in the world does a nation possessing
cities, railways and modern industry exist at such a high alti-
tude.

Bolivia is the fifth largest countrv in Latin America--

about the size of Texas and California combined.3u

The peaks
of the Andes reach as hlfih as 2u,000 feet with the lowest
mountains 12,000-lM,OOO feet above sea level. Lake Titicaca,
located between Bolivia and Peru, is 138 miles long and 69 miles
wide. It has a maximum depth of 960 feet and is situated at an
altitude of 12,600 feet, flaking it the world’s hirhest inland
lake. Lake Titicaca's fresh water drains into Lake Poono which
has no outlet.35

Host of Bolivia has great extremes in temperature be-
tween day and nirht. Because La Paz is in a sheltered canyon,
it is more comfortable, one reason why people have insisted on
making it the functioning capitol.

A Bolivian authority has estimated that in all of high-
land Bolivia, there are about 10 million acres of land suited
to agriculture. Less than one-half of this land is under culti-
vation-class than a quarter of the land cultivated in a state

like Ohio.35

The land of Bolivia is divided into threa distinct

 

3“Department of State, 22, cit., p. l.
351hia.
3°R. S Whitbeck, Economic fleopraphy of South America

 

‘1.

(New York: ECG aw Hill Book Co.. Inc., 19257;“1u1.

22

sections: the Altiplano (high nlateau), the Valles and Yunnan
(valleys and deep slopes) and the LLanoa (Aoazon-Chaco low-
lands.)37

The Altinlano on the Peru-Chilean bordnr is the site
of the ancient Incan civilization. It is a broad, rolling
plateau at an averane nltitufle of 1?,000 feet. Some of the
peaks which surround this area are Illinrni (21,277 ft.),

38 can 0
). inc mountain

Illanpu (23,320 ft.) and Sajamn (21,092 ft.
ranges which make up the fiolivian Andes are the "Cordillera
Occidental," western ranre; the "Cordillera Peal! royal range;
and the "Cordillera Oriental," eastern rannc.

Yunnan is an Aymara word which applies to the semi-
trOpical mountain valleys on the eastern slepos of the Cordillera
Real.39 The Yunras include about one-tenth of the total area
of the country and about one-third of the porulation. here
humidity is very hinh, and the climate is subtropical. The
slopes and valleys are covered with lush vegetation.

These mountain jungles are filled with a variety of
plant life. The timber includes cedar, mahonany, walnut laurel,
jacaranda, cieba, caucho, cinchona (the source of quinine bark)
and various palms. There are also many medicinal and aromatic
trees and dyowoodn. Fruit and vegetables crow everywhere and
it is next to impossible to keep a clearinz for agricultural
purposes. For example, in the highest regions, grapes, peaches,

fins and apples are found. Below 6,000 fact, there is an

A

37Pan Averican Union, 223 C1 to P0 30

3312311940, I". 3.

39

 

fishorne, A Land Divided, 22, cit., p. 19.

23
unlimited variety of semitropicnl fruits. Oranges, limes,
grapefruit, lemons, tangerines, six varieties of bananas, pine-
apples, avocados, chirimoyas, panayas, pomegranates, melons,
cantaloupes, quinces, manyos, persimmons, Indian fins, and
many others with only local names grow wild.no Suwar cane,
tobacco, cacao, and coffee also grow readily, but the only
crop which is seriously cultivated is coca. It is thought,
however, that with proner irrivation and cultivation methods,
the Yunnan could supply the main acricultural requirements of
Bolivia.

The lowlands, called the Oriente, encompass approxi-
mately 70 percent of the land in Bolivia. This is contrary
to the belief that holivia is mostly hishland. The climate is
hot, and the amount of rainfall is penerally high.

According to one authority, the Orientc consists of
dense trepical forests of the Amazon basin, vast natural pas-
ture lands and open forests. It is underdeveloped, under-
populated and deficient in communication with the rest of the
country.In This is the section of Bolivia in which the govern-
ment has tried to encourave minration and settlement of the
highland Indians. The soil is fertile and is suitable for
the cultivation of citrus and tropical fruits, coffee, suwar
cane, cacao, coca, rice, cotton and rubbers.2

In summary, Bolivia is a landlocked country, bordered

by Chile, Argentina, Paraguay, Brazil and Peru. Its land

“01bid., p. 21.
“11bido. p. 21.

uzPan American Union, 2:, Ci ., p. S.

2n
can be divided into three distinct areas; the Altiplano, the
Yunoas and the Oriente. It is suitable for the growth of a
great variety of agricultural product9¢oyet, so far, full ad-

vantage of the resources has not been taken.

Economy

Since the revolution, the tin mines that provide 90
percent of Bolivia's exports have been nationalized. However,
under state monaqement, payrolls have become featherbeds and
wornout machinery has not been replaced. The mines now lose
an averane of $8,500,000 a year.“

The Indians who work in the mines are a significant
threat to Bolivia's economy and peace. Host of them carry their
own weapons, de5pise officials in La Paz, and live "as if there
was no tomorrow."u“ They are able to toil underaround for
only four or five years, and their oversee life span is 30
years.’ This is due to various lung diseases caused by the fumes
of the mines.

Although the economy has been plarued by inflation and
instability ever since 1952, conditions supposedly have taken
a turn for the better in the past two years. Last year (1963)
Bolivia had the highest economic growth rate in Latin America—-
6.5 percent--and since 1961, per capita income has jumped 5.8

percent.us

h3"The HemiSPhEPe‘EOIiV139. Time fiaoazine, 30V. 10 1963’
p. 510

I“h'h‘hy the Outlook Brightcns in Bolivia,” The National
Observer, June 15, 196“, p. 8.

“5U. S. NGWS and World RGPGPt. 22’ Cite. P. 620

25

Foreign exchange reserves have advanced from almost
nothing to 15 million dollars. Indians for the first time
have titles to their own land and are able to buy shoes, put
window glass in their huts, and buy radios and bicycles.

Althoush the bolivian economy still is dependent mainly
on tin, some tungsten, antimony, silver, copper, zinc and lead
are also produced. The mining area of Corocoro is one of the
world's two sources of native copper-«cooper in pure form in-
stead of an ore. A larne iron ore deposit was discovered in
195% near the Brazilian border in eastern Santa Cruz.

Bolivia has several oil fields in the eastern foothills
of the Andes and it is hoped that their production will even-
tuelly reach the point where its refineries can Operate at full
capacity without using imported crude oil.

Although most of the population is employed on the land,
agriculture and stock raising is of secondary importance to
mining. Livestock includes cattle, sheep, pigs, goats, horses,
mules, donkeys, llamas, and alpscas.

Rubber and cinchona are Bolivia's principal forest
products. Industry is very limited. There are some textile
mills, flour mills and breweries as well as a sugar refinery.

Thus, while the maiority of the Bolivian ponuletion is
employed in agriculture, the majority of Bolivian exports are

those of the mines.

Labor and Social welfare
Information about labor and social welfare is relatively

new and limited. Therefore, unless noted otherwise, the

26
information in this section is taken from the Pan American
Union publication cited in the bibliography.

Before the revolution, peasants who worked on semi-
feudal estates were supposed to work on the employeris land
certain days of the week. Since the land is now being put in
possession of the tenants, this is not nearly so common. The
government has passed the Asrarian Reform Program of 1953
whereby the peasant must pay for land he receives within 25
years.

The United Nations' Technical Assistance procram in
Bolivia makes provision for an appropriation of 59,791,815
bolivianos to help the agricultural workers of the Altiplano.

The mining and railway workers have formed unions which
have become quite strong. Office workers now have various
syndicates.

A General Labor Act provides for collective bargaining,
fixes maximum hours of work, minimum pay and overtime pay.
There is also a National Social Insurance Fund and a Bolivian
Social Security Institute.

Bolivia has a prOgram in health education. Various
occupational training programs are also conducted by the govern-
ment. Thirty percent of the national Lottery profits go to
private welfare organizations: Bolivia has 18 orphanages, a
veteran’s welfare department, three institutes for the blind
and two rehabilitation centers for blind adults. There is an
active Bolivian Red Cross.

Some public housing programs have been attenrted but

these are not on nearly a large enourh scale. Besides sponsoring

27
housing, the government provides health centers, maternity
hoopitals, sewage disposal, slaughterhouse sanitation and

garbage disposal.

Education

Between the tine Bolivia gained her independence from
Spain in 1825, and the early 1900's, a limited number of schools
were established. Only the upper class children were able to
attend the private schools. In the later part of the 1800's
a missionary group from Belnium attempted to improve the situa-
tion, but not much of lasting effect was accomplished.

The situation today is somewhat innroved. Kindergartens
are of two kinds in Bolivia. The first level is for children
one to four years and is operated mainly as a nursery for chil-
dren with working mothers. The second level is for children
four to six years of age and is similar to the American kinder-
garten.

Elenentary school education is free, and compulsory for
all children between the ages of seven and thirteen. However,
it is estimated that only about 2H3 actually attend school.“6
Equipment and facilities are meager in the urban schools, and
the rural schools have even less with which to work. Lacking
lirht and ventilation, many of the buildinrs are only mud huts
constructed by the Indians. One immediate problem is the in-
ability of most Indian children to speak Spanish, the official
lancuare of the schools.

Because supplies are limited, radio has not been used

g J ‘A

“SOlen E. Leonard, 22, c t., p. 161.

29
at all as a formal clucational tool in the cities. In rural
areas some private organizations have berun to use radio in
their religieua schools. Charter III will he davated ts an
examination of the radio schcols.

In the secondary schools, boys renerally attend one
school and girls another. The high school course takes six
years to complete. but after four years a certificate is given
and the student is elirible to enter a vocational or Special
schcol. If he complete: all six years, he can then enter a
university."7

There are seven universities in fiolivia. ?he oldest
is the University 0 San Francisco Xavier. establiahed in 162a.
It has departfients of law, political and ancial sciences,
medicine and economics, languages and arriculture, fine arts
and music.“3 0ther universities are he University of San
Andres. the University of Cechabawba (San Siren), the University
of Cabriel Rene Voruno, the University of Tomas Priaa, and the
University of fiisae Saracho.

The fiolivian educational svstau is in need of buildings,
money, supplies, teachers and an awarenens on the part of the
pagulation cf the need far educatian. Lcolinz tcward the
future, the coda of education new states, “Education should no

longer ha a monopoly of a ainarity, but the rivht of all

 

Bolivians.'u9 Perhaps radio will have a role in realizing this
#7Ihi'1. . p. 155.
u3min Averican Union, 22, ci ., p. 29.
“Sn

gerircio Coorerativo Interamaricano de qucacion,
fiucacion Polivian1. V01. V11. “00 3”“. “0 110'

I

29

goal.

Communication anq_fran§portation

I had the opportunity of discussing his countrfb prob-
lens with Yr. Gaston Cnnedo, a member of the Bolivian mission
to the United Sations. He mentioned that one of the binnest
and most urgent problems today is the lack of communications
and tran5portation in Bolivia. Because of poor transoortnticn,
many commodities must be imported even thourh other sections of
Eclivia have the safe products available. Such a system creates
the unpleasant feeling that each section of the country is
struprling for its own existence, at other sections' expense.

Two international airlines, Brnniff and Pan American
Grace Airways, connect La Paz with other South American cities.
A Bolivian National line, Lloyd Areo Boliviano (LAB), serves
the larger towns of Bolivia. This airline flien DC 6': and
3's and has an amazino record for safety in spite of the runred
terrain.

In October, 1963, worth Central Airlines of the United
States was awarded a contract by AI? to provide managerial and
technical assistance to LAD. north Central was to reorcanize
the airline, expand the flinht schedule, improve schedule comple¢
tion, develop a favorable image, establish an effective account-

50

ing system and acquire additional working capital. Because

aviation in so necessary to the growth of Bolivia, it is honed

that tho LAB-north Central project will be successful.

A

5°"The Bolivian Project,F North Central Airlines Annual
Re ort, 1963, p. 7. f

30

Presently, railroajs are the moat ingortant form of
transportation. La Paz is connected with the Pacific Coast by
three sinfile-track lines which serve only the Altirlnno and
highland vallevs. In use since 195“ in a HZZ-Eile railway
from Coruube (borderine Brazil) to qante Cruz. Altocether
Bolivia has anrroxiratelv 2,000 miles of reilronds.51

Bolivian hifihwavs are inadequate. Accordinc to the
Director of Highwavs, Folivia has 22,370 rilee of roads, oF
which about 5,003 riles are ”rain roads.”52 This comnares to
a total nileare in fireat firitnin of 183,658 miles.

These Eolivian roads are generally very dangerous.
Almost everv road is dnnaqed bv a flood or landslide on occa-
sion, and little raintennnce work is done. while this is
partially the fault of the government, it ie also due to physi-
cal characteristics of the country. The rountnins and junnles
make the task of reintainina e rood road system at the present
time irpossihle. The poor transportation system has definitely
had an effect on the prowth of brondcastinr. As Er. Canedo
told me, the government thinks it is necesserv to develop a
safe and efficient transportation system before developine a

. 53
radio network.

Summarv of Cultural Background

Bolivia is not an easy country to describe. It is
Slpan American Union, 23, cit., p. 33.

szfleborne, A Land hivided, oo. cit., 9. M3.

.L.
53Cnnedo, Bolivian mission to the U.H. in personal
interview, flew York City, February 18, 196v.

31
characterized by variety, from the people to the land and the
cities.

The history has been one of violence, chaos and con-
fusion-~aonccidlly before the 1952 revolution. There has al-
ways been a distinct class system which has subjected the
majority to the will of the minority. The present governoent,
which desires to change this situation, is race up of three
branches similar to the United States Government.

The cities of Bolivia reflect the varied culture, tradi-
tion, and climate. Class groups include the Indians, Cholos
and Spanish Bolivians. The Indians don't trust the white floliv-
inns and the white Bolivians don't like the Cholos. This makes
it difficult to brinn about national unity and improvement.

The Bolivian economy hinres mainly on tin, and the tin
mines are losing over eight million dollars annually. Some
unions have been formed for the workers' protection, but they
hinder mineral production.

Although education is comoulsory, only a small percentafic
of the children actually attend school and then often in inade-
quate, poorly furnished buildings.

Airlines rrovide the most efficient transportation, al—
thouuh railways are the most important. The highways are inade-
quate and dangerous.

Bolivia has been rlagucd by unstable rovernnents,
political opportunists, a chaotic economy, physical barriers,
and divisions amona the peoole. For the most part, radio has
been thouvht of a3 a luxury which could not be afforded under

such circumstances.

32
however, the country has ex¢erienced a general improve-
ment in living standards, and prowinfi stability, since the 1952
revolution. Consequently, radio has begun to play a large
Pole.
The nve$ent status of radio will be dincussed next in

this thesis.

CHAPTER II
ANALYTICAL S'l'UiIsY £1141) DESC'iIF‘E 1325 a)!" EJULIVIAn deALJCASTIJC

Physical Facilities

According to the official list of Bolivian radio stations
FUblished by the Director-Peneral of Radiocommunicaticns, 67
stations exist at the present time. The frequencies of these
Stations are betxeen 580 kc/s (Radio Huavna Potosi in Filluni)
and 10a hols (Radio Hendez in La Fez). Three of the stations
are FM, one in Cochabnmha and two in La Paz.1

Almost all stations are low~power, urban facilities.
Located in clusters, the stations are divided as follows: Sucre,
h; La Paz, 27; ”illuni, l; Oruro, u; Santa Cruz, 7‘ Cochabawba,
8; Potosi, h; Tarija, 2; Camargo, 1; Llallaqua Siglo XX 1;
Telenayu, 1; Cobija, 2‘ Camiri, 2; and fiontero, 1.2

The government station, Illimani, has licenses for one
20 Kw transmitter and five 10 Kw transmitters. The largest
private stations have 10 Kw power, and 30 of the 87 stations
have 0.25 Kw power.3 Since a larce number of Boliviens do not

live in the cities, radio is inaccessible to the many of the

1Direcion General do Radiocommunicacions, Lista Official
do Fstnciones Bolivianas do Radioflifusion, La Paz, p. 1-H.

 

21bid.

31bid.

33

3s
peonle because the stations are so low-powered.
The United States Infornation service (U813) estimates

that there are 1,230,000 radio receivino sets in Bolivia with

 

‘: n-‘ (1".

a normal audience of some 2,500,000 people." UunJoD has riven
an estimate of 220,390 receivers, froe a survey taken in 1957.5

The USIS has record of 87 stations Operating throurhout
Bolivia and claims that some of these stations are not in the
official list (see appendix) because they are clandestine or
illegal-~0peretiny against the government regulations. The
majority are snotted throunhout the interior and are Union-owned
and ~0reroted. In the mining towns these stations may be very
antagonistic to the government.

The equipnent is usually the least expensive. In most
cases, Marconi aeriels are used for medium-wave transmission and
dipole serials are used for short-wave transmission. These
eeriels are set up on the roofs of buildinns where the studios
and transmitters are located.

The studios are moderately constructed. Radio Illimani,
the government-owned and -opernted station, consists of a snail
studio 3 x 2 meters for announcers, a medium studio 5 x 3 meters,
an auditorium, 10 x H meters, and a joint control room for the

three studios. Host of the private stations are built with

studios and transmitters together. Some of them have rooms

____._. A .4 ‘_ __._

“Personal letter from niss Barbara Hutchinson, USIn
assistance officer, March, 195a.

Sunx)co, Statistics on Radio and Television, 1950-1950
(Paris: Workshops of UJESCD, 1963), p. 52.

35
which will seat 5-100 persons.6

Bolivian stations do not have the mobile units which are
so cannon in horth nmerica. Their recording equipment is
penerally poor. Gone is available for 33 1/3 and 78 rpm recorns,
but it is used very seldom. Record libraries were set no in
l9MS and today 2,500 records are available. Most of them are
in satisfactory condition.

The private stations in long had two machines for re-
cordins which could be temporarily leased. Since then additional
facilities have been madeavailable.

There is no manufacture of radio equipment in Bolivia.
All facilities must be imported. Receivers are bounht mainly
from the United States, England, Argentina, Sweden and Switzer-
land. Records are inserted from he United States, flrrentina,

Chile, England and Urunuav.7

"overnment Resulstions

 

Radio is reeulsted through the ”Rerlsnento General de
Servicios Pndioel.ctricos.' These resulations, soproved by the
government of the Bolivian Ferublic on hovenber 11, 1960, are
known as Becree #05632.8

The executive rower (president) has the authority to

enforce the renulations, throunh the Director-Veneral of Tele—

ccmsunications who is presently Arturo Salces Arce. The

 

51bid., p. in.

71bido ’ ID. 238.

8Personal letter from Arturo Salces Area, Director
Cenernl of Radiocommunications, La Paz, Bolivia, June, 196%.

36
Director-General also controls all international communications
through the departnent "Administrncion Boliviana.”

These regulations have been published in a k0-nepe hook-
let and include rules on every aspect of broadcastinn, includ-
ing the crantinn of licenses, the essicnment of frequencies,
radio nroqrammins policies, technical standards, advertisinn,
requirenents for personnel, future television develoorent and
other general lenislation.

All Bolivian stations, public and private, are subject
to the General Regulations of Radioelectric Services. These
regulations give power to the state to make wrants, issue and
renew licenses, and revoke licenses. The novernment is also
piven regulatory jurisdiction over installation and operation
of all radio services including transmission, reception and

network onerstions.9

The state may preempt the use of installa-
tions for various reasons such as public disorder, national de-
fense, emorrencies, and legal or technical transgressions.

In order for an organization to receive permission to
build a station, a written document must be presented to the
Director-General of Grants, Licenses, and Permits. This docu-
ment should include all the information which is needed to de-
cide whether or not the enplicetion is approved. It should
state the type of station pronosed, the kinds of prOprems which

will be offered, the suggested location and equipment needed,

the goals of the station, a declaration of financial ability

 

9Ministry of Communications, Fenlamento General de
Corvicion Redioelectricos,(hn Pan: la ?ditoriel'del Fstafin,
I'M), p. S.

 

37
and any other information the applicant feels will help his
CRU$8010

The Giventnnoflanqhal trqnawits this dccument to the

'. . - ' : q . . - I .v ”'5 . ~
2 nzqtry of CHMIdn{Cftnunb Alan? uttn ctucv infcruuticn. inc

r4-

Hinistrv in turn flaciflcs f the acclication is ayprovcd or dis-
anproved.

A license becamec void inmcdixtelv if the station does
not hezin construction within the tine acrccd upon. It also be-
cc es void at tle date of expiration if there in any diecrcpnncy
in following the technical terms cf the nernit, or if the in-
}ividual or cnrworatinn becomes bankrunt.11

Licenaeg are not aiven to foreifinnrs or to public dc-
pendents, excent in the case of an international orpanization
trying to help Bolivia. Tn anecial caces, such as scientific
experiientation, nrovisinnal or temporary licenses are yranted.
If new equipment is to be tested, a provisional license is
granted. A tenpnrary license mav be granted in the case of
national disaster or emeryencv caused by "an act of God" such
as an earthquake or enidemic. Fuch a license nay also be granted
for special activities such as sports contests, or scientific
events like the launchinp of a satellite.

Accordin? to a UNESCG report, the Director-General's

power is limited to technical Operations.12 However, because

 

lolbido, p. 5.

llIbid.’ p. 6.

IZUHFSCC, gorld Connunicaticna: Preset Radiol‘ielevisicnl
Film (Netherlandsz—Wbrton E'Counany.“13EEy} p.'I8U;

”

33
the application must include the station's goals and the types
of programs offered, and because the rover cent canrevoke a
license imrediately, the control is broader than the word
"technical" ifirlies.

Permits are given to partnerships, corrorations or in-
dividuals. An organization is able to acquire a uonopoly.13
Organizations may own more than one station, bu a concentration
of power is not allowed. The Ministry of Communications decides
in each case if the afiplication threatena the non—nonopoly
principle.

The governnent divides Bolivian stations into two
groups-nprivate and public. The public stations are all locatefl
in La Fez and are charged with operating for the state. There
are presently three state stations, and three more are bein:
built. Six licenses altogether are held by the state.

These stations are known a3 Radio Illimani. They pro-
gram recorded music and occasionally present live drama. Daily
news is prepared by the State Information Department. The Eadio
Illireni stations are yencrally on the air in he morning from
8-10 n.m., in the afternoon from 12-2 n.m., and in the eveninr
from u or 6 p.m. until midnight. when it is economically
feasible, they may broadcast from 6 a.m. until 12 midnight.

The private stations-—thuse not Operated by the state--
are in the naiority and their only source of revenue is advertis-

§ .

ing. The licence; for the etaticns are valid for three veers

54-

. A 3. .~ t“ m . ’, I, “ _’ .
Efiu can we rcncwc .or the salt pariah. Lone station: are

4"

 

13uurnrn, fitgtintica on Radio and Televinion, 1950-1950,
3;. cit., p. 23.6. "“ "

'10.

licensed for the maximum of five years.1u
The private stationn broadcast approximately two hours

in the morniny two hours in the afternoon and five or nix
_ I

hours in t he eveninr. Post of then have at least one-half hour
of daily dra a. They receive news inferention from the Frees

or from a tullctin c? the ?tate Vegsrt"cnt of Inferretion.

Proeremnin;

lhe pro runs which are offered on a revular monthly
basis must he submitted for approval to the Departrent of Pro-
grans at lecct fifteen days before they are scheduled to be
Lroadcnnt. OnCe a pregram is approved, it cannot be modified
unless the content beeches inaccurate, or a special event occurs
which preempts it.

The text of each prcrram must be euhritted in duplicate
to the rovernrcnt preyramrinn department for the district of the
radio station. By special authority, the director of this depart-
ment may amend or correct the text. If a prorram is approved,
it is stamped with an official seal, and sinned. Any chanres
are made with red ink written over the oririnel text.

hny subjects which relate to medicine, hvpiene, epi-
demics or diabetics require the additional approval of the Ministry
of Public Health.

For certain types of procrams, this requirement is
waived. For: cx1nplcs are sports and opera: or cultural pro-
grams, which have not been previously scheduled.

The programming supervisors of the official department

luIbido, P. 2370

MD
are supposed to judge the Dronrans without prejudice. One of
their functions is to encournae artistic liberty and try to
develop eethctic orientation in all presentations.

According to article 100 of Section 1, Chapter 5, reru-
ldr programs are subject to the followinv nrcncrtion3.15

Nueical . . . . . 65-75%
Ural o o o o o a 25-35%

In defining what in meant bv "musical," the regulations
state that this category includes all classical and linht music
as well as ponular and folk music. The records are quite evenly
divided among bands, orchestrae, vocal groups and soloists. A
10 percent minimum is sucqcstcd for classical music and twentv
percent for '11rht” music. The other seventv percent is to be
determined by the individual station.16

The music played in to be carefullv chosen. Sonvs which
are obscene or vulgar are forbidden. Ho words of the sonws can
refer to Bolivian persons or inntitutions satirically.

Persons often call the stations bv telephone to request
a particular record. However, the voice of the person calling
may not be broadcast over the radio. The announcer is free to
give the name of the person who made the request, but he cannot
transmit the actual request.

In actuality, somewhere between 75-85% of provrams

17

coneiets of recorded dance music. This is not too different

lsfiinistry of Communication. 32. cit., p. 18.

;.Lfihu, “crlfi Cr"tunication?, GS. cit., D. 237.

*1...“

 

n1
from many Amcric n R! r: lio station3.
Drcjrans ntncr than musical n37 include radio drama,
comncntaricn,a alitor in 3, conxcrcizls, finalic notices and any

T'1e’ j " nt-flvfi. '* 10" :‘I 'f‘n'; ': "119‘ '{u‘fl 1. -‘\V\ flr\"\zfifl“"" {‘63) V fid t F \
0-,1 ’1 -*.I' 2-. 1‘ h‘ ‘10" ..’-.....n-....;. dumb-:3 U4 ‘ob4 tutu, «3 -— J- "n a ‘IIG‘

Po

, I
.V‘

Lt.

vi mlfo anti an an} tn predate cultnnnl and ”Quenticnnl frowth.

igdio theatre i3 :33 most ccxnsn type c? era program,
and each theatre :JPe3cnt1tion is divided into three warts. A
sunxnry of the plxy is presented first. The audience can then
better undrratgnd the action of the play, which is the second
part. The FUSiCdl conclusion is carefully chosen to imnress
the mood of the play unc n t:1e lib tenors acne radio theatre
dramas are :erely stave Flaws adantcd for radio (or even left
unchanged). Others are wr; ttun snecificallv for radio. Stations
must pay rcvalties to auleors holdin~ ccnvrirhts for plavs or
musical compositions which are broadcast.

Political co wentariea must alwavs be prantnd previous

written approval by the Department of Prcvramninr before they
are broadcast. When international tepica including Bolivia are

discussed, national sentiments are to be presente ed positively

and acti “n of the cove rn c at are to be defended.

Advertisiny

 

Thc state-owned stations of Radio Illinani are main-

tained both through advertising and public funds. However, the
18

w.

“7,7‘ ' (.,“'.“\‘I'Q ’ 2.. ""-,. f:" \ 02‘ V‘”- "a.” f-M "' .37 -- ortsz'..f
bud-y uuul ht. ‘Js. ActL-J.:.ll’3 at late 24. qutc 5 3-»:11. HHS 1.3 ant/C 3.4.1.1ng

Advertisinn is classified as "commercial pronaflanda."

It incluccs all announcer enta concerning commerce and industry,

A‘ __L L‘A— A ; A

18£2§fi3, p. 180.

M2
banking, cxchanvc of professional services, movie and theatre
functions, the buying and selling of noods and services, offers

13 Each station is

to rent, and anricultnrnl trannactions.
limited to 100 words of conrercial cosy for each 30 minutes of
programcinn. The commercial messages are scheduled between

ion? 0

E!
C
U)
y .
O
SI
,4
03
:3
C .
\
O
’3
G
'5
B-
H
E
It
5.:
W
C)
'1‘

The advertising of medical products which are not
registered with the Ministry of Public Health is forbidden.
Also prohibited is the advertisinfi of black magic. According
to Article luS of Chapter 5 of the General Reculaticns of the

dminiatraticn, it is illegal to announce that a Specific
client has not paid his bill.

The government Lay suppress or change at any time an
advertisement which it does not think is fit for radio trans-
mission.

Upon request, a Bolivian friend pave Le scvcralexamples
of typical cormcrcials. They sounded very much like American

commercials concerning clothing or food, except that they were

Porscnncl

Eclivin has no facilities for the rrofecsional traininp
of radio workcrs. Some schools have been planned for announcers,
and Home institutions have devclcncd electrical-technical

centers where cnrineers are able to receive training and

\ - . 5
ninlohry or Ccmnunicaticns, cc. cit., p. 23.
a... n
9"
"V..,I _ _ - ' (a! w | g
t ‘ xuuerco Ardnya, Forciin student 413, Cocnanaaan
Balivic, 'zxc, ‘95“.

“3
experience.

The personnel is divided into two categories; the
speakers and the technicians. The first classification includes
any enployee who speaks to the public over a microphone.
Generally. announcers specialize in one area. Therefore, the
rovcrnment has set up the following areas of soecialization;
(1) commercial announcers, (2) ncrratorc, (3) news or informa-
tion reporters, (h) Sportccastors, (5) sports analysts, and
(6) religious speakers.21

To be an announcer, the person oust be a Bolivian
citizen familiar with the country's culture. He must speak
Spanish correctly, have good diction, and know the national
idioms. He should also be able to pronounce the names of per-
sons and common words of other languages easily.

Announcers are classified in three ways.22 Those in
the first category must have had a minimum of six yearc' eXperi-
ence in radio and have completed the six-year high school course
or its equivalent. Those in the second category must have had
at lcczt three years of radio experience and have completed
four years of high school or its equivalent. To be in the
third category the announcer must show that he has basic announc-
ing ability and sufficient preparation by passing a general
examination on broadcasting and the Bolivian culture.

Persons who are able to meet first-class requirements

may broadcast at local. regional, national and international

zlflinintry of Communications, 223 Cit.. p. 2“.
221mm. p. 25.

NO
levels. Those in the second category are limited to local and
regional work. Those in the third category may speak only
through local stations.

The second large staff group is the operators, who must
also be Bolivian citizens and have the necessary technical knowledve
to maintain radio equipment. There are two classes of operators.
The first class consists of those who are licensed for five
years of continuous work. In the second class are those who
are licensed for one year of work. The Directorwcenerel of
Operators determines how long each license in valid. This is

decided by the degree of skill of the applicant.

Penalties
If any of the above rules or regulations are disobeyed,
one or more of eeverel measures may be taken by the Department
of the Director-General of Telecommunications. The Department
may call attention informally to the infraction. It may also
issue a warning or impose a fine. In some cases the operation
of the etation may be suspended from ten to fifteen days. For
the moat severe infractions, the license may be revoked.23 In

all cases. the degree of the eeverity of the punishment depends

upon the gravity of the offense.

Goals
According to the General Regulations of the government,

the goal of radio is to provide direct transmission of an in-

2“

formation service to the public. Therefore, the ideal of each

 

23Ib1d.. p. 39.
2‘1bid.. p. 12.

as
station is to disseminate culture, art, education, information,
science, sports, and/or entertainment. No program should offend
the mores, good manners and customs of the community and the
public at large.

The Ministry of Education has authority to change the
content of radio programs which it believes would present an
erroneous or distorted image of Bolivian life and culture and
militate against the national spirit.

Both commercial and non-commercial stations are licensed
to operate, but the latter are required to be non-profit in

character.

3 ummar 2

President Victor Fez Estenssoro wrote in a foreword to
the General Regulations of Radio Communications, “that the ac-
tivity of radio constitutes a public service of major dimensions,
correlated with the defense of the country, with commercial ac-
tivities, with the industrial arts, morals, culture and educa-
tion, and other important aspects of the national life, and
therefore should be subjected to various regulations."25

These regulations have been written in a document,
"Reglamento General de Servicios Radioalectricos,‘ which was
accepted by the Bolivian Congress in 1960. These rules cover
almost every possible area of broadcasting-ueven television,
though it does not yet exist.

Present conditions of the Bolivian economy, and govern-

ment instability, work against full compliance with regulations.

 

2stbid.’ p. 3.

us

Since the regulations are general in nature, confusion in inter-
pretation has often resulted. Because the government has the
power to withdraw a grant or license immediately, many stations
avoid broadcasting anything controversial and limit pragrams

to music and drama.

hany people are not able to receive radio programs.

The costs of receivers are high and all too often prohibitive.
he is brought out by UNESCG, “a large scale increase in the
production of low cost receivers is necessary."26 The Bolivian
pepulation should provide a lucrative market for inexpensive
receivers. fiany Bolivians have told me how popular dancing is,
even among Cholos and Indians. Those people who can afford
transistor radios often attach them to their bicycles for con-
stant use. If receivers cost less, many willing persons could
reap the benefits of mass communications.

Secondly, more powerful transmitters and a wide-coverage
area are needed to reach persons living outside cities.

Today equipment is being modernized, but because of
limited capital and lack of motivation and interest, the govern-
ment's help is essential if real growth is to be achieved. A
first step has been taken with the acceptance and publication
of the Regulations. The regulations supply broadcasters with
a goal to strive for in the future.

Programming consists of both musical and oral content,
and standards for evaluation have been established. Radio

theatre is common and is being transmitted regularly. Sports,

 

25UNESCO, Mass Media in the Developing Countries, 22,
Ci. 0. Po “1.

H7
musicals, Operas, cultural and scientific events are also broad-
cast. Regulations for advertising have been established.

Personnel is classified in two groups; the announcers
and the technicians. These groups are divided into subgroups
in terms of education and professional experiencc.

Penalties ranging from the issuance of fines to the
immediate withdrawal of the license may be imposed-odependinn
on the seriousness and nature of the offense.

The purpose of radio transmission, as provided by law
and regulations, is to serve the public interest. All types of
programming are allowed, with some restriction on those which
would do injury to persons, institutions or values. What serves
the pecplc is generally decided by the covernnent agencies which
control radio licencea.

Bolivia is an underdeveloned, rapidly changing nation.
while the radio industry exists in the cities, it by no means
compare: in size with that in the United States. Yet with the

governnent'c help since 1960, progress is being made.

CE-IAPTER III
RADIO AS AN EDUCATIONAL TOOL

As has already been pointed out in this thesis, many
Bolivian: really take no pert in the nation's economy. This
is cepeciallv true of the highland Indians who make their
living through mining and agriculture. Many of then live in
the Andes mountains and never journey outside of their home
villages. They speak one of the Indian languages, Quechua or
Aymara, or some other dialect. The Spanish language, the
official language of Bolivia, is unintelliyible to them.

These Indiana live with only the basic necessities.
having been subjected to seniafeudal rule for the past four
centuries, they have learned that the best way to endure life
is to boonor at least cot-octupid. The value: of education and
thinking have never been encouraged. Until the last few years
the nchools have been attended by only the upper-class white
Bolivians.

However, since the 1952 Revolution, stress hes been
placed upon bettering the conditions of the Indian. Radio as
a means of education and information has been introduced and,
after initial success, in being increased. It is this function
of radian-education of the highland Indian-othat Chapter III

of this thesis examines.

'68

“9

Background

Several studies have been made in the past few "ears
to determine the effectivenesn of radio as an educational tool
in Lnt-n America. Some of the results have been strted as
follows.

fine of the most efficient and practical means to bring
knowledge to the greatest number of people in the
developing areas is through radio. ho other media can
reach so many people and overcome the barriers of
illiteracy, distance and geographical obstructions.
Radio, supplemented by other media, as their channels
and facilities become available, can bring additional
strength to the sustained impact of communicating
knowledge. he need only to be willing to tackle the
relatively simple problems which are presently de-
terring the wide use of radio in technical cooperation
programs.

One of the problems deterring the efficient use of
radio for education is the lack of trained people and the great
number of peeple in need of being reached.

Another is the debate concerning which is the most im-
portant mediumouprese, film, or radio. A3 fir. Louis Beltran,
an information specialist and native Bolivian, says, ”'he most
important advantage of radio is that it can fulfill its task of
informing and educating the public whether listeners are liter-

.2

etc or illiterate. Rut as UJESCO has pointed out, ”The

countries which are poor in information media are alno those

where the incident of illiteracy is greatest.”3

.A__ A_ ,

1Florence S. Thomaeon and Roger A. Wolcott, Breekinr

 

the Illiterncy Barrier Through Radio, a Research Paper, 1555,
Po ’0

71bid.. p. u.

aaeorge Codding, Broadcasting_WithoutAfinrpiere (nether-
lands: honton and 80., The HagueI’lQSEJ, p. 53.

50

Bolivia does not use radio as a formal in-school educa-
tional aid. fiaithor the government nor the private stations
are powerful enough to ”reach over the next hi11;'~ Therefore,
only Special organizations, usually foreign and relinious, have
been hroadcastinn to the hinaland Indians.

In an interview with ”r. Gaston Canedo of the Bolivian
Hission to the United Hationo, and in a personal letter from
one of tho fiaryknoll Fathers, both of then questioned the idea
of tho government helping to educate the Indian . . . anpecially
through radio. Supposedly, this in because the govnrnment has
boon unstable and the economy hon been chaotic. Finances have
not been availablo except for the most essential government
projects. Therefore, the most worthwhile educational radio
stations are thnaa which have been established by Catholic ro-
ligious missions. Two of these, operated by the Haryknoll
Fathers, are Radio San Rafael in Cochabanba, and Radio San Gabriel

in Penas. Another, Operated by tHe Brothers Cblate of Mary

Immaculate, 13 Emisoras Pio XII at Siqle XX, Pntosi.

fiaryknoll Radio Stations
History

The Haryknoll Fathers' literacy program, conducted by
educational radio. was started in 1957 within the area of Penaa
(near La Pot) with one small transmitter and only a few radio

receivers.5 In 1957-58 a two-year course of instruction was

_ .4. A k 4.... L A

”Florcnoo S. Thomason, 22, cit., p. 1-8.

Sfiarjknoll Fathers, Radio Schools in Bolivia #1: Brief
Historg and Explanation of §?%tem, report 1535, p. I.

w—

51
made available to 18 villages in the Penna araa. First of all,
peoples' interast and attention had to be captured. Father
Bernard Ryan, who had lived with the Andean Indians for two
'years, was able to gain their confidence and explain the prowram
to them.

The people in this area were the Avmara Indians who
spoka only Aymara (mixed with a few finanish words). This made
the problem of illiteracv more complex. The objectives of the
Haryknoll Fathers were to teach the Aynara poOplo to read and
write in Spanish.

Since 1957, the organization CARE has supplied the Mary-
knoll Father. with 100 transistor radios which were distributed
to the Indian villages throughout the Antiplano.8

The Maryknoll Father: now Operate a one kilowatt trans-
mitter on 620 kc/s at Penna. This transmitter is only a short
distanco away from Lake Titioaoa which makes transmitting condi-
tions excellent for roaching the people of the Altlplano. A
second transmitter is located in Cochabamba which is in the

Quechua-speaking area.

Organization of Schools

Teachers for tho Marykncll schools are selected by the
authorities of each conmunity who recommend a young person for
the teaching program. The future teachers are sent to a train-
ing center in Penos for teaching instruction. Generally these

various are men between the are: of 20 and 80 who have had

.~ w T. W‘—

6Maryknoll Fathers, Radio Schools: 121 Bolivia. South
America, report 1961, p. 5.
M

52
some primary school and some training in reading and writing.
In Penas they receive instruction on the care of radio equip-
ment, the use of charts, blackboards, control of attendance,
grading students and other essentials.’ When they have completed
their course they are called "auxiliaries” or radio professors
and it is their job to listen to the class instructions over
the radio and guide the students during class hours. They also
conduct examinations and hold meetings and discussions with
other auxiliaries. These teachers are volunteers and receive
no salary.

Besides the 'auxiliary,‘ the community authorities are
supposed to appoint two older professors who take care of any
unexpected occurrences or emergencies in the classroom. An
older men, respected in the community, watches the behavior of
both the professors and students and cells the students to
class.

The authorities. the professors, and the auxiliaries
must sign e guarantee for the radio. This is to impress upon
then the responsibility they are assuming. If the radio is

damaged, they must pay for repairs.8”

Classes
The classes are conducted at 7:30 in the morning and
5:00 in the afternoon. These hours have been chosen because

it is the soot convenient time for the student.9 Each class

’HEI‘YknOII 'Fltheflg '1’ 9-2. Cite. Po 1.

.Ibid. ’ p. 20

slhid.

53
contains no more than ten to fifteen students, because it is
much easier to work with a small number. The classes are limited
to adults who have not had an opportunity for education, and to
children 15 or 16 who have been raised in locations where schools
have only recently been established.

Lessons are dictated from the Maryknoll studio at Penas
by a professor who knows both the Aymara and Spanish languages.
Everything in the entire broadcast is said first in Spanish and
repeated in Aymara. Health and agricultural hints prepared by
organizations like UHESCO are given throughout the classes.10

Each student has his own notebook and pencil and the
professor stands in front of the blackboard with a piece of
chalk. The announcer first tells the class which page the lesson
is on. As they find it, classical music is played. Then the
announcer describes the picture on the page in both Spanish and
Aymara, and the students follow his description in their books.
Next the announcer reads the sentence written at the bottom of
the picture, word by word, and talks about the letters which
make up that word. As the auxiliary writes the letters on the
blackboard, the students copy them in their notebooks. The pro-
fessor then checks and corrects any mistakes. 'After the broad-
cast has been completed, the students draw the figures which
represent the various words in their notebooks. This helps them
to associate words and objects. Each class lasts about an hour.
Spanish language is the first course of instruction. The second,

arithmetic, takes a little longer.11

__-_A ' A— ._z ‘—

1°Ibid., p. a.
llIbide . p. 3".

s»
The Spanish class would sound like this:12

”Vance a pronunciar estas oraciones en buena forms y
con todo cuidado.‘ (Let's repeat these sentences carefully.)

The voice then continues, 'Maria prepare la conida' (Maria is
getting dinner). The class then repeats this sentence and others
and the teacher interjects comments such as 'huy bien' for en-
couragement.

The classes are conducted after regular school hours in
schoolroons, if one is available. Sometimes a small room is
provided by the community authorities. A radio receiver, a
blackboard, an alarnclock, the radio school flag and teaching
charts are the only equipment used.

Some schools hold classes out-of-doors if no room is
available elsewhere. In such cases only the desk of the teacher
and a transistor radio are needed.

After the special classes in literacy, the whole com-
nunity is invited to listen to music programs. Information of
a cultural and educational nature is broadcast. At this time a
large number of peeple are reached and instructions are given
on agriculture, health, the nature and dangers of communism and
“other important and valuable information.”13

Religion, agriculture, hygiene, history, and geography
classes are available in the Aymara language. The courses are

put on tape and may be played back by the teacher.1u

- 1 A— ‘._

li'aadio San Gabriel,‘ Haryknnll. Julv. 1959. no a.

13Haryknoll fathers #2, 23, cit., p. 6.

1“"School of the Airwaves,” Haryknoll, November, 1958,
De 50s

55

Teaching Materials

Because of the unique combination of language barriers,
illiteracy, and lack of interest, special teaching materials
have had to be develonod.

Harcclino Ramos, n Bolivian teacher intcrustod in the
problem, dovelopod a textbook and Hario Bejnr drew illustrations
to match the written words. The pagan worn nultilithed and
stapled into books. Alberto Tardio, a Bolivian visual aids
technician, used a silk screen to make large wall charts to
supplement the texts.15

The teaching materials prepared by these three men have
beenxraised by many educators an ideal for the job to ho done.
They have been advertised around the world by a publication
of the International Cooperation Administration, Hultiplier.16

Interestingly enough, aside from the radio receiver, the
most essential piece of equipment is the alarm clock. This is

important becauno it is necessary to let the timeless villages

know that school is about to be in session.

Radio San Rafael

The above information also applies to tho second station
of the Haryknoll Fathoro, Radio San Rafael (RSR). which began
broadcasting in January 1961 under the direction of Father Leo
Sommer of Hansnchusatts.

Thorn arc some 250,000 Indians living in the Cochabnmba

Valley, 65 percent of when are Quechuas. Therefore, RSR offers
1S'Rndio San Gabriel.’ 23, cit.. p. 8.

IBIbid.

56
a daily program in Quechua aimed at teaching Spanish and in-
proving socio—economic conditions.
In a letter, Father Sommer (after expressing his sur—
prise at a study being redo on Bolivian broadcasting) referred
to plans for the eXpansion of Mnryknoll ntations, including two

in other parts of Bolivia.17

EconOmio Problems

Host of the financial support for the Haryknoll radio
stations has been supplied by the Heryknoll Fathers. Additional
support has included equipment, educational material and in-
formation from the organizations of U813, CARE, SCIDE, SAI, and
UHESCO. These sources and personal contributions pay all current
expenses, but they are inadequate.

It is expensive to keep the two schools operating.
Radio San Gabriel on the Altiplano requires approximately
$10,000.00 a year for Operating expenses (including salaries.
fuel, repairs, training, etc.). There is en equipment inveet~
nent of $55,000.00 for this Altiplano School.18 Thus a total
budget of $65,000.00 has been estimated for the San Gabriel
station.

The budget for the Cochabambe station includes $83,500.00
for equipment and 810,000.00 e year for Operating expenses.
Therefore, the costs for the two stations total $159,000.00.19

The Haryknoll Fathers are looking for contributions in order to

17Personel letter, Father Leo Summer, Founder Radio San
Rafael, March 196h.

lafial’ykDOll PRthfiI‘B ‘2. 9-2.. Cite. p. '0

191bid., p. 9.

57

continue and expand Operations.

Results

"Radio San Gabriel now has a grip on the Aymara Altiplano
area. The Haryknoll radio is moving into Coehabamba to capture
the Quechua regions. They are suffering from a great dearth of
material, and beg us to help them with useful programs of any
sort.”20

Haryknoll teachers state that many persons in the area
of Pence can now read and write Spanish as a result of the Mary-
knoll programs. I

Father Ryan, the founder of the schools, says he has
had several signs that the broadcasts are making an impact. For
example, when a delegation came to Lee Penae, they complained
that the lessons were being repeated, and children have been
caught trying to "sneak in” to the adult clansee.21 ”when 500
people change their routine and work either earlier or later in
order to attend classes, we can forget about the difficulties
that confront us. To hear the once cold, aloof Aymarns chat in
Spanish, and joke about the lessons, makes this work a pleasure.”

says Father Ryan.22

23 radio is one of the few ways to

Because of poor roads,
communicate with many places in the Andes; it can make progress

in education and integration of the Indians.

we— fit

2oflorence s. Thamaeon, 33, cit,. Po 23‘
21'Radio Sen Gabriel,' 223 cit., P. 3'
22“School of the Airwaves,“ 22, cit.. p. 50.

23Personal letter from Alberto Giuzada, May, 195a.

58

Otherwfitations

Another religious group which broadcasts educational
asterial is the Brothers of the congregation, Ohlste of Hsry
Immaculate. This group broadcasts to the miners in the con-
nunist stronghold of Sigle xx in the department of Potosi. Their
station is called 'Radio de la Panilis Boliviens' or Radio of
the Bolivian Family.

Tho Brothers begin their classes by teaching the A.B.c.'s.
They use hooks called 'cartillas' which arc similar to Ancrican
first grade PCCdCP.02~

Each mining center is divided into 'cenpanentos' of about
3,000 persons each, with a leader or teacher in each canpsnsnto.
The leader gathers his people into a hose or room at e givon
hour and they 'attsnd' class via transistor rsdio. The classes
are very sisiler to those of the Hsryknoll Fathers.

The govsrnnent does a snsll amount of broadcasting in
the Quechua end Aymara languages. The forssost series of redio
news produced by the governsent stations offers three lS-aiauts
asus consentaries each week in both languages. Cronica Quechua
is broadcast by sistscn stations throughout the country and
Cronica A2253: is broadcast by about seven stations.25

Sons of tho private stations broadcast educational pro-
gress in physical education and English, but these do not reach

tho highland Indicate

 

2"Personal letter fro: Brother Loo Le Butts, July, 196“.

25Personal letter from Barbara Hutchison, USIS inforna-
tion officsr, Heron, 196s.

59

The world Radio Missionary Fellowship (RRHF). known
as HCJB; broadcasts into the Andes Hountains from Eqnador, but
only in Spanish. These programs are alnost entirely cultural
and religious.26 The HCJB workers estimate a very saall audi-
enca in the Bolivian Andes.

Radio Loyola in Sucre programs mainly for the working
class of that city and a vary little to the Indians.

Two stations are being planned in the Oriante at this
tine-«one in the Vallegrande and the other in the northern part
of Santa Crnssz’

Saunas:

Radio is one of the nost efficient aeans of reaching
the highland Indians, because of the lack of transportation
facilities. However, the government has not had the tine or
aoney to develop radio as a moans of education; the task has
been left to private organisations.

The Haryknoll Fathers have established two educational
radio stations; Radio San Gabriel at Penas and Radio San Rafael
at Cochabaoba.

The Brothers Oblate of Mary Immaculate broadcast to
the ulnar! near Potosi.

Radio Loyola's pragranning is directed to the working
class in Sucre, and two new stations are planned for the
Briante-othe eastern part of Bolivia which the governnent is

 

2‘Permmal letter tron Hr. Leonard Booker, English
Language Depart-ant, HCJB, April. lSSI.

I’Guisada. 22o Cite. Do Is

60
trying to develop and settle.
Finances, lack of equipment and language barriers have
hindered radio education ever since its beginning, but the

succeaeful service of a few stations illustrates the possibility

.. ‘ a'iT‘.’-'..€ent,
a

CHAPTER IV
TELEVISION

At the present time there are no television stations
in Bolivia. However, in May, 1961, the government authorised
the Television Boliviana (Televibol), a conpany licensed to in-
stall and operate ntationa in La Pas. Televibol is also author-
ized to move into other sections of the country and to sell and
service equipment once television is established.1

The reasons for the absence of television are basically
those which have limited radio. Money is not available, nor is
trainod personnel or adequate equipment. The language barrier
between tho Indians and Spaniards hinders any national com.
nunications. Many people could not afford a receiver even if
programs were availnhle. Physical barriers hinder transniasion.
In the near fntnrn, however, thene problems may be overcome and
tnlevision broadcasting may begin in Bolivia.

In the Reginmento General provisions were included to
regulate the developmnnt of talevision. The regulations define
television as tho highont degree of mane communications, and

state that it should provide informative, cultural, educational,

__‘ A; A AA—

“7'— 7*...—

1UNESCO. Egrld Communicationsgmgrgssg_Radiogzgelevisiog;y
Filaixatharlandit gouroy 3‘36., l§637. p.‘IHJ.

 

61

62
artistic and recreational matcrial.2

Foreign and Bolivian organizations may both own tele-
vision stations as long as they abide by Bolivian lava and
regulations, and if both the stations and transmitters are
located in Bolivia. However, a few basic rules are to be ob-
served.

First of all, no monOpolies are allowed in ownership,
importing, distribution or the selling of equipment. This rule
does not mean that an organization can own only one station or‘
business. However, it grants the government the authority to
interfere with ownership practices if it has reason to think
unfair control in any market has been gained.

Secondly, the stations (channels) are licensed for ten
years with licenses renewable for five years.

Thirdly, there are to be no restrictions on any make,
model or type of receiving equipment.

fourthly, the programs are to be approved, before they
are broadcast, by the National Council of Art. This is to
assure that they do not offend the morale or culture of the
public.3

The Bolivian government reserves the right to occupy
one-fifth of all program time of the stations for the purpose
of public education. While it is hoped that private organiza-

tions will develop educational programs, the state has claimed

 

2Hunisterio de Communicacions, Replamento General de
Servicios Radioelectricos, (La Pas: Editorial delitstado,’1§32),

Pa 2’s
31bido. p. 28.

63
this authority for itself as a precaution against the use of
television for entertainment only. This tine is available to
the state without payment.
Even though there is no television in Bolivia at the
present time, the government has adopted regulations to guide

its deveIOpment when it does Appear.

CHAPTER V
SURPMRY

The close relationship between development of the
media and general economic and social development
may be demonstrated statistically. A otudy initiated
by UHESCD as part of a survey shows that in all of
the underdeveloped countries of Africa, Asia and
Latin America, development of the media correlated
very highly with other factors in the national growth,
such as average per capita income, and level of
literacy, urbanization and industrialization.1
The first chapter of thin theeie has shown that Bolivia
ie economically and socially underdeveloped at the present time.
For example. since the 1952 revolution, the value of
the monetary unit of Bolivia. the boliviano, has greatly de-
creased. while at one time 200 bolivianoe equaled an American
dollar. the present exchange rate is 12,000 bolivianoe to the
American dollar. The income of many person: has not increased
accordingly; thus. Bolivia her the lowest per capita income in
South America. Products which are the slightest bit luxurious
cannot be afforded.
There are physical and geographical barriers in Bolivia
which have prevented the growth of national unity and the strong
desire for improvement of conditions. Poor highway facilities

greatly limit the transportation of domestic product: from one

1UNESCO, Hans fiedia in the Developing Countries (Paris:
workshops of UNESCG, I951}, p. 35.

6M

65
part of the country to another. The mountainous terrain and
frequency of landslides make the upkeep of roads prohibitively
expensive. Before the 1952 revolution, the government had
little interest in providing transportation to the mountainous
Indian communities. Only a few cities were considered essential
to the national economy, and only the most necessary highways
were constructed.

Eolivia has been thwarted by political instability.

As pointed out earlier in this thesis, sixty revolts and six
presidential assassinations have severely limited the effective-
ness of the national government. Many of the presidents have
been opportunists who sought power and turned to conservatism

in order to keep the backing of the rich, semi-feudal land
owners who controlled the economy.

The people of Bolivia have been divided into various
groups on the basis of race. Resulting inequality of rights and
privileges has gradually weakened the spirit of the once pro—
gressive Incan Indian to that of the submissive Aymara Indian,
of the twentieth century. During the Spanish colonial era, the
Aymara were forced to work in the mines. It has been estimated
that eight million natives died at this time.2 They rebelled
repeatedly, with little success, and finally submitted to their
subordinate position. At the present time they are widely
addicted to the chewing of coca, from which the narcotic cocaine
is made. While coca helps the Aynares to forget the circum-

stances in which they live, "it presents emotional dullness or

A: A... _. 4..

2Victor Bernouw, Culture and Personality (Illinois: The
Dorsey Press, Inc., 1963), p.416.

66
apathy, indifference, lack of will power or low capacity for

“3 Bringing about motivation for economic and

attention.
social develoPment of these people in one of the greatest prob-
lems facing the Bolivian government today.

The Aymara Indians as well as tho Quechua Indiana do
not speak the Spanish language but rather communicate in their
native vernacular. The problem of illiteracy, therefore, is
complicated by the fact that the majority of Bolivians do not
even creek, ouch lees read or write, the official language of
the country.

The high degree of inflation, geographical end physical
barriers, political instability, division of the people by race,
and illiteracy, are some of the causes of the present economic
and social underdevelopment in Bolivia. Education is one means
of overcoming these problems, “but when one is attempting to
accomplish in e matter of years a teak which it has taken cen~
turiee to complete in the advanced countries, the traditional
means of education alone prove inadequate.'~ It is in the under-
develooed countries that the speed and efficiency of the mass
media can contribute a great deal.

The mass media can create the desire to raise the living
standards by ”enlisting human factors, such an improved skills
and better education, more directly in efforts for economic

aid and social expension.‘s It can help to win public support

31bide, p. 15.
'UNESCO' 9-20 Cite, P. 15.
sIbid., p. as.

67
and participation which in turn facilitated planning by the
government and other agencies, thus playing a key role in in-
duetrielization.6 ‘

By the advertising of various goods and cervices, the
media are able to bring attention to a variety of products and
ideas not otherwise known.

The rugged terrain which prevents communication between
villages and cities may be overcome by radio. While landslides
make highways impractical, dangerous, and cxnensive in many
cases, they do not hinder radio.

Radio can reach a great number of people for a small
inveetnent in a receiver. This is important in the case of
education. While a teacher might be able to hold claeeee in one
or two communities, he can reach many more persons by meene of
radio. when educational progr m3 are broadcast from the cities,
there is an added advantage of having the required facilities
and equipment nearby.

Radio and television can nerve as an industry which em-
ploys persons in all perte of the country, creating jobe and
teaching skille. It can help raise the induetriel etetue of
the country to e small extent.

Yet, broadcasting in any underdeveloped country finds
itself faced by nuneroue problems.

First of ell, there is e great lack of accurate data
which nay to usad as background for media development. Except

for e few governmental and United Nations studies, the problem

#4.. 1..— 4

8Ibid.. p. 35.

68
has been ignored. In Bolivia, for example, someone winning
to develop a programming policy has to start at the beginning
and "fael his way." There is no record of anyone else'a mis-
takes thrcuLh wfiich he might learn.

Secondly, the high cost of equipnent and wateridls,
and he inadequacy of what is available, hinder wont experi-
hentation or idealistic planning. Thfise radio programs of
dance music and drama which appeal to the mass audience, and
which will sell the advartiaera' producta, are the only type
which can be afforded at the pranent time. No broadcasting
equipment is manufactured in Balivia. Thin results in tariffs
and other fiscal barriers of importation and expense.

Another problem which Bolivia Faces in develoning the
media is that of language. While the nafority of Polivians do
not speak Spaniah, the majority of the radio prorramn are pre-
sented in Spanish. Those persons who are Formulating policies
and writinu proarnns do not speak the Indian tongues, and so
far the government has not realized the importance of Aymara
and Quechua language programs. This may be because lack of funds
prevents thn development of radio services in more than one
language.

while the mountains do not present as many prcblems to
radio communication as they do to the construction of highways,
they are a hinérance. Mineral deposits which are spread
throughout the Andes interfere with transmission and deflect
radio signals. While this may be overcoma, it takes skill and
datermination to d0 80. The moist trepical clinate and heavy

vegetation limit the power of the transmitters.

69

Legislation which has been develoned and approved by
the Bolivian government has somewhat stifled the initiative of
individual broedoeeters. Because the government has the power
to withdraw e license immediately, many broadcasters hesitate
to program anythinw controversial or questionable. There ere
also citizenship and technical requirements which limit the
number of skilled personnel to a select few.

One of the greatest problems in he look of capital
for investment. In most underdeveloped countries, UH39CO has
found that lose than one percent of public development eXpendi-
ture is devoted to broadcasting.7 This is barely enough to main-
tain existing facilities, let alone build additional ones. Be-
fore any advancement can he made in radio and/or television,
some funds must be made available. At the present time, private
organizations are bearing almost the entire burden of mass
communications, and they are not strong enough to handle this
responeibility alone.

In e study on mass media in the underdeveloped countries.
UHESCO made various recommendations. Some of these are appli-
cable to Bolivia.

The government of Bolivia might consider formulating a
national progran for broadcasting an e pert of its pregrem for
economic development. Since the revolution, the government
has deveIOped policies concerning the growth of industry, agri-
culture. construction, trnn5portetion, education, and literacy,

but broadcasting has not been included. In order to develOp

_ ~ A ‘ L“

71bid.

70
such a policy, on inventory of the existing facilities would
be needed. On the basis of this inventory, plans for media
development could be coordinated with general economic plans,
and :onln could be 8?: tablishcd.

National committees could be formulated to assist in
developing and carrying out plans for broadcasting. Those
committees would include exports in various aspects of Bolivian
develoomont such as transportation, oducation, information and
tho economy.

National training program: could be established. These
could be oithor formal institutions or a practical agreement
with another country. For example, the German radio stations
sand technicians to various African countries which in turn
send troinoos to fiermany.

Media research could be encouraged; very little is be-
ing done in Bolivia with it. In a study of various South
American countries including Bolivia, it was found that there
is a shortage of people with academic training in the social
ocionono, so well as a shortage of physical facilities, which
limits reooavch in the social sciences and the mass media.8

Professional societies mirht ho established which could
help dotornino profoonional standards, promote the frco flow
of information and advise indivi ualn and or;;nnizntions who

are in tho field of broadcasting.

w

3Prcgraon Interaocricano do Informacion Popular, A
Studv of the Human and Institutional Resources in the Focihl
Sciences and COWounfca: th3 he: .earch in Selectedxtohntries in
Lgtin America (Costa Ricaz'PIIP,i§EITI'57”Es.

71

In dealing specifically with the radio medium, 'HB”C0
suggests turning to F1 radio to improve transmission and clin-
inate the tropical difficulties.9

A largo-scale incrcaoa in low-cost receivers, encourage-
ment in the domestic production of equipment, and bilateral
agreements between countries would also he beneficial to Bolivia.

Fore nyccific UHJSCO recommendations might also be applied
to Bolivian televioion as it develops. First of all, television
should not be introduced until the countrv is economically and
technically ready for it. Secondly, hirh priority should be
given to educational television from the ntart.10

With the acceptance and publication of the General Recu-
lations for broadcasting in Eclivin, a afronn foundation has
been laid for the future.

If the rccommendations cited above are carefully con-
sidered, they should provide direction for develoomcnt of the
mass radii.

Hopefully, than, the government will use the power it
has claimed for itself with care so that imagination and diversity
will be encouraged. The broadcasters should respond by remember-
ing their responsibility to pconlen of all languages and in all
parts of the country, as they plan stations and programming.
The people, in turn, should take an intcrest in all types of
programming-unot only dance musioa-and realize the unique ad-

vantages radio and television can offer than, in Spit: c! the

_t- ___.__A_A A A.‘

QUHEQCD, on. cit., n. ul.
aun- w "

10Thid., p. H3.

72
physical barriers of their country.

A solid framework has been developed an the basis for
radio and televiaion in Rolivia. If the wovcrnrcnt, the broad-
casturb. and the neonlc make nooé use of the present broad-
casting facililioa and work with dsdicdtion and ingenuity for
the future, they should oonc day see a far-reaching network of
communications able to play a large role in uniting this

country.

APPENDIX

73

7H

 

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N<m <4 almu .4 card <0Hmux< <>uaz
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n<a <4 1&0 con comma H2<£H44H
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"(a <4 ciao .ou ouou H2<2H44H
ucm <4 osmu .4 and. <h=<z<
N<m <4 «nine on. can <9a<x<
N<m <4 amino .9 no». oz<4mHH4<
N<m <4 amino an. om. oz<4mHB4<
N<m <4 amino .4 o«a 4uumm<u z<m
mxobm nutmo .d mafia <H<4m <4
macaw cacao an. omud <B<4m <4
mxoam Aclao .4 mama <4o>o4
macaw nacho ma. coca <4owo4
cofiuqooa anouuo; dame .3x :4 .uxox couuuwm
hotbu hege=UOLh can no Gama

«20thfim OHQ<u z<H>HJDm ho BMHA 4<HOHmho

Ill

15

 

Namu <hz<m «nine w«. e<c Mano <92<m
Nana <kz<m oudmu .4 mums <kouux¢
name <Hz<m natmo ma. onu4 <Hownmu
amaze a4tmo .4 anon «04200 44
omamo amino m«. aon4 onmsomu:
omamo notau m«.. 0444 oxaxo
omsmo amino mu. oo~4 q<aummm>nz=
42:44Hx onsmu m. can Hmoaom <zh<am
muzo~u<0~z=xoo

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n<m <4 «43mg .4 um4o manna

N<a <4 cacao mu. oon4 much»

N<m <4 xusttmo one. .o::o4 Nmazuz

N<m <4 antmu .4 can «mean:

N<m <4 4Imo an. o4m4 <u<muaoamo

N<m <4 thuntmo one. .ozma mam 4mg samu <4

N<m <4 «puma .u «on: mam 4mm «:40 <4

N<m <4 sauna .4 on» mam 4mm name <4

N<a <4 m4tmo .4 «~40 moozou 4m

N<m <4 amino on. can moazoo 4m
:o4vn004 ohouu¢4 44cc .3x :4 .uxox :04vuum
bosom 50:05609m 04v no can:

 

7B

 

<044<H 00.00 04. 0404 4<2040<z no» <4
<044<a 04000 04. 0444 munz< 004
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<mz<m<0000 :1500 .4 0000 0<4 4<2040<z
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<mm<m<m000 00:00 t.4 0044 4u<u<z z<m
4:40 <Hz<m 04.00 m. 0440 <makomhmmm
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4:40 <hz<m 04:00 04. 0444 omomx<
90401004 cheap-4 44.0 .3x :4 .nsox :04uavm
satay hoccaachh 04¢ no can:

 

77

4400. on 0 .uu0 .4

.940

 

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000020: 0.300 04. 0004 00002
4042<0 00.00 .4 0... <0000<m<m
404x<0 04.00 00. 0004 <0000<0<m
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~00.44<44 00.00 .4 0004 44x 040
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0040.004 assay-4 44.0 .04 04 .0400 0o4ammm
00:00 suacaoOhL 04¢ 00 one:

 

78

Example of
SPANISH FORM LETTER

1‘5 Haclott Stroct
Apartment hi
Bast Lancing, Michigan

Nan.
Addflll

Country
Do :1 mayor conuidcracicn:

Talvox ustcd podric car valuablc cyuda on racolcctcr interlacion
quo rcquicro para Ii tho-is do Masters chrcc on Michigan State
Univorcidad; c continuacion lo describe .1 porquo.

Yo ontoy hacicndo an cotudio do radio onilorcl do Bolivia. Yo
cstoy intcrcnada on in: progrunac, on loo ragnlacionon dol
gobicrno, on cl facilidcdcc finicns, on in crgnnixaoion do an
cmisora, y lo: objectivoa.

Si noted echo 0 lupicra dc alguna informacion an radioo-ioorcc on
general, 10 agradcccric infinitanento por tan valuables informa-
cioncc qua noted podric cavicrmc.

Y finalncntc oi no on molestarlo dcnccicdo, pcdirlc no logicra
noted loo hombre. do otrnn radiocniucrcs a la. conic. cctaria
any intoronado do oncribir.

A la clpcra do rocibir vuootva informacion. y vucctrn cart: do
contostccion no on trato dospedirmo.

Atcntamcntc,

Mary R. Jackson

73

3h? Forth Harrisnn
Fast Lansinn, Vichivan
Date

Rave
Addresa
Country

p-

Df! 31‘ 1'51)":

Dr. Ivan Altpn, ”ichiran State University, has sufiweqted that
you wizht be 3010 tc help me in the collection of information
for my mactcv's thesiSo

I an nakinv a studv of Eclivian broadcastinw, and I an es-
pecially interested in (what has been done bv radio to brim:
the Indians intc the national ecnncoy since the physical 1952
revolution) or (in the history, facilities, sociclcrical aims
and :rcyrawminfi solicics of your station).* Do you have any
inforration an radio broadcasting or on how radio is informing
and educatinz the Indian?

If you could sur"est the names of others I mirht write to, or
send any information you miwht have, it would be rreatlv
appreciated.

Sinccrclv,

fiary R. Jackson

*fine at the other 0f these phrases was used.

83

The followinv nernons are these who were the most helpful in
surwestinn infernation which mirht be of use to we. ?he
addresses are included an an aid to anyone who minht want
further information on Bolivian broadcastinn or none related
SUb§€Cto

 

Cultural Officer
U.S. Unbasv
LA Paz, Bolivia

The H. w. wilnnn Company
950/972 University Avenua
N.w York, New ank

(S.A. Handbook Publishers)

fir. Philip Huber

OAS

Denartnent of Soc. and Econ. Affairs
1725 I Street

fiashinntcn, D. C.

Mr. Joseph A. Tosi, Jr.

Direcinn fieneral

Inter-.nerican Institute of An. Sciences
Anartado “359

San Jose, Costa Rica

(ecclnaist)

firs. Carla Quiiano, Librarian
Iaryknoll Fathers

Harykncll, New York 105%5

Mr. R. P. Leo Conners HT

cafifl Rural

Huuncani Puno

(Waryknmll FathePS)

Hr. Re up holcctt, Chief
Inter-American Institute of Agricultural Sciencw
Turrialba, Costa Rica

1"
{-3

Fr. Arturo Salces Arcs

Dircccicn fieneral do Radioconunicaciones
Denartamento dc Hadiofusinn

La Paz, Bolivia

fir. Luis Ramiro Beltran

In?orfiaticn fifecialist

Instituto Intaratcricnno fie Ciencias Arriculas de la 03A
Zona Andina

Apartado “7%

Lima, Peru

firc. Florence Thonanon

Office of Inatituticnal Development
firencv for International Develonmcnt
New State Eerartwent Ruildinj
washinrton, D. C.

Sr. Jacobo Libermann Z.
Subsecrctaric dc Infortacicn
Direccion Hacional de Infornaciones
Presidencia de la Republica

Palacio de Cohierno

La Puz, Bolivia

Padres de fiaryknoll
Father Josenh #ichenfelder
Apartddo 2352

Lima, Peru

UNESCO
New York foice
flew York, Haw York

Padres dc Varyknoll
R. P. Leo SDWflBPB
Casilla 5M6
Cochabnm0a, Bolivia

Sr. John R. Smithies
HBO East 79th Street
New York 21, New York

R. p. Alberto Cuizade
Casilla 731
Cochabamba, Bolivia

I'rfif’c JOSG Jo SQICCGO’ (EXOCOP‘C‘).
Calle 20 fiQ—HS
Bogota, Colombia

”ass C mmunications Division
UHESCD Place de Fontency
Paris 73, France

82

The followinr quotes are those I thourqt moot interest-
inn from the many letters I received:

Broadcastinr in Quechua and Avnara, the two common
Indian lnnvuanes, is oadlv limited. Cronica, the
foremost nationally-produced series 0? raaio news
prowrans, produces three 15-minute news comwentaries
weekly in each lannuane: Cronica Quechua is broad-
cast by sixteen stations throuvhout the country, and
Cronica fivmara by approximately seven stations. 93-
dacin; Tron second-hand observation, the rest of the
Indian-lanvuawe broadcasting is done vainly in the
interior by missionary-financed stations and by the
clandestine stationn (with some doubt as to the
ideolonicnl and educational content)--both catewories
motivated hv the desire to coonunicate with their
resrective local flocks.

 

Barbara Hutchison

Assistant Infornation Officer
URIA

La Paz, Rolivia

”arch 3, 195a

It is important to take into consideration the geo-
logical factors which deter transmission in a

country like Solivia. The mineral deposits in the
Andean ”contains deflect sicnals, and even with power-
ful transnitters, reception is difficult, unless a
study is made to determine desirn of receiver for the
place where the receiver is located.

Florence Thonason

U03. Department Of State
Vashinvton, D. C.

Harch 26, 195a

WHAT HAS TYR BQLIVIAN COVEREWEKT EQHL TO BRINQ TUE
ISDIAHS INTU Th2 QATIONAL ECDNOHY - ESPECIALLY ThRU
RADIO? It would be so unusual for the Cov'mt of a
South American country to help the poor people that
even the question is a bit shocking.

Fathor Leo Connors
Haryknoll Father
Lira, Peru

March 19. 195u

93

The quality of the pronrams. and the general prepramminé
is on abuut a par with the technical qualitv (far from
A-l). ”any reowle who wsrk in broadcast radio - as
anncuncers, Operators, actors, etc., - work at it with-
out any formal training, and many tires as a part-tire
job. I would say eff-hand (without any statistics t0
back me up) that the wincrity of those now in broadcast
radio want to make it their career.

Father Leo Somver
Radio San Rafael
La Fez, Rolivia
April 15, 196"

I must exnress my comrlacencv for the interestinqu
chosen subiect for your thesis. I think that it truly
takes me frond as a Bolivian and I hope in the future
it will contribute to the Drestige of my country and
increase the relations between your preat country and
other Latin American countries.

Arturo Salces Arce

birecror General of Communications
La Paz, Bolivia

June 9, 196M

Books

 

Alexander, Robert J. The Bolivian National Revolution. New
Jersey: Rutrers UnIVersity Press, 1958.

Arndde, Charles H. The Frerrence cf the Republic of Bolivia.
Caincsvilla: Unifiersity olelorida Press, 195 .

Barnouw, Victor. Culture and Personality. Illinois: The
Ecrsey Press,llnc., 1??§.

Bolivia,_Diez Anon do Revolucion. La Paz: Rational Directory
of"Infornatibn, 1962.

Coddinfi, Ceorre. broadcastinn without Barriers. fietherlandq:
US$300 Printing Office, 1959.

Eduoacion Boliviana. Vol. VII, Servicio Cooperative Inter-
americano dc Educacion. La Fax, 1959.

Estenssoro, Victor Paz. La Rovolucion Boliviana. La Paz:
Eaticnal Piractory of Information, 198W.

Kane, Robert 3. South America A to 2. New York: Doubleday
ané Co., Igfii.

Osborne, Farold. Eclivia. 3rd edition, London.

Osborne, Harold. Indians of trc Andes. Quechuas and Aymaras.
London: Rontledoe E Xenon Paul Ltd., 1957.

Reyes, Alfonso Grcrucio. Condiciones Basica3_3ara cl Desarrollo

Schmid, Peter. Begrars on Golden Stools. flew York: Praguer,
1956.

Whitbcck, R. H. Yconoric ficowraphv o? fiouth hncricz. New
York: HcCraw Kill 806? Co., Inc., 1926.

World Communicationn:#grecs, Radio, Film, Television. Nth
Edition. NetFQfIhndsz UYXCCD yrinting Offices, 196“.

8“

85

Egfilic Docurents

 

Bolivian Tinistry of Communications. anlamnnto General do
Garvicios Radioeloctricoa. La Pazx‘lgéf.

Fact Sheet - Aid in Action, #75. Jashinvtnn: Covernment
‘Frintinw Uffice, 19F1.

 

UdEfiCO. Qtatictics on_9adio and Television 1950-60. Paris:
inurxozmras of UJiLiTCJ, 1763.

 

Fonorta
m

Arnade, Victor. Bolivia Problems and Proviso. flashinnton,
D.C.: Embaosy 0F EOIIVIa, 1956.

 

north Central Airlines Annual chort 1953. "The Bolivian
Ir03cct. "*Hinneapolia: 196 .

Overseas Television Development in 1981. Arril, 1962.

Pan American Union, Bolivia. Washinrton, D.C.: OAS Printing
Offices, 1955. *

Primer Convreso Latinonmcricano do Escuelas Radiofonicas.
Bogota, Coluzfiia: 1963.

Procrana Interamericano dc Informacion Popular. A Study of
tho Human and Institutional Resources in tho Social
Sciences and Conwunications Fnsearch in Selected
'Cauntrirq'ih_Latin America. Costa Rica: 1951.

Thooaeon, Florence 3., and Wolcott, Rona? A. Breaking_the
Illiteracv Barrier ?hrouqh Radio. October, 1983.

UNESCO. Haas Hedia in the Develoring Countries. Paris: Work-
sfiop oi‘UWEFCU, 1961.7 W

UHESCC. chort of the Commission on Tachnical fiends Press,
Film, Radio. Paris: Eorkshops o ‘ : a, .

   
 

United Nations. World Facts and Figures. New York: U. 3.
Cfficc cf‘TuLlIc’Inforuafton.'1952.

 

Articles

Alexander, pohert J. I"Bolivia," U. S. Dolicy in Latin America.

new York: The H. w. Hilnon coornnv, 1963.

Graham, Ambrose C. "Qchool of the hirwaves,” raryknoll.
November, 1958, pp. “7-50.

86

Cuilfoyle, Joseph W. "U. S. Aid Goes Sky fiiph in Bolivia,”
Reader's Dipost. April, 1959.

finryknoll Fathers. ”Radio San Rafael," Yarvtaollo Hovemhcr,
1963. p3. 23‘26.

 

Hendoza, Jaime. ”The Bolivian Child,” Universidad de San
Francinco Xavicr. october-December, 153$.

 

National OQSGPVGP. "why the Outlook Brighten: in Bolivia."
Juno IS, 196“.

O'Hara, hazel. "Radio San Gabriel,” Hnrykroll. July, 1959,
P5. 5-13.

; 3 Trends in World's Communications."
10“, FD. “.12.

Time Nawnzire. "The Honisnhare - Bolivia." November 1, 1963,
35??- a I-“ 2
U - I

‘ 9

 

U. S. Roma and World Panort. ”A New Success Story in Latin
America." June 15. 195W, Pp. 62-53.

Unpublished fiaterials

hapyxnnll rathnrs. "Radio Schools - Bolivia South America."
New York Office, 1961 (mimeovrnphed).

Haryknoll Fathers. "Radio Schools in Bolivia - Fricf History
and Explanation." New York Office, 1950 (mince-
nranhed).

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