THE GEOGRAPHY or mum powm' nivsmmem m rmz-L-AND Thesis fa? the Degree 0! M A - MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Suwif Habanananda T 19:64 megs LIBRARY Michigan State University This is to certifg that the thesis entitled THE GmGRAPHY OF ELECTRIC POWER DEVELOPMENT IN THAILAND presented by Suwit Habanananda has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for _M:_.A-_ degree in W Major professor Date W 0-169 ABSTRACT THE GEOGRAPHY OF ELECTRIC POWER DEVELOPMENT IN THAILAND BY Suwit Habanananda This thesis is a discussion of electric power develoPment in Thailand from a geographic point of view. Traditionally, charcoal, firewood and paddy husk have been the important sources of heat energy. However, depletion of forests resulting from heavy cutting for charcoal, along with other economic factors, have dictated that the government develOp different sources of energy. Lignite is now mined in the north at Mae Moh (45 million tons known reserves) and in the south at Krabi (4 million tons).' It is mainly utilized for the thermal generation of electricity at both places, although some from Mae Moh is transported to Bangkok for use in power plants there. ‘ Petroleum has been discovered at Mae Fang in the north, but it is of low quality and reserves are limited. Consequently, large importation has been necessary for the production of electricity by diesel engine and for other purposes. 2 Suwit Habanananda Rivers, streams and waterfalls provide Thailand with an abundant renewable resource for power develoPment, one that has as yet been little develOped. The hydro- electric potential is estimated to be more than one million kilowatts in firm power. Some 80 per cent of this is located in the northern half of the country within economical distance of the main market in the Bangkok area. Favorable hydro-sites are found on tributaries of the Chacphraya, the Maekong, and other streams. Electric power has become important in Thailand only in the last 25 years. Generating capacity in 1940 was only 32,000 kilowatts, which produced about 37.1 million kilowatt- hours of power during the year. Most of the capacity was located in Bangkok. Since the end of the Second World War there has been a continuing shortage of electric power. Although capacity to produce increased, so did demand. Production in 1952 was still under 150 million kilowatt- hours. But generating capacity has increased rapidly since then; it reached 264,470 kilowatts in 1961 when 601.82 million kilowatt-hours of electricity were produced. As a consequence per-capita consumption increased from 8.83 kilowatt-hours in 1956 to 17.76 in 1961. Presently, in 1964, generating capacity has reached some 500,000 kilowatts, and it promises to continue expanding rapidly. The future power system is being independently devel- Oped region by region under the direction of the National 3 Suwit Habanananda Energy Authority which was established in 1954. Several large hydroelectric projects are either being implemented, surveyed or actively considered. Of these, the Yanhee Project which will ultimately have 560,000 kilowatts capacity, located 260 miles from Bangkok on the Ping River, has already begun to transmit electricity to several pro- vinces in the North and Central Regions, including Bangkok. Other schemes such as Nam Pong (32,000 kilowatts) and Nam Pung (10,000 kilowatts) in the Northeast, and Pattani River (30,000 kilowatts) in the South are being implemented. ENentually, the regional systems will be linked in a national grid. The develOpment of the hydroelectric industry is not without problems. The most important of these concerns administrative organization, financing, the provision of technical personnel and the establishment of long-term planning and co-ordination with industrial develOpment. Unless these difficulties are effectively dealt with, development will be slowed. The growth of demand for electric power, especially in Bangkok which.consumes nearly 70 per cent of the country's output, is likely to continue at a high annual rate of 10 to 15 per cent for the rest of this decade, and at only a slightly lower rate thereafter to the end of the century. The total peak load increased from 79,966 kilowatts in 1956 to 203,800 in 1963, and it is estimated 4 Suwit Habanananda it will increase to 275,000 in 1970. The future supply will depend upon the extent and the speed with which local sources of power can be develoPed. It is possible that demand will increase so rapidly that nuclear energy as a supplementary source of power will become a reality in 1980's or 1990's. In any event, it is heped that the rapid expansion of electric power supply, particularly from hydroelectric facilities, will both alleviate chronic shortages of the past and provide a stimulus for rapid industrialization, thus greatly improving the level of living of the peOple of Thailand. THE GEOGRAPHY OF ELECTRIC POWER DEVELOPMENT IN THAILAND By Suwit Ha bananan da A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Geography 1964 Dedicated To my Father and Mother ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer wishes to express gratitude to the National Energy Authority of Thailand for letting him use the necessary materials pertinent to the thesis; to the writer's father, Mr. Swai Habanananda, through whose effort some of the information was expediently acquired; to Mrs. Paul Morrison for typing the prelim- inary manuscript; to Miss G. Aguilar for her help in general typhng and editing; and above all, a special note of thanks is due Dr. Paul Gross Morrison whose advice and encouragement, understanding and patience made completion of this study possible. East Lansing, Michigan Suwit Habanananda August 1964 ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ‘CKNOWLEGMMTS. O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 11 LISTOFTAHJESooooooooooooococo. v LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. o e o o o o o o o o o o 0 v1 CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 1 II. ENERGY RESOURCES, ACTUAL AND POTENTIAL. . . 5 WOOd. O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O 6 Ligniteoeoo:ooeooooooooo 10 011. O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 16 A Potential Source of Energy--Hydro- Blec'tr1C1tyo o o o o o o o o o o o 20 Amount and Distribution of Rain. . . 21 Watersheds and Streams. . . . . . . 26 Water Power Potential. . . . . . . 27 Location of Energy Resources to Consumer 31 III. EVOLUTION AND PRESENT CHARACTER OF THE ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY. . . . . . . . . . 34 Present Capacity. 0 o o o o o o o o o o 36 Bangkok-Thonburi Area. . . . . . . 4O Generating Capacities Distribution Facilities Provincial and Rural Areas. . . . . 46 Recent Generating Capacity Growth. . 51 Comparison With Other Countries. . . 53 Organization of Power Industry. 57 National Energy Authority (N.E.A.). 57 MetrOpolitan Electricity Authority (M..E.A.)...... . 57 Yanhee Electricity Authority (Y.ELA. 59 Lignite Authority (Lvo)oooooo o o 60 Provincial Electricity Authority (PoEvo)ooooooooooooo 60 IV. PROPOSED REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF HYDRO- EECTRIC PROJECTS. 0 0 0 0 O O 0 O O O 64 Development of Hydroelectricity. . . 64 Northern and Central Plains Region . 67 Yanhee Project. . . . . . . . . . 71 TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) Page Power Market Power Development Benefits Other Planned Projects. . . . . . . . . . 77 Northeastern Region . . . . . . . . . . . 78 The Maekong Basin International Deve10pmant Plano... 00.00.000.000 79 Nam Pong Hydroelectric Project. . . . . 81 Benefits Nam Pung Hydroelectric Project. . . . . . 84 Physical Background Features and Benefits Pamong Hydroelectric Project. . . . . . . 86 Benefits Other Planned Projects in the Northeast. . 88 southemPeninsulaoooooooooooooooo 89 Krabi Thermal Project. . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Hydroelectric Development. . . . . . . . . 9O Pattani River Hydroelectric Project. . . 91 Features and Benefits Nakhonsrithamarat Hydroelectric Project. . 93 Features of the Project Purposes of the Project The Future in Southern Thailand. . . . . . . 95 General Features of the Future Integrated System 95 V. PROBLEMS AND PRESPECTS OF THE FUTURE PROBLEMS. . 97 Organization and Control . . . . . . . . . . 97 Finance.o.................100 Technical Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Long‘tem Planning. 0 o e o o o o o o o o o 103 Prospects of the Future. . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Requirements of Power. . . . . . . . . . . 107 Demand and Slipplyo o o o o o o o o o o o o 111 U33 Of Atomic Power. 0 o o o o o o o o o o 114 Other Alternative Sources of Power. . . . , 117 VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. . . . . . . . . . . . 120 APPmnIX TABLES O O O O O O O O O 0 O O 0 O O O O 121 BIBLIO GRAPHY. O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O 0.- 142 LIST OF TABLES TEXT TABLES Table 1. Electrical Generating Capacity by Type of Power Plant, 1951-1961 . . . . . 2. Installed Generating Capacity in Bangkok and Thonburi, 1963 . . . . . . . . 3. Electric Consumption Per-Capita in Selected Countries, 1960 . . . . . . . . . 4. Ratio of Electric Production and Consumption to the Total Population Of Thailand, 1956-610 0 o o o o o o o o o 5. Comparative Statement of Primary Powers and Duties of Thailand's Power Authorities...ooooooooooooo 6. Hydropotential Locations in Thailand, SurveyEd 1954-196]. 0 o o o o o o o o o o o 7. Estimated Requirements of Power for Industrial Development, 1955-1995v . . APPENDIX TABLES Table 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 6. 7. Geographic Regions of Thailand. . . . . . . Installed Capacity and Production of Electric Power in Thailand, 1930-1961 . . . Number of Towns and Villages with Electricity, 1956-1961. e o O o o o o o o 0 Electricity Consumption and Number of Consumers by Categories of Utilization, 1961. O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O Thailand-Area and Population . . . . . . . A Installed Generating Capacity, 1956 & 1958 B Installed Generating Capacity, 1960 & 1962 Definitions Page 44 55 56 63 69 109 128 129 130 131 132 134 137 140 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Page 1. Provinces by National Energy Authority Zones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2.A Fossil Fuel Deposits and Railroads. . . . 13 2.3 Annual Rainfall. . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2.0 Rainfall May Through October. . . . . . 13 2.D Rainfall November Through April. . . . . 13 30A Major waterShedSo e o o o o o o o o o o o 28 3.3 Major HydrOpotential Locations. . . . . . 28 3.0 Population Density, 1960. . . . . . . . . 28 3.D Electric Generating Capacity, 1956 and 1962. O C O O O O O O C O O C O O C O O O 28 4.A. Electric Power Plant Capacity, 1951-1961.. 39 4.B Electrical Energy Generated, 1961. . . . . 39 5. Major Electric Power Projects and Planned Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . 68 vi Chapter I INTRODUCTION Thailand is on the threshold of revolutionary changes in its electrical power industry. Not only will hydro- electric facilities now being built provide greatly in— creased amounts of energy to relieve the chronic shortages of recent years, but they promise to reduce to relative unimportance the thermoelectric plants which until now have produced practically all electricity used. Generating capacity for the nation in 1961, excluding that of industrial companies producing power for their own use, was 264,000 kilowatts. That of Yanhee, the largest of several hydroelectric projects now under construction, will alone reach 560,000 kw. by 1970. This and other vast multi- purpose schemes now being implemented, actively planned, or considered will have a tremendous impact on the life of every Thai in coming years. The purpose of this thesis, therefore, is to discuss the evolution, present character, and probable future of electric power generation in Thailand. Chapter two is devoted to the discussion of existing and potential resources for power deveIOpment and the advantages and disadvantages of each. The resources include 'wood, charcoal, lignite, oil, amount and distribution of rainfall, and streams and stream flow. The chapter ends ‘with consideration of the possibilities of man developing 2 the water resource. It is an attempt to present in broad perspective what Thailand has or has not in terms of resources for power development. The third chapter is concerned with the evolution of Thailand's electric power industry. Here, the past history is traced and the present nature of the industry is describ- ed and analyzed. Shortage of electricity has characterized Thailand since World War II. To understand the government's attempt to launch a program of expansion of electric power production it is necessary to know how the industry is co- ordinated and regulated. Thus, included in this chapter is a part dealing with the administrative organization of the industry. Water power resources will play a significant role in the effort to alleviate power shortage Ln Thailand. A number of projects are now either‘under implementation, behng actively planned, or considered. Expansion of hydroelectric power facilities is taking shape region by region. This regional development of projects, both actual and preposed, is discuss- ed in the fourth chapter. The physical background of each region, and the features of and benefits expected from each project within the region are explained. Chapter five deals with problems and prospects of the .future of the electric power industry in Thailand. Not only are.there many problems concerning organization, finance, technical personnel and longrterm planning facing the industry, but there is the important question of what will be the re- 3 quirements (market) for power in the next ten years, twenty years, and beyond that. An estimate of such demands is attempted. Further, the role of atomic energy, as a possible source of alternative power, is also discussed. In the sixth and last chapter the major findings of the study are summarized. Thus, the final touches are added to the picture, study of which should make the nature, the magnitude, and some of the problems of energy resources and electric power develOpment in Thailand become fairly clear. Sources of Information Statistics concerning Thailand's electric power industry are fragmentary, while reliable estimates of resource poten- tials are still lacking. Such information as is available is scattered in various periodicals and journals. The difficulty the writer experienced in securing facts has many a time led to frustration. Nevertheless, the investi- gation was accomplished, the major sources used being; proceedings, reports and pamphlets published by the United Nation's Economic Commission of Asia and the Far East; the 1962 Report of the National Energy Authority of Thailand; and a book on Thailand by R. L. Pendleton. Other sources of value included articles in various geographic and economic periodicals and journals. Past statistics are either incomplete or lacking. The National Energy Authority, for instance, has no complete data 4 concerning generation and distribution of electric power prior to 1954. Some essential data, if it does exist, is not readily available. Thus, the presentation of statistics in this paper leaves much to be desired, but it is believed that enough figures have been secured from various available sources to permit a fairly close approach to the truth. Limitations of the Study As indicated above, one of the limitations is either the lack of, or the inaccessibility of some of the essential information and reliable data. Another limitation was the difficulty of securing necessary materials from primary sources in Thailand in the time available. Moreover, the scape of the subject is a large one, and it was not possible here to attempt to cover every aspect of it. .The writer hOpes, however, that the picture presented has sufficient detail to bring to attention what a nation with an under- developed economy, like Thailand, can do to achieve better living standards through development of its power resources. Chapter II ENERGY RESOURCES, ACTUAL AND POTENTIAL Inanimate sources of power probably satisfy no more than one-fifth to one-thir* of Thailand's present total requirements. he remainder is supplied by men and their a 1' draft animals, from which tne United States, by contrast, H draws no more than three per cent of its energy needs. Animals and humans ar the almost ex lusive sources of power in rural Thailand, and are major power factors in urban centers. In transport alone perhaps 80 to 90 per cent of the m power used is derived from these two agents. scenes of the scarcity of motorable roads, motor vehicles, and rail- roads, most goods are moved in river boats, by bullock carts and other animal or hunan~propelled vehicles, and on pack animals and human backs. In agriculture almost every power need is met by human and animal muscle. The same is largely true in mineral exploitation and in manufacturing where mechanization has barely begun; the number of persons engaged in cottage and small workshop industries still far exceeds l U.S., Department of Agriculture, Office of International Trade, Investment in India (Washington: 1953). p. 73, as quoted in R. L. Pendleton, Thailand, Aspects g: Landscape and Life (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, First Edition, 1962), p. 257- The latter is an American Geographical Society Handbook. 5 6 the total of mill and factory employees. Firewood, paddy husk and charcoal have long been traditional fuels for Thailand. They still play an 'm- *d ortant role where they cannot be suitably substituted by other energy resources. In recent years, however, the Po mportance of these as sources of power has relatively declined. Utilization of coal, oil and electric power has gradually taken their place, and these sources have come to largely fulfill the country's energy needs. Further exploration and experimentation must be made before Thailand's fuel and power resources can be assessed at all accurately. On the basis of present knowledge, however, the best prospects for providing future power appear to lie in the development of hydroelectric potentials in Northern Thailand, in the Hortheastern region along the Haekong and its tributaries, along the Southeast Coast where waterfalls abound, and in the Southern Peninsula. Some coal and petroleum have been produced in commercial quantities in recent years, but known reserves of both these mineral fuels do not appear now to be of sufficient quantity or the high quality required for most industrial uses. The coal is mostly lignitic; none suitable for coking has been discovered. The petroleum has a heavy napthalene base, and deposits are probably very limited in size. Wood Until recently, charcoal, firewood and paddy husk were 'the only sources of heat energy used in Thailand. Charcoal 7 was used exclusively for household purposes. Firewood and paddy husk were consumed mainly for production of steam to propel prime movers as well as to generate electricity. As industry has grown, with development of the country and its population, paddy husk has lost most of its relative import- ance as an energy supplier due to its limited availability. Firewood and charcoal, however, are still very significant sources, while rice stalks are an important fuel for some uses. Probably the most prized of the charcoal woods is mangrove, wnich therefore demands a very high price. Average production of wood and charcoal during the years 1947 to 1956 was 1,347,000 and 649,000 cubic meters respectively, although the 1956 output was down to 1,030,000 and 570,000 cubic meters.2 Wood and charcoal are the major cooking fuels of rural Thailand and their constant production for a growing popula- tion has brought serious depletion of forests near heavily pOpulated areas. Forests on or near densely settled rice plains, especially those of the Central Plain, have been completely destroyed.3 In addition, wood is used by the railroads for locbmotive fuels. It is noted that most of the wood out in the provinces of Prachuabkirikhan, Ranong, Phangnga, Krabi, Trang, Satool and Narathiwas is probably 2 International Bank of Reconstruction and Development, A Public Development Program For Thailand (Baltimore: 1959), po 10’”. 3 Pendleton, R. L., Thailand, Aspects pf Lands ape and JLife (flew York: Duell Sloan and Pearce, First Edition 1902) —"'—' r . , . . , ’ 1;. 21o. An American Geographical SOCiety Handbook. 8 sold to the railroads (Fig. l).4 Firewood and wood cut for charcoal together amounted to about 70 per cent of the timber removed from all Thai govern- ment forests in 1954.5 It is estimated that 7,000,000 cubic meters of wood are cut from government forests and private lands each year for charcoal purposes, and reserves are threatened with exhaustion.6 Thus, although wood is still a very important source of energy, the country's forests have been depleted to such an extent that cutting of trees for firewood has had to be curtailed. Other sources of energy should be sought to replace this type of fuel. In view of the situation, the government of Thailand had directed increasing effort to the search for coal, oil, hydro-power, and other energy resources. Keanwhile, the country's demand has expanded so that coal and fuel oil have been imported in increasing amounts for industrial as well as domestic power generation. Certainly, factories, power stations, and railroads can be switched to these substitutes with relative ease and probably to their considerable benefit, as the present fuels are not particularly satisfactory. A suitable fuel substitute for domestic cooking purposes, how- 7 ever, is not so easily found. Among those suggested are: charcoal manufactured from coconut husks; solar cooking stoves Ibid., p. 217. bid., p. 258. United Nations, Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East, Lignite Resources pf Asia and the Far East, Their Exploration, Exploitation and Utilization, Hineral Resources Devel pment Series E0. 7 (EVCE.ll/438), (Eew York: 1956), p.9. Pendleton, 92. cit., p. 258. mm 42- H .[I' Illlll.|‘rl III R3? 3:1};3-1 ,9; . '1. THAILAND PROVINCES BY NATIONAL ENERGY AUTHORITY Z O N E S NORTHERN PIOHIT PITSANULOKE PETCHABOON SUKHOTHAI UTARAOIT PHRAE NAN LAMPANG LAMPOON IO OHIENGMAI II CHIENGRM I2 MAE'HONG‘SORN l3 TAK l4 KAMPANGPET NORTHEASTERN A NAKHONRASRIMA OONGG‘UN— I 2 BURIRUM 3 SURIN 4 SISAKET I BANGKOK 5 UBOLRAJADI‘IANI 2 THONBURI 6 ROI " ET 3 NONTBURI 7 MAHASAR‘K‘N 4 PATUMTHANI e KALASIN 5 AYUDTHAYA 9 SAKOLNAKHON 6 ANGTHONG I0 NAKI'IONPHANOM 7 SUPHANBURI I I NONGKAI 8 SARABURI I2 UDONTHANI 9 LOPBURI I3 KHONKAN IO SINGHABURI I4 CHAIYAPHOOM I l CHAINAT I5 LOEI I2 UTHAITANI I3 NAKHONSAWAN "U 7" I4 SAMUTPRAKARN SOUTHERN I5 SAMUTSAKHON I CHUMPORN I6 SAMUTSONGKRAM 2 SURATTANI I7 NAKHONPATHOM 3 NAKHONSRITHAMRAT Ia KANCHANABURI 4 PATTALUNG I9 RATBURI 5 SONGKLA 20 PETCHABURI 6 SATOOL 2 I PRACHUABKIRIKHAN 7 YALA 22 NAKHONAYOK 8 NARATHIWAS 23 PRACI‘IINBURI 9 RANONG _ 24 CHACHOENGSAO IO PHANG-NGA o 25 GHOLBURI ll KRABI ‘ 26 RAYONG I2 PHUKET MILES 27 CHANTABURI I3 TRANG 28 TRAD I4 PATTANI '2' 5,”. [964 Figure 1 10 utilizing sun power, like those recently developed by the Eational Physical Laboratory in India and at E w York Univer- sity; inexpensive hydroelectricity; fuel alcohol nanufactured from molasses; oil from the yang forests; lignite briquets or lignitic coke drawn from the several known lignite reserves; and windmill generated electricity. It is interesting to note that windmill generation of electricity as a by-product of irrigation projects has been suggested for the Far East by a Commission of the United Nations. windmills have already proved successful in several sections of Thailand for direct pumping of irrigation water from canals and rivers, although they have not, as far as is known, been used to generate electricity. The aim of the government i1 searching for coal, oil, hydro-power and other energy resources available within the country is to reduce the expenditure of foreign currency credits as well as to develop the country's natural resources. Lignite Deposits of lignite are known in eight of the seventy- one changwads (political subdivisions) of Thailand shown F). n Figure 1). Deposits in northern Thailand are of Terti- ary age, brown, woody and of low calorie content. Those of the Peninsula area in the south are denser, blacker, and analyze by calorie content as sub-bituminous, or even bi- Q o o c U 7 o o _y tuminous in quality. In general, tne lignite of the northern basins usually has high water and ash content and 00 Pendleton, ibid., p. 259. ll 9 ulphur content is also very high. 0) no coking properties; the "\ Hence, it is suitable TOT {1 ir (D ct use in therma power stations, but not for metallurgical or domestic fuel purposes without ex ensive pre-treatment. As yet, only two or three areas have been surveyed by the Department of Hines in the Ministry of Industry, aided by tech- nical and financial aid from the United States :or ign Opera- tion Administration. Cnly one, that at Mae Hoh, 35 kilometers east of Lampang is being extensively exploited (Fig. 2 A). Reserves here may be as much as 80,000,000 tons. The most promising reserves besides those at Mae Moh totaling some 4,000,000 tons, are at Pan Pudam in Krabi in the southern peninsula. Amounts at Xiansa in Surathani and at Kantang in Trang are insignificant. Txcept for Rae Moh, the deposits have the disadvantage of being in sections of the country far from centers of consumption. Those at Pan Pudam and Kiansa have been commercially mined at times, but Operations have failed because of their poor location and other factors. hevertheless, the construction of a thermo-power station at Krabi in 1961, utilizing the Pan Pudam lignite deposit, has reactivated the mining Operation there under the direction of the Lignite Power Authority. The deposit a Hoe doh is being actively developed with the equipment obtained through United States government International Bank of Reconstruction and DevelOpment, p. 107. 12 assistance. Kines were Opened in the early fifties. The deposit is located in a Tertiary basin about 510 miles north of Bangkok and 62 miles south of Chiengmai.lo Proven reserves are presently about 45 million tons, but eXploration is con- tinuting and total reserves are expected to be nearly twice this amount. Mining by Open-cast method began in 1954. Pro- duction in 1955 amounted to between 30,000 and 35,000 tons; rose to about 80,000 and 130,000 tons in 1957 and 1958 res- pectively; was 140,000 tons in 1960; and was expected to be increased to 450,000 tons annually after June 1962. The total national production was recorded at 109,000 and 149,432 tons in 1959 and 1960 respectively.11 The main consumers of lignite are thermO-power stations in Bangkok. These utilize about 200,000 tons a year, but other uses are contemplated by both the government and private industry. A substantial amount Of the hae Moh output is also being burned in a mine-based electric station generating in- expensive electricity for the towns in the area and to supply power for the Yanhee dam construction. The low cost of pro- 10 Information about the Mae Hoh deposit is from United Eations, Commission for Asia and Far East, pp. cit., p. 7-9; 0 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, pp, ., pp. 107-108; and United Eations Economic Commission for Asia and , "DevelOpment Of Lignite Resources in Thailand" 'irs of the Regional Seminar on Energy Resources and A wer DevelOpment,“TE/03.11/595) (Zew York: 1962), pp. United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Fa East, lining Develonment in Asia and the Pa East,1960, Mineral . .— -:-:--— "-7- .__I _ .7 1, ,7— Resource Development Series, no. lo (:angnox: 19O2), p. 5. 1"“. cation» 3‘ '7‘ \ unplug 3 ' " ' ' ,“ 1w : “-3.“! no“ __ u'muo . ‘\. run. We '3‘ “minimize - ,3 ‘ uoop '1 ‘J ' lu I".~ “ ' ' : 3-. -_ x _\ . - , . _-. C.‘ mu .ULOKE ‘ ,. x' l“”‘""‘ .1. ‘.,--‘- _‘, -.-~‘ .f 2‘: I l I g. ‘l I L: [R‘- FT'". . ,Z' My»: '-. .2 , .- PHI ~_r "0':nyqu .; 3m 1' ‘ MM“! some”! '- f} mono: -'. " ‘ '. mm. I win "(A ,w MELT- m. :05 ‘ ' ““5. ' h...“ A W? A 0's. ‘2 .. men ti. "" '39!»le *0 mom-H . I. ‘ D cuaumnmruu o . THAILAND THAILAN u....... D ANNUAL RAINFALL 0 ml REL MMWS ‘7' D AND RAILROADS : MI E] ”R .0 unuomfiumhna 5* W"! [:1 ‘0'” you”; ' A tumor [3 u - ,0 l._ .. KRAOI :9! 7‘ — wuoaos fi 70-" ammo - ”’ '°° mono u - oval IOO o ’12 sumron To “ o _ .—- I SIMAPO mus ,.. m. "m 'x w T C D THAILAND RAINFALL MAY THROUGH OCTOBER uncut: [3 won so [7;] 30-45 fin} 45-00 - oo- 75 - oven 15 AI 71' uproar THAILAND RAINFALL ‘NOVEMBER THROUGH APRIL I INCHES Ci] mean 0 [:3 3-9 [:3 9-:2 uz-u .ovcn 2Q u '(9 auras Figure 2 ducin: lignite from Open-cuts at US 3 3.00 per ton or less, .3 allows generation Of cheap electric power on the site, and k full use of thi possibility is beinn made by the Thai Lig- U} nite Authority. In the over-all plans for the future, however, integration of the steam pow r stations With pro- 1 jected hydro-sources is included and this will limit the seorreo ical scope of lignite power use. 'I Llaflite is also being tried on locomotives Of the state F railways and in sugar refining and tobacco plants. hear hae 1 it 1as been discovered and a nitrogen yd ion, a gupsum depo U) fertilizer plant using gasified lignite will be built with aid from West Germar y. The plant will have a capacity of n l 0 120,000 tons 01 ammonium sulph late per year. This goal should be achieved without Hi iculty, since cheap power and fuel is available. The agronomy of Thailand, which is in great need Of synthetic fertilizer, will be considerably improved. Wflxr LJ.) H t V (D H rJI (.3 L) Ho (‘I‘ (D O.» (D 0‘) Ci" [OJ :3 (I) Q4 .1; O H :3 9 P i O F i H. 0) d- H P p.) ( d O *‘3 (*- (D p truck to the rail station at Rae Koh, then on the main BanekOk-Cniengnai line to the capital (Fir. 2A). The rail es exceed the production cost of tlie ligiiite. In 1959 the cost Of lignite at‘ he mine is said to have been Q 1- o 1 7-1 0 ‘_ o 0 . J) o ‘ ._ 1* Tnited Tations, nconomic CommiGSion ior As1a and tne Far East, Proceedings of the‘RefiiO onal Se:ninar 93 Enercv Resources aid Electric Power wcvclonrent, ODo cit., p- 50- 15 70-80 baht (U83 3.50-4.00) per ton. Addition to this of the freight charges although levied at a special reduced rate, raised prices at the Bangkok power stations to 180-200 baht per ton. The cost of fuel oil at the same time was 650 baht per ton.13 Thus, final costs of lignite to the consumer in Bangkok depend more on transport costs than on those at the mine. This being true, a low grade fuel such as lignite is severely handicapped. Its price in Bangkok is fixed on a level slightly below the equivalent heat unit costs in the form of fuel oil. Naturally, the danger exists that the lignite industry could be subjected to severe competition from fuel Oil supplied below present price levels fixed by the government. Never- theless, lignite may continue to be competitive on a calorific basis with fuel Oil, if the costs of mining and of transporta- tion do not substantially increase. Given the saving of foreign exchange which the use of lignite permits, it probab- ly would be Justified to continue its use even if the costs were slightly in excess of those of imported fuel oil. Indeed, it may be that the economic cost is already higher than the quoted price in Bangkok, since the State Railways find the lignite haul unprofitable at existing rates. Exploitation of lignite deposits other than those at Mae 13 International Bank of Reconstruction and Development, QR. Cit. ’ PO 108. 16 I | ! Ioh can only be regarded as a long-term pro sp' oect inseparable 1 from Thailand's pOJer problem as a WflOle. By its very nature, | li121n ite o annot compete effectively with other fuels unless V .l. ib can be utilized at or near the mine. Presently, other conditions are not favorable for industrial development at these points, so the only practicable solution is to generate electrica al GHGTSV on the spot and then transmit it over long distances for use by agricultural and domestic, as well as industrial consumers. Thus the new thermal power station at Krabi might eventually become the focal point of an integrat- ed power supply incorporating small hydroelectric stations, to serve most of Southern Thailand. Oil The search for oil has bee1 carried on throughout Thailand by the Department of Mines, but deposits of commer- cial size and quality have not been found. The limited reserves of natural asphalt and oil that have been dis- 1" covered are in the fiae F1ng basin in the northern changwad of hiengmai, adjoinin~ the Burxnese border in upper Thailand 01 (Fig. 2 A). According to the rock from the borings in this basin these deposits have no connection with those in Burma. The latter occur in Tertiary marine formations unknown in Tliailand. It appears more probable that the asphalt has ’I . . els- been formed in th e basin alluvium from lignite strata. 14 The geological material pertaining to oil is from the United States Geological urvey, Geolo ic Reconnaissance of the “inernl Deposits of Thailand Geolorzical Survey Bulletin 984, (Ja0h1nvton: 195 5, . 1:35. 17 Test wells were sunk at Mae Fang, as early as 1923, but no success was achieved until 1942 when a well sunk by the highway department struck oil-saturated sand. The well produced a total of 300 barrels of oil with a maximum yield of five barrels in one day. Early in the 1950's a small '1.“ field of high-viscosity, heavy-naphthalene base oil was found at a depth of some 500 feet. Exploration has been very slow owing to the limited equipment and personnel avail- able, but proven reserves are estimated at 1.5 million barrels ls and the total possible reserves may reach 5 million barrels. D In 1956 the government decided to erect a refinery with a capacity of 1,000 barrels a day at a cost of 84 million bahts (about US? 6.8 million). Since the refinery is too small to have any hope of being profitable, it seems clear that strategic considerations have prevailed over economic arguments and doubts about total reserves. The only other known possible source of petroleum in Thailand is oil shale. This has been found both in the intermontane basin around Lae Sod in Tak near the Burmese frontier, and along a t’dal estuary near Krabi in the Peninsula. Information about the shale in the Peninsula is not available. Reserves at Mae Sod, where study began in 1935, are estimated to exceed 2 billion tons with a hydro- l6 (— A carbon content of up to 3, per cent on the best samples. 15 International Bank of Reconstruction and DevelOpment, t . 109. 1., p. 109. 18 Further exploration has been hampered and prevented by in- accessibility to this heavily forested and rugged hill countri, but possibilities of develOpment seem to be worth additional study. Consumption of oil products in Thailand has rapidly increased from about 300,000 tons in 1950, to 903,000 tons 7 Fuel and diesel in 1957, and 1.3 million tons in 1963.1 oil in 1959 amounted to about 4 per cent of total import value and gasoline accounted for another 4 per cent. These together increased to 10.7 per cent of this value in 1960. The increasing demand for petroleum products resulted in the construction of a refinery to process imported crude oil. Erection of this facility, with an Operating capacity of 36,000 barrels per day, at Sriracha located about 70 miles ast of Banchok on the Gulf of Thailand, began in June 1962. (D The project is by far the largest single private enterprise l9 ever promoted by the Board of Investment. It will cost 600 million bahts (about US} 20 million) and will be run by the government owned Thai Oil Refinery Company, with al support from the Shell Oil Company. Ho technical and financ British, French, United States and West Germany companies are also participating. Construction is progressing well 17 United Kations, Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East, Kining Develonment in Asia and Far East 1960a.22- 9.13., Table 21, p. 7. ’ 18 ibido, p. 70 19 The Economist Intelligence Unit Ltd., Three-Ionthly Economic Review, Continental S.E. Asia, (London: September, 1962), p. 8. 19 and the plant should be able to begin operation before the scheduled date of September 1964. Another refinery, with a capacity of 5,000 barrels per day, owned by the Defense Hinistry and located at Bangchak (near Bangkok), has been leased to the Time Cil Company of America for ten years. It has been a subject of long contro- versy itT1111 tlie government whether to make this installation state operated, hiring foreign technicians necessary for the first five years, or whether to lease it to a foreign company. Time Oil will pay the government back the 400 million bahts it originally invested in the refinery and will also pay rentals and tazes. However, it was reported recently that some difficulties have arisen regarding the leasing; the main reason for this seems to be the high price at which the product will eventually be delivered to the Defense Kinistry' S Oil Fuel Organization. Although the government conducts retail marketing of oil, foreign petroleum companies also compete directly for the market. They have their own storage and distributing facilities in Ban kok. With increasing consumption of petro- leum products, the country has to rely more and more upon importation. Thus the government may well save some foreign exchange by importing crude oil to be processed at the newly built refinery. Increasing utilization of lignite in power stations and ne bodinn1n~ of hydro-power development at Yanhee and else1.here, may further reduce the cost of import- 20 Ibid., October, 19r5 , p. 8. 20 ing oil through substitution of these for generation of needed power. A. A Potential Source of Energy-Hydroelectrieity The inadequacy and inefficiency of firewood and char- coal and the uncertainty regarding local lignite and petro- leum deposits, has prompted Thailand to search for other source of energy which can provide sufficient power to satisfy the public needs, as well as to serve as a basis for rapid economic development. Thus, the government has turned attention to harLessing power from the numerous rivers and waterfalls. Prime factors in exploitation of hydroelectric force are two which are susceptible to combination in a variety of ways. hese are water and slope. Thus, other factors being equal, the most favorable conditions for a hydroelectric industry will be realized in a country of pronounced slopes, or mountainous regions, which at the same time is well watered because of humid climate. As far as Thailand is con- cerned, strong relief is found in the north and the west, and the country as a whole is well watered (Fig. 2 B). 21 See Blanchard, Raoul, "Geographical Conditions of Water Power DevelOpment," Geographical Review, Vol. XIV, (January, 1924), pp. 88-100. His discussion includes physical conditions, circumstances in non-glaciated regions, economic factors, significance of power transmission, and competition with coal. 21 Another important factor that has to be taken into consideration is the regularity of stream regimen. A river with marked seasonal variation in flow is of inferior value, for utilization must be based on minimum flow or power pro- duction will be irregular. Thus, a storage reservoir is necessary to correct irregularity. In middle latitudes rivers rising from non-glaciated mountains are marked by lack of uniform flow, usually being low in late summer. In low latitude regions, however, especially those with a monsoon climate, the streams flood during the rainy months which are usually the summer months. They carry the least water just before the heavy rains begin, ending the dry season. Most rivers in Thailand have this pattern of flow, the low water stage being during the spring of the northern hemisphere. Amount and Distribution of Rainfall hone of the watersheds in Thailand are snow-fed; thus he regularity of regimen depends to a great extent upon the distribution of rainfall through the year. This is particu- larly significant since practically all parts of the kingdom receive fairly large amounts of precipitation, although the heaviest concentrations are in the southern part of the Pen- insula, in the Southeast, and in provinces of the Eortheast along the Kaekong River (Fig. 2 E). From the point of view of power develOpment the seasonal '9 gnifi- character of Thailand's rainfall is therefore highly si cant.Figures 20 and 2D indicate this difference. Host of the country receives the bulk of its moisture during the period 22 of the Southwest Ionsoon, Kay thrc‘gh October. The notable exception is in the Peninsula East Coast area. Thus, all A .9 57 provinces north of the province 01 Cnumporn (Fig. 1) receive 86 per cent or more of their moisture during the 92 summer monsoon.“ Horeover, eight of the remaining 14 pro- vinces in the south receive more than half of their precipi- tation during these months (Fig. 20). From Hovember to April the country, except the Southeast and the Peninsula areas, is relatively dry; but these are the months the North- east Konsoon brings heavy rain to the Peninsula East Coast ( ’12] ig. 23) . The quantity of rainfall decreases with increased dis- tance from the sea. The average annual rainfall in the Central Plain is about 50 inches, gradually becoming less from south to north. Pangkok has an average of 59 inches, Lopburi has 54 inches, and Eakhonsawan in the Upper Plain 23 has 42 inches. T wards the northern end of the Upper 22 Statistical information obtained from: Barton, Thomas Frank, "Tha and Rainfall Distribution by Geographic 11 Regions," Journal of Geography, Vol. 61, E0. 3, (March, 1962), pp. 110-118; and “endleton, pp, 923,, pp. 116-119. In Parton"s discussion, Thailand is divided into five geographic regions after th Thailand Economic Farm Survey, 1953. They are the forth, Hortheast, Central Plain, Southeast, South, and West South-West. See Appendix 1 for a complete listing of provinces of each of these regions. According to Pendleton Bangkok receives 86 per cent of its annual rainfall during these six months; Chiengmai in the North, o8 per cent; Udon in the hortheast, 85 per cent; Takuapa on the Peninsula West Coast, 83 per cent. 23 Pendleton, on. 213., p. 118. * O '71 .1 [0 Plain, however, rainfall increases as a result of the orogra- phic effect of the northern mountains. Within these mountains the precipitation diminishes inland and avay from the plains. Thus, in the mountails of Torthern Thailand the average rainfall is less than 70 inches annually. Inhabited valley areas generally have much less than this; Chiengnai receives 40 inches and San about 50 inches. The overall average in the Horth is about 51 inches (F1 "‘0 2:). '7 1 I The Eortheast receives a fairly large amount of rain. .4 The annual average gradually increases as one moves ea t- ()2 ‘_Jo .,‘_‘ ward, be ng leaviest in the provinces along the Haekong River, where in some areas it reaches between 70 to 100 inches (Pig. 2E). The fall occurs mostly in the Kay-Cctober period. Precipitation du in? these six months accounts for 24 90 per cent of the total. On the other hand, during Iovenber to April when the Hortheast Monsoon prevails, the average for much of the area is only about 7 inches. Contrary to s me beliefs, Northeast Thailand does not have the least amount of rain among the regions of the nation, but it does have one of the most pronounced differences between wet season and dry season. The average annual precipitation in this area is about 57 inches. 24 E»r 5..) c+ on, 92, cit., Table l, p. 116. 24 The Southeast, which consists of the provinces of 2- Cholburi, Chantaburi, Rayong and Trad, has very heavy rain. L’l The annua amount reaches 96 inches, with the heaViest fall occurring during the Mai to October period, and amounting 26 to some 82 inches. The months between Hovember and April have a much lighter total, averagina about 14 inches. V 1 Along the Peninsula, in the province of Cnumporn and southward, rain occurs at all seasons, but even here there 27 are differences in seasonal distribution at different places. Several mountain ralges receive rain from the Southwest as well as the Tortheast Monsoon. The provinces on the west coast receive more precipitation than those on the east coast. Tahuapa on the west coast, for instance, recegges 166 inches a year, and one year it had 260.1 inches. The largest quantities fall along the west coast from May to Cctober, during the summer monsoon, and along the east coast from October to January, during the winter monsoon. Accord- ? inf to Barton, the South, which includes all but a few pro- (7 vinces on the Peninsula West Coast, has an annual precipita- tion of 84 inches, with more rain falling during the November to April period. 25 Both Barton and Pendleton recognize the Southeast as a distinct region. 26 Parton, ibid., Table l, p. 116. 27 Barton noted that the northern boundary of Chumporn, or near there, is one of the most significant rainfall boundaries in Thailand (ibid., p. 117). 28 Pendleton, pp, 213., p. 119. 2C: In the West South-West, which includes the provinces of Kanchanaburi to the west of the Central Plain and Chum.- rw orn, Ranong, ha gnga, Krabi, Satool and ha athiwas, t‘ annual rainfall averages 95 inches, with 67 inches coming between May and Cctober. Thus, there are large seasonal rainfall differences in all of the major regions of Thailand. Since the amount of rain received during the dryer part of the year is the principal factor determining minirmlm stream flow, and this in turn sets a limit on the amount of water power regularly available without use of reservoirs, the nation's leading problem ar as for production of hydroelectricity would be those with the least precipitation during t1 e dry mont1s. Study of Figures 20 and 23 shows the hortheast, or Korat Plateau, and the Korth to rank first and second respectively in this regard. Huch of the surface of both areas receives under six inches of rainfall during the dryest half of the year. On t11e other extreme, the precipitation during this period is least limiting in the South as a whole, and only a little more so in the four provinces comprising the South- east. In the South most provinces have over 24 inches dur- ing the dryer six months; in the Southeast between 12 and 24 (D inches (Fig. 23). Th Central Plain occupies a position between the Northeast and} Forth on the one hand, and the South and Southeast on the other. .1. It can be concluded hat in the South and South east the terrain is suitable, and the volume of stream flow sufficient 26 even during the dry season, to provide a considerable poten- tial for generating hydroelectricity. Even here the poten- tial can be expanded, but to a vastly greater amount in less favored regions, by the construction of reservoirs. These manmade lakes will in addition, be particularly valuable in the areas having a marked dry season for storing water to irrigate agricultural land. Under such conditions construc- tion costs can be spread over more than one use, thereby facilitating development. Watersheds and Streams Thailand is blessed with several large rivers and numer- ous lesser streams. Three main rivers and their tributaries provide most of the drainage system of the country (Fig. 3A). The ChaOphraya River and its four principal branches, the Ping, Wang, You and Nan Rivers, drain the northern mountains and the great Central Plain. The Chaophraya flows through Bangkok and enters the Gulf of Thailand at Samutprakarn; its main distributary, the Nakhonchaisi, enters the Gulf Just to the west. In the western part of the country the Kwae Yai and the Kwae Noi fIOW'Out of the Western Mbuntains and meet to form the second major stream, the Maeklong, at Karnchana- buri. This drains the area between the Salaween in Burma and the Chaophraya in Thailand. The northeastern and the eastern parts of Thailand lie in the drainage basin of the Maekang, the "great river" of Southeast Asia. The major tributaries which fIOW'into the Maekong are the Mune and the Ghee. Other rivers independent of the Mhne-Chee system also 27 flow into the Maekong along the Thai-Laos boundary. There are no large rivers or drainage basins along the Southeast Coast or in the Peninsula. Only small rivers and streams tap inland mountainous areas and enter the Gulf of Thailand along the Southeast Coast and the Peninsula East Coast, and the Adaman Sea and the Strait of Malacca along the Peninsula West Coast. Like most rivers of the tropical region, the Choaphraya has much water well maintained throughout the year, and a large volume of water has permitted it to rapidly approach base level. This low gradient in its lower course, along with the amount of alluvium carried, militates against utili- zation for power generation. However, the four main tributar- ies of the Choaphraya possess desirable conditions as they flow through mountainous area in the north. Recently, one hydro-plant, the Yanhee, on the Ping River began to generate electricity. Possibilities for further deve10pment on the other tributaries are under investigation. Suitable conditions for hydro-power installations also exist on smaller rivers such as Nam Pong and Nam Pung in the northeast, and the Pattani in the south. Consequently, they have been designated for immediate deve10pment; in fact pro- Jects on all three are now under implementation. Water-Power Potential The hydroelectric potential of Thailand from its rivers and waterfalls has been estimated at 1,160,000 kilowatts, of which about 80 per cent is located in the northern half of the 28 A - k » v ‘ n ’ ‘ ‘ IA Q H3 \ I x . \, M u 0 4w ° « 4 / ——’ THAILAND { MAJOR HYDROPOTENTIAL THAILAND LOCATIONS 0 D MAJOR WATERSHEDS 0 . I Q \ inflow-Mann; ' noun . i. 4 sun: _4' an F bar—5” C ' ° Y THAILAND J W W W — — UNIS \ THAILAND I 9 6 O PERSONS PER 50. KI. [3 0-19 to- u so- u - noo- zoo - no 41.435 POPULATION DENSITY 5M "9“ I956 6 |962 Cl cxuuocs MAE new man: no _ wanton-rm rum ‘ f mousmoo o! m. mu nut J Q monox- cl I”, l mow-um «.9 100.: i '. IA: ION - Its . 1 _ __ ___J T‘; --"' -~.___.' LEGEND { , ,. We: at n. ? 'I use. I“: .Izg” no no “ 5 s o o O ‘13 / UILIS Sarto Norm! [Mg 14100”; "2' 5" an Figure 3 29 29 country. Cnly a very small percentage, however, is from waterfalls. Anotiw er source indica We that the potential may exceed this est irate. The National Energy Aut11ority which has conducted surveys of some 32 hy’ro-potential sites since 1954, reports nearly a million kiloJatt of latent hydro-power in these alone. This amount excludes the power from Yanhee project (560,000 kw.) and the Pamong (1.6 million kw.) which 1at1oonal scheme--the Lower l'ae‘::ong Easin [.10 m part of an inter- Project. There are still more than thirty rivers and their tributaries and sever {D l waterfalls to be surveyed an” their capacities estimated in the future. Host of the hydro-potential power is expected to be derived from rivers and not from waterfalls. In other words, the power-producing stream of low fall and large dischar more prominent in the planning than that of high fall and small discharge. It should be noted, however, hat if the power generated in the two cases is equal, the cost of pro- duction will not be the same, for the high fall can be equipped and maintained at less expense. Host of the water1alls survey- ed for power generation are not large enough to produce large amounts of electricity. hone of them, so far, is likely to 29 United Nations Econ01t1c Commission for Asia and the Far East, “lectric Power in Asia and tne :ar East, 1956—1960 (E/czt. 11/3;7f Ciew York: 1262),1. 21c. 30 Peoort of the Nation 21 Energy Authority, 1962 (Office 01” the P511 idistcr, Za;1gi;ok:1953), pp. 55- 51. The report indicated Only 23 sites mere surveyed up to 195 the rest wer 1nvcst13ated after chl. 50 be aole to gene; ate more than 15,000 kilowatts. Kajor hydro-potential locations are shown in Piglre 33. Cnly four of these sites have a capacit3 over 100,000 kl}. '/ _ . . r? _ I 1",” f__’ namely, Panchg (1.0 million ku.), Yanhee K3003000 1W-“ ) Utaradit (500,000 kw.) and Kan3 Rieng (200,000 kfi.). Cf these only Yail qee is be eing actively exploited as yet and it recently began to transmit some electr Htr. Others remain in the planning stage, except Kang Rieng, which is desig nated as a first priority program to be implemented in the near future. es these four of large potentials, others range £15 1 .1 :e (I) from a mere 300 kw. to as much as 40,000 kw. They are loce ated in s11aller tributaries, streans and 1-1'aterfe lls, such as Lae Kok in the north, Tam Pung an Nam Pong in the north- east, tributaries of the lune Piver in the east and the Patter i and other rivers in the south (Fig. 5A). Power from high-head type of stream could be realized from water- falls ir the province of Chantaburi in the southeast where aggregate potential of f 0 ur sites may possibly reach about 14,500 kw.; and elsewnere especially in the Peninsula such as those in the provinces of Iakhonsrit hainarat and Sogkla. It is unlikely that all of these potentials will be developed in the foreseeable future. Econom 10, political and other factors say prevent efie ctive exploitation. Pever- ss, several si nificant projects are already under mentat1on or are actively planned, and when they are completed they should satisfv the country's need of electric 31 1 power for a numoer of years to come. 1— Location of 1er3y Resources to Consumiig Area As noted earlier, firewood, wood Md charcoal are me ene rally consumed locally, though some amounts are moved —. ~v 0 1 over cons1derable distance for use by railroads and for other ating purposes. Riverboats, bullock carts, trucks, and railroads are the means of transport in3 such supplies. Li3nite is bein3 exploited at or near the colliery main- ly for production of electricity. P1‘ on Hae Ioh, in the north, however, much is moved by truck to a railroad station wh1ere it is loaded for carrying to power plants in the Eangkoh area. At Krabi in the south, so far as it is known, lL-nite is utilized on th spot to generate electricity. If demand for lignite in other parts of the country rises it is conceivable that the supply may come from either or both of these mines. Because lignite has a low-value and hi ”h-veisht ratio the dis ance it has to be moved is a significant factor. Without sub idy, it cannot hope to compete effectively a3a nst other sources of fuel if it has to be transported very far to market. Thailand has come to rely upon a large importation of oil as a source of pow r. Deposits at Hae Pan3 in the north are inadequate for domestic needs. Oil and its products are distributed from an:* R, mostly by means of railroads. Thus, the cost of petroleum in areas outside of Bangkok is apt to be his‘er-—deoend1n~ on the transportation costs that must be paid. Power from hydro sources unlike charcoal, lignite and oil, 52 must be transported over transmission lines to consuuling '1' ‘I areas. ideally, it would be advantageous to utilize the power Cene ated on tlie spot, or as near the generating plant as practicable. The possibility of electric power trans- mission modifies somewhat the earlier controls of water power sites on the location of industry. how it is possible to transmit power to great distances in the form of high voltage and low intensity currents through the use of trans- formers. But povrer still 02 nnot be transported efficiently beyond a certain limit. The problem is one of cost. Trans- mission involves a loss of 10 to 20 per cent of the power and erection and maintenance of line is expensive. Thus, oe reached where costs of transmission exceed the value of power delivered. The potential Water power sites of Tie dailand, in most cases are located fairly close to consuming centers. The U) distances are generally not 0 great as to hinder economical and effective development. Presently, the main market for hydro-power is the Eangkok-Thonburi area and the surround- ng provinces. Figure 3 0 showing pOpulation density by pro- F10 vinces in 19 60, indicates that the greatest concentration of peOple is in and around the provinces of Ea1 gkok nd Thonburi in the Central Plain. A major hydroelectric pro- ject, the Yanhee, is to serve this area, as well as other provinces in the Central Plaii and To rthern Regions. In the Eortheast and the South separate programs are being 33 implemented to supply power to major urban and rural markets in these regions. Future inter-connection on a nati01-wide (.7: $33 U) H D ,4 ,3 H H (3‘ (D * d O U) U) H. )4 ~le when economic and other conditions call for such development. Chapter III EVOLUTION AND PRESENT CHARACTER OF THE ELEOTRIO POWER INDUSTRY Although electric energy has been used on a limited basis in Thailand for many years, it has been during only the last twenty to twenty-five years that the average citizen has become aware of its many potentials. Between 1929 and 1940 there was practically no change in the amount of installed generating capacity in the country. In 1940 this totaled only 32,000 kilowatts, and the pro- duction for the entire kingdom was recorded at 37.1 million kilowatt-hours1 (see Appendix 2 for data on installed capacity and production from 1929 to 1961). The actual peak load served by this capacity is not accurately known, but in the Bangkok area alone, for which more information is available, the 1940 peak demand was approximately 12,000 kilowatts.2 During the Japanese occupation in World War II the 1 tatistical arbook 1 4 959, (United Nations New IorkLT—T'": 952 , p.1LB-_—27 ; p.'2 . ' 2 U. S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Reclama- tion, ”Report on Yanhee Multiple Purpose Project - Thailand,” (Denver: 1955), p. 6. (Mimeographed). . 34 35 generating capacity was reduced to zero by Allied bombing. In spite of this setback and the difficulties of reconstruc- tion, a peak load of upwards of 22,000 kilowatts was served in Bangkok in 1950. The demand has stayed considerably ahead of the ability to supply since the end of the war. Consequently, a number of extraordinary measures have been effected to maintain system loads at maximum generation and distribution capa- bilities. Direct measures to this end include blackouts on part of the system, limitation of motor loads during periods of peak demand, restriction of adding new loads, and the intentional lowering of voltage to reduce load. Because of these actions, especially the latter, and the inadequate dis- tribution facilities, service provided by the system has been less than satisfactory. In addition, the very structure of the power rate schedule has been an effective deterrent to increase of loads. This has allowed use of the first 50 kilowatt-hours per month at a rate of 0.65 baht per kilowatt-hour (about 3 cents), but increased the cost to 1.00 baht per kilowatt- hour for additional energy consumed. Thus, it is seen that what appeared to be a relatively large increase in generating capacity between 1940-1950 was still woefully inadequate to meet the growing requirements. The same can be said for the years since 1950. 36 Present Capacity The growth of electrical generating capacity in Thailand between 1951 and 1961 is shown in Table l and Fig. 4A; also the type of power plants established. The capacity increased from 32,334 kilowatts in 19503 to 264,470 in 1961.4 All of it was thermoelectric; no hydroelectric facilities existed. Over half of the 1961 total was located in Bangkok. This is evidented by the fact that in 1961 the Bangkok-Thonburi area accounted for 73.7 per cent of the total 466.54 million kilowatt-hours electric energy sales; also for 46.4 per cent of the 445,568 customers in the nation. The total generating capacity has risen rapidly since 1950. During the 1951 to 1955 period it increased by 152 per cent, while total production rose from 104.8 million kilowatt-hours to 288.5 million, or 175 per cent in four years. Between 1960 and 1961 there was a spectacular in- crement in generating capacity of nearly 50 per cent--from 177,610 kilowatts to 264,470. The same year total produc- tion increased about 21 per cent, rising from 501.5 million 3 Pendleton, 23. cit., p. 261. 4 Report of the National Energy Authorit , 1262, 220 Cite, Ta Ell-27.30 166. . Ibid., Table l, p. 105; Table 3. P. 107; P. 118. The totzf'firoduction of 611.88 million kilowatt-hours in 1961 was divided into 466.54 million sold, 106.89 million lost in transmission, and 38.45 million consumed within the generating plants. 37 kilowatt-hours to 611.9 million. This was largely because of additions of a large steam thermal plant in northern Bangkok and the Mae Moh lignite plant in northern Thailand. These new power plants, it should be noted, reversed the 1950‘s trend dd increasing relative importance of the generating capacity of diesel units. In 1959 these account- ed for a peak 68.3 per cent of the total, but drOpped to 48.9 per cent in 1961 (Table l). The latter year electric energy generated by and purchased from steam plants account- ed for 64.8 per cent of the total supply. Not included in the above, is a substantial amount of generating capacity in the hands of industrial establish- ments, who have found it necessary to install facilities to meet their own needs in the absence of sufficient supplies from the public systems. major plants, including only the Siam Cement Co. Ltd., the Royal State Railways machine Tool Shep, the Port Authority, and the Thai Pulp and Paper Hill, had an installed capacity of 16,750 kilowatts with produc- tion of 92.38 million kilowatt-hours in 1960.6 Surplus electricity is sold to outside agencies. This amounted to 13.82 million kilowatt-hours in 1960. No other detailed information concerning the private-owned plants is available, except that practically all are small, highecost diesel units. EWen so the cost of the power is not materially greater than 6 United Nations, Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East, Electric Power in Asia and the Far East, 1956-1960, 22. cit., Table 2, p. 102; Table 12, p. 116. .epH..m...anF. a .Anema “soaweuma News .Hmanommsa Numema Menoawemweep no ppm om “seesaw . 5H . pmmH «wax gem” .Amme\aa.zo\mv nwmmuawma .pmmm mmm.mmw.wmm enm<_mm geese seaweeds. .pmmm Hem any and sand you scammassoo canonogm .mdoapmz umpanb Bonn nmamav .Hogpsm one hp consumed Pap .pnommm one ma pom hadmnamauo n .mpans consonhaopmbasn ma omo.na use mpswan consoupnosnnoeow a“ one: omm.omm .hpdodano mean: uoHHs oae.eem no see .H ma nH .mpsean consonanpmseea Has moesaosm e .cmnmboo undo» on» manna weapmnoao updaaanonuhz on one: chose * mm.w¢ N¢.mNH mO.Hm OO.mnH N&.#om mefl we.me He.oaa em.sm oo.ae He.ssa oema mm.®© mm.m0H N@.Hn wh.om ¢M.O©H mmmfl ¢M.¢o mv.©m ©@.mm mw.nm mm.OmH wmmH mm.N© m©.mm H¢.Nm O.nm m©.H¢H Emma om.oe mo.mw oa.mm mo.mm mm.mna emma w.mm mm.@m ¢.N# mo.Hm ©.NOH mmmd H.0m m.we m.mn e.mm m.am emma m.>¢ h.mm H.Nm m.mn n.w© mmmd m.m# O.HN m.©m M.NN m.®# NmmH m.n .m.s .o.d .n.n p>.m¢ HmmH peso Hem as coca peso gem as coon - as oooa pneam acumen peeam semen Aespaoeewo deuce sees LEAH MESA mo NE Hemauamma .azqqm mason so mmwa em saHo26 QWm.=Hem mbwoawHOHeM IX) HmmmemmH wowspmapou Moms mam Hams omwm man was me mmmd.H mm mIpmmo. 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u . mnm wwumawnm mmm : n mmm awm a . amm muonam moon amm mnm mmnm swam amm own coma mazanpmnaz mmaa 0mm ona maaa mmaa 0mm mm apaa «an» pma . : pma oaa . . oaa afipwm nomn coma uwm ovaa Oman oowa mpa amaa waggmnom w.omm a em w.am¢ ¢.mw¢ s ¢.¢m mm: wnsaanppagm m.moma m.~ma am amoa amma maa maa mama pageanpanmqosaaz numa mp maa omoa mam mm am mm» aqwgppmnsm «moa ooa on mom maoa ooa mm mam gnomszno nnmnpaom aaaoa mm e>m m+a>m 4mm aaeoe m a>m uwzmqwao mood coma &cmsnapnoomm m NHszmm< Appendix '7_ DEFINITIONS British Thermal Unit (B.Th.U.). A measure of calorific value representing the quantity of heat that will raise the temperature of 1 1b. of water from 60 F. to 61 F. Calorific value of coal is measured in British Thermal Units per pound.--B.Th.U./lb. Calorific value. The amount of heat that may be generat- ed from a given weight of coal; measured in B.Th.U./lb. Capacity (of generator, etc.). The output in kilowatts under ordinary full load conditions. Capacity (installed capacity, rated capacity). Applied to power station is the aggregate power of all generators. Cusec. A measure of river flowb cubic feet per second. Distribution of electricity. The movement of electricity at relatively low voltage, within a supply authority area, for ultimate use. Energy. Physical ability to do work, the product of power and time. Feeder. A cable or other conductor used to supply electri- cal energy from a station or substation to a point from which it is distributed, i.e. to ”feed" the net work at an appropriate point. . Generating Plant. The complete machinery and apparatus required for the production of electrical energy for power or lighting, whether in a large power station or in a private installation. Generating Station. A works where electrical energy to be distributed for lighting, power or traction purposes, etc. is produced from dynamo-electric machinery driven by water-power, steam engines or turbines, gas or oil engines or otherwise. Head. The vertical height through which waterfalls between the intake and the turbines at a hydroelectric station. High Tension. A general expression for high voltage without any definite limits; used particularly where distinction is to be made between systems or circuits of different vol ta ge . 140 High Voltage. A comparative term employed generally for voltages high enough to require special percautions in dealing with them but without any definite limit. Horsepower (h.p.). The practical unit of mechanical power. The British horsepower is equal to 33,000 ft. lb. per hour or 746 watts. The metric horsepower is 0.986 of this, being 75 kg. metres per second. Interconnected system. A transmission network linking several power stations--transmission grid. Kilovolt (kV). One thousand volts. A unit often used for expressing voltages of high-tension transmission lines, test pressures of insulators, etc. Kilowatt (kw). The unit of electric power generally used for rating electrical machinery and for practical purposes; equal to k,000 watts. Enuivalent to 1.34 h.p. Kilowatt-Hour (KWh.) The unit of electrical energy usually employed for commercial purposes, being that which has passed in a circuit when an average of one kilowatt has been passing for one hour or its equiva- lent. (Also called the Board 2; Trade Unit agg.ghg Kelvin.) Lighting Load. A load on a generating plant or station consisting entirely of lighting and not of electric motors, or that part of the load due to lighting. Lighting Peak. The peak in the lighting curve, not usually occurring at the same time as the Power Peak. Load. The output (kilowatts) that a generating plant is being called upon to give at any time, or the horse- power which is bbing exerted by an electric motor. Peak. The point where a load curve reaches a maximum. Peak Load. The magnitude of the load on a generating station or plant at the time of day when there is a maximum, e.g. in a lighting station Just after dark. Power House. Another name for Generating Station, applied more particularly to those supplying large systems. Power Load. That part of the load on a generating station which supplies electric motors, distinguished from that part supplying lighting. 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