AN EXAMINATION OF THE FREQUENCY AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PREDICTORS OF
DISORDERED EATING IN FEMALE SUB-ELITE FIGURE SKATERS
By
Dana K. Voelker

A DISSERTATION
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Kinesiology
2012

ABSTRACT
AN EXAMINATION OF THE FREQUENCY AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PREDICTORS OF
DISORDERED EATING IN FEMALE SUB-ELITE FIGURE SKATERS
By
Dana K. Voelker
Figure skating has traditionally been considered an “at risk” sport for the development of
disordered eating. However, little data exist to support these anecdotal claims with most research
focusing on female skaters at the elite level. The primary purpose of this study was to examine
the frequency and psychological predictors of disordered eating among female sub-elite skaters.
Enough data were collected to also conduct additional analyses with male skaters and make
various group comparisons across the sport. A survey battery was administered to skaters across
five states, which yielded a final sample of 301 participants ages 12 to 26. Results showed that
the majority of skaters were not symptomatic of an eating disorder and actually cited numerous
benefits of skating on body image, eating, and exercise. A smaller proportion of skaters scored
within clinical range of an eating disorder (i.e., 13.1% [23/176] of female sub-elite skaters,
13.2% [10/76] of female elite skaters, and 3.7% [1/27] of male skaters), but were no more
symptomatic than their adolescent and college-aged peers when compared to existing normative
data. Among female sub-elite skaters, disordered eating was significantly predicted by body
dissatisfaction, perceived weight pressures, and both positive and negative perfectionism (p<.05).
Across the entire sample, disordered eating did not differ by skating discipline, competitive level,
or sex (p<.05). Together, results suggest that figure skating has the potential to both positively
and negatively influence body image, eating, and exercise. Researchers and practitioners are
encouraged to adopt a dual-pronged approach such that efforts are made to not only minimize the
possible detriments associated with figure skating, but to also maximize its many strengths.

DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my loving family and friends and athletes everywhere struggling
with negative body image and disordered eating.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by a Research Practicum/Research Development Fellowship from
the College of Education at Michigan State University as well as the Institute for the Study of
Youth Sports.
Institute for the Study of Youth Sports, Department of Kinesiology, and Michigan State
University: I simply could not have reached my educational and professional goals without the
numerous opportunities and resources afforded by ISYS, the KIN Department, and MSU. I am
sincerely grateful for their commitment to the growth and success of graduate students.
Dr. Dan Gould: The impact you have made on my life as a mentor and advisor is unmatched.
This acknowledgement will not do justice to the care, support, guidance, and knowledge that you
have provided me throughout my graduate career. Thank you for who you are and all that you
continue to do (and for being the funniest person in the universe!).
Dr. Deborah L. Feltz: Thank you for your mentorship in numerous phases of my graduate career,
including your contributions on this dissertation committee. I hold your professional
accomplishments with the highest regard and very much appreciate your leadership as a
Department Chair. Thank you.
Dr. Tracey Covassin: I cannot thank you enough for your unconditional support and guidance.
You know when someone cares about students when they drop everything to help them at any
time of the day, any day of the week. You are truly an exemplary person and professional and
not to mention extremely fun!
Dr. Justine J. Reel: I am so glad we crossed paths and have been able to share a passion for a
very important topic. Working with you has given me confidence in the field, and I look forward
to many future collaborations. Thank you for believing in my abilities and my potential.

iv

Project Support: In addition to my committee members, I am proud to thank the fellow students
who provided invaluable support and assistance to the project. Katherine Griffes deserves special
recognition for her assistance with the qualitative analysis as well as Alyssa Newton who made a
tremendous contribution to the data entry portion of this project.
Figure Skating Community: It is a pleasure to thank those who made this dissertation possible,
including the many club directors, coaches, skaters, and parents who saw value in the project and
provided their support.
Dad, Mom, and Gram: The lessons you taught have provided me the strength to reach my
highest goals. Your love and support is known every day, and I thank you for being there
throughout the journey. The values you have instilled in me are held in the highest regard,
including loyalty, leadership, and humility. I love you.

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................... ix
LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... xi
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................................1
Overview of the Problem .....................................................................................................4
Significance..........................................................................................................................6
Preliminary Evidence for Disordered Eating in Figure Skaters...............................7
Recent Trends in Figure Skating..............................................................................7
Prevention and Intervention Efforts in Figure Skating Populations ........................9
Study Purposes and Aims ..................................................................................................10
Research Questions and Hypotheses .................................................................................11
Limitations and Assumptions ............................................................................................14
Operational Definitions ......................................................................................................14
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE ........................................................................................................17
Relevant Terminology in the Eating Disorder Literature ..................................................17
Clinical Eating Disorders .......................................................................................18
Subclinical Eating Disorders..................................................................................19
Prevalence Estimates and Trends.......................................................................................20
Trends in the General Population ..........................................................................20
Trends in Sport .......................................................................................................21
Athletic Status ............................................................................................22
Sex Differences ..........................................................................................23
Competitive Level ......................................................................................25
Sport Type ..................................................................................................26
Consequences of Disordered Eating ..................................................................................28
Female Athlete Triad .............................................................................................29
Disordered Eating and Menstrual Dysfunction..........................................29
Disordered Eating and Poor Bone Health ..................................................30
Other Physical Consequences ................................................................................31
Psychological Disturbances ...................................................................................33
Performance Implications ......................................................................................34
Risk Factors for Disordered Eating in Sport ......................................................................35
Social Pressures .....................................................................................................35
Specific Features and Requirements of Sport ........................................................38
Psychological Characteristics ................................................................................38
Figure Skating ....................................................................................................................39
Figure Skating Subculture......................................................................................40
Nutritional and Physiological Status of Figure Skaters .........................................43
Disordered Eating, Body Image, and Weight Concerns in Figure Skaters ............46

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Prevalence of Disordered Eating, Body Image, and Weight Concerns
in Figure Skaters ........................................................................................46
Weight Loss Techniques and Perceived Pressures Among
Figure Skaters ............................................................................................49
Correlates of Disordered Eating in Figure Skaters ....................................51
Gaps in the Literature.........................................................................................................53
Study Purposes and Aims ..................................................................................................54
Selection of Psychological Variables...................................................................55
Body Dissatisfaction ..................................................................................55
Perceived Weight Pressures .......................................................................55
Self-Esteem ................................................................................................56
Perfectionism .............................................................................................56
Athletic identity .........................................................................................57
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................................58
Research Design.................................................................................................................58
Participants .........................................................................................................................58
Procedures ..........................................................................................................................59
Instrumentation ..................................................................................................................60
Athletic Identity .....................................................................................................60
Self-esteem .............................................................................................................61
Body Dissatisfaction ..............................................................................................62
Disordered Eating Attitudes and Behaviors ...........................................................63
Perceived Weight Pressures ...................................................................................64
Perfectionism .........................................................................................................66
Open-ended Items ..................................................................................................67
Demographic Variables .........................................................................................67
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS ......................................................................................................................................68
Demographic Information ..................................................................................................68
Evaluation of Primary Research Questions .......................................................................70
Primary Research Question 1.................................................................................70
Primary Research Question 2.................................................................................73
Primary Research Question 3.................................................................................75
Primary Research Question 4.................................................................................77
Evaluation of Secondary Research Questions ...................................................................98
Secondary Research Question 1.............................................................................98
Secondary Research Question 2...........................................................................100
Secondary Research Question 3...........................................................................102
Secondary Research Question 4...........................................................................103
Secondary Research Question 5...........................................................................113
Secondary Research Question 6...........................................................................113
Secondary Research Question 7...........................................................................114
Exploratory Analyses .......................................................................................................114
vii

Exploratory Research Question 1 ........................................................................115
Exploratory Research Question 2 ........................................................................116
CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION ..............................................................................................................................117
General Summary of Results ...........................................................................................117
Female Sub-Elite Figure Skaters .....................................................................................118
Frequency of Disordered Eating in Female Sub-Elite Figure Skaters .................118
Body Dissatisfaction in Female Sub-Elite Figure Skaters ...................................123
Athletic Identity, Self-esteem, Perfectionism, and Perceived Weight Pressures
in Female Sub-Elite Figure Skaters .....................................................................124
Psychological Contributors of Disordered Eating Attitudes and Behaviors
in Female Sub-Elite Figure Skaters .....................................................................125
Role of Figure Skating in Shaping Body Image, Eating, and Exercise
in Female Sub-Elite Figure Skaters .....................................................................130
Male Figure Skaters .........................................................................................................132
Frequency of Disordered Eating in Male Figure Skaters.....................................132
Psychological Characteristics of Male Figure Skaters.........................................133
Psychological Contributors of Disordered Eating Attitudes and Behaviors
in Male Figure Skaters .........................................................................................134
Role of Figure Skating in Shaping Body Image, Eating, and Exercise
in Male Figure Skaters .........................................................................................134
Disordered Eating Across Figure Skating........................................................................135
Practical Implications.......................................................................................................136
Strengths and Limitations ................................................................................................140
Conclusions ......................................................................................................................141
FOOTNOTES ..............................................................................................................................143
APPENDICES .............................................................................................................................145
A. Informed Consent/Assent Forms ...............................................................................145
B. Survey Battery: Example Female Version .................................................................148
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................168

viii

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Demographic and Skating Background for Female Sub-Elite (n = 185), Female Elite
(n = 83), and Total Female Figure Skaters (n = 272) ....................................................69
Table 2. Demographic and Skating Background for Male Sub-Elite (n = 23), Male Elite (n = 6),
and Total Male Figure Skaters (n = 29) .........................................................................69
Table 3. Skating Disciplines for Female Sub-Elite (n =185), Female Elite (n =83), and Total
Female Figure Skaters (n =272).....................................................................................69
Table 4. Skating Disciplines for Male Sub-Elite (n =6), Male Elite (n = 23), and Total Male
Figure Skaters (n = 29) ..................................................................................................70
Table 5. Frequency of “Often,” “Usually,” and “Always” Responses to EAT-26 Items Among
Female Sub-Elite Figure Skaters ...................................................................................72
Table 6. Descriptive Statistics for Psychological Characteristics Among Female Sub-Elite
Figure Skaters ................................................................................................................74
Table 7. Intercorrelations Among Predictor Variables for Female Sub-Elite Figure Skaters ......77
Table 8. Close-ended Response Summary for Female Sub-Elite Figure Skaters: Role of Figure
Skating in Shaping Body Image, Eating, and Exercise .................................................78
Table 9. Open-Ended Response Summary for Female Sub-Elite Figure Skaters: Why Pressures
Exist to Lose or Maintain Weight in Figure Skating .....................................................84
Table 10. Open-Ended Response Summary for Female Sub-Elite Figure Skaters: Sources of
Pressure to Lose or Maintain Weight in Figure Skating ................................................87
Table 11. Open-Ended Response Summary for Female Sub-Elite Figure Skaters: Positive
Influences of Figure Skating on Body Image ................................................................89
Table 12. Open-Ended Response Summary for Female Sub-Elite Figure: Negative Influences of
Figure Skating on Body Image ......................................................................................92
Table 13. Open-Ended Response Summary for Female Sub-Elite Figure Skaters: Positive
Influences of Figure Skating on Eating and Exercise ....................................................95

Table 14. Open-Ended Response Summary for Female Sub-Elite Figure Skaters: Negative
Influences of Figure Skating on Eating and Exercise ....................................................97
Table 15. Frequency of “Often,” “Usually,” and “Always” Responses to EAT-26 Items Among
Male Figure Skaters .......................................................................................................99
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Table 16. Descriptive Statistics for Psychological Characteristics Among Male Figure
Skaters ..........................................................................................................................102
Table 17. Close-ended Response Summary for Male Figure Skaters: Role of Figure Skating in
Shaping Body Image, Eating, and Exercise .................................................................103
Table 18. Open-Ended Response Summary for Male Figure Skaters: Why Pressures Exist to
Lose or Maintain Weight in Figure Skating ................................................................106
Table 19. Open-Ended Response Summary for Male Figure Skaters: Sources of Pressure to Lose
or Maintain Weight in Figure Skating .........................................................................108
Table 20. Open-Ended Response Summary for Male Figure Skaters: Positive Influences of
Figure Skating on Body Image ....................................................................................110
Table 21. Open-Ended Response Summary for Male Figure Skaters: Positive Influences of
Figure Skating on Eating and Exercise ........................................................................112
Table 22. Independent-Samples t-test for Psychological Variables of Interest Between
Symptomatic and Non-Symptomatic Female Sub-Elite Figure Skaters ......................115
Table 23. Discriminant Analysis for Psychological Variables of Interest Between Symptomatic
and Non-Symptomatic Female Sub-Elite Figure Skaters ............................................116

x

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Relevant terminology in the eating disorder literature ...................................................18
Figure 2. Perceived current, ideal, and ideal skater’s body shape for female sub-elite figure
skaters (n = 184). Red solid line = perceived current body shape, Green dashed line =
perceived ideal body shape, Blue dotted line = perceived ideal skater’s body shape. For
interpretation of the references to color in this and all other figures, the reader is
referred to the electronic version of this dissertation. ....................................................73
Figure 3. Perceived current, ideal, and ideal skater’s body shape for male figure skaters (n = 29).
Red solid line = perceived current body shape, Green dashed line = perceived ideal
body shape, Blue dotted line = perceived ideal skater’s body shape. ..........................101

xi

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The feminization of figure skating is largely attributed to Sonja Henie, a Norwegian
figure skater and film star of the 1930s and forties. A three-time Olympic and ten-time World
Champion, Henie is known for popularizing and transforming figure skating from a sport of
technical skill to one that also emphasizes artistic expression. Lippe (2001) describes Henie’s
contribution to the sport: “…her athletic but flowing style, her showmanship and glamorous
outfits, and her blond good looks transformed the sport to one based on style and glamour as well
as athleticism” (p. 502). Some scholars argue that no other athlete has made a greater impact on
women’s figure skating than Henie (e.g., Adams, 2010; Herzog, 1996; Lippe, 2001). Her
influence is evidenced by the dramatic increase in skate production, demand for skating apparel,
and ice rink construction in the United States during her era (Adams, 2010). Interestingly, in
introducing the aesthetic appeal of the sport with white skating boots and shorter skirts, Henie
reportedly followed a strict diet since 8 years of age (Adams, 2010; Strait & Henie, 1990) and
struggled with bulimia nervosa throughout her career (Herzog, 1996; Strait & Henie, 1990).
The unique combination of athleticism and grace continues to shape figure skating today.
Since Henie’s skating career, a number of other well-known figure skaters have broadcasted the
importance of appearance in their sport. For example, Kristi Yamaguchi, a World and Olympic
Champion American figure skater, reported to CBS television that “…people come to watch you
because, you know, it’s supposed to be a beautiful sport and the costumes are just part of it”
(CBS, 1992; Feder, 1994). Later in American Fitness magazine, she further stated:
A large part of skating is about how you look…As a professional, I think we’re not being
judged solely on technical ability anymore. People really want to be entertained and

1

enjoy what they’re watching. Obviously, I have to be in good health to skate well, but I
think you become more aware of fashion in skating and how it complements or detracts
from performance (Siegler, 2000, p. 19).
The importance of costumes and artistic expression has also become a point of
contention and enviousness among competitors. World Champion and Olympic figure skater
from Japan, Midori Ito, reported to Newsweek: “All I can really do is jump. Figure skating is a
matter of beauty, and Westerners are so stylish, so slender. I wish I could be beautiful like them”
(Deford, 1992, p. 3). Such sentiments have also become an inherent part of the media on figure
skating. Dick Button, a former American figure skater and figure skating analyst, reported on the
women’s event in the 1992 Olympics: “The easiest thing is to get here. The hardest is to get that
last one percent. You can't have anything out of place. Tonya Harding's dresses don't help.” In
addition to assessing the skaters’ attire, Button also provided commentary on their physical
features: “Look at her leg. It looks like a hunk of sausage” (Sandomir, 1992, para. 11). Based on
these examples, the importance of appearance and the critical side of elite figure skating is clear.
Unfortunately, the tremendous emphasis on aesthetics and the demands to skate faster
and jump higher may be linked to growing concerns over weight, appearance, body shape, and
disordered eating in both male and female figure skaters. For example, Alexei Yagudin, a
Russian World and Olympic Champion, was reported to have stopped eating after losing to
Evegni Plushenko at the 2001 World Championships and lost 18 lbs in 5 weeks to become
lighter and jump higher (Suddath, 2010). He is believed to have limited himself to one small
meal a day and engaged in compulsive exercising to achieve the weight that ultimately led to
drastic performance decrements (Cruz, 2002). Jenny Kirk, a recently retired national level skater

2

ended her career due to disordered eating and is one of the few to acknowledge the scale and
scope of this problem:
It wasn’t until I was on tour, spending months at a time with the best skaters in the world,
that I saw how prevalent disordered eating was amongst the top skaters in the sport.
Based on my experience there, and after speaking with skaters after leaving the sport, I
would say about 85% of skaters have suffered or are suffering with various forms of
disordered eating (Coker, 2011, para. 8).
Although precise prevalence estimates are currently unknown, anecdotal accounts suggest a high
level of weight pressures and disordered eating behaviors in the figure skating world. Kirk also
commented on the role of skating in the development and maintenance of her eating disorder:
Eating disorders aren’t caused by just one thing. However, being in the skating world
fostered the disease and made the completely horrible things I was doing to my body
every day seem “normal.” …The more I was living in this weight-obsessed sport, the
more I sunk deeper and deeper into my own web of eating disorder hell. I couldn’t
believe that so many skaters struggled with the same thing as me, and yet so many of
them appeared completely content with ruining their bodies in order to achieve a certain
image (J. Kirk, 2009, para. 4, 12).
Kirk’s account suggests that disordered eating may be a normative part of some figure skating
subcultures (e.g., elite level skating teams) that is promoted both by the demands of the sport as
well as important others in the skating environment.
Based on the literature on media influences and modeling behavior (e.g., Bissel, 2004;
Stice, Spangler, & Stewart, 2001), the appearance-based ideologies of elite level figure skaters
may also be observed among those at the sub-elite level (i.e., among skaters who are committed

3

to figure skating, but never experience the pressures of national and international competition).
Anecdotal accounts suggest that figure skating in general has become characterized by attention
to appearance, a fine balance between toughness and femininity, constant impression
management, and pressure to be thin (e.g., Ryan, 1995). Disordered eating may therefore be an
important health concern for skaters across all levels of participation.
Overview of the Problem
Disordered eating is often used as a global term that includes clinical eating disorders
(i.e., those who meet all diagnostic criteria) and subclinical eating disorders (i.e., those who
meet some but not all diagnostic criteria) (Beals, 2000). Both clinical and subclinical forms of
disordered eating have become a widespread concern in a range of female sports and competitive
levels. Although prevalence rates vary across studies, as much as 18% of high school (Nichols,
Rauh, Lawson, Ji, & Barkai, 2006) and up to 62% of college and elite female athletes (American
College of Sports Medicine, 1997) have been classified with disordered eating. Female athletes
in sports that emphasize appearance and/or leanness as a means of achieving optimal
performance outcomes, such as swimmers, divers, rowers, dancers, gymnasts, runners, and figure
skaters, may be especially at risk for developing disordered eating patterns (e.g., Beals &
Manore, 1994; Garner & Rosen, 1991). In addition to females, recent evidence suggests that
male athletes are also at risk (e.g., Baum, 2006; Galli & Reel, 2009; Petrie, Greenleaf, Reel, &
Carter, 2008; Sansone & Sawyer, 2005). Petrie et al. (2008) found that nearly 20% of their male
collegiate athlete sample was symptomatic of an eating disorder. Although female athletes are
considered to be most at risk for disordered eating, male athletes are not exempt from these
problems. Interestingly, disordered eating has not been thoroughly examined in male figure

4

skaters and, yet, the judging criteria and culture in which they train is similar to that of their
female counterparts.
The physical and psychological problems associated with disordered eating have been
well-documented in the literature. Physical consequences can include menstrual dysfunction,
poor bone health (Beals & Meyer, 2007), a range of medical complications (Becker, Grinspoon,
Klibanski, & Herzog, 1999), and other health-related effects such as chronic fatigue, electrolyte
imbalances, and decreased immune functioning (Brownell, Steen, & Wilmore, 1987).
Psychological disturbances often comorbid with disordered eating may include mood, anxiety,
and personality disorders as well as substance abuse problems (American Psychiatric
Association, 2000). Together, both the physical and psychological effects of disordered eating
may contribute to declines in athletic performance (e.g., Choma, Sforzo, & Keller, 1998; Felsten
& Wilcox, 1993; Fogelholm, 1994; Terry, Lane, & Warren, 1999). Although not all athletes meet
clinical diagnosis for an eating disorder, the detrimental effects of even a single disordered eating
behavior can compromise an athlete’s health.
Due to the severe consequences of disordered eating on physical and psychological
functioning, this topic deserves ample empirical attention, particularly within sport. A plethora of
research has been conducted on disordered eating in athletes, including swimmers (e.g.,
Dummer, Rosen, Heusner, Roberts, & Counsilman, 1987; Ferrand, Magnan, Rouveix, & Filaire,
2007), rowers (e.g., Karlson, Black Becker, & Merkur, 2001; Sykora, Grilo, Wilfley, &
Brownell, 1993; Terry et al., 1999), dancers (e.g., Anshel, 2004; Hincapíe & Cassidy, 2010),
gymnasts (e.g., Kerr, Berman, & De Souza, 2006; Rosen & Hough, 1988; Sundgot-Borgen,
1996), and runners (e.g., Clark, Nelson, & Evans, 1988; Hausenblas & McNally, 2010). In
addition to these athletes, anecdotal evidence suggests that figure skaters are also at risk for

5

developing disordered eating patterns. For example, Ryan’s (1995) book Little Girls in Pretty
Boxes continues to raise much concern over the physical and psychological health of figure
skaters, including the adoption of disordered eating practices. The aesthetic and selfpresentational component of the sport is believed by scholars to be one reason why figure skaters
may be increasingly prone to disordered eating (Martin & Mack, 1996), especially when their
body types do not meet standards of leanness and linearity (Monsma, Malina, & Feltz, 2006).
Despite these assumptions, a thorough review of the literature reveals that little research
has examined disordered eating in figure skaters. It should be noted that some investigators have
included figure skaters in their sample as a means of representing athletes in sports that
emphasize aesthetics and leanness (e.g., Vadocz, Almeida, & Pfeiffer, 2003). However, fewer
than 15 studies have examined the unique characteristics of figure skaters alone and explored the
relationship between factors associated specifically with their sport and disordered eating.
Examination of disordered eating among male skaters as well as those who never reach elite
levels of competition is especially lacking. Future research is warranted to ensure that young
athletes at all competitive levels can safely reap the benefits of participation in this popular sport
involving a unique blend of power, athletic ability, grace, and artistic expression.
Significance
Disordered eating in figure skaters is an important topic of inquiry for several reasons.
First, initial findings indicate that weight pressures and disordered eating exist among figure
skaters and other similar aesthetic sport participants (e.g., de Bruin, Oudejans, & Bakker, 2007;
Hausenblas & Carron, 1999; Krentz & Warschburger, 2011; Sundgot-Borgen, 1994; Taylor &
STE-Marie, 2001). Second, recent trends suggest that skaters may be at greater risk for
disordered eating today than ever before as participation rates increase (US Figure Skating,

6

2010e), skills become more difficult (U.S. Figure Skating Association, 1998), and costumes
become more revealing (Hines, 2006; Les, 2010). Lastly, a need exists for new research on
weight pressures and disordered eating to guide prevention and intervention efforts as well as to
enhance the youth skating experience.
Preliminary evidence for disordered eating in figure skaters. Preliminary evidence
suggests that figure skaters, especially elite level females, have inadequate dietary intake (e.g.,
Ziegler, Khoo, Kris-Etherton et al., 1998; Ziegler, Nelson, & Jonnalagadda, 1999), are concerned
about their appearance, weight, and body shape (e.g., Jonnalagadda, Ziegler, & Nelson, 2004;
Rucinski, 1989), and engage in pathogenic weight control behaviors, including excessive
exercise, fasting, dieting, vomiting, and diet pill use (Zatalan & Zatalan, 2003). Research also
indicates that skaters believe that their sport is associated with pressures to lose or maintain
weight (Taylor & STE-Marie, 2001; Zatalan & Zatalan, 2003). Although preliminary findings
indicate that a problem exists, the mechanisms underlying negative body attitudes and disordered
eating practices in figure skaters is not fully understood, including the psychological variables
that predict these outcomes. In addition, while most research has focused on elite level skaters,
even less is known about those at sub-elite levels who represent the majority of all figure skating
participants.
Recent trends in figure skating. The popularity of figure skating has grown
considerably over the last century, particularly in the US. The United States Figure Skating
Association (USFSA) has over 180,000 members (72% females; 25% males; 3% unspecified),
includes more than 680 clubs and 1,000 basic skills programs, and sanctions over 1,300 figure
skating events each year (US Figure Skating, 2012). Collectively, the US figure skating team has
won more Olympic medals (46) than any other country (US Figure Skating, 2010e), which has

7

spurred tremendous interest among spectators, youth participants, and their parents. As both
participation rates and enthusiasm for the sport continue to rise, ensuring that youth are accruing
positive developmental gains through their skating experience becomes increasingly critical.
Reducing potential risk factors for unhealthy behavior like disordered eating and poor body
image are therefore important considerations.
In addition to participation rates, other recent trends suggest that the pressure to lose or
maintain weight in figure skating may be also increasing. For example, in its early form, skating
competitions were judged based on the design of the figures etched into the ice rather than how
the movements were performed (U.S. Figure Skating Association, 1998). Figure skating has
since shifted its focus away from the school of figures to the quality of performance and
introduced increasingly complex jumps and spins. Henie’s competitive best during the 1930s and
forties included two single axels performed in a row (U.S. Figure Skating Association, 1998).
Today, both male and female skaters are required to perform a greater frequency of jumps and
spins (e.g., 7 jumps and 3 spins in a senior level test program), more revolutions (e.g., double,
triple, and quadruple), and elaborate footwork. The speed and height required to execute these
increasingly complex skills favor lighter and leaner skaters. Modern-day youth participants may
therefore perceive greater pressures to lose or maintain weight in order to successfully perform
the difficult elements required.
Moreover, in an examination of the evolution of skating costumes worn by females in
practice and competition (e.g., Hines, 2006; Les, 2010), the attire has become increasingly
revealing. Over the past century, skirts have become shorter to allow for more flexible movement
and enhance aesthetic appeal. High turtlenecks and long sleeves have similarly transformed into
plunging necklines and sleeveless dresses. As appearance and artistic expression remain one of

8

the most important elements of skating performance, anxiety over weight, body shape, and how
one appears in a skating costume may be special concerns among today’s youth skating
participants. Dancers and cheerleaders who are faced with similar presentational components
have reported that revealing athletic attire is indeed a salient weight pressure (e.g., Reel & Gill,
1998; Reel, SooHoo, Gill, & Jamieson, 2005).
Skating costumes for male skaters do not appear to have undergone the same type and
degree of change over time as that for female skaters. However, similar to their female
counterparts, male skaters must also wear form-fitting shirts, pants, and bodysuits and may also
face pressures to meet appearance standards for their sport. This may be especially difficult for
those male skaters who naturally grow larger muscles during puberty as well as for male pair
skaters who must strike a balance between building size and strength to lift their partner with
leanness and linearity for visual appeal. Interestingly, Reel and Gill (1998) found that both the
team uniform and pressure to gain weight were important pressures faced by male college
cheerleaders. In light of the aforementioned trends, examining weight pressures and disordered
eating specifically within figure skaters is an important endeavor from both a developmental and
health perspective.
Prevention and intervention efforts in figure skating populations. A thorough
exploration of the frequencies and unique antecedents of disordered eating attitudes and
behaviors in figure skaters is necessary to inform prevention and intervention efforts. If precise
psychological and contextual variables are identified as salient predictors of disordered eating,
then concerted attempts can be made to enhance protective factors (e.g., promote self-esteem,
adaptive perfectionism) and reduce risk factors (e.g., weight pressures) (Stice, 2002) specifically
within the figure skating environment. Antecedents predicting the emergence of disordered

9

eating will also aid coaches, sport psychology practitioners, athletic trainers, nutritionists, and
other health professionals in identifying high risk groups for selective prevention programming
within the skating world. This may be particularly important given that prevention programs
with non-athlete populations tend to have the greatest benefits for those who express initial signs
of pathology (Fingeret, Warren, Cepeda-Benito, & Gleaves, 2006; Killen et al., 1993). In
addition, understanding the impact of several risk factors together (e.g., body dissatisfaction,
perceived weight pressures, low self-esteem, high negative perfectionism, and high athletic
identity) may inform the development of more comprehensive screening instruments that detect
those at highest risk as opposed to each risk factor in isolation (Stice, 2002). Lastly, gaining a
more comprehensive knowledge base on the nature of disordered eating in figure skaters may
guide prevention programming aimed to assist these athletes in building healthy self-perceptions,
eating behaviors, and exercise habits that optimize both the skating experience and
developmental outcomes. Without these efforts, disordered eating and its associated short and
long term consequences will continue to be a concern among this potentially vulnerable
population of athletes.
Study Purposes and Aims
Given that much of the research on disordered eating in figure skaters has focused on
females competing at elite levels of competition, the primary aim of this study was to first
examine disordered eating among those competing at the sub-elite level (i.e., those who have
never competed nationally or internationally). Specifically, the primary purposes were to (a)
assess the frequency of disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in female sub-elite figure
skaters; (b) describe the psychological characteristics of female sub-elite figure skaters, including
body dissatisfaction, perceived weight pressures, self-esteem, perfectionism, and athletic

10

identity; (c) examine possible contributors to disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in female
sub-elite figure skaters; and (d) gain a preliminary understanding of the role of figure skating in
shaping body image, eating, and exercise habits in female sub-elite figure skaters.
The secondary aim of this study was to address a series of questions with other subgroups of figure skaters pending the appropriate sample sizes were obtained. These secondary
purposes were to (a) assess the frequency of disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in male
figure skaters; (b) describe the psychological characteristics of male figure skaters, including
body dissatisfaction, perceived weight pressures, self-esteem, perfectionism, and athletic
identity; (c) examine possible contributors to disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in male
figure skaters; (d) gain a preliminary understanding of the role of figure skating in shaping body
image, eating, and exercise habits in male figure skaters; (e) compare disordered eating attitudes
and behaviors as a function of skating discipline (i.e., singles, pairs, ice dancing, and
synchronized); (f) compare disordered eating attitudes and behaviors as a function of competitive
level (i.e., elite and sub-elite); and (g) compare disordered eating attitudes and behaviors as a
function of sex.
Research Questions and Hypotheses
The research questions and hypotheses addressed in this dissertation were organized into
three parts: primary, secondary, and exploratory. Primary research questions referred to the
primary aims of the dissertation and focused on female sub-elite figure skaters. Secondary
research questions referred to the secondary aims of the dissertation and focused on male skaters
and group comparisons across the sport pending enough data were collected to conduct the
necessary analyses. Some primary and secondary research questions were accompanied by
hypotheses determined prior to the start of the study based on previous research. Others did not

11

warrant a hypothesis because of the limited research pertaining to that question. Finally, the
exploratory research questions were developed following data collection and were therefore not
accompanied by an a priori direction of results. All research questions and hypotheses are
outlined next.
Primary research question 1. What is the frequency of disordered eating attitudes and behaviors
in female sub-elite figure skaters?
Primary research question 2. What are the psychological characteristics of female sub-elite
figure skaters?
Primary research question 3. What are the contributors of disordered eating attitudes and
behaviors in female sub-elite figure skaters?
H1: Disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in female sub-elite figure skaters will
show a significant positive relationship with years in skating.
H2: Disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in female sub-elite figure skaters will
differ by competitive experience (i.e., never competed, local competition, open event/nonqualifying regionals, qualifying regionals, sectionals, collegiate competition).
H3: Disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in female sub-elite figure skaters will be
significantly predicted by a combination of psychological variables (i.e., body
dissatisfaction, self-esteem, perceived weight pressures, negative perfectionism, positive
perfectionism, and athletic identity).
Primary research question 4: What is the perceived role of figure skating in shaping body
image, eating, and exercise habits in female sub-elite figure skaters?
Secondary research question 1. What is the frequency of disordered eating attitudes and
behaviors in male figure skaters?

12

Secondary research question 2. What are the psychological characteristics of male figure
skaters?
Secondary research question 3. What are the contributors of disordered eating attitudes and
behaviors in male figure skaters?
Secondary research question 4. What is the perceived role of figure skating in shaping body
image, eating, and exercise habits in male figure skaters?
Secondary research question 5. Do disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in figure skaters
differ by skating discipline (i.e., singles, pairs, dance, and synchronized)?
H1: Disordered eating attitudes and behaviors will be more frequently reported by figure
skaters in disciplines requiring flight patterns (i.e., singles, pairs, ice dancers) than those
that do not (i.e., synchronized).
Secondary research question 6. Do disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in figure skaters
differ by competitive level?
H1: Disordered eating attitudes and behaviors will be significantly greater in elite figure
skaters than sub-elite figure skaters.
Secondary research question 7. Do disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in figure skaters
differ by sex?
H1: Disordered eating attitudes and behaviors will be significantly greater in female
figure skaters than male figure skaters.
Exploratory research question 1. Do body dissatisfaction, self-esteem, perceived weight
pressures, negative perfectionism, positive perfectionism, and athletic identity differ by symptom
status among female sub-elite figure skaters?

13

Exploratory research question 2. Can the combination of body dissatisfaction, self-esteem,
perceived weight pressures, negative perfectionism, positive perfectionism, and athletic identity
be used to predict whether female sub-elite figure skaters report a symptomatic score on the
EAT-26 (i.e., ≥ 20)?
Limitations and Assumptions
This study was limited by: (a) the ability and willingness of athletes to honestly and
accurately respond to survey items; (b) the fact that participation was voluntary and may have
excluded skaters who either did not see the issue as important or were uncomfortable reporting
on the topic because they currently struggle with disordered eating; (c) a selection bias due to
employing a convenience rather than random sample; and (d) the inability to determine causal
relationships between variables due the nature of field research and the lack of a true
experimental design. In this study, it was assumed that skaters would honestly and accurately
respond to survey items and that the instruments used would adequately measure the constructs
being tested.
Operational Definitions
The following operational definitions were used in this study:
Figure Skating: Figure skating is an Olympic sport in which jumps, spins, footwork, spiral
sequences, lifts, and other challenging skills are performed on ice skates. Figure skating
performances are judged based on technical elements (e.g., jumps, lifts, spins) as well as five
additional program components, including: skating skills (e.g., balance, flow, multi-directional
skating); transitions/linking footwork and movement (e.g., variety, difficulty, quality);
performance/execution (e.g., physical, emotional, and intellectual involvement);
choreography/composition (e.g., idea, concept, or vision, unity, pattern and ice coverage); and

14

interpretation (e.g., expression of the style, character, or rhythm of the music, finesse) (US
Figure Skating, 2010b). In ice dancing, the compulsory/pattern dance is judged based on skating
skills, performance/execution, interpretation as well as an additional timing component (e.g., in
time with the music/beat) (US Figure Skating, 2010b). The terms “figure skating” and “skating”
are used interchangeably.
Skating Discipline: Skating discipline refers to one of four primary disciplines in the sport of
figure skating, including singles skating, pairs skating, ice dancing, and synchronized skating.
Singles Skating: Singles skating is a discipline of figure skating consisting of male and female
events that require the athlete to train and compete individually. Elements performed include
jumps, spins, footwork, spiral sequences, and other technical skills (US Figure Skating, 2010c).
Pairs Skating: Pairs skating is a discipline of figure skating requiring a male and female skater
(i.e., a pairs team) to perform together. Elements performed include throw jumps in which the
male throws his female partner into the air; lifts in which the male holds his female partner above
his head; pair spins in which both partners jointly spin about a single axis; and side-by-side
jumps and spins in which both partners independently perform the elements in unison (US Figure
Skating, 2010c).
Ice Dancing: Ice dancing is a discipline of figure skating requiring a male and female skater
(i.e., a dance team) to perform together. Elements performed include elaborate footwork, dance
patterns, and lifts below the shoulder (US Figure Skating, 2010a).
Synchronized Skating: Synchronized skating is a discipline of figure skating comprised of a
team of 12 to 20 skaters who perform as a single unit. Teams may be mixed-sex. Elements
include complex formations among all members of the team, such as wheels, blocks, lines,
circles, and intersections (US Figure Skating, 2010d).

15

Skating Focus: Some figure skaters participate in more than one skating discipline. Skating
focus therefore refers to the discipline that the skater considers a priority (e.g., devotes the
greatest level of time, energy, and commitment).
Competitive Experience: Competitive experience refers to skaters’ highest level of competition
(i.e., never competed, local competition, open event/non-qualifying regionals, qualifying
regionals, sectionals, collegiate competition, national competition, and international
competition).
Competitive Level: Competitive level refers to whether skaters have competed at an elite or subelite level.
Sub-Elite Level: The sub-elite level refers to those who have never competed at the national or
international level of competition.
Elite Level: The elite level refers to those who have competed at the national or international
level of competition.

16

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This review of literature will provide a comprehensive summary of the research on
disordered eating in athletes, particularly figure skaters. The words “figure skater” and “skater”
will be used as general terms to describe those participating in any skating discipline (i.e.,
singles, pairs, ice dancing, or synchronized). Relevant terminology in the eating disorder
literature is discussed first, followed by an overview of the primary physical, psychological, and
performance consequences of clinical and subclinical eating disorders. Next, prevalence
estimates and trends both in the general population and within sport are discussed, as well as risk
factors associated with the development of disordered eating in sport. Key studies that have
shaped our current understanding of disordered eating in figure skaters are thoroughly reviewed.
This chapter concludes with a summary of relevant gaps in the literature and the purposes of the
present study.
Relevant Terminology in the Eating Disorder Literature
Understanding the eating disorder literature requires knowledge of the terminology used
to describe and categorize the many forms of this phenomenon. Figure 1 offers a schematic for
how important terms will be used in this dissertation. “Disordered eating” is often used as an
umbrella term to describe the full range of clinical and subclinical forms of eating disorders
(Beals, 2000). Specific types of clinical and subclinical eating disorders and other relevant
terminology are discussed in turn. For more detailed information on diagnostic criteria, the
reader is directed to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Fourth Edition
Text Revision (American Psychiatric Association, 2000), which will henceforth be referred to as
the DSM-IV-TR.

17

Disordered Eating Attitudes &
Behaviors
Subclinical Eating
Disorders

Clinical Eating Disorders
Anorexia Nervosa
(AN)

Bulimia Nervosa
(BN)

Eating Disorder Not Otherwise
Specified (EDNOS)
Subclinical
Anorexia

Subclinical
Bulimia

Other

Anorexia
Athletica (AA)

Figure 1. Relevant terminology in the eating disorder literature
Clinical eating disorders. The term “clinical eating disorder” is used to describe
problematic eating attitudes, behaviors and/or body image distortions that meet diagnostic
criteria set forth by the DSM-IV-TR. The two primary types of clinical eating disorders include
anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Anorexia nervosa is characterized by a refusal to maintain
at least 85% of expected body weight, an intense fear of weight gain, severe body image
distortions, and amenorrhea (i.e., absence of at least three consecutive menstrual cycles) in
postmenarcheal females (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Those with anorexia nervosa
can be categorized as a restricting type or binge-eating/purging type (American Psychiatric
Association, 2000). In contrast, bulimia nervosa is characterized by recurrent binge eating,
problematic compensatory methods to prevent weight gain (e.g., self-induced vomiting, use of
laxatives, excessive exercise), as well as a self-perception that is excessively influenced by
perceived body shape or weight (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Those with bulimia

18

nervosa can be categorized as a purging type or non-purging type (American Psychiatric
Association, 2000).
Subclinical eating disorders. The term “subclinical eating disorder” is used to describe
problematic eating attitudes, behaviors, and/or body image distortions that meet some but not all
DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria. Although these individuals cannot be clinically classified with
anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa, they still present with attitudes and behaviors that pose a
number of physical and psychological health risks. These sub-diagnostic forms of eating
disorders can include subclinical anorexia (i.e., meeting some but not all criteria for anorexia
nervosa), subclinical bulimia (i.e., meeting some but not all criteria for bulimia nervosa), or
mixed symptoms that do not meet diagnosis for either clinical eating disorder. If seen by a
licensed health professional, any subclinical form of an eating disorder is classified as Eating
Disorder Not Otherwise Specified (EDNOS) (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). The
DSM-IV-TR provides possible symptom presentations that warrant an EDNOS classification.
Although not an official part of the DSM-IV-TR, a growing body of literature has
recognized another subclinical form of anorexia nervosa found specifically in athletes called
“anorexia athletica.” Sundgot-Borgen (1993a) identified several distinguishing features of
anorexia athletica in elite female athletes, such as restricted caloric intake of less than 1,200
kcal/day, weight loss greater than 5% of expected body weight, gastrointestinal complaints, and
excessive fear of becoming overweight. Binge-eating, self-induced vomiting, and the use of
laxatives or diuretics are often reported among athletes with this subclinical form of anorexia
nervosa (Beals & Manore, 1994). Although some studies have examined the prevalence of
anorexia athletica among various athletic groups (e.g., Byrne & McLean, 2002; Herbrich,
Pfeiffer, Lehmkuhl, & Schneider, 2011; Sundgot-Borgen, 1993b, 1996; Sundgot-Borgen &

19

Torstveit, 2004; Torstveit, Rosenvinge, & Sundgot-Borgen, 2008), Herbrich and colleagues
(2011) specifically call for research that better defines this potentially sport-specific condition
and thoroughly examines its course and development.
Prevalence Estimates and Trends
Prevalence estimates are a key factor in understanding the scale and scope of disordered
eating attitudes and behaviors across individuals at a given point in time. Trends pertaining to the
prevalence of clinical and subclinical eating disorders will be discussed in the context of both the
general population as well as sport. In accordance with the population of interest for this
dissertation, data presented will primarily focus on prevalence rates within the US.
Trends in the general population. Prevalence estimates for clinical eating disorders in
the general population are relatively low. According to the DSM-IV-TR, the lifetime prevalence
rate of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa is .5% and 1% to 3% respectively in females
(American Psychiatric Association, 2000). The lifetime prevalence rate for both types of clinical
eating disorders in males is one tenth of that for females (American Psychiatric Association,
2000). However, recent data suggest that the prevalence of clinical eating disorders may be
increasing. In a nationally representative survey between 2001 and 2003, .9% of women and .3%
of men reported having anorexia nervosa, while 1.5% of women and .5% of men reported having
bulimia nervosa at some point in their lives (Hudson, Hiripi, Pope, & Kessler, 2007). Increasing
prevalence estimates may reflect methodological discrepancies, a rise in the number of
individuals seeking mental health treatment for eating-related problems, or a true increase in the
incidence of clinical eating disorders. However, data suggesting that females are far more likely
to develop clinical eating disorders than males remains consistent.

20

Upon examination of the prevalence rates for clinical eating disorders, the percentages
appear small. However, given the severity of the physical and psychological consequences, even
a small proportion of individuals suffering from a clinical eating disorder are cause for concern.
Moreover, the aforementioned prevalence estimates do not include the many more individuals
with subclinical forms of eating disorders. For example, several studies indicate that more than
50% of adult outpatients are given an EDNOS classification because they do not meet clinical
diagnosis for anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa (Button, Benson, Nollett, & Palmer, 2005;
Fairburn et al., 2007; Ricca et al., 2001; Turner & Bryant-Waugh, 2004). It is reasonable to
conclude that subclinical eating disorders are far more common than clinical eating disorders.
Within the general population, adolescent girls are believed to be at the highest risk for
developing disordered eating attitudes and behaviors, particularly subclinical forms (Lewinson,
Striegel-Moore, & Seeley, 2000; Touchette et al., 2011). Lifetime prevalence rates for any
clinical or subclinical eating disorder have been reported at 17.9% for adolescent girls compared
to 6.5% for adolescent boys between the ages of 14 and 15 years (Kjelsås, Bjørnstrøm, &
Götestam, 2004).
In summary, data on the general population suggest that the prevalence of clinical eating
disorders is low, but that subclinical forms characterize most eating disorder cases. Preliminary
research indicates that disordered eating may be increasing. However, research consistently
shows that females are most at risk, particularly during adolescence. Similar trends have been
demonstrated in the sport context.
Trends in sport. The prevalence of clinical and subclinical forms of eating disorders in
athletes has received much attention. Comparisons based on athletic status, sex, competitive
level, and sport type are discussed. Despite some research remaining inconclusive, all point to

21

the notion that disordered eating may be a concern among female athletes engaging in lean or
aesthetic-based sports in particular.
Athletic status. A plethora of research has compared eating disorder symptomatology in
athletes and non-athletes. Several studies show that disordered eating may be more prevalent in
athletes than their non-athlete counterparts. For example, in a meta-analysis of 92 studies on
indices of anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and drive for thinness in male and female athletes,
a small but significant effect size indicated that athletes reported more eating disorder symptoms
than non-athlete controls (Hausenblas & Carron, 1999).
Similar results have been found specifically at the elite, collegiate, and high school
levels. For example, in a study of the entire population of Norwegian male and female elite
athletes (n = 1,620) and non-athlete controls (n = 1,696), more athletes (13.5%) than controls
(4.6%) reported clinical and subclinical eating disorders (Sundgot-Borgen & Torstveit, 2004).
Similar results were found in a mixed sample of elite and collegiate female athletes and nonathletes (Davis & Cowles, 1989). Taube and Blinde (1992) examined 100 high school female
athletes and 112 high school female non-athletes and found that athletes were more likely to
possess certain behavioral and psychological correlates of eating disorders, including
perfectionism and symptoms of bulimia nervosa (i.e., bingeing and purging). The literature
suggesting that disordered eating may be a greater concern in athletes than non-athletes is
considerable.
In contrast, other studies suggest that eating disorder symptomatology in athletes is either
no different from or actually lower than in non-athletes. For example, in a study of 84 collegiate
female athletes and 62 same-age non-athlete controls, Reinking and Alexander (2005) found
fewer disordered eating symptoms in athletes than those who did not participate in a collegiate

22

sport. In fact, athletes reported lower body dissatisfaction than their non-athlete counterparts.
Similar results were found in other studies with collegiate athletic samples (e.g., Ashley, Smith,
Robinson, & Richardson, 1996; G. Kirk, Singh, & Getz, 2001; Sanford-Martens et al., 2005;
Wilkins, Boland, & Albinson, 1991).
Given the contradictory findings, the debate on whether athletes or non-athletes are more
at risk for disordered eating is ongoing. Reasons for the discrepancy in results across studies may
include differences in sport type classifications or the methodology used to examine disordered
eating. Interestingly, studies in support of the notion that disordered eating is greater in athletes
appear to examine athletic populations across high school, collegiate, and elite competitive
levels. In contrast, studies suggesting that disordered eating is greater in non-athletes appear to
focus on collegiate level samples.
Despite disagreements in the literature, results indicating that disordered eating exists
among athletic populations are consistent across studies. For example, although Sanford-Martens
et al. (2005) concluded that disordered eating may be a greater concern for male and female nonathletes than athletes, nearly one-fifth of the athletes in their study (n = 325) still reported
behaviors symptomatic of an eating disorder. In turn, studies indicating a greater prevalence of
disordered eating in non-athletes should not lead researchers and practitioners to overlook athlete
populations.
Sex differences. Other studies have identified sex differences relative to disordered
eating. Although a growing body of research suggests that male athletes engage in unhealthy
weight control behaviors (e.g., Dale & Landers, 1999; Glazer, 2008), female athletes appear to
be at greater risk for the development of both clinical and subclinical eating disorders. For
example, in a study of 1,445 Division I collegiate athletes, 9.2% of females were identified as

23

having clinically significant problems with anorexia nervosa compared to only .01% of males.
Moreover, 2.9% of females as compared to 0% of males were identified as having clinically
significant problems with bulimia nervosa (C. Johnson, Powers, & Dick, 1999). Similar
discrepancies between male and female athletes exist at the high school level. In a study of 576
high school athletes and 291 high school non-athletes in Germany, results indicated that females
showed a significantly higher frequency of disordered eating than did males (Rosendahl,
Bormann, Aschenbrenner, Aschenbrenner, & Strauss, 2009). Other studies demonstrate similar
results (e.g., Dummer et al., 1987; Sykora et al., 1993; Terry & Waite, 1996). In turn, the
literature suggests that like females in the general population, female athletes are also at greater
risk for disordered eating than their male athlete counterparts.
Although the research tends to show that disordered eating is greatest in female athletes,
preliminary evidence suggests that some male athletes also engage in unhealthy eating behaviors.
For example, in a study of 85 wrestlers and 75 non-wrestler controls, Dale and Landers (1999)
found no significant differences for bulimia nervosa risk, but in-season wrestlers scored
significantly higher on drive for thinness scales as compared to their non-wrestler counterparts.
Although these results indicate that wrestlers may be more weight conscious than those not in the
sport, these concerns appear to be characteristic of wrestlers only during the season (Dale &
Landers, 1999). In turn, weight concerns in male wrestlers appear to be transient rather than a
pervasive aspect of their lives. Still, the unhealthy weight control behaviors of wrestlers are welldocumented in the literature (e.g., Aizawa et al., 2005; Hursch, 1979; Ribisl, 1975; Steen &
Brownell, 1990).
Disordered eating in males from other sports is limited. In one study with 203 male
collegiate athletes in a range of aesthetic (e.g., cheerleading), weight-dependent (e.g., wrestling),

24

ball (e.g., baseball), endurance (e.g., cross country), power (e.g., football), and technical sports
(e.g., golf), Petrie et al. (2008) found that nearly 20% of their sample could be considered
symptomatic of an eating disorder. In a qualitative study with male collegiate athletes in
swimming, diving, lacrosse, football, baseball, golf, and skiing, Galli and Reel (2009) found that
some male athletes experience body dissatisfaction and sociocultural pressures to maintain a
certain figure. Risk for disordered eating has also been identified in elite male judoists and
cyclists (Ferrand & Brunet, 2004; Filaire, Rouveix, Pannafieux, & Ferrand, 2007). Although
females are most widely studied and considered more at risk, male athletes may not be exempt
from poor body image and disordered eating habits. This may be especially true for those
involved in aesthetic-based sports like figure skating, gymnastics, and cheerleading. Reel and
Gill (1998) suggest that college male cheerleaders may face unique weight pressures, including a
weight limit to try out and pressure for weight gain. However, research has not examined the
presence and magnitude of body image distortions or disordered eating among male athletes in
other aesthetic sports.
Competitive level. Studies consistently show that clinical and subclinical eating disorders
exist in athletes competing at the high school (e.g., Nichols et al., 2006; Reel & Gill, 1996;
Rosendahl et al., 2009), collegiate (e.g., Beals & Hill, 2006; C. Johnson et al., 1999; Reinking &
Alexander, 2005; Sanford-Martens et al., 2005), and elite level (e.g., Sundgot-Borgen &
Torstveit, 2004; Sundgot-Borgen & Torstveit, 2010; Torstveit et al., 2008). Unfortunately, few
have examined the prevalence of disordered eating across competitive levels within a single
study. However, preliminary evidence indicates that disordered eating may be more prevalent in
higher level sports. For example, in a study of NCAA Division I and Division III athletes and
non-athlete controls, those at higher competitive levels (i.e., NCAA Division I) showed more

25

signs of abnormal eating and were at greater risk for the development of a clinical eating disorder
(Picard, 1999). These results suggest that higher performance standards and the stress associated
with meeting those standards may be associated with greater concern for weight and body shape.
However, more research is needed to support this claim.
Sport type. Given the emphasis on appearance, weight, and body shape in some sports,
much of the literature has been devoted to comparing the prevalence of disordered eating among
predominantly female athletes in “lean” or “aesthetic” versus “non-lean” or “non-aesthetic”
sports. Lean/aesthetic sports have been defined as those that depend on appearance, weight, body
shape, and/or leanness to achieve optimal performance and that require form-fitting or revealing
uniforms (e.g., cross country, swimming/diving, rowing/crew, gymnastics, cheerleading, and
figure skating). The terminology employed in the literature (i.e., lean, aesthetic) depends on the
preference of the researchers and will be used interchangeably here.
A significant portion of the literature suggests that those in lean/aesthetic sports are more
at risk for disordered eating than those in non-lean/non-aesthetic sports. For example, Reinking
and Alexander (2005) compared 16 female collegiate lean sport athletes (i.e., swimming, cross
country) with 68 female collegiate non-lean sport athletes (i.e., basketball, volleyball, softball,
field hockey, soccer). Results indicated that lean sport athletes had a lower mean actual and
desired body weight, greater body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness, and were more at risk
for disordered eating as compared to their non-lean sport counterparts. Similar findings have
been found in other studies (e.g., Davis & Cowles, 1989; Picard, 1999; Stoutjesdyk & Jevne,
1993; Sundgot-Borgen, 1993b). Hausenblas and Carron’s (1999) meta-analysis also revealed that
the sub-group of athletes reporting the most symptoms of clinical and subclinical eating

26

disorders were those participating in sports that emphasize appearance, weight, or body shape
(i.e., cross country, swimming/diving, rowing/crew, gymnastics, cheerleading, figure skating).
Interestingly, other studies reveal that lean and non-lean sport athletes do not differ on
disordered eating and body image measures. For example, in an investigation of female
collegiate athletes, athletes were classified as participating in endurance (i.e., n = 51; cross
country, track, swimming), aesthetic (i.e., n = 12; cheerleading, gymnastics, synchronized
swimming), power (i.e., n = 15; downhill skiing, crew/rowing), ball game (i.e., n = 105;
basketball, softball, soccer, volleyball, field hockey, lacrosse), or technical sports (i.e., n = 21;
tennis, golf). Although a substantial number of athletes reported symptoms indicative of clinical
(2% of their sample) and subclinical eating disorders (25.5% of their sample), results revealed no
association between sport type and eating disorder status (Greenleaf, Petrie, Carter, & Reel,
2009). Several other investigations revealed similar findings (e.g., Ashley et al., 1996; BachnerMelman, Zohar, Ebstein, Elizur, & Constantini, 2006; Hausenblas & Downs, 2001; SanfordMartens et al., 2005; Warren, Stanton, & Blessing, 1990).
Inconsistency in results across studies may in part be due to differences in sport
classifications, small sample sizes when divided by sport type, and the measures used to identify
clinical and subclinical eating disorder symptomatology. However, despite the equivocal nature
of the literature comparing lean versus non-lean sports, many researchers have concluded that
there is enough evidence to warrant concern for the risk of disordered eating in sports that
emphasize appearance, weight, or body shape (Hausenblas & Carron, 1999). This concern is
supported by the plethora of research conducted on lean/aesthetic sports in particular.
More specifically, sports categorized as lean or aesthetic have typically included cross
country, swimming/diving, rowing/crew, gymnastics, and cheerleading. Systematic

27

investigations of female athletes participating in each of these sports indeed reveals that
disordered eating behaviors and body image disturbances are noteworthy. For example, in an
examination of 300 female collegiate cross-country runners, 19.4% reported having previous or
current disordered eating habits (S. H. Thompson, 2007). In a study of 955 swimmers ages 9 to
18, 15% of the female sample (n = 487) reported frequently engaging in pathogenic weight
control behaviors, including fasting, self-induced vomiting, laxatives, and diuretics (Dummer et
al., 1987). Sykora, Grilo, Wilfley, and Brownell (1993) found that 20% of their sample of female
rowers (n = 73) reported binge eating episodes twice a week, and 13% reported self-induced
vomiting. Among 215 collegiate female gymnasts, over 60% met criteria for an intermediate
form of disordered eating, and only 22% were categorized as having normal eating habits (Petrie,
1993). Finally, in an examination of 156 high school female cheerleaders, 46% reported that they
were currently trying to lose weight, and 13% reported symptoms indicative of eating problems
(S. H. Thompson & Digsby, 2004).
Each of these studies lacked a control group, which is a primary limitation in determining
the risk of problematic eating attitudes and behaviors in lean/aesthetic sports. However, there has
not been a single study to date that denies the presence of clinical and subclinical eating disorder
symptomatology among lean/aesthetic sport athletes. In turn, the consequences and possible risk
factors involved, especially for those competing in lean/aesthetic sports, warrant exploration.
Consequences of Disordered Eating
The physical and psychological consequences associated with clinical and subclinical
eating disorders are numerous and well-documented. R. A. Thompson and Sherman (1993) note
that some athletes engage in disordered eating habits with minimal long term ramifications.
Others argue that prolonged pathogenic weight control behaviors and energy restriction will take

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a physical and/or psychological toll over time (Beals, 2000). An overview of the primary health
risks associated with disordered eating is provided. These include possibility for developing one
or more components of the female athlete triad, as well as other physical complications,
psychological problems, and performance decrements in both male and female athletes.
Female athlete triad. The female athlete triad is defined as the interrelationship between
disordered eating, amenorrhea, and osteoporosis (Yeager, Agostini, Nattiv, & Drinkwater, 1993).
Since the female athlete triad was officially defined, these components have since been
broadened to include a full range of disordered eating behaviors, menstrual dysfunctions, and
bone health concerns (Manore, Kam, & Loucks, 2007). The etiology of the female athlete triad
follows a progressive pattern that typically begins with disordered eating and results in a cycle
where each component is linked directly or indirectly to the other (Beals & Meyer, 2007). An
overview of the physical and biological mechanisms behind the relationship between disordered
eating, menstrual dysfunction, and poor bone health are discussed.
Disordered eating and menstrual dysfunction. Numerous hypotheses have been
proposed as to how disordered eating predisposes athletes to menstrual dysfunction. However,
the most well-supported explanation is the energy deficit hypothesis (Beals & Meyer, 2007).
According to Harber (2000), maintaining enough fuel in the body to support the energy
requirements of training is difficult for many athletes, especially when weight and body image
are a concern. Prolonged caloric deficiency forces the body to allocate its energy on primary
cellular processes to support survival while other processes, like depositing fatty tissue and
developing reproductive functions, are largely jeopardized (Wade, Schneider, & Li, 1996).
Inadequate caloric intake is also believed to deprive the brain of important carbohydrates
necessary for proper hormonal release (Loucks & Thuma, 2003). More specifically, the dynamic

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interplay of various critical bodily processes during puberty are disrupted, including: the
secretion of gonadotropin releasing hormone from the hypothalamus, the secretion of follicle
stimulating and luteinizing hormones from the pituitary gland, the functioning of the ovaries, and
subsequent production of estrogen and progesterone (Harber, 2000). In turn, a variety of
menstrual dysfunctions can occur, such as luteal suppression (i.e., a shortened luteal phase),
anovulation (i.e., absence of ovulation), oligomenorrhea (i.e., prolonged length of time between
cycles), primary amenorrhea (i.e., absence of menses by the age of 14 or 16 depending on sexual
maturity rating), and secondary amenorrhea (i.e., absence of menstruation following the onset of
menarche) (Beals & Meyer, 2007).
Disordered eating and poor bone health. According to the National Institute of Health
(2000), poor bone health can include a number of disorders ranging from low bone mineral
density to osteoporosis, which is a severe disease characterized by skeletal degeneration and loss
of bone strength. The processes by which bone health is affected are dynamic and complex. For
example, when athletes engage in disordered eating behaviors such as restrictive dieting, they
tend to consume far less than the recommended number of calories necessary to compensate for
the energy expended in their sport (Caine, Bass, & Daly, 2003). The little energy that is available
is believed to be devoted towards survival functions and sport training as opposed to proper
growth and maturational processes (Borer, 2005). Borer (2005) contends that longitudinal
growth in particular can be permanently or temporarily stunted with inadequate caloric intake.
In addition to overall energy consumption, poor calcium intake as a result of disordered
eating practices is of particular concern because of its crucial role in bone health, growth, and
mass (Haymes, 2003). Peak bone mass is not achieved until approximately the age of 30 and
steadily decreases thereafter (Barr & McKay, 1998). Inadequate calcium intake during rapid

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periods of growth therefore predicts poor bone health not only during childhood and adolescence
but also throughout adulthood (Barr & McKay, 1998).
Poor bone health can also occur as a direct result of the absence or disruption of the
menstrual cycle. Estrogen is a principal hormone in the suppression of cells responsible for bone
resorption (i.e., breaking down bone). Irregular hormonal release, as a result of disordered eating,
menstrual dysfunction or a combination, can lead to an increase in bone resportion and therefore
a decline in bone quality (Beals & Meyer, 2007). Research demonstrates that missed menstrual
cycles are indeed associated with significant and potentially permanent losses in bone mineral
density (Drinkwater, Bruemner, & Chesnut, 1990; Keen & Drinkwater, 1997; Lloyd, Meyers,
Buchanan, & Demers, 1988). Individuals with menstrual dysfunction are at risk for premature
osteoporosis and poor bone health over the lifespan (Hurvitz, 2009).
The cyclical nature of the female athlete triad and the associated health risks warrant
attention and concern. Given that the female athlete triad typically begins with disordered eating,
understanding this phenomenon in female athletes, particularly those in lean/aesthetic sports, is
critical. A discussion of the additional physical, psychological, and performance implications of
disordered eating further support this need.
Other physical consequences. In the absence of the female athlete triad, disordered
eating behaviors are associated with a number of other physical ramifications in both males and
females. Serious medical complications from clinical eating disorders can involve multiple body
systems including orofacial (e.g., dental caries), cardiovascular (e.g., unusually slow heart rate),
gastrointestinal (e.g., abnormal liver function) , endocrine (e.g., hypoglycemia), renal (e.g.,
kidney stones), reproductive (e.g., infertility), integumentary (e.g., hair loss), neurologic (e.g.,

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damage to the peripheral nervous system), and hematologic systems (e.g., anemia) (Becker et al.,
1999). Disordered eating can transform into a pervasive and whole body disease.
In addition to a range of medical complications, clinical eating disorders are also
associated with death. In a systematic review of the outcomes of disordered eating, the literature
suggests that the mortality rates for anorexia nervosa tend to be higher than those for other eating
disorders, including bulimia and EDNOS (Berkman, Lohr, & Bulik, 2007). However, more
recent data show that mortality rates may be similar across clinical eating disorder types. For
example, in a longitudinal examination of mortality over 8 to 25 years in nearly 2,000
individuals who sought treatment at a specialized eating disorders clinic, crude mortality rates
were 4% for anorexia nervosa, 3.9% for bulimia nervosa, and 5.2% for EDNOS. Causes of death
included suicide, substance-related death, traumatic incident, and medical complications (Crow
et al., 2009). Although bulimia nervosa and subclinical eating disorders are often considered to
be less severe than anorexia nervosa, research clearly demonstrates that all are cause for concern.
Indeed, subclinical forms of eating disorders pose many health risks. Beals (2000) and
Otis (1998) summarize the primary consequences of unhealthy weight control behaviors. For
example, these authors report that the common side effects of diet pills can include rapid heart
rate, anxiety, poor concentration, insomnia, and dehydration. The excessive use of diuretics,
laxatives, enemas, self-induced vomiting, and saunas can all result in dehydration and electrolyte
imbalances. Excessive exercise increases the risk for overuse injuries, while fat-free diets and
other restrictive eating practices may result in inadequate consumption of important macro and
micronutrients necessary for healthy body function (Beals, 2000; Otis, 1998). Prolonged
malnutrition can result in chronic fatigue, delayed healing and injury recovery, endocrine
abnormalities, and decreased immune function (Brownell et al., 1987). Research also suggests

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that weight loss in elite female athletes is associated with a significant reduction in oxygen
consumption (Ingjer & Sundgot-Borgen, 1991).
Psychological disturbances. The psychological disturbances that characterize disordered
eating are numerous, including an intense preoccupation with weight and body shape and
excessive fears of becoming fat (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Other psychological
disturbances may promote, worsen, or precede disordered eating attitudes and behaviors. For
example, according to the DSM-IV-TR, anorexia nervosa is often comorbid with a range of
additional psychological features and disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). These
can include symptoms of depression (e.g., depressed mood, social withdrawal, irritability, and
insomnia), obsessive compulsive features (e.g., preoccupation with food, hoarding food or
recipes), personality disorders, substance abuse problems, and suicidal ideation. Bulimia nervosa
is similarly associated with depressive symptoms, substance abuse problems, personality
disorders, and anxiety (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Those with subclinical eating
disorders are also at risk for psychological disturbances. For example, adolescent girls with
subclinical forms of anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, or binge eating disorder (currently an
EDNOS classification) were found to additionally suffer from a range of mood and anxiety
disorders, including major depression, dysthymia (i.e., depressed mood for at least two years),
generalized anxiety disorder, and separation anxiety (Touchette et al., 2011).
Several researchers (e.g., Sundgot-Borgen, 2002; R. A. Thompson & Sherman, 1993)
have summarized a number of other psychological and behavioral characteristics found in
athletes with disordered eating. These can include secretive eating or avoidance of eating
situations, self-criticism about being fat despite being thin, difficulty relaxing, and abnormal
preoccupation with weight or shape (e.g., excessive weighing, refusal to weigh). Eating-

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disordered athletes may also be resistant to seek professional help, inflexible in their food and
exercise regimens, and exercise while injured (Sundgot-Borgen, 2002; R. A. Thompson &
Sherman, 1993). Although clinical eating disorders tend to have the most detrimental effects, the
consequences of even a single disordered eating behavior can put the health of athletes at risk.
Performance implications. Unfortunately, little is known about the long-term effects of
disordered eating on athletic performance because of the difficulty in closely monitoring athletes
longitudinally and eliminating confounding factors (Beals & Manore, 1994). However, based on
what is known about the impact of energy deficiency and dehydration on the body, it is assumed
that disordered eating has a negative impact on performance. The degree to which performance
is affected may be a function of the severity and duration of the disordered eating behaviors and
the nature of the sport (Sundgot-Borgen, 2002). In a review article, Fogelholm (1994) outlines
the major physical implications on performance as a result of body weight reduction in athletes.
These include potential dehydration, energy loss, a decline in muscle strength and aerobic
capacity, and stress on the endocrine system.
Psychological factors associated with disordered eating behaviors may also result in
performance decrements. Perceived interpersonal evaluation regarding one’s physique is
associated with cognitive anxiety and is the basis of the social physique anxiety construct (Hart,
Leary, & Rejeski, 1989). Such anxiety may be similar to other chronic experiences of sportspecific and general life stress that have been shown to be related to poorer athletic performance
(Felsten & Wilcox, 1993). Other research shows that rapid weight loss is related to temporary
declines in mood and memory impairments in wrestlers (Choma et al., 1998). Similarly, rowers
with disordered eating habits and poor body image perceptions show symptoms of depression,

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confusion, and tension (Terry et al., 1999), all of which may impact short and long term
performance outcomes.
Despite the range of possible physical and psychological implications, many athletes with
disordered eating are able to maintain and enhance athletic performance. Although this
phenomenon has not been examined empirically, researchers have hypothesized that the
psychological characteristics that are associated with and predispose athletes to certain
disordered eating behaviors may allow them to perform in the face of physical and emotional
exhaustion. For example, R. A. Thompson and Sherman (1993) postulate that the psychological
components of disordered eating, such as being driven by fear, anxiety, guilt, compulsiveness,
and perfectionism, may enable athletes to function even under physiological duress. In an effort
to lose weight, some athletes may abuse substances that are also stimulants, such as diet pills,
caffeinated diuretics (e.g., coffee, tea), and diet caffeinated soft drinks, which may also sustain
performance (R. A. Thompson & Sherman, 1993). Although temporary performance
enhancements may be observed, chronic and severe disordered eating behaviors are believed to
present a number of challenges as previously described.
Risk Factors for Disordered Eating in Sport
Athletic participation is related to disordered eating in some male and female athletes.
Although the nature of this relationship is not fully understood, a number of possible risk factors
have been identified. These include social pressures, specific features and requirements of sport,
and psychological characteristics typical of many successful athletes.
Social pressures. Many females in general experience anxiety over their body shape and
weight and engage in unhealthy behaviors in an attempt to meet cultural standards. In a sample
of 114 young adult females, Stice (1998) found that social reinforcement of the thin-ideal from

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family, peers, and the media predicted the onset of binge eating and purging. A longitudinal
study of 219 adolescent girls revealed that those characterized by a perceived pressure to be thin,
low body satisfaction, and poor social support were adversely affected by prolonged exposure to
fashion magazines. More specifically, they experienced an increase in negative affect, body
dissatisfaction, dieting, and bulimic symptoms (Stice et al., 2001). The impact of the thin-ideal
on women and girls across Western culture is indeed pervasive.
Research suggests that female athletes face the same sociocultural demands as their nonathlete counterparts. In a qualitative investigation of 21 female collegiate varsity athletes on the
negotiation between femininity and athleticism, results revealed that athletes perceived the ideal
female image as “small, thin, and model-like” (Krane, Choi, Baird, Aimar, & Kauer, 2004, p.
326). Although these athletes recognized that strength and sufficient caloric intake were
necessary to sustain them in their training, they also noted that musculature and eating larger
amounts of food were not feminine. Krane et al. (2004) concluded that media portrayals of the
thin-ideal may predispose female athletes to an unhealthy body image, disordered eating
behaviors, and identity confusion between femininity and athleticism.
In addition to sociocultural demands, female athletes also experience pressure to enhance
performance and conform to the aesthetic requirements of their sport (Beals & Manore, 1994).
Researchers have therefore hypothesized that female athletes, particularly those in sports that
emphasize leanness and appearance, experience twice as much pressure as their non-athlete peers
to control weight and body shape. Within the sport environment, one of the most significant
sources of pressure is coaches (e.g., Kerr et al., 2006; Sundgot-Borgen, 1994). In a sample of 42
collegiate female gymnasts, Rosen and Hough (1988) found that nearly 70% reported that their
coaches told them they were too heavy. The majority of those who received a disparaging

36

comment from their coach reported resorting to a pathogenic weight control behavior (Rosen &
Hough, 1988). The researchers made significant conclusions about the athletic environment
based on their findings:
Comments from someone critically important in an athlete’s life, someone whom the
athlete always wishes to please, carry much weight. When these comments focus on a
highly sensitive issue, they can devastate an athlete. Telling a gymnast she is too fat or
praising her for losing excess weight, without investigating the means by which she has
lost the weight, can easily initiate and solidify an overt eating disorder (Rosen & Hough,
1988, p. 144).
Additional studies show that other important figures in the athletic environment such as judges,
audience members, and teammates (e.g., Doughty & Hausenblas, 2007) also play a significant
role in the development of disordered eating behaviors in female athletes.
Little is known about the sources of pressure for male athletes who engage in similar
unhealthy weight control habits. Preliminary evidence suggests that weight pressures from
teammates and coaches are more salient than appearance-based weight pressures in collegiate
male athletes (Galli, Reel, Petrie, Greenleaf, & Carter, 2011). However, these pressures may vary
by sport type. Galli et al. (2011) found that ball game athletes (e.g., basketball, soccer, hockey)
reported less appearance-based weight pressures than both endurance (e.g., cross-country,
swimming) and power sports (e.g., football, downhill skiing). In addition, power athletes
perceived more weight pressures from teammates and coaches than both ball game and
endurance athletes (Galli et al., 2011). Other qualitative findings corroborate the notion that male
collegiate athletes believe that pressures from important others (e.g., friends, teammates, family)
and the sociocultural environment influence their body image (Galli & Reel, 2009).

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Specific features and requirements of sport. In addition to social influences, other
reported sources of pressure regarding weight and appearance involve inherent features and
requirements specific to sport. For example, in an investigation of high school and collegiate
female cheerleaders, the most commonly reported source of pressure relative to body weight was
wearing revealing uniforms (Reel & Gill, 1996). Benson and Taub (1993) and Reel (2001)
contend that the same may be true of female swimmers. Other evidence suggests that skill
requirements may be a source of pressure as well. More specifically, Black (1991) argues that
the ease of being lifted (e.g., in partner stunts and pairs lifts) is influenced by weight. In turn,
female athletes may experience pressure to be thinner and lighter in order to execute the difficult
lifting skills required by sports like figure skating and cheerleading (Monsma, 2008; Reel & Gill,
1996). Although not widely explored, weight pressures among male athletes in sports like pairs
skating or ice dancing deserve further exploration. Stressors associated with body weight, size,
and appearance may become a concern for those male pair skaters or ice dancers who must find a
balance between building size and strength to lift their partner and maintaining leanness and
linearity for aesthetic purposes. More systematic research is needed to fully understand how
specific sport features impact both male and female athletes’ perceptions of their bodies and
eating habits.
Psychological characteristics. Some researchers postulate that the psychological
qualities that contribute to being a successful athlete may also make athletes vulnerable to
disordered eating. These characteristics include striving for perfection, compulsiveness, selfdisciple, motivation, willingness to tolerate pain, and desire to please (M. D. Johnson, 1994; R.
A. Thompson & Sherman, 1993). Low self-esteem, high appearance orientation, exercising to be
attractive and improve appearance (Petrie, Greenleaf, Reel, & Carter, 2009), and social physique

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anxiety (Haase, 2009; Monsma & Malina, 2004) have been shown to predict disordered eating in
female samples. In a review of disordered eating in sport, Petrie and Greenleaf (2007) describe a
number of psychosocial predictors of disordered eating in non-athlete and athlete populations,
including sport pressures, societal pressures, internalization of the thin ideal, poor physical selfperceptions, body dissatisfaction, perfectionism, and neuroticism. To advance the literature on
disordered eating in athletes, Petrie and Greenleaf call for future research to establish the
presence and relationship between possible risk factors in sport.
Unfortunately, a causal relationship between sport participation and disordered eating
cannot be deduced from the extant literature. Athletes who already possess specific
psychological characteristics that make them vulnerable to disordered eating may self-select into
sport. For others, sport participation may foster disordered eating behaviors (R. A. Thompson &
Sherman, 1993). However, the strong association between disordered eating and the sport
context is indeed notable and should be considered in research examining the development of
disordered eating in both male and female athletes.
Figure Skating
Of the lean sports that have been examined because of their emphasis on appearance,
weight, and body shape, figure skating has been largely understudied. Although a plethora of
anecdotal evidence suggests that figure skaters are at risk for the development of clinical and
subclinical eating disorders, the scale and scope as well as the nature of disordered eating in this
population is not fully understood. The extant literature surrounding the topic of disordered
eating in figure skating is discussed, including what is known about the subculture, nutritional
and physiological status, and weight and body image concerns among this population of athletes.

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Figure skating subculture. Characterized by a pattern of traditions and behaviors that
distinguish it from other sports, figure skating is believed to have its own subculture. Illustrations
of the figure skating subculture have been depicted through numerous anecdotal accounts.
Exploratory investigations in the sport sociology and sport psychology literature have also
provided insights into key aspects of the figure skating environment and tend to corroborate the
testimonial evidence. These include ethnographic and qualitative studies examining the figure
skating experience as well as sources of stress and enjoyment. Together, all sources of
knowledge allude to pressures that may be associated with disordered eating in this population.
Little research has systematically examined the figure skating subculture. However, the
few exploratory studies conducted in this area point to several common themes in the skating
experience and tend to mirror anecdotal accounts described in Chapter I. Using ethnographic
methodologies, Grenfell and Rinehart (2003) conducted 40 hours of structured observation (e.g.,
noting non-verbal behavior, language, and implied criticism or praise) and in-depth qualitative
interviews with female figure skaters, parents, and club officials. Given the subjective nature of
the research design and the sensitivity of the topic, results were presented in fictionalized
amalgams or stories to depict the intricacies of the subculture observed in a real life form.
Grenfell and Rinehart (2003) identified a number of psychosocial variables apparent in
female figure skating participants. These included perfectionism (i.e., multiple coaches required
to dissect a skill and perfect each component), hostility (i.e., jealousy and use of intimidation
among skating peers), performance (i.e., maintaining a composed and graceful exterior despite
internal turmoil), and the learned importance of appearance (e.g., using color, make-up, and
material to enhance acceptable physical features and de-emphasize less desirable ones). Grenfell
and Rinehart also described the apologetic nature of the figure skaters observed and the apparent

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shame and guilt associated with performance mistakes. The researchers concluded that young
elite female figure skaters are allotted little autonomy, indebted to the adults managing their
skating regimen (e.g., through the time, energy, and finances invested), and thus trapped within
the sport without adequate understanding for another way of being in the world.
Cummins (2007) identified similar aspects of figure skating that appear to distinguish it
from other sports. These included the isolating nature of an individual sport where figure skaters
are solely responsible for performance outcomes, training demands that far exceed those of other
youth team sports (e.g., 15 to 20 hours per week without an off-season), and tremendous
financial and social sacrifices. Cummins hypothesized that figure skaters may encounter identity
struggles because, based on Marcia’s (1966) identity status theory, they have foreclosed early on
being and becoming an elite level figure skater. Identity confusion may be a particular concern
when figure skaters experience biological and pubertal changes that can negatively impact
performance and lead to a decline in athletic competence.
Other qualitative studies have specifically examined the sources of stress associated with
being a figure skater. For example, using semi-structured qualitative interviews, Gould, Jackson,
and Finch (1993) examined the major sources of stress in 17 male and female Senior US
National Champion figure skaters who held titles between 1985 and 1990 (18 to 33 years of age).
Sources of stress included self-imposed standards of perfectionism, meeting the expectations of
others, social comparison with skating peers, skating politics, interpersonal conflict (e.g., parents,
coaches, skating peers, sponsors), and struggling to obtain a sense of independence and personal
identity. Other figure skaters noted that maintaining weight and appearance was a major source
of stress, particularly for the females in the study. Several figure skaters reported behaviors

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symptomatic of bulimia nervosa and other forms of disordered eating. The researchers quoted
one figure skater’s account of her struggle with weight:
You should do a whole story on weight in figure skating; it is such an appearance sport.
You have to go up there with barely anything on…It’s not like I’m really skinny or
anything, but I’m definitely aware of it. I mean I have dreams about it sometimes. So it’s
hard having people look at my thigh and saying, ‘Oops, she’s an eighth of an inch
bigger,’ or something. It’s hard…Weight is continually on my mind. I am never, never
allowed to be on a vacation. Weight is always on my mind (p.149).
Scanlan, Stein, and Ravizza (1991) conducted a similar study on the sources of stress in
29 former elite male and female figure skaters who had competed at the national championship
level (29 to 49 years of age). Similar to Gould et al. (1993), weight management and scrutiny
from others regarding weight and body size emerged as significant stressors. The notion that
weight concerns emerged from the abovementioned qualitative data without obvious interview
prompts demonstrates the saliency of these types of issues in figure skaters.
Other studies have examined perceived sources of enjoyment in figure skaters of varying
ages. Ryba (2007) examined eight male and female youth figure skaters between 8 and 10 years
of age through qualitative interviews. Results revealed that young figure skaters most enjoyed
accomplishing skills for the first time, getting better, being creative, and interacting with others.
Interview data also yielded results on the early importance of the body in figure skating. More
specifically, awareness of the body as “weightless,” “stretched” and/or “right” emerged from the
analyses (Ryba, 2007, p. 67).
Sources of enjoyment have also been examined in older figure skaters. Scanlan, Stein,
and Ravizza (1989) conducted qualitative interviews with 26 former male and female national

42

championship competitors (ages 22 to 49). Similar to the youth figure skaters in Ryba’s (2007)
study, a sense of accomplishment, learning and improving skills over time, creativity, and social
opportunities similarly emerged as significant sources of enjoyment. Interestingly, although elite
participants cited the act of figure skating as pleasurable, they did not recognize experiencing the
body as a source of enjoyment as did the youth participants in Ryba’s investigation. These results
have important implications for understanding how some figure skaters shift from body
enjoyment in youth to body distress at the elite level.
Although not extensive, the exploratory literature provides important insights into the
perceived positive and negative aspects that shape the figure skating experience. The emphases
on weight and body shape, high standards, and other factors described may foster an
environment that promotes or worsens disordered eating attitudes and behaviors.
Nutritional and physiological status of figure skaters. The anecdotal and preliminary
research findings describing the nature of the figure skating experience have sparked a line of
research on their nutritional and physiological status. Ziegler and colleagues in particular have
spearheaded the research on possible abnormalities in energy consumption in this population.
For example, Ziegler, Khoo, Kris-Etherton, et al. (1998) assessed the nutritional status of 34
adolescent male and female figure skaters who were nationally ranked in the US. Each figure
skater completed a four-day diet record and participated in a series of anthropometric and
biological assessments. Results showed that figure skaters reported lower intake of important
food groups (e.g., fresh fruits and vegetables, meat, fish, poultry, eggs, and milk products) and
micronutrients (e.g., Vitamin D, Vitamin E, calcium, magnesium, and zinc) than other
adolescents in the US. Researchers concluded that both male and female elite adolescent figure
skaters may be vulnerable to poor nutrition as compared to their same age peers.

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Ziegler et al. (1999) later expanded this sample to 41 adolescent male and female figure
skaters who were nationally ranked in the US. In addition to the four-day diet records and the
anthropometric and biological measures previously employed, these researchers conducted a
more comprehensive assessment by also administering the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT). This
self-report measure is intended to examine eating attitudes and behaviors that resemble those
individuals with anorexia nervosa (Garner, Olmsted, Bohr, & Garfinkel, 1982; Ocker, Lam,
Jensen, & Zhang, 2007). Similar to previous findings (i.e., Ziegler, Khoo, Kris-Etherton et al.,
1998), the results of this study revealed nutritional deficiencies in elite adolescent figure skaters
as compared to other adolescents in the US. Figure skaters also consumed far fewer calories than
the recommended dietary intake based on age, sex, and weight. In review of the EAT scores, the
researchers concluded that figure skaters may be at risk for the development of eating disorders,
but did not provide descriptive or inferential statistical analyses to support this assumption.
Additional findings corroborate the notion that elite figure skaters may not be consuming
enough calories and micronutrients from the recommended food groups to sustain their activity
(Ziegler, Nelson, Barratt-Fornell, Fiveash, & Drewnowski, 2001) and may be starting their day
with low energy reserves due to inadequate breakfasts (Ziegler, Jonnalagadda, Nelson,
Lawrence, & Baciak, 2002). Low energy intake and nutritional deficiencies are especially
concerning when figure skaters already have lean figures and low body fat percentages (e.g.,
average male 5.8%; average female 12.5%) (Coleman, 2000; Ziegler et al., 1999). Suboptimal
nutrition has also been identified in non-elite figure skaters (i.e., test stream athletes rather than
national level performers). In an investigation of 13 non-elite female figure skaters (17 to 19
years), Delistray, Reisman, and Snipes (1992) found that although the skaters in their sample

44

trained less than elite figure skaters in other studies, they had similar nutritional profiles with
reported carbohydrate, calcium, and iron intake insufficient for fitness and performance.
Later research alludes to potential sex differences in dietary intake among elite figure
skaters. Ziegler, Jonnalagadda, and Lawrence (2001) examined seven elite ice dancing pairs
(ages 17 to 26). Although the male ice dancers appeared to have normal energy intake, the
female ice dancers had energy intakes that were significantly lower than the dietary
recommendations. The researchers concluded that female ice dancers may not be consuming
enough energy for performance as well as important micronutrients important for bone health.
Sex differences were also identified in a sample of 159 male and female elite figure skaters (ages
12 to 28) (Ziegler, Nelson, Tay, Bruemmer, & Drewnowski, 2005). Results revealed that females
were less likely to eat fast foods and more likely to substitute diet soda for regular soda and
consume fruits, vegetables, and bagels when compared to males. The researchers did not provide
possible explanations for these discrepancies. However, it can be argued that female figure
skaters may be far more weight conscious than their male counterparts in order to achieve the
petite and lean body shape desirable among female participants. This may be especially true for
female pair skaters and ice dancers who must be lifted by their partner (Monsma, 2008).
Other sex differences have been observed in the supplement use of figure skaters.
Ziegler, Nelson, and Jonnalagadda (2003) found that 65% of males and 76% of females in their
sample reported using supplements, including multivitamins, herbal supplements, creatine, and
energy drinks. Interestingly, 28% of the female figure skaters reported that they use supplements
to make up for an inadequate diet, which was not a primary reason for males.
In review of the findings on nutritional status across studies, elite figure skaters may be at
risk for greater nutritional and energy deficiencies than their adolescent counterparts, especially

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females. However, although valuable, the aforementioned literature poses several limitations.
The majority of the studies focused solely on elite level figure skaters. In turn, little is known
about the nutritional intake of those at other lower competitive levels (e.g., those who compete
locally or regionally). In addition, although the dietary and physiological perspective is
important, this line of research speaks little as to why elite figure skaters are consuming
inadequate amounts of energy and if disordered eating and body image disturbances are indeed
present in this population. Other research has attempted to more closely address these questions.
Disordered eating, body image, and weight concerns in figure skaters. Some studies
have more directly examined disordered eating, body image, and weight concerns in figure
skaters. To adequately organize the literature in this area, the following section will be discussed
in three parts: (a) the prevalence of clinical and subclinical eating disorders in figure skaters; (b)
weight loss techniques and perceived weight pressures among figure skaters; and (c) physical,
psychological, and contextual correlates of disordered eating in figure skaters.
Prevalence of disordered eating, body image, and weight concerns in figure skaters.
Preliminary studies suggest that figure skaters exhibit disordered eating attitudes and behaviors.
For example, Barkley (2001) examined 67 male and female competitive figure skaters (i.e., ages
12 and over who had competed at the regional, sectional, or national level at least two times
within the last two months) from a North-Atlantic training facility using the Eating Disorder
Inventory-2 (EDI-2). The EDI contains 64 self-report questions with three subscales designed to
examine attitudes and behaviors associated with eating, weight, and body shape (i.e., drive for
thinness, bulimia, body dissatisfaction) and five subscales designed to examine a range of
psychological constructs associated with eating disorders (i.e., ineffectiveness, perfectionism,
interpersonal distrust, interoceptive awareness, maturity fears) (Garner & Olmsted, 1984; Garner,

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Olmsted, & Polivy, 1983). The EDI-2 adds 27 new items into three provisional scales, including
asceticism, impulse regulation, and social insecurity (Garner, 1991). Using this measure, none of
the figure skaters met full criteria for a clinical diagnosis of anorexia nervosa. However, 27% of
the female figure skaters (n = 49) reported preoccupation with weight, and 37% reported a drive
for thinness (Barkley, 2001). These results suggest that subclinical rather than clinical features
may be the predominant form of disordered eating in competitive figure skating.
Studies employing a range of other measures also suggest that disordered eating attitudes
and behaviors are a concern among figure skaters. Rucinski (1989) assessed the body image and
dietary intake of 17 male and 23 female national-level figure skaters (13 to 26 years of age)
using the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-40) – a self-report measure examining attitudes and
behaviors that resemble those with anorexia nervosa (Garner et al., 1982; Ocker et al., 2007).
Results revealed that 48% had EAT scores greater than or equal to 30, which is considered
within anorexic range (Rucinski, 1989). Using body silhouettes (i.e., images depicting various
body sizes) (Tehard, Van Liere, Com-Nougue, & Clavel-Chapelon, 2002) to examine body
image perceptions of 49 elite figure skaters, Jonnalagadda, Ziegler, and Nelson (2004) found that
their female sample (n = 26) indicated a greater preference for a thinner body contour and had
greater body dissatisfaction scores than their male figure skating counterparts. Seventy-seven
percent of the female sample also reported being terrified of gaining weight (Jonnalagadda et al.,
2004). In sum, the available literature strongly suggests that figure skaters may be at risk for
disordered eating and poor body image perceptions.
However, the relationship between eating attitudes and eating behaviors in figure skaters
is not fully understood. Although they tend to be both lighter and leaner than other female
athletes and most closely fit the thin ideal, they also have more negative attitudes towards eating

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(Brooks-Gunn, Burrow, & Warren, 1988). These maladaptive eating attitudes have been shown
to be negatively related to energy intake in figure skaters (Rucinski, 1989), which suggests that
thoughts and feelings around eating have a definitive impact on eating behaviors in this
population. Interestingly, other research indicates that figure skaters may diet even in the absence
of negative eating attitudes. In an investigation of 40 nationally ranked junior figure skaters (12.9
to 22.9 years), 80% of the females (n = 20) reported being under or just the right weight, and
60% were satisfied with their body shape. Still, the majority of the females reported a desire to
lose weight, and the prevalence of dieting for weight loss purposes was greater than that in the
general young adult population (Ziegler, Khoo, Sherr et al., 1998). Dieting may therefore be a
normative aspect of the figure skating subculture even in the absence of extreme body
dissatisfaction.
In contrast to the abovementioned research, one study did not support the assumption that
female figure skaters possess and/or are susceptible to disordered eating. In an examination of 21
competitive female figure skaters (11 to 16 years), mean EAT-40 scores were 14.4 (range 6 to
32), which is well below the 30 point cut-off score indicative of eating disorder risk (Ziegler,
Hensley et al., 1998). These results may be due to differences in the competitive level of the
skaters in this sample as compared to those in previous studies. Unfortunately, specific
information on the competitive level of this sample of figure skaters was not provided.
The majority of research suggests that disordered eating attitudes and behaviors are a
concern for female figure skaters, particularly at advanced levels of competition. Although not
always clinical in nature, symptoms of disordered eating are present. However, limited research
in this area, little use of control groups, minimal between-group comparisons across skating

48

discipline, competitive level, and sex, as well as mixed findings make precise prevalence
estimates difficult.
Weight loss techniques and perceived pressures among figure skaters. Other research
has specifically examined the weight loss techniques of figure skaters, as well as the perceived
sources of pressure within the figure skating environment. In a descriptive study, Zatalan and
Zatalan (2003), assessed 32 Canadian female pair and dance skaters (16 to 22 years of age) using
the SKATE scale. This measure is an 18-item self-report survey designed to assess weight
control behaviors as well as perceived pressures specific to the sport of figure skating (e.g.,
pressures for weight loss from parents, coaches, judges, skating partners, and self). The most
frequently cited weight loss techniques included excessive exercise (74%), fasting/dieting (67%),
vomiting (32%), diet pills (30%), and all of these methods combined (14%). Nearly the entire
sample believed that there are pressures associated with figure skating to lose or maintain
weight. Seventy-eight percent believed that their required skating attire made them conscious
about their body appearance, and 36% reported that they received pressure from their figure
skating peers to engage in weight control techniques. Interestingly, the greatest perceived source
of stress to lose or maintain weight was from the figure skater herself, followed by coaches,
parents, partners, and judges (Zatalan & Zatalan, 2003).
In a similar study, Taylor and STE-Marie (1999; 2001) examined eating disorder
symptoms in 41 Canadian female pair and dance skaters (16 to 22 years of age) using the EDI.
Simple sample t-tests were used to examine comparisons between EDI scores for figure skaters,
an eating disordered population, and a normal college female sample. The researchers also
developed two self-report questions to determine weight loss techniques used (e.g., fasting,
dieting, vomiting) and whether figure skaters believed that pressures to lose or maintain low

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weight are associated with their sport. EDI scores for the figure skaters showed greater similarity
to the eating disordered population than the normal college female sample. All of the figure
skaters reported that they had engaged in at least one weight control behavior during their
skating career, and 92.7% believed that their sport was associated with pressures to lose or
maintain weight. Similar to findings by Zatalan and Zatalan (2003), the greatest source of
perceived stress was from themselves, followed by the coach. Interestingly, those who placed the
most pressure on themselves to lose or maintain weight also perceived the greatest amount of
stress from outside sources (e.g., coaches) (Taylor & STE-Marie, 1999, 2001). These results
suggest that figure skaters may learn and internalize pressure from outside sources and in turn
perceive that much of their stress is self-induced.
Interestingly, there may be fewer perceived pressures to lose or maintain weight for some
figure skating sub-groups. For example, Greenleaf (2004) explored weight pressures and social
physique anxiety in 86 female collegiate synchronized skaters (18 to 24 years of age) using the
SYNCHROSKATE (an adapted version of the SKATE scale) and the Social Physique Anxiety
Scale (SPAS-12) – a 12-item self report inventory used to measure anxiety levels experienced
when one perceives that others are negatively evaluating his or her body shape. Results revealed
that synchronized skaters only experienced moderate weight pressures from their skating
environment and moderate levels of social physique anxiety. In contrast, Ziegler, Kannan, et al.
(2005) assessed body image perceptions and weight concerns in 123 female international
synchronized skaters in the US (mean age 17 ± 2.1 years). Only 45% of the skaters reported
never having changed their eating behaviors for the purpose of weight management. The
majority of skaters reported wanting to achieve a thinner body contour and be lighter than their
current weight. As indicated by the percentage of scores above the mean, many of the skaters

50

were also fearful of gaining weight (60%), felt out of control when eating (61.8%), and were
dissatisfied with their body shape (56.1%) (Ziegler, Kannan et al., 2005).
Result discrepancies between studies conducted by Greenleaf (2004) and Ziegler,
Kannan, et al. (2005) may be due to differences in the measures used as well as the competitive
level of the athletes involved. More specifically, weight pressures and risk for disordered eating
may increase with competitive level, even for female synchronized skaters who may show few
initial signs of perceived weight pressures and body anxiety. This would be in line with
preliminary research suggesting that figure skating favors lightness, leanness, greater
mesomorphy (i.e., leaner, muscular), and lower endomorphy (i.e.., softer, rounder) at more elite
levels, especially for dance and pair skaters (Monsma & Malina, 2005).
Correlates of disordered eating in figure skaters. Recent research has begun to examine
the intersection of physical, psychological, and contextual variables associated with disordered
eating in figure skaters. For example, Monsma, Malina, and Feltz (2006) examined the
interaction of biological maturation, physical self-perceptions, and social physique anxiety in
113 competitive female solo, dance, and pair skaters across skating clubs in the US and Canada
(12.8 to 22.3 years of age). Instruments included the Physical Self-Description Questionnaire
(PSDQ) containing 70 self-report items on global physical self-concept and self-esteem (Marsh,
1996; Marsh, Richards, Johnson, Roche, & Tremayne, 1994) and a 9-item version of the Social
Physique Anxiety Scale (SPAS-9) (Martin, Rejeski, Leary, McAuley, & Bane, 1997). A series of
biological measures were also taken, including somatotype, body mass index (BMI), leg length,
and age of menarche. Results showed that menarche, menstrual status, and somatotype were
stronger correlates of physical self-perceptions than age. More specifically, older,
postmenarcheal, and endomorphic (i.e., rounder, softer) figure skaters reported heightened

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concerns about their body fat while their ectomorphic (i.e., lighter, leaner) counterparts indicated
more positive physical self-perceptions. Social physique anxiety was the strongest predictor of
physical self-perception, increasing with endomorphy (i.e., rounder, softer) and decreasing with
ectomorphy (i.e., lighter and leaner) (Monsma et al., 2006). These results suggest that as female
figure skaters enter puberty and physically mature, those who no longer fit the desired body type
as defined by their sport’s subculture may be susceptible to a poor physical sense of self.
Using similar instrumentation, Monsma and Malina (2004) examined the eating disorder
risk of 114 competitive female figure skaters (12.8 to 22.3 years of age). Hierarchical stepwise
regression analyses were used to compare a range of physical and psychological variables (as
measured by the PSDQ, SPAS, and a number of anthropometric assessments) in predicting
disordered eating attitudes and behaviors (as measured by the EDI). Results showed that body
mass index (BMI) was the strongest predictor of EDI subscales with greater BMI being
associated with greater EDI scores. Other predictors of disordered eating attitudes and behaviors
included changes in physical characteristics associated with growth and maturation, social
physique anxiety, and poor physical self-perceptions (Monsma & Malina, 2004). In a later study,
Monsma (2008) found that solo figure skaters reported greater health and sport competence
scores than partner skaters. She postulated that perceived pressure from a skating partner as well
as the belief that they are recruited for aesthetic purposes rather than athletic ability may
influence health and sport competence perceptions.
The literature on physical, psychological, and contextual correlates of disordered eating
among figure skaters is in its early stages. Moreover, a thorough examination of emotional
correlates of disordered eating in these athletes is virtually non-existent. One study has assessed
the relationship between emotional self-appraisal and body image dissatisfaction in skaters.

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Specifically, Ziegler, Kannan et al. (2005) found that elite female synchronized skaters who rated
themselves as being depressed, lonely, sad, or unable to control events in their lives were more
dissatisfied with their current body shapes. Emotional predictors as well as additional physical,
psychological, and contextual variables are critical in future investigations.
Gaps in the Literature
Disordered eating in figure skating is a complex phenomenon that deserves ample
empirical attention. Unfortunately, the literature in this area is relatively sparse. Fewer than 15
studies have specifically examined disordered eating, body image, or weight concerns in this
population, and most were primarily descriptive. Approximately 15 other studies have provided
important insights into the figure skating subculture and the nutritional and physiological status
of skaters, but do not directly examine the complexities of disordered eating.
Of the small amount of attention that figure skaters have received, much of the research
has focused on those competing at the elite level. Despite comprising the majority of the figure
skating world, little is known about disordered eating in sub-elite figure skaters who are
committed to their sport but do not compete nationally or internationally. Disordered eating in
male figure skaters has been largely overlooked in the literature. Specific psychological
predictors of disordered eating in this population have also not been adequately explored. From a
methodological perspective, most of the studies conducted on disordered eating, body image, and
weight concerns in figure skaters have included samples less than 50, and only a few have
included more than 100 skaters. Without larger sample sizes, making meaningful comparisons
across groups is difficult.

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Study Purposes and Aims
As previously described, much of the research on disordered eating among figure skaters
has focused on elite level females. Therefore, the primary aim of this study was to first examine
disordered eating among those competing at the sub-elite level (i.e., those who have never
competed nationally or internationally). Specifically, the primary purposes were to (a) assess the
frequency of disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in female sub-elite figure skaters; (b)
describe the psychological characteristics of female sub-elite figure skaters, including body
dissatisfaction, perceived weight pressures, self-esteem, perfectionism, and athletic identity; (c)
examine possible contributors to disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in female sub-elite
figure skaters; and (d) gain a preliminary understanding of the role of figure skating in shaping
body image, eating, and exercise habits in female sub-elite figure skaters.
The secondary aim of this study was to address a series of questions with other subgroups of skaters pending the appropriate sample sizes were obtained. These secondary purposes
were to (a) assess the frequency of disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in male figure
skaters; (b) describe the psychological characteristics of male figure skaters, including body
dissatisfaction, perceived weight pressures, self-esteem, perfectionism, and athletic identity; (c)
examine possible contributors to disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in male figure skaters;
(d) gain a preliminary understanding of the role of figure skating in shaping body image, eating,
and exercise habits in male figure skaters; (e) compare disordered eating attitudes and behaviors
as a function of skating discipline (i.e., singles, pairs, ice dancing, and synchronized); (f)
compare disordered eating attitudes and behaviors as a function of competitive level (i.e., elite
and sub-elite); and (g) compare disordered eating attitudes and behaviors as a function of sex.

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Selection of psychological variables. The psychological predictor variables included in
this study were body dissatisfaction, perceived weight pressures, self-esteem, perfectionism, and
athletic identity. These variables were selected based on the extant literature, including research
on disordered eating in athlete and non-athlete populations as well as preliminary findings on
figure skaters and the figure skating subculture. A rationale for the inclusion of each predictor
variable is provided next.
Body dissatisfaction. Body dissatisfaction is believed to be experienced when an
individual has negative thoughts and feelings about one’s body (Grogan, 2008) and typically
involves a discrepancy between current and ideal body shape (Cash & Szymanski, 1995). A
meta-analysis conducted by Stice (2002) revealed that body dissatisfaction is a prominent risk
factor for dieting, eating pathology, and negative affect, as well as a maintenance factor for
bulimic symptoms. Particularly in sports, body dissatisfaction has been shown to strongly predict
bulimic symptoms (e.g., Brannan, Petrie, Greenleaf, Reel, & Carter, 2009; Greenleaf, Petrie,
Reel, & Carter, 2010) as well as social physique anxiety (e.g., Krane, Stiles-Shipley, Waldron, &
Michalenok, 2001). Researchers have not explored body dissatisfaction as a predictor of
disordered eating in figure skaters.
Perceived weight pressures. Preliminary research suggests that sub-elite figure skaters
believe that weight pressures are associated with their sport (Rucinski, 1989; Taylor & STEMarie, 2001). Perceived pressure to lose or maintain weight is predictive of disordered eating
attitudes and behaviors in non-athlete populations (e.g., Halliwell & Harvey, 2006). For example,
positive reinforcement for weight loss as well as criticism regarding one’s weight and body
shape are related to and predictive of disordered eating behavior, particularly in young females
(e.g., Budd, 2007; Francis & Birch, 2005). Figure skaters may similarly receive positive

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reinforcement for weight loss and criticism from important others in the skating environment,
including coaches and parents (Zatalan & Zatalan, 2003). However, the predictive power of these
types of sport-specific weight pressures in the development of disordered eating has not yet been
systematically examined in figure skaters.
Self-esteem. Self-esteem has been shown to be highly correlated with disordered eating
in non-athlete populations (e.g., Shea & Pritchard, 2007), including adolescent girls (e.g., Button,
Loan, Davies, & Sonuga-Barke, 1997). Recent research suggests that self-esteem may also be
associated with disordered eating in female athletes (e.g., Petrie et al., 2009). Interestingly, low
self-esteem has not been shown to be a strong predictor of disordered eating in adolescent males
(Furham & Calnan, 1998) and male collegiate athletes (Milligan & Pritchard, 2006). The present
study therefore intended to not only examine self-esteem as a predictor of disordered eating, but
to also provide insight into potential sex differences among figure skaters.
Perfectionism. Perfectionism has been defined as an enduring personality trait
characterized by setting high performance standards to please the self and others and is viewed
as a multidimensional construct (Hewitt & Flett, 1991). Much of the research has defined
perfectionism as negative and unhealthy in both general (Flett & Hewitt, 2002) and sport-specific
domains (Hall, 2006). However, other theorists contend that perfectionism can also be positive
and healthy (Rice & Ashby, 2007) such that individuals strive to achieve high personal standards
and positive outcomes (Terry-Short, Owens, Slade, & Dewey, 1995). Perfectionism has been
linked to disordered eating in non-athlete populations (e.g., Bulik et al., 2003; Halmi et al., 2000)
as well as female recreational and varsity athletes (e.g., Hopkinson & Lock, 2004).
Figure skating is anecdotally believed to attract and promote perfectionism (Grenfell &
Rinehart, 2003; Ryan, 1995). A recent study revealed that a global sense of

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unhealthy/maladaptive perfectionism was associated with unhealthy/negative body attitudes
specifically in figure skaters (Dunn, Craft, & Causgrove Dunn, 2011). However, the measure
employed (i.e., Sport-Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale) did not conceptually distinguish
between positive and negative perfectionism. This study therefore sought to discriminate
between positive and negative perfectionism in predicting disordered eating in figure skaters by
using alternative instruments.
Athletic identity. Only two studies have examined the role of athletic identity in the
development of disordered eating (Gapin & Petruzzello, 2011; Jones, Glintmeyer, & McKenzie,
2005). One preliminary case study of a former elite swimmer revealed that a strong athletic
identity and a vulnerable overall sense of self played a critical role in the commitment to engage
in disordered eating behaviors to succeed in her sport (Jones et al., 2005). As many figure skaters
tend to specialize in their sport and perhaps prematurely foreclose on their identity as a skater
(Cummins, 2007), an examination of the role of athletic identity and disordered eating was
deemed worthy of exploration.

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CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
A paper-pencil survey methodology was used to assess the frequency and psychological
predictors of disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in female sub-elite figure skaters and to
collect additional data with other skaters across skating discipline, competitive level, and sex.
Descriptive statistics, correlations, t-tests, one-way analysis of variance, multiple linear
regression, discriminant analysis, and qualitative analysis procedures were used to address each
research question and hypothesis. When appropriate, disordered eating attitudes and behaviors
served as the dependent or criterion variable, while independent or predictor variables included
body dissatisfaction, perceived weight pressures, self-esteem, negative perfectionism, positive
perfectionism, and athletic identity.
Participants
A total of 304 figure skaters participated in this study from a population of approximately
180,000. Three skaters were removed from the analysis due to incomplete demographic
information, yielding a final sample of 301 participants. To be included in this study, participants
had to be current figure skaters and at least 12 years of age. Participants under the age of 12 and
over 30, former figure skaters, basic skills skaters, and those competing at the adult test levels
were excluded from the sample. Data were collected in 19 figure skating clubs ranging from
recreational to highly competitive training programs. More specifically, these included clubs that
focused on fun and fundamental skills, emphasized the development of locally and regionally
competitive athletes, or invested resources in training elite skaters for national and international
competition (e.g., Nationals, Olympics). Clubs were located across five states, including

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Michigan, Indiana, Kentucky, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. However, in some cases, participants
represented clubs in states across other regions of the United States (i.e., California, Texas,
Colorado, and Alaska) and other countries (i.e., Canada, Ukraine, and France). All skaters were
fluent in English. A return rate of 43% can be calculated by dividing the number of participating
clubs (19) by the number of clubs contacted (44). However, because some skaters may have
represented clubs outside the 19 included in the project (e.g., if he/she was a visiting skater or
recruited at a competition), this return rate is an approximate estimation.
Procedures
This study received approval from the Institutional Review Board of Michigan State
University prior to participant recruitment. Figure skating clubs were identified using the US
Figure Skating club directory. Figure skating club presidents, program directors, and coaches
were contacted via phone or email. A description of the study was provided and permission to
recruit skaters was formally requested. If written permission was granted, the investigator
coordinated an appropriate time to travel to each respective ice rink.
Participants were recruited in one of four ways: (a) parents and skaters were contacted in
advance to set up a date and time for data collection; (b) parents and skaters were contacted
before or after skating practice and recruited to participate; (c) parents and skaters approached a
recruitment table at a figure skating competition; or (d) parents and skaters were invited to
participate following a mental skills training seminar provided by the doctoral candidate
submitting this dissertation, who will henceforth be referred to as the primary investigator.
In all cases, written informed consent/assent (See Appendix A) was obtained prior to
voluntary participation in this study. The investigator then administered a survey battery (See
Appendix B) to participants in a private location in the absence of parents and coaches. Prior to

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administration, the investigator reviewed participant’s confidentiality rights and reminded them
that their participation was completely voluntary, that they may terminate their participation at
any time, and that they may refuse to respond to any question. In appreciation of their volunteer
participation, skaters received a sport-specific mental skills training packet and an educational
resource sheet on eating behaviors and body image.
Instrumentation
The survey battery included demographic items, as well as assessments of disordered
eating attitudes and behaviors, body dissatisfaction, weight pressures, self-esteem, perfectionism,
and athletic identity. Several open-ended questions on the role of figure skating in shaping body
image perceptions, eating, and exercise habits were also included. The order in which the
measures were presented in the survey battery was designed to begin with the least sensitive
topics first (i.e., athletic identity and self-esteem), followed by those most pertinent to the
research questions (i.e., body dissatisfaction, disordered eating attitudes and behaviors, weight
pressures, perfectionism, and open-ended items), and end with those easiest to answer (i.e.,
demographic items). Together, the survey battery took approximately 20 to 25 minutes to
complete.
Psychometric properties of the selected instruments are described in the next section. As
the primary purpose of this study was to assess female sub-elite figure skaters, all reliability
estimates provided reflect those determined for this group. Although not described here,
instruments were also found to be reliable for male figure skaters as a group as well as the total
sample of figure skaters examined in additional analyses.
Athletic Identity. The Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (AIMS) was used to assess
athletic identity among figure skaters. The AIMS consists of 10 items intended to measure the

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degree to which a participant identifies him or herself as an athlete using a seven-point Likert
scale (1 = strongly disagree; 7 = strongly agree) (Brewer, Van Raalte, & Linder, 1993). Higher
scores indicate stronger identification with the athlete role while lower scores indicate weaker
identification (Brewer et al., 1993). Internal consistency has been reported at .93 and test-retest
reliability at .89 over a two week period (Brewer et al., 1993). The AIMS is correlated with
measures assessing similar constructs, including the importance of sport competence subscale of
the Perceived Importance Profile (r = .83) (Brewer et al., 1993). In the current study, Cronbach’s
alpha coefficient was .83 for female sub-elite figure skaters.
Self-esteem. The Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale (RSE) was used to examine global selfesteem among figure skaters. The RSE consists of 10 items intended to serve as a unidimensional
measure of global self-esteem using a 4-point response format (0 = strongly disagree, 3 =
strongly agree) with higher scores indicating higher self-esteem (Blascovich & Tomaka, 1991).
Although this instrument was originally designed to measure the self-esteem of high school
students (Rosenberg, 1965), it has since been used across a wide range of age groups, including
seventh through 12th grade students (e.g., McCarthy & Hoge, 1982), undergraduates (e.g.,
Crandell, 1973), and adults (e.g., Goldsmith, 1986).
The RSE demonstrates acceptable reliability and validity. Example statistics are provided
here. In examining internal consistency, Cronbach alpha’s has been reported at .77 (Dobson,
Goudy, Keith, & Powers, 1979) and .88 (Fleming & Courtney, 1984). Test-retest correlations
have been reported at .85 for 28 participants after a 2-week interval (Silber & Tippett, 1965)
and.82 for 259 participants after a 1-week interval (Fleming & Courtney, 1984). The RSE
demonstrates adequate convergent validity with several other self-esteem-related constructs,
including confidence (r = .65), popularity (r =.39) (Lorr & Wunderlich, 1986), academic self-

61

concept (r =.38) (Reynolds, 1988), peer ratings of self-esteem (r =.32) (Demo, 1985), and other
self-esteem measures (Savin-Williams & Jaquish, 1981). The RSE demonstrates divergent
validity with constructs associated with perceptions of low self-worth, including anxiety (r = .64) and depression (r = -.54) (Fleming & Courtney, 1984). Associations with social-desirability
range from .10 (Reynolds, 1988) to .33 (Fleming & Courtney, 1984). Lastly, the RSE also
demonstrates adequate discriminant validity such that it shows no significant correlations with
grade point average (r =.10), locus of control (r = -.04) (Reynolds, 1988), gender (r =.10), age (r
=.13), work experience (r =.07), marital status (r =.17), and birth order (r =.02) (Fleming &
Courtney, 1984). In the current study, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was .83 for female sub-elite
figure skaters.
Body dissatisfaction. The Contour Drawing Rating Scale (CDRS) was used to assess
body dissatisfaction in figure skaters. The CDRS includes 9 contour drawings of females and 9
contour drawings of males that gradually increase in size (M. A. Thompson & Gray, 1995). The
CDRS was designed to improve upon previous body image measures using silhouettes and
contour drawings by developing more realistic representations of the human body, including the
hip-to-waist ratio. Participants are generally asked to choose the image that best depicts their
actual body size and then their ideal body size. A calculated discrepancy in their selections is
used to measure body dissatisfaction (M. A. Thompson & Gray, 1995). Scores range from 0 to
±8 with greater absolute values indicating higher levels of body dissatisfaction (M. A. Thompson
& Gray, 1995).
Psychometric properties of this instrument are within acceptable range. In a study of 32
female college-aged students (ages 18 to 23), test-retest reliability was reported at .78 using a
one week interval. Concurrent validity was also illustrated through strong correlations between

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perceived body size and self-reported weight (r =.71) and Body Mass Index (BMI) (r = .59) (M.
A. Thompson & Gray, 1995). In a study of 1,056 7th and 8th grade females (ages 11.8 to 14.7
yrs), Wertheim, Paxton, and Tilgner (2004) reported test-retest reliability at .84 (Time 1 – Time
2 at two weeks), .83 (Time 1 – Time 3 at six weeks), and .77 (Time 1 – Time 4 at 14 weeks).
Convergent validity was demonstrated through moderate to strong correlations between currentideal figure discrepancy scores and the body dissatisfaction subscale of the Eating Disorder
Inventory (EDI) (r = .40), the drive for thinness scale of the EDI (r = .62), and the Dutch Eating
Behaviour Questionnaire-Restrained Eating Scale (r = .56) (Wertheim et al., 2004). A strong
correlation was also identified between BMI and self-reported current body size (r = .69).
Discriminant validity was supported through low correlations with a social desirability measure
(r < -.15) (Wertheim et al., 2004). In the current study, Pearson product-moment correlations
showed that self-reported current body size using the CDRS was strongly related to both BMI (r
= .66; p = .001) and self-reported weight (r = .61; p = .001) for female sub-elite figure skaters.
Instructions used for the CDRS in this study were developed based on the generic
guidelines set forth by the instrument developers (M. A. Thompson & Gray, 1995) as well as the
adaptations recommended for younger (adolescent and pre-adolescent) age groups (Wertheim et
al., 2004). In addition to current and ideal body size, participants were asked to select the image
that most accurately represents what the ideal skater should look like to determine possible
discrepancies between current size, ideal size, and ideal size for a desirable athlete specifically in
their sport.
Disordered eating attitudes and behaviors. The Eating Attitudes Test-26 (EAT-26)
was used to assess disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in figure skaters. The EAT-26
consists of 26 items intended to examine attitudes and behaviors that resemble anorexia nervosa

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with three subscales (i.e.., dieting, bulimia and food preoccupation, and oral control). However,
only the global score was of interest in this study.
The 26-item version is highly correlated with the total scores on the original EAT
containing 40 items (Garner & Garfinkel, 1979; Garner et al., 1982). Each item is rated on a 6point scale (1 = never; 6 = always). Scores are recoded on a 4-point scale (0 = never, rarely,
sometimes; 1 = often; 2 = usually; 3 = always) with higher scores indicating greater disordered
eating symptomatology (Garner et al., 1982). Although this measure does not yield a specific
diagnosis for an eating disorder, it has been useful in assessing eating disorder risk across various
populations, including female high school students, young adults, adults (e.g., Button &
Whitehouse, 1981; King, 1989, 1991; Williams, Scaefer, Shisslak, Gronwaldt, & Comerci,
1986), and athletes (e.g., Garner, Rosen, & Barry, 1998). Specifically, scores greater than or
equal to 20 indicate that an individual is within clinical range of an eating disorder (Garner et al.,
1982).
The EAT-26 demonstrates acceptable reliability and validity (Williamson, Anderson,
Jackman, & Jackson, 1995). Internal consistency has been reported at .91 for college female
students (Mazzeo, 1999) and test-retest reliability at .84 over a 2 to 3 week time period for 56
subjects (Carter & Moss, 1984). This measure demonstrates concurrent validity with other
measures of disordered eating including the Bulimia Test-Revised (BULIT-R; r = .67) (Smith &
Thelen, 1984) and adequately discriminates between eating disorder groups and non-clinical
controls (e.g., Garner & Garfinkel, 1979; Williamson, Cubic, & Gleaves, 1993). In the current
study, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was .86 for female sub-elite figure skaters.
Perceived weight pressures. The Weight Pressures in Sport-Females (WPS-F) and the
Weight Pressures in Sport-Males (WPS-M) were used to examine perceived weight pressures

64

with female and male figure skaters respectively. The WPS-F consists of 16 items intended to
measure sport-specific weight pressures among female athletes using a 6-point scale (1 = never;
6 = always) (Reel, SooHoo, Petrie, Greenleaf, & Carter, 2010). In addition to a total average
weight pressure score, this instrument yields scores for four subscales including weight pressures
from coach/teammates/sport, self-consciousness of weight and appearance, importance of weight
and appearance, and weight limit (Reel et al., 2010). However, only the total average weight
pressure score was of interest in this study. Higher scores represent greater perceived weight
pressures in sport (Reel et al., 2010). A preliminary assessment of the WPS-F with 204 Division
I female athletes across 17 sports (i.e., alpine skiing, basketball, cheerleading, cross country,
diving, golf, gymnastics, ice hockey, lacrosse, rowing, soccer, softball, swimming, tennis, track,
volleyball) revealed high internal consistency (α = .90) (Reel et al., 2010). In the current study,
Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was .90 for female sub-elite figure skaters.
Minor wording of the items was altered to adapt the measure to the population of interest
based on previous studies using a similar instrument with figure skaters known as the SKATE
and SYNCHROSKATE (Greenleaf, 2004; Taylor & STE-Marie, 1999). Specifically,
“team/sport” was changed to “skating,” “teammates” to “skating peers,” “team members” to
“skaters,” and “team uniform” to “skating attire.” Item one (i.e., my sport has a weight
requirement to try out) was also altered to more readily apply to skaters of most skating
disciplines (i.e., skaters must be a certain body weight to succeed in the sport).
The WPS-M consists of 14 items intended to measure sport-specific weight pressures
among male athletes using a 6-point scale (1 = never; 6 = always) (Galli et al., 2011). In addition
to a total average weight pressure score, this instrument yields scores for two subscales,
including coach/teammate pressures and appearance pressures (Galli et al., 2011). However, only

65

the total average weight pressure score was of interest in this study. Higher scores indicate
greater perceived weight pressures in sport (Galli et al., 2011). A preliminary investigation with
203 Division I male athletes across 16 sports (i.e., football, baseball, track and field, swimming,
basketball, lacrosse, cheerleading, cross-country, golf, ice hockey, diving, fencing, alpine skiing,
wrestling, volleyball, and soccer) revealed high internal consistency (α = .90) (Galli et al., 2011).
In the current study, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was .75 for male figure skaters.
Similar to the WPS-F, minor wording of the items for the WPS-M was altered to adapt
the measure to the population of interest. Specifically, “team/sport” was changed to “skating,”
“teammates” to “skating peers,” “team members” to “skaters,” and “team uniform” to “skating
attire.” Item two (i.e., the leanest athletes get chosen for the best positions on the team of the best
positions in a game/competition) and item 12 (i.e., weigh-ins are held periodically throughout the
season) were altered to more readily apply to skaters (i.e., the leanest athletes get special
treatment; weigh-ins are held periodically for skating).
Perfectionism. The Positive and Negative Perfectionism Scale (PANPS) was used to
assess levels of perfectionism in figure skaters. The original PANPS consists of 40-items
intended to measure normal and neurotic types of perfectionism using a Likert-type scale (1 =
strongly agree; 5 = strongly disagree) (Terry-Short et al., 1995). This instrument consists of four
scale scores including positive perfectionism (i.e., normal perfectionism in which one seeks to
achieve positive consequences), negative perfectionism (i.e., neurotic perfectionism in which one
seeks to avoid negative consequences), self-oriented perfectionism (i.e., drive to set goals for
oneself and stringently self-evaluate), and social-oriented perfectionism (i.e., perception that
unrealistic expectations are being set by others, placing external pressure on the individual) with
20 items in each. Subscale scores range from 20 to 100 with higher scores representing greater

66

levels of perfectionism. Only positive and negative perfectionism scores were of interest in this
study.
Terry et al. (1995) demonstrated the construct validity of this instrument such that
PANPS scores identified 86% of a sample of individuals with clinically diagnosed eating
disorders. In a sample of 540 Australian and New Zealand elite athletes, internal consistency was
reported at .83 for positive perfectionism and .81 for negative perfectionism (Haase &
Prapavessis, 2004). In the current study, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were .81 and .91,
respectively for female sub-elite figure skaters.
Open-ended items. Several open-ended items were used to gain a preliminary
understanding of the role of figure skating in shaping body image, eating, and exercise habits
(e.g., In general, have your experiences in skating positively influenced the way your view your
body? If yes, in what ways?) These items were created specifically for this study and can be
found in Appendix B. Each question began with a closed-response format (i.e., yes, no) and was
followed by an open-ended prompt (e.g., if yes, in what ways?).
Demographic variables. Demographic questions gathered information about the skaters’
characteristics and background (e.g., sex, age, height, weight, menstrual history when
appropriate), their skating experience (e.g., years in skating, skating discipline, competitive
level), training regimen (e.g., hours per week spent training for skating), and reasons for
1

participation (e.g., primary reasons for involvement).

67

CHAPTER IV
RESULTS
Demographic Information
A total of 301 figure skaters (272 females, 29 males) ages 12 to 26 (M = 15.90, SD = +
3.24) were included in this study. The average height for the total sample was 63.38 inches (SD =
+ 3.55) while average weight was 120.72 pounds (SD = + 27.19). Body mass index (BMI),
calculated based on self-reported height and weight (i.e., 703[weight in pounds/height in
inches2]), was 20.96 (SD = + 3.55). The majority of participants identified themselves as
Caucasian (260/301 [86.4%]), followed by Other (e.g., bi-racial; 19/301 [6.3%]), Asian
American/Pacific Islander (17/301 [5.6%]), African American/Black (4/301 [1.3%]), and
American Indian (1/301 [0.3%]). Participants reported 9.66 (SD = + 4.32) years of figure skating
experience with an average age of first competition of 8.02 years (SD = + 2.65). The majority of
participants reported that their primary skating focus was singles (177/301 [58.8%]), followed by
multiple (i.e., endorsed more than one skating focus; 51/301 [16.9%]), synchronized (50/301
[16.6%]), ice dancing (21/301 [7%]), and pairs (2/301 [0.7%]). Finally 64.3% (191/297) of
participants were categorized as sub-elite figure skaters and 35.7% (106/297) were classified as
elite figure skaters based on the aforementioned classification criteria for competitive level (See
the Operational Definitions section of Chapter 1 of this dissertation).
As the primary purpose of this study was to examine female sub-elite figure skaters and
to conduct additional analyses with male figure skaters, specific demographic and skating
background information is provided for these groups in Table 1 for females and Table 2 for
males. In addition, frequency tables for skating discipline are displayed for females and males in
Tables 3 and 4, respectively.

68

Table 1
Demographic and Skating Background for Female Sub-Elite (n = 185), Female Elite (n = 83),
and Total Female Figure Skaters (n = 272)

Age
Height (in.)
Weight (lbs.)
BMI
Years Skating Experience
Age of First Competition

Sub-Elite
M
SD
15.21
+ 2.82
62.71
+3.01
115.55
+23.06
20.53
+3.32
8.68
+3.96
8.27
+2.77

Elite
M
SD
16.63
+3.25
63.26
+3.38
120.93
+26.17
21.16
+3.67
11.34
+4.06
7.37
+2.38

Total
M
SD
15.63
+3.02
62.91
+3.13
117.74
+24.47
20.79
+3.47
9.48
+4.15
7.99
+2.67

Table 2
Demographic and Skating Background for Male Sub-Elite (n = 23), Male Elite (n = 6), and
Total Male Figure Skaters (n = 29)

Age
Height (in.)
Weight (lbs.)
BMI
Years Skating Experience
Age of First Competition

Sub-Elite
M
SD
14.33
+3.83
65.50
+6.60
149.58
+65.58
23.99
+7.74
7.75
+5.38
8.50
+3.27

Elite
M
SD
19.52
+3.58
68.30
+3.48
140.04
+24.33
22.15
+2.33
12.17
+5.22
8.15
+2.31

Total
M
SD
18.45
+4.15
67.72
+4.32
148.36
+35.12
22.53
+3.94
11.26
+5.47
8.22
+2.48

Table 3
Skating Disciplines for Female Sub-Elite (n =185), Female Elite (n =83), and Total Female
Figure Skaters (n =272)

Singles
Pairs
Ice Dancing
Synchronized
Multiple

Sub-Elite
Elite
Total
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
136
73.5%
25
30.1%
162
59.6%
0
0%
0
0%
0
0%
4
2.2%
8
9.6%
12
4.4%
18
9.7%
29
34.9%
49
18%
27
14.6%
21
25.3%
49
18%

69

Table 4
Skating Disciplines for Male Sub-Elite (n =6), Male Elite (n = 23), and Total Male Figure
Skaters (n = 29)

Singles
Pairs
Ice Dancing
Synchronized
Multiple

Sub-Elite
Elite
Total
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
3
50%
12
52.2%
15
51.7%
0
0%
2
8.7%
2
6.9%
2
33.3%
7
30.4%
9
31%
1
16.7%
0
0%
1
3.4%
0
0%
2
8.7%
2
6.9%

Evaluation of Primary Research Questions
An evaluation of the primary research questions and hypotheses is provided in the next
section. When appropriate, preliminary analyses were conducted to ensure no violation of
assumptions prior to conducting specific statistical tests (e.g., normality, homescedasticity,
linearity, multicollinearity). Statistical significance was set at p ≤ .05.
Primary research question 1. What is the frequency of disordered eating attitudes and behaviors
in female sub-elite figure skaters?
Scores at or above 20 on the Eating Attitudes Test-26 (EAT-26) suggest a high level of
concern about dieting, body image, or unhealthy eating behaviors and may be indicative of a
clinical eating disorder (Garner & Garfinkel, 1979; Garner et al., 1982). In the present study, an
examination of scores greater than or equal to 20 on the EAT-26 revealed that 13.1% (23/176) of
female sub-elite figure skaters ages 12 to 25 fell within clinical limits with scores ranging from
20 to 48. However, the mean score on the EAT-26 was 8.89 (SD = + 9.05) showing that on
average female sub-elite figure skaters scored well below the 20-point clinical cut-off score and
were not symptomatic of an eating disorder. As a frame of reference, only 12% (34/283) of the
entire sample and 13.2% (10/76) of female elite figure skaters scored within clinical range.

70

Mean EAT-26 scores among female sub-elite figure skaters were compared to existing
normative data with adolescent girls ages 13 to 18 (Whitaker et al., 1989), college-aged women
(mean age 20.3, SD = + 2.7) (Garner et al., 1982), and a clinically anorexic group of young adult
females (mean age 21.5 + 5.4) (Garner et al., 1982). To make meaningful comparisons with the
normative data, female sub-elite figure skaters were categorized into three possible age groups,
including an adolescent age group (ages 12 to 18; M = 14.49, SD = + 1.92), a college-aged
group (ages 18 to 25; M = 19.68, SD = + 2.14), and the entire sample (ages 12 to 25; M = 15.21,
SD = + 2.82).
A one-sample t-test revealed no significant difference in mean scores on the EAT-26
between adolescent girls ages 13 to 18 (M = 9.7) and female sub-elite figure skaters ages 12 to
18 (M = 8.8; t(156) = -1.30, p = .196). There was also no significant difference in mean scores
on the EAT-26 between college-aged females (M = 9.9) and female sub-elite figure skaters ages
18 to 25 (M = 10.36; t(35) = .302, p = .764). However, the mean score on the EAT-26 was
significantly higher for clinically anorexic young adult females (M = 36.1) than female sub-elite
figure skaters ages 12 to 25 (M = 8.9; t(175) = -39.89, p = .001) where the effect size was large
(d = -2.08). Female sub-elite figure skaters therefore showed no more signs of disordered eating
than their adolescent and college-aged counterparts and significantly less than those clinically
diagnosed with anorexia nervosa.
The frequency of female sub-elite figure skaters reporting “often,” “usually,” or “always”
was determined for each item contained in the EAT-26 as shown in Table 5. The most frequently
endorsed item was being aware of the calorie content of foods (54.3%), followed by displaying
self-control around food (54.1%), enjoyment in trying new rich foods (45.9%), thinking about
burning up calories during exercise (40%), and being terrified about being overweight (37.8%).

71

Table 5
Frequency of “Often,” “Usually,” and “Always” Responses to EAT-26 Items Among Female
Sub-Elite Figure Skaters
Item
I am aware of the calorie content of foods that I eat.
I display self-control around food.
I enjoy trying new rich foods.
I think about burning up calories when I exercise.
I am terrified about being overweight.
I am preoccupied with a desire to be thinner.
I am preoccupied with the thought of having fat on my body.
I feel uncomfortable after eating sweets.
I engage in dieting behavior.
I take longer than others to eat my meals.
I cut my food into small pieces.
I eat diet foods.
Other people think that I am too thin.
I find myself preoccupied with food.
I give too much time and thought to food.
I particularly avoid food with a high carbohydrate content (i.e.
bread, rice, potatoes, etc.)
I avoid foods with sugar in them.
I feel that others would prefer if I ate more.
I feel extremely guilty after eating.
I like my stomach to be empty.
I have gone on eating binges where I feel that I may not be able
to stop.
I feel that food controls my life.
I feel that others pressure me to eat.
I avoid eating when I am hungry.
I have the impulse to vomit after meals.
I vomit after I have eaten.

72

Frequency

Percentage

100/184
100/185
85/185
74/185
70/185
44/185
42/185
41/185
36/185
35/184
30/185
29/185
28/185
24/184
24/185

54.3%
54.1%
45.9%
40%
37.8%
23.8%
22.7%
22.2%
19.5%
19%
16.2%
15.7%
15.1%
13%
13%

23/184

12.5%

21/184
19/185
18/185
17/185

11.4%
10.3%
9.7%
9.2%

15/184

8.2%

11/184
11/183
8/185
4/184
1/184

6%
6%
4.3%
2.2%
0.5%

Primary research question 2. What are the psychological characteristics of female sub-elite
figure skaters?
A one-way within-subjects ANOVA was conducted to compare scores for perceived
current body shape, ideal body shape, and ideal skater body shape. Results showed a significant
effect for body shape scores, Wilks’ Lambda = .69, F (2, 182) = 41.93, p = .01. The effect size
was large with a partial eta squared of .32. Three paired samples t-tests were used to make post
hoc comparisons. Results showed that perceived current body shape (M = 4.45, SD = + 1.50)
was significantly greater than both ideal body shape (M = 3.69, SD = + 1.50) and ideal skater
body shape (M = 3.58, SD = + 1.18). As illustrated pictorially in Figure 2, this finding suggests
that on average female sub-elite figure skaters perceived their bodies to be larger than desirable.
However, the discrepancy between mean ideal body shape and mean body shape for the ideal
skater was quite small and statistically non-significant.

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4 4.5

5

5.5 6

6.5

7

7.5

8

8.5

9

Figure 2. Perceived current, ideal, and ideal skater’s body shape for female sub-elite figure
skaters (n = 184). Red solid line = perceived current body shape, Green dashed line = perceived
ideal body shape, Blue dotted line = perceived ideal skater’s body shape. For interpretation of the
references to color in this and all other figures, the reader is referred to the electronic version of
this dissertation.

73

Means and standard deviations were determined for global scores assessing athletic
identity, self-esteem, perceived weight pressures, positive perfectionism, and negative
perfectionism. To assist in interpreting the data, the range of possible scores on each of the
measures was divided into four proportions. Means are described in the context of the proportion
of possible scores in which they fell. Specifically, means approximately within the 0% to 25%
range of possible scores were considered low, 25% to 50% were considered low to moderate,
2

50% to 75% were considered moderate to high, and 75% to 100% were considered high.

As shown in Table 6, mean athletic identity fell within the 50% to 75% range of possible
scores (40 to 55) suggesting that on average female sub-elite figure skaters identified moderately
to strongly with their sport. Similarly, mean self-esteem also fell within the 50% to 75% range of
possible scores (15 to 22.5) indicating that on average female sub-elite figure skaters had
moderate to strong self-esteem. Mean perceived weight pressures, falling within the 25% to 50%
range of possible scores (2.25 to 3.50), shows that on average female sub-elite figure skaters
perceived a low to moderate level of weight pressures in their environment. Finally, mean
positive perfectionism fell within the 75% to 100% range of possible scores (80 to 100), while
mean negative perfectionism fell within the 25% to 50% range (40 to 60). This finding indicates
that on average female sub-elite figure skaters possessed strong levels of positive perfectionism
and low to moderate levels of negative perfectionism.
Table 6
Descriptive Statistics for Psychological Characteristics Among Female Sub-Elite Figure Skaters
Psychological Characteristic
Athletic Identity
Self-esteem
Perceived Weight Pressures
Positive Perfectionism
Negative Perfectionism

n
181
182
175
172
178

M
47.13
22.40
2.35
81.02
58.31
74

SD
+10.63
+4.60
+0.87
+7.94
+13.78

Range of Possible Scores
10 to 70
0 to 30
1 to 6
20 to 100
20 to 100

Primary research question 3. What are the contributors of disordered eating attitudes and
behaviors in female sub-elite figure skaters?
For the following statistical analyses, square root transformed disordered eating scores
and square root transformed body dissatisfaction scores were used to meet statistical assumptions
for a normal distribution.
H1: Disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in female sub-elite figure skaters will show a
significant positive relationship with years in skating.
Hypothesis 1 was not supported. Results from a Pearson product-moment correlation
coefficient analysis revealed no significant relationship between disordered eating scores and
years in skating (r = .103, n = 175, p = .174).
H2: Disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in female sub-elite figure skaters will differ by
competitive experience (i.e., never competed, local competition, open event/non-qualifying
regionals, qualifying regionals, sectionals, collegiate competition).
Participants were divided into six groups (Group 1: Never competed [n = 2], Group 2:
Local competition [n = 36], Group 3: Open event/non-qualifying regionals [n = 37], Group 4:
Qualifying regionals [n = 53], Group 5: Sectionals [n = 7], Group 6: Collegiate competition [n =
5]). Groups 1, 5, and 6 were dropped from the analysis due to insufficient sample size.
Synchronized skaters were also removed from the analysis as they are a unique group with a
competitive structure different than singles, pairs, and ice dancing. Finally, those who endorsed
more than one skating discipline were removed to preserve independent groups.
With the remaining groups in the analysis, Hypothesis 2 was supported. Specifically, a
one-way between-groups analysis of variance revealed significant differences in disordered
eating scores for three competitive experience groups: F(2, 115) = 4.30, p = .016. The actual

75

difference in mean scores between groups was moderate. The effect size, calculated using eta
squared, was .06. Post-hoc comparisons using the Tukey HSD test indicated that the mean score
for Group 2 (i.e., locally competitive skaters; M = 1.92, SD = + 1.24) was significantly lower
than Group 3 (i.e., open event/non-qualifying regional level skaters; M = 2.76, SD = + 1.45, p =
.044) and Group 4 (i.e., qualifying regional level skaters; M = 2.80, SD = + 1.53, p = .020).
These results indicate that disordered eating moderately increased with higher levels of
competitive figure skating experience.
H3: Disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in female sub-elite figure skaters will be
significantly predicted by a combination of psychological variables (i.e., body dissatisfaction,
self-esteem, perceived weight pressures, negative perfectionism, positive perfectionism, and
athletic identity).
Preliminary analyses showed that statistical assumptions of a standard multiple regression
(i.e., normality, linearity, homescedasticity) were met. Predictor variables were also assessed for
multicollinearity and were decidedly not intercorrelated as shown in Table 7 (e.g., r <.60, VIF <
4, Tolerance > .20). A standard multiple regression was then used to assess the ability of six
psychological variables to predict disordered eating attitudes and behaviors. Hypothesis 5 was
partially supported. Using the enter method, a significant model emerged: F(6, 162) = 21.31, p
=.001. The total model accounted for 45% of the variance in disordered eating. Significant
variables included body dissatisfaction (Beta = .35, p = .001), perceived weight pressures (Beta
= .24, p = .004), positive perfectionism (Beta = .19, p = .008), and negative perfectionism (Beta
= .18, p = .026). Self-esteem (Beta = -.05, p = .506) and athletic identity (Beta = .-.05, p = .514)
were not significant predictors in this model.

76

Table 7
Intercorrelations Among Predictor Variables for Female Sub-Elite Figure Skaters
Variable
1. Body Dissatisfaction
2. Self-esteem
3. Perceived Weight Pressures
4. Negative Perfectionism
5. Positive Perfectionism
6. Athletic Identity

1
-.32
.42
.27
.04
-.05

2

3

4

5

6

-.47
-.49
.12
-.20

.56
.22
.35

.27
.32

.39

-

Primary research question 4: What is the perceived role of figure skating in shaping body
image, eating, and exercise habits in female sub-elite figure skaters?
To understand the perceived role of figure skating in shaping body image, eating, and
exercise habits, participants were asked to respond to a series of five items that can be found in
Appendix B. Each item began with a close-ended question (e.g., in general, have your
experiences in skating positively influenced the way you view your body?). Participants were
then given the option to provide an open-ended response if applicable (e.g., if yes, in what
ways?).
Close-ended responses from each participant in the entire sample were organized by sex
(i.e., male, female) and competitive level (i.e., elite, sub-elite). Data for female sub-elite figure
skaters are provided in Table 8. An inspection of this table reveals paradoxical responses. Over
90% of the respondents indicated that their figure skating experiences positively influenced the
way they eat and/or exercise, and approximately 83% felt that figure skating positively
influenced the way they viewed their body. However, the majority also believed that the sport is
linked to pressures to lose or maintain weight, and a notable proportion perceived a negative
influence of figure skating on body image, eating, and exercise. These results suggest that figure

77

skating has the potential to both positively and negatively influence body image, eating, and
exercise behaviors among female sub-elite figure skaters.
Table 8
Close-ended Response Summary for Female Sub-Elite Figure Skaters: Role of Figure Skating in
Shaping Body Image, Eating, and Exercise
Close-Ended Question

Yes
No
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage

Some believe that the sport of figure
skating is linked to pressures to lose or
maintain weight. Do you agree with this
belief? (n = 181)

106

58.6%

75

41.4%

In general, have your experiences in
skating positively influenced the way
you view your body? (n = 185)

153

82.7%

32

17.3%

In general, have your experiences in
skating negatively influenced the way
you view your body? (n = 182)

70

38.5%

112

61.5%

In general, have your experiences in
skating positively influenced the way
you eat and/or exercise? (n = 184)

169

91.8%

15

8.2%

In general, have your experiences in
skating negatively influenced the way
you eat and/or exercise? (n = 182)

35

19.2%

147

80.8%

Due to the large volume of open-ended responses provided, qualitative analysis
procedures were utilized. Specifically, open-ended responses from each participant in the entire
sample were transcribed verbatim from the surveys and entered into Excel spreadsheets. To
reduce bias in the data analysis process, the data were de-identified such that any demographic
information, including sex, age, competitive level, and skating focus (i.e., singles, pairs, ice
dancing, synchronized), was removed.
In traditional qualitative analysis procedures, participant responses are first coded into
meaningful segments of text to assist in organizing and interpreting detailed and often lengthy

78

qualitative interviews (Côté, Salmela, Baria, & Russell, 1993). However, given that in depth
qualitative interviews were not conducted in this study, all original text was kept intact to
preserve the little context available for each response. Typical trustworthiness procedures were
also not possible in this study. For example, because the data collected was completely
anonymous, the researchers could not send transcripts or data summaries back to participants for
their corrective feedback or conduct follow-up interviews for clarification (Lincoln & Guba,
1985). Therefore, purposeful selection of a secondary investigator to assist with the qualitative
analysis was critical.
Specifically, the secondary investigator had considerable experience in qualitative
analysis, but unlike the primary investigator, had never participated in an aesthetic sport, never
encountered disordered eating in her personal experiences, and was far removed from the figure
skating community. It was believed that including an investigator with less familiarity and
emotional investment in both the sport and the topics addressed would enhance the rigor of the
analysis process. While the primary investigator used her figure skating experiences to provide
context and understanding of the participants’ responses, the selected secondary investigator
assisted in identifying blind spots, omissions, judgments, and preferences of the primary
investigator (Rajendran, 2001). Both members of this research team independently organized the
data for each open-ended prompt into dimensions, themes, and sub-themes. To promote a
comprehensive understanding of the responses and to further reduce bias, consensual validation
procedures were employed (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). More specifically, the investigators met triweekly to discuss any disagreements in data organization and interpretation until consensus was
reached. Following analysis, dimensions, themes, and sub-themes were independently reviewed
by each investigator to ensure accuracy.

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Analyzed responses were then coded according to major demographic categories,
including sub-elite female, elite female, sub-elite male, and elite male figure skaters. Frequencies
of responses within each demographic category were counted by theme. Ratios and percentages
were then calculated to describe the qualitative data in a numerical format. As the primary
interest of this study concerned the data on female sub-elite figure skaters, dimensions, themes,
sub-themes, frequencies, and percentages for this group are provided in Tables 9 through 14. In
the following section, these results are described in depth with an illustration of key quotes.
When quotes are provided, “P” represents “Participant,” followed by the respective participant
number assigned as well as pertinent demographic information, including age and skating focus
(i.e., singles, pairs, ice dancing, synchronized).
Why pressures exist to lose or maintain weight in figure skating. Participants were asked
to indicate whether they agreed with the belief that figure skating is linked to pressures to lose or
maintain weight. Those who reported “yes” (106/181 [58.6%]) were prompted to explain why
they thought these pressures existed. A total of 106 female sub-elite figure skaters who indicated
“yes” provided an open-ended response to this prompt. Eight dimensions and 12 themes emerged
from the data (See Table 9).
Performance demands was the most frequently cited dimension (61.3%). In particular,
aspects of technical performance, including jumping, spinning, and being lifted into the air, were
an especially important reason for pressure to lose or maintain weight (27.4%). For example, one
skater suggested that the difficult skills required in skating could be more easily executed with a
lighter body:
The thing about figure skating is that it's all about being able to throw yourself or other
people into the air. The less weight you have on your body, the easier it is. Therefore I

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believe there is self pressure to maintain a healthy lean weight (P247, Age 16, Singles/Ice
Dancing).
Another skater noted that successful skating can often be reduced to the biomechanical
requirements of the sport: “The higher the ratio of muscle to weight, the easier it is to rotate.
Technique and hard work can overcome this to some extent, but physics will always play a role
too” (P102, Age 22, Singles/Ice Dancing/Synchronized).
In addition to technical aspects, 18.9% reported that pressures exist to lose or maintain
weight because of the aesthetic component of performance and the nature of being judged. For
example, one skater noted that thinness is equated with aesthetic appeal in skating: “…some
ideal body is another form of perfection, and people always want to be better or be the thinnest
or prettiest because in skating being thin is pretty” (P144, Age 14, Singles). Another reported
that physical appearance is indeed a priority in the figure skating world:
Skating is a sport based on performance and appearance. A lot of time is spent working
on picking the perfect dress/costume and choosing the movement that looks the best, so
physical appearance should be at its highest. This includes having a small body that's lean
because it generally looks better with the performance on the ice to be petite with good
lines (P54, Age 17, Singles).
A third skater noted that appearance is a concern for all skaters and especially for those involved
in pairs:
It exists because a lot of this sport has to do with body image. If you aren't a certain body
type, people/judges/coaches/skaters will give up on you, judge you, etc., especially for
pairs. If you aren’t a certain weight/look, you'll never get a partner (P238, Age 15,
Singles).

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Also within the performance demands dimension, skaters reported that being thinner and
smaller is stereotypically perceived to be associated with better skating performance (14.2%).
For example, one skater noted that the pressure to lose or maintain weight comes from the
popular belief that overweight skaters cannot achieve performance success: “I think these
pressures exist because people/skaters don't think that someone overweight can be successful in
the sport and that you must have an average weight or less” (P240, Age 13, Singles). Another
mentioned that good skating is linked to a thin body type and a specified body composition: “I
feel that to be a good skater, you should be skinny and have no body fat” (P138, Age 19,
Singles).
The second most frequently cited dimension involved living up to ideals both within and
outside of skating (17.9%). Specifically, 13.2% of skaters reported that pressures to lose or
maintain weight exist because of expectations to achieve a sport-specific body type. For
example, one skater noted that a figure skating body should be thin: “I think this because there
are set body images for all types of sports. With skating, I believe it is that they should be skinny
or lean” (P268, Age 15, Singles). Others indicated that there are pressures to meet societal views
and expectations of the appropriate body (4.7%). For example, one skater reported that society
places pressure on girls that extend beyond the skating environment: “I think these exist because
society is very pressuring for girls on weight, not just in skating” (P210, Age 13, Singles).
Another stated that such pressures are typical of most female-dominated sports: “Just like any
other predominantly female sport or activity, most people notice body image before anything
else” (P258, Age 19, Singles).
The third most frequently cited dimension was exposure to the bodies of the best skaters
(16%). For example, one skater described how the bodies of skaters in the media can impact a

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younger generation: “Skaters on TV are never fat. Seeing very successful skaters be thin draws a
connection for newer skaters to compare themselves to” (P264, Age 15, Singles).
The fourth most frequently cited dimension concerned meeting the demands of important
others (14.2%). For example, 6.6% reported that pressures to lose or maintain weight in skating
exist because of social comparison with their peers. One skater noted: “I think it's because girls
in sports like this always think that they're too big or too fat whenever they see skaters that are
skinnier and feel the need to lose more weight than necessary” (P91, Age 13, Singles). Other
skaters mentioned that pressures to lose or maintain weight exist in skating because of coaches
(5.7%). For example, one skater reported that although she has not personally experienced this
type of pressure from a coach, she has witnessed the experience in others: “It depends on the
coach. I have never had anything said to me but every other girl except one in the group I train
with has been told to lose weight, which is sad because they don't need to…” (P16, Age 18,
Singles/Pairs).
The fifth most frequently cited dimension was skating dresses and attire (11.3%). For
example, one skater suggested that flaws are difficult to conceal when in tight skating clothes:
“The clothing is tight, so body imperfections are apparent” (P140, 10, Singles). Another
mentioned that some are criticized while dressed in skating clothes: “People always say mean
things about chubby people when they are in skating clothes, even if they’re fat themselves”
(P47, Age 12, Singles). Other reported reasons why pressures exist to lose or maintain weight in
figure skating are provided in Table 9.

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Table 9
Open-Ended Response Summary for Female Sub-Elite Figure Skaters: Why Pressures Exist to
Lose or Maintain Weight in Figure Skating
Dimensions, Themes, Sub-Themes

Frequency
Percentage
(n = 106)

Performance Demands
65
61.3%
Technical Elements (e.g., jumps)
29
27.4%
Aesthetics/Judging Component
20
18.9%
Being Thin/Small Means Better Skating
15
14.2%
Skate Well In General
14
13.2%
Being Fit/In Shape
9
8.5%
Being Thin But Muscular
9
8.5%
Ideals
19
17.9%
Standard Body for Skating/Sport
14
13.2%
Societal Views & Expectations
5
4.7%
Bodies of the Best Skaters
17
16%
Important Others
15
14.2%
Peers/Social Comparison
7
6.6%
Coaches
6
5.7%
Judges
3
2.8%
Parents
2
1.9%
Skating Dresses/Attire
12
11.3%
Pressure to Succeed/Be Perfect
7
6.6%
Personal Characteristics
5
4.7%
Media
2
1.9%
Miscellaneous
6
5.7%
Note. Due to double-coding and responses categorized as miscellaneous, the number citing a
higher order theme (e.g., dimension or theme) will not always equal the number citing each
respective lower order theme (e.g., theme or sub-theme). Similarly, the total number of
participants responding to the open-ended prompt will not necessarily equal the number citing
each respective dimension.
Sources of pressure to lose or maintain weight in figure skating. Participants were asked
to indicate whether they agreed with the belief that figure skating is linked to pressures to lose or
maintain weight. In addition to explaining why they thought these pressures existed, those who
reported “yes” (106/181 [58.6%]) were also prompted to explain where and/or who these
pressures came from. A total of 104 female sub-elite figure skaters who indicated “yes” provided
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an open-ended response to this prompt. Five dimensions, 12 themes, and eight sub-themes
emerged from the data (See Table 10).
The most frequently cited dimension was pressure from others (71.2%). In particular,
coaches were cited as an especially important source of pressure to lose or maintain weight
(43.3%). For example, one skater reported that coaches equate thinness with success in skating:
“Coaches want their students to do what they have to do with the most endurance and beauty,
which thinness is connected to” (P264, Age 15, Singles). Skaters also indicated that pressures
come from other skaters (36.5%). Interestingly, in addition to other skaters in general (24%) and
competitors (5.8%), 13.5% noted that the image of those who have been successful in the sport is
an important source of pressure. One skater stated: “Well if you see all those really good skaters,
you notice that none of them are overweight and are average weight and, if anything at all, they'd
be skinny” (P240, Age 13, Singles/Ice Dancing). Another reported noticing that skaters who win
tend to have smaller bodies: “Have you ever seen a heavier-set skater win anything
special/important? It’s because there has probably never been one” (P238, Age 15, Singles).
Other skaters noted that pressure comes from parents. One skater indicated: “Parents can be
worried that their children can't be successful without the thinness aspect” (P264, Age 15,
Singles).
The second most frequently cited dimension was pressure from the self (26.9%). More
specifically, these skaters perceived that pressures to lose or maintain weight in skating are
internal. One skater noted that although being very thin is unattractive, she believes it is
necessary to succeed: “I think that they come from inside you, you see many others who are
super thin and it look gross, but you know that it helps you in the long run” (P247, Age 16,
Singles/Ice Dancing). Another mentioned that internal pressures come from wanting to surpass

85

the accomplishments of peers: “The pressure comes from the skaters themselves. You look at a
person skinnier than you, and feel that they are better than you because of that, which leads to
self-pressure to be thinner or not gain weight” (P52, 15, Singles).
The third most frequently cited dimension was culture and environment (23.1%). Within
this dimension, some skaters reported that popular culture (16.3%) and more specifically the
media (10.6%) was a source of pressure. For example, one skater suggested that the media may
undermine coaches’ emphasis on health: “I also think coaches talk about being healthy, but the
media makes healthy look super thin and it isn't” (P151, Age 23, Singles). Also within the
culture and environment dimension, skaters reported that pressure comes from a culture specific
to figure skating (11.5%) and more specifically the history or nature of the sport (10.6%). For
example, one skater mentioned that figure skating holds specific expectations for an acceptable
body type: “I think the pressure comes from standards for figure skating like being extremely fit
and lean” (P141, Age 13, Singles). Another noted that pressures come from the performance
aspect of the sport: “As much as I don't like it, I believe it comes from the same place as in the
theatre. Skaters are performers. Period” (P98, Age 24, Singles).
The fourth most frequently cited dimension was watching others or social comparison
(10.6%). For example, one skater mentioned feeling self-conscious when training with other
skaters: “When we are working out and they are all in sports bras, I feel uncomfortable because
of my abdominal area” (P137, Age 15, Singles). Other perceived sources of pressure to lose or
maintain weight in figure skating are provided in Table 10.

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Table 10
Open-Ended Response Summary for Female Sub-Elite Figure Skaters: Sources of Pressure to
Lose or Maintain Weight in Figure Skating
Dimensions, Themes, Sub-Themes

Frequency
Percentage
(n = 104)
Others
74
71.2%
Coaches
45
43.3%
Other Skaters
38
36.5%
In General
25
24%
Image of Successful Skaters
14
13.5%
Competitors
6
5.8%
Family/Parents
28
26.9%
Peers
12
11.5%
Friends
9
8.7%
Judges
6
5.8%
Fans/Audience/Spectators
5
4.8%
Everyone/Anyone
4
3.8%
Non-Skaters
3
2.9%
Governing Body/Representatives
2
1.9%
Self
28
26.9%
Culture/Environment
24
23.1%
Popular Culture
17
16.3%
Media
11
10.6%
Societal Views & Expectations
7
6.7%
Stereotypes
3
2.9%
Skating Culture
12
11.5%
History/Nature of Figure Skating
11
10.6%
Skating Dresses/Attire
2
1.9%
Watching Others/Social Comparison
11
10.6%
Pressure to Succeed/Be Perfect
6
5.8%
Miscellaneous
8
7.7%
Note. Due to double-coding and responses categorized as miscellaneous, the number citing a
higher order theme (e.g., dimension or theme) will not always equal the number citing each
respective lower order theme (e.g., theme or sub-theme). Similarly, the total number of
participants responding to the open-ended prompt will not necessarily equal the number citing
each respective dimension.
Positive influences of figure skating on body image. Participants were asked to indicate
whether their experiences in skating have positively influenced the way they view their body.
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Those who reported “yes” (153/185 [82.7%]) were prompted to explain how. A total of 152
female sub-elite figure skaters who indicated “yes” provided an open-ended response to this
prompt. Ten dimensions, five themes, and three sub-themes emerged from the data (See Table
11).
The most frequently cited dimension included feeling positive (35.5%). In particular,
skaters reported feeling good (23.7%), confident (9.2%), and proud (3.9%) of themselves and
their bodies. For example, one skater noted: “I think that my body is the way it is because of my
training, and I am not embarrassed by it” (P254, Age 18, Singles). Some skaters specifically
reported feeling good about their bodies because of the way they look (9.9%). For example, one
skater indicated that she enjoys showing off her body while skating: “When I do moves that
show off my body’s flexibility or strength I always feel happy and confident. I like my body and
its build and showing it off in my program makes me feel good” (P279, Age 14, Singles). Others
reported that they feel good because of the way they look in their skating attire in particular
(2.6%). For example, two skaters noted that they enjoy fitting into smaller skating clothes:
“When I am able to fit into small dress sizes I feel good” (P107, Age 15, Singles); “The sport has
made my body so muscular, and I like how I look when I go out and skate in my fun little Nike
spandex shorts and tank tops” (P259, Age 16, Singles).
The second most frequently cited dimension was achieving or maintaining a desirable
body (34.9%). Specifically, some skaters reported that skating has enabled them to become lean,
tone, or muscular (27.6%). One skater stated: “I feel that if I did not skate, I would not work out
as hard as I do to gain more muscle, so I would not have the fit body that I have” (P250, Age 14,
Singles). Others indicated that skating has enabled them to become thin or to lose weight
(10.5%). One skater reported: “I am thin and skating has helped me become thin” (P53, Age 13,

88

Singles). Another mentioned that skating has allowed her to achieve a healthy weight by training
hard and eating well: “I was overweight before I started skating, and training and eating well
have brought me in the normal weight range over the years” (P264, Age 15, Singles).
A smaller percentage of skaters (4.6%; eighth most frequently cited dimension) reported
that skating has taught them about body image. For example, one skater noted that she has
learned that success can be achieved with many body types: “In my experience, skating has
shown me that I can be muscular as well as curvy and still succeed” (P98, Age 24, Singles).
Other perceived positive influences of figure skating on body image are provided in Table 11.
Table 11
Open-Ended Response Summary for Female Sub-Elite Figure Skaters: Positive Influences of
Figure Skating on Body Image
Dimensions, Themes, Sub-Themes
Feeling Positive
Feeling Good About Myself/Body
In General
About the Way I Look
In Skating Dresses/Attire
Feeling Confident in Myself/Body
Feeling Proud of Myself/Body
Achieving/Maintaining My Body
To Be Lean/Tone/Muscular
To Be Thin/Losing Weight
Being Fit/Active/In Shape
Strength
Knowing My Body Can Do Things
Being/Wanting to Be Healthy
Gaining Awareness of Healthy Habits/My Body
Learning About Body Image
Having the Right Body for Skating

89

Frequency
Percentage
(n = 152)
54
35.5%
36
23.7%
17
11.2%
15
9.9%
4
2.6%
14
9.2%
6
3.9%
53
34.9%
42
27.6%
16
10.5%
35
23%
33
21.7%
20
13.2%
13
8.6%
7
4.6%
7
4.6%
6
3.9%

Table 11 (cont’d)
Dimensions, Themes, Sub-Themes

Frequency
Percentage
(n = 152)
Flexibility
3
2%
Miscellaneous
6
3.9%
Note. Due to double-coding and responses categorized as miscellaneous, the number citing a
higher order theme (e.g., dimension or theme) will not always equal the number citing each
respective lower order theme (e.g., theme or sub-theme). Similarly, the total number of
participants responding to the open-ended prompt will not necessarily equal the number citing
each respective dimension.
Negative influences of figure skating on body image. Participants were asked to indicate
whether their experiences in skating have negatively influenced the way they view their body.
Those who reported “yes” (70/182 [38.5%]) were prompted to explain how. A total of 70 female
sub-elite figure skaters who indicated “yes” provided an open-ended response to this prompt.
Seven dimensions, seven themes, and two sub-themes emerged from the data (See Table 12).
The most frequently cited dimension involved becoming self-conscious about one’s body
(37.1%). In particular, skaters reported that they were concerned about being too big or too fat
(31.4%). For example, one skater noted that these negative body perceptions come from social
comparison with thinner skaters: “In some ways in figure skating you compare yourself to other
skaters who are very thin and you see your ‘fat rolls’ and you want to get rid of them so you look
better” (P247, Age 16, Singles/Ice Dancing). Another indicated that although a muscular lower
body is helpful for skating, having to wear larger clothing sizes leads to poor self-confidence:
“Skating has also made my calves and thighs huge with muscle, which is great, but a lot of times
I have to buy bigger jean sizes to fit the most muscular part of my body, and that always hurts
my confidence” (P185, Age 18, Singles).
The second most frequently cited dimension was worrying about or changing one’s body
(28.6%). Four skaters (5.7%) reported that they worry about or engage in unhealthy behaviors to

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change their body because of critical comments or judgments received from a coach. One skater
noted that she still struggles because of these experiences:
I had a coach when I was growing up and developing who always told me I had to lose
weight. I developed eating disorders and very bad body image. My newest coach always
tells me I look great, but I never believe her. I always hear my old coach in my head
telling me to lose weight (P151, Age 23, Singles).
The third most frequently cited dimension involved peers and social comparison (27.1%).
One skater reported that seeing other thinner skaters has led her to feel uncomfortable with her
body: “I look at the other girls that are skinnier or prettier than me, and it lowers my self-esteem
even more. Many of my friends that skate are very thin, and I always feel like I'm being
compared to them” (P52, Age 15, Singles).
The fourth most frequently cited dimension was feeling negatively about their bodies
because of form-fitting skating attire (11.4%). One skater mentioned that wearing skating dresses
makes her increasingly aware of her body’s imperfections: “I definitely notice every flaw when I
am in skating attire. My thighs look very large, and I always feel like I could be prettier” (P107,
Age 15, Singles). Other perceived negative influences of figure skating on body image are
provided in Table 12.
Table 12
Open-Ended Response Summary for Female Sub-Elite Figure: Negative Influences of Figure
Skating on Body Image
Dimensions, Themes, Sub-Themes

Frequency

Percentage
(n = 70)

Becoming Self-Conscious About My Body
Because I Am Too Big/Fat
In General
Because of My Height

26
22
5
2
91

37.1%
31.4%
7.1%
2.9%

Table 12 (cont’d)
Dimensions, Themes, Sub-Themes

Frequency

Percentage
(n = 70)

Worrying About/Changing My Body
20
28.6%
In General
12
17.1%
Because of Critical Comments/Judgments
8
11.4%
From Coaches
4
5.7%
From Important Others (e.g., parents, judges)
4
5.7%
Peers/Social Comparison
19
27.1%
Skating Dresses/Attire
8
11.4%
Physical Limitations
6
8.6%
Lack of Strength
4
5.7%
Lack of Flexibility
3
4.3%
Failing Due to Body/Appearance
4
5.7%
Being Too Thin
3
4.3%
Miscellaneous
5
7.1%
Note. Due to double-coding and responses categorized as miscellaneous, the number citing a
higher order theme (e.g., dimension or theme) will not always equal the number citing each
respective lower order theme (e.g., theme or sub-theme). Similarly, the total number of
participants responding to the open-ended prompt will not necessarily equal the number citing
each respective dimension.
Positive influences of figure skating on eating and exercise. Participants were asked to
indicate whether their experiences in skating have positively influenced the way they eat and/or
exercise. Those who reported “yes” (169/184 [91.8%]) were prompted to explain how. A total of
168 female sub-elite figure skaters who indicated “yes” provided an open-ended response to this
prompt. Ten dimensions and eight themes emerged from the data (See Table 13).
The two most frequently cited dimensions were eating well (56%) and exercising (56%).
Skaters reported eating well both in a general sense (38.7%) as well as to help their skating
(17.3%). For example, one skater mentioned that her sport has encouraged her to eat better which
has in turn improved her athletic performance: “Figure skating has…prompted me to eat
healthier. I tend to skate better when I have a balanced diet. If I take care of myself, then it is
easier to improve my skating” (P106, Age 18, Singles). Another noted that her sport has led her
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to closely monitor her food consumption as a means of achieving success: “In skating I really
have to watch my calorie and sugar intake! It is hard. But that is what I have to do to be
successful” (P17, Age 14, Singles). Skaters also reported that figure skating has benefitted their
exercise habits both in a general sense (41.7%) as well as to advance their skating (14.9%). For
example, one skater indicated that her sport has enabled her to make exercise a routine habit: “I
actually have to exercise now, and I just do it without even thinking. A lot of my other nonskating friends have to plan it out, just to go to the gym once a week” (P3, Age 15, Singles,
Pairs). Another stated that she has increased her exercise volume to improve her athletic
performance: “It takes a lot to get through a skating program, so I have pursued running. I run
about 5 times a week to improve my endurance for skating” (P253, Age 13, Singles).
The second most frequently cited dimension was encouragement to be healthy (17.3%).
One skater reported that health is a particular emphasis in synchronized skating: “My
experiences in skating have just helped me to understand that I am an athlete and how important
it is to stay healthy. On synchro especially, my overall health is emphasized” (P229, 15,
Synchronized).
The third most frequently cited dimension involved gaining nutritional knowledge from
skating (14.9%). Specifically, some skaters reported that they are more aware or conscientious of
good eating habits (10.1%). One skater mentioned becoming particularly cognizant of the key
ingredients in foods and how they influence her body and performance:
I am aware of what I put into my body (unlike a lot of America). Sometimes I even look
up ingredients and see the benefits/detriments they are to the body. I try to be committed
to maintaining a healthy diet and body because I know I'll perform better (P290, Age 17,
Singles).

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In addition to awareness, others noted that they have learned good eating habits from skating
(5.4%). One skater reported: “I have learned what is good to eat for normal body function, and I
know what foods to stay away from so I don't become unhealthy” (P247, Age 16, Singles/Ice
Dancing). Another indicated that she has learned how to fuel her body around practice time:
If I would overeat before or after practice, I felt uncomfortable and that I was falling
short of the sport of skating. Over the years I have learned what to eat in order to feel
great before and after practice (P150, Age 18, Singles).
A smaller percentage of skaters (4.8%; seventh most frequently cited dimension) reported
that skating makes them feel good physically and emotionally. For example, one skater noted
that feeling good after skating encourages her to continue healthy behaviors: “Because I feel
good when I skate, I want to keep up my healthy eating and exercise to feel healthy and strong”
(P159, Age 12, Singles). Another similarly reported: “After skating I want to keep feeling good
about myself so I like to plan more exercise for the day and eat foods that will also make me feel
good such as fruits and veggies” (P256, 17, Singles).
The eighth most frequently cited dimension involved maintaining a desirable body
(3.6%). More specifically, these skaters perceived that their sport is a positive influence on
eating and exercise because it helps them to achieve and maintain the body they want. One skater
noted: “Skating makes me want to eat healthier and workout longer so I can keep the same body
for as long as possible, even if I quit skating” (P60, Age 16, Singles). Another similarly stated:
“[Skating] encourages me to build more necessary muscle and eat better to obtain an average
body size” (P286, Age 15, Singles/Synchronized).
Three skaters (1.8%; ninth most frequently cited dimension) reported that skating is a
positive influence on their eating and exercise because it enables them to be thin, not fat, and to

94

lose weight. One skater mentioned: “I feel that it is important to eat and exercise right. I feel that
if I don't, then I might gain a lot of weight and not improve” (P43, Age 12, Singles). Other
perceived positive influences of figure skating on eating and exercise habits are provided in
Table 13.
Table 13
Open-Ended Response Summary for Female Sub-Elite Figure Skaters: Positive Influences of
Figure Skating on Eating and Exercise
Dimensions, Themes, Sub-Themes

Frequency
Percentage
(n = 168)
Eating Well
94
56%
In General
65
38.7%
To Help My Skating
29
17.3%
Exercising
94
56%
In General
70
41.7%
To Help My Skating
25
14.9%
Encourages Me To Be Healthy
29
17.3%
Gaining Nutritional Knowledge
25
14.9%
Becoming Aware/Conscientious Of Good Eating Habits
17
10.1%
Learning Good Eating Habits
9
5.4%
Encourages Me To Be Fit
17
10.1%
Gaining Exercise Knowledge
11
6.5%
Learning About Exercise
7
4.2%
Becoming Aware/Conscientious Of Exercise
4
2.4%
Enjoy Exercising
11
6.5%
Feeling Good Physically/Emotionally
8
4.8%
Maintaining Desired Body
6
3.6%
Being Thin/Not Fat/Losing Weight
3
1.8%
Miscellaneous
4
2.4%
Note. Due to double-coding and responses categorized as miscellaneous, the number citing a
higher order theme (e.g., dimension or theme) will not always equal the number citing each
respective lower order theme (e.g., theme or sub-theme). Similarly, the total number of
participants responding to the open-ended prompt will not necessarily equal the number citing
each respective dimension.
Negative influences of figure skating on eating and exercise. Participants were asked to
indicate whether their experiences in skating have negatively influenced the way they eat and/or
95

exercise. Those who reported “yes” (35/182 [19.2%]) were prompted to explain how. A total of
35 female sub-elite figure skaters who indicated “yes” provided an open-ended response to this
prompt. Seven dimensions emerged from the data (See Table 14).
The most frequently reported dimension was under-eating, restricting food, and dieting
(31.4%). One skater reported that the pressure to be thin led her to engage in these types of
unhealthy eating practices: “The pressure to be thin has caused me to diet and skip meals, and
sometimes not to eat at all” (P140, Age 18, Singles). Another indicated that worrying about
being fat and unattractive influences her eating habits: “Sometimes I don't eat enough because I
feel fat, and I feel my muscles will keep growing until no one will think I'm pretty or skinny”
(P223, Age 13, Synchronized). Finally, a third skater noted that she has altered her eating habits
to improve performance:
I know I skate better at a weight which I [am] lighter than what is natural for my body,
and I had to fight that in the past and sometimes restricted my food more than I should
have so that I could try to weigh that (P102, Age 22, Singles/Ice Dancing/Synchronized).
Other skaters (17.1%; fourth most frequently cited dimension) noted that skating has negatively
influenced their eating and exercise behaviors by causing them to overeat. For example, eating
more due to increased energy expenditure was perceived as a negative influence by some skaters:
“Sometimes after skating, I will eat so much because I am so hungry” (P242, Age 17, Singles);
“Since I skate and work out, I get really hungry so sometimes I will eat too much and/or eat bad
foods” (P250, Age 14, Singles). Another reported that worrying about skating has led her to
overeat: “When I worry about skating, I will sometimes overeat…and it can actually end up
hurting my performance” (P264, Age 15, Singles).

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A smaller percentage of skaters (11.4%; fifth most frequently cited dimension) reported
engaging in unhealthy eating and exercise behaviors in a general sense. One skater provided
several examples:
I have skated for 14+ years so while there have been many positive habits, I have also
had periods where I have been distressed and done things I am not proud of-pushed
myself too hard, thrown up, stopped eating, etc. It’s a fine line between pressure to do
well and too much pressure (P185, Age 18, Singles).
Two skaters (5.7%; seventh most frequently cited dimension) noted that although
skating has negatively influenced their eating and exercise behaviors in the past, they
have learned to overcome them. For example, one skater mentioned:
For awhile, I would always compare my body to other skaters. I learned however, that if I
eat healthy and exercise, then my body will look its healthiest. I learned to accept the
image of my body as it's healthiest instead of comparing it to other skaters (P150, Age
18, Singles).
Other perceived negative influences of figure skating on eating and exercise are provided
in Table 14.
Table 14
Open-Ended Response Summary for Female Sub-Elite Figure Skaters: Negative Influences of
Figure Skating on Eating and Exercise
Dimensions, Themes, Sub-Themes
Under-eating/Restricting Food/Dieting
Worrying/Obsessing About Eating/Exercise/Body
Exercising More/Over-Exercising
Overeating
Engaging in Unhealthy Eating/Exercise Behaviors in General
Making Poor Food Choices
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Frequency
Percentage
(n = 35)
11
31.4%
9
25.7%
7
20%
6
17.1%
4
11.4%
3
8.6%

Table 14 (cont’d)
Dimensions, Themes, Sub-Themes

Frequency
Percentage
(n = 35)

Yes, But Learning to Overcome A Negative Body Image and
2
5.7%
Unhealthy Eating Behaviors
Miscellaneous
4
11.4%
Note. Due to double-coding and responses categorized as miscellaneous, the number citing a
higher order theme (e.g., dimension or theme) will not always equal the number citing each
respective lower order theme (e.g., theme or sub-theme). Similarly, the total number of
participants responding to the open-ended prompt will not necessarily equal the number citing
each respective dimension.
Evaluation of Secondary Research Questions
The primary purpose of this study was to examine the frequency and psychological
predictors of disordered eating in a sample of female sub-elite figure skaters. However, enough
data were collected to warrant analysis of the proposed secondary research questions with male
figure skaters and address various group comparisons across the sport. Results of these analyses
are provided next.
Secondary research question 1. What is the frequency of disordered eating attitudes and
behaviors in male figure skaters?
An examination of scores on the EAT-26 revealed that 1 of 27 of male figure skaters
(3.7%) fell within clinical range of an eating disorder with a score of 23. The mean score on the
EAT-26 for male figure skaters was 6.41 (SD = + 6.43) showing that on average male figure
skaters scored well below the 20 point clinical cut-off score and were not symptomatic of eating
disorder. The mean EAT-26 score for all male figure skaters contained in the sample (ages 12 to
26) was compared to the mean score derived from normative data with adolescent boys ages 13
to 18 (Whitaker et al., 1989). A one-sample t-test revealed no significant difference in mean
EAT-26 scores between adolescent boys (M = 5.2) and male figure skaters (M = 6.41; t(26) =
.98, p = .338).
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The frequency of male figure skaters reporting “often,” “usually,” or “always” was
determined by each item contained in the EAT-26 (See Table 15). The most frequently endorsed
items included displaying self-control around food (51.7%), being aware of the calorie content of
foods (41.4%), enjoyment in trying new rich foods (31%), thinking about burning up calories
during exercise (31%), taking longer than others to eat meals (20.7%), and being terrified about
being overweight (20.7%).
Table 15
Frequency of “Often,” “Usually,” and “Always” Responses to EAT-26 Items Among Male
Figure Skaters
Item
I display self-control around food.
I am aware of the calorie content of foods that I eat.
I think about burning up calories when I exercise.
I enjoy trying new rich foods.
I am terrified about being overweight.
I take longer than others to eat my meals.
I particularly avoid food with a high carbohydrate content (i.e. bread,
rice, potatoes, etc.)
I am preoccupied with the thought of having fat on my body.
Other people think that I am too thin.
I am preoccupied with a desire to be thinner.
I eat diet foods.
I engage in dieting behavior.
I find myself preoccupied with food.
I cut my food into small pieces.
I avoid foods with sugar in them.
I feel that others would prefer if I ate more.
I feel that others pressure me to eat.
I feel uncomfortable after eating sweets.
I have gone on eating binges where I feel that I may not be able to
stop.
I avoid eating when I am hungry.

99

Frequency
15/29
12/29
9/29
9/29
6/29
6/29

Percentage
51.7%
41.4%
31%
31%
20.7%
20.7%

5/29

17.2%

5/29
4/28
4/29
4/29
4/29
3/29
3/29
3/29
2/29
2/29
2/29

17.2%
14.3%
13.8%
13.8%
13.8%
10.3%
10.3%
10.3%
6.9%
6.9%
6.9%

1/28

3.6%

1/29

3.4%

Table 15 (cont’d)
Item

Frequency
1/29
1/29
1/29
0/29
0/29
0/29

I feel that food controls my life.
I give too much time and thought to food.
I like my stomach to be empty.
I vomit after I have eaten.
I feel extremely guilty after eating.
I have the impulse to vomit after meals.

Percentage
3.4%
3.4%
3.4%
0%
0%
0%

Secondary research question 2. What are the psychological characteristics of male figure
skaters?
A one-way within-subjects ANOVA was conducted to compare mean scores for
perceived current body shape (M = 5.19, SD = + 0.97), ideal body shape (M = 5.12, SD = +
0.73), and ideal skater body shape (M = 4.93, SD = + 0.58). Results showed no significant
difference in mean body shape scores, Wilks’ Lambda = .844, F = (2, 27) = 2.50, p = .101. As
illustrated pictorially in Figure 3, mean current body shape is only slightly greater than both ideal
body shape and body shape for the ideal skater. Together, these findings suggest that while male
figure skaters may demonstrate a small preference for a leaner body contour, they are minimally,
if at all dissatisfied with their bodies. A visual comparison of Figures 2 and 3 shows that male
figure skaters are far less dissatisfied with their bodies than their female sub-elite counterparts.

100

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4 4.5

5

5.5 6

6.5

7

7.5

8

8.5

9

Figure 3. Perceived current, ideal, and ideal skater’s body shape for male figure skaters
(n = 29). Red solid line = perceived current body shape, Green dashed line = perceived
ideal body shape, Blue dotted line = perceived ideal skater’s body shape.
Means and standard deviations were determined for global scores assessing athletic
identity, self-esteem, perceived weight pressures, positive perfectionism, and negative
perfectionism. As with female sub-elite figure skaters, the range of possible scores on each of the
measures was divided into four proportions. Means are described in the context of the proportion
of possible scores in which they fell. Specifically, means approximately within the 0% to 25%
range of possible scores were considered low, 25% to 50% were considered low to moderate,
50% to 75% were considered moderate to high, and 75% to 100% were considered high.2
As shown in Table 16, mean athletic identity fell within the 50% to 75% range of
possible scores (40 to 55) suggesting that on average male figure skaters identified moderately to
strongly with their sport. Mean self-esteem fell within the 75% to 100% range of possible scores
(22.5 to 30) indicating that on average male figure skaters had high self-esteem. Mean perceived
weight pressures, falling within the 25% to 50% range of possible scores (2.25 to 3.50), shows
that on average male figure skaters perceived a low to moderate level of weight pressures in their
environment. Finally, mean positive perfectionism fell within the 75% to 100% range of possible
scores (80 to 100), while mean negative perfectionism fell within the 25% to 50% range (40 to
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60). This finding suggests that on average male skaters possessed high levels of positive
perfectionism and low to moderate levels of negative perfectionism.
Table 16
Descriptive Statistics for Psychological Characteristics Among Male Figure Skaters
Psychological Characteristic
Athletic Identity
Self-esteem
Perceived Weight Pressures
Positive Perfectionism
Negative Perfectionism

n
27
28
28
28
27

M
51.63
23.96
2.72
83.07
57.30

SD
+10.90
+4.04
+0.65
+7.84
+11.44

Range of Possible Scores
10 to 70
0 to 30
1 to 6
20 to 100
20 to 100

Secondary research question 3. What are the contributors of disordered eating attitudes and
behaviors in male figure skaters?
For the following statistical analyses, square root transformed disordered eating scores,
reflect log transformed self-esteem scores, log transformed perceived weight pressure scores, and
reflect log transformed athletic identity scores were used to meet statistical assumptions for a
normal distribution. The sample size was not deemed large enough to conduct a multiple linear
regression predicting disordered eating or to assess disordered eating as a function of competitive
experience. However, correlational analyses were used to assess the relationship between
disordered eating and years skating experience, body dissatisfaction, self-esteem, perceived
weight pressures, negative perfectionism, positive perfectionism, and athletic identity. Results
from a Pearson product-moment correlation analysis revealed significant positive relationships
among most but not all of the variables of interest. Specifically, disordered eating was positively
related to body dissatisfaction (r = .47, n = 27, p = .014) and perceived weight pressures (r =
.53, n = 26, p = .006). Thus, higher levels of body dissatisfaction and perceived weight pressures
were associated with higher levels of disordered eating accounting for 22% and 28% of the
variance, respectively. Relationships between disordered eating and years skating experience (r
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= -.11, n = 27, p = .578), self-esteem (r = -.30, n = 27, p = .128), negative perfectionism (r =
.16, n = 25, p = .451), positive perfectionism (r = .01, n = 26, p = .981), and athletic identity (r
= -.02, n = 26, p = .911) were non-significant.
Secondary research question 4. What is the perceived role of figure skating in shaping body
image, eating, and exercise habits in male figure skaters?
As with their female sub-elite counterparts, male participants responded to the same five
items assessing the perceived role of figure skating in shaping body image, eating, and exercise
habits. A summary of the close-ended responses from male figure skaters is provided in Table
17. Interestingly, a notable proportion (79.3%) agreed that skating is associated with pressures to
lose or maintain weight. However, the majority indicated that skating has positively rather than
negatively influenced their body image, eating, and exercise.
Table 17
Close-ended Response Summary for Male Figure Skaters: Role of Figure Skating in Shaping
Body Image, Eating, and Exercise Habits
Close-Ended Question

Yes
No
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage

Some believe that the sport of figure
skating is linked to pressures to lose or
maintain weight. Do you agree with this
belief? (n = 29)

23

79.3%

6

20.7%

In general, have your experiences in
skating positively influenced the way you
view your body? (n = 29)

23

79.3%

6

20.7%

In general, have your experiences in
skating negatively influenced the way you
view your body? (n = 28)

7

25%

21

75%

In general, have your experiences in
skating positively influenced the way you
eat and/or exercise? (n = 29)

25

86.2%

4

13.8%

103

Table 17 (cont’d)
Close-Ended Question

Yes
No
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage

In general, have your experiences in
skating negatively influenced the way you
eat and/or exercise? (n = 29)

3

10.3%

26

89.7%

Qualitative data from the open-ended responses of male figure skaters, including
dimensions, themes, sub-themes, frequencies and percentages, are provided in Tables 18 through
21. In the following section, these results are also described in depth with an illustration of key
quotes. When quotes are provided, “P” represents “Participant,” followed by the respective
participant number assigned as well as pertinent demographic information, including age,
competitive level, and skating focus (i.e., singles, pairs, ice dancing, synchronized).
Why pressures exist to lose or maintain weight in figure skating. Participants were asked
to indicate whether they agreed with the belief that figure skating is linked to pressures to lose or
maintain weight. Those who reported “yes” (23/29 [79.3%]) were prompted to explain why they
thought these pressures existed. A total of 23 male figure skaters who indicated “yes” provided
an open-ended response to this prompt. Five dimensions and four themes emerged from the data
(See Table 18).
Performance demands was the most frequently cited dimension (60.9%). In particular,
26.1% of male figure skaters reported that pressures exist in skating to lose or maintain weight
because of the aesthetic and judged aspects of performance. For example, one skater noted that
the aesthetic component is both important and made easier when in shape:
I think yes, but it’s good. Figure skating is more of a dance than an aggressive sport. It is
made great by the shapes and lines that are created, and a person who is not in shape

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cannot create the same elegant shapes and lines of someone who is leaner (P64, 20, Elite,
Singles).
Also within the performance demands dimension, 27.1% indicated that pressures exist to lose or
maintain weight because being thinner and smaller benefits skating performance. For example,
two skaters reported: “I have felt [the pressures] myself. Heavy skaters don't make good skaters”
(P67, Age 21, Elite, Pairs); “Because some people think you need to be thin to be successful”
(P66, Age 17 Elite, Singles). Four skaters (17.4%) noted that pressures to lose or maintain
weight exist because of the technical aspects of performance, including jumping, spinning, and
lifting their partner. For example, one skater mentioned that the technical skills become more
difficult with more weight: “Naturally we lose weight while working on our skating every day. If
you gain weight, apparently jumping and spinning become harder” (P65, Age 17, Elite, Singles).
Another skater indicated that the technical demands place more pressure on female skaters than
male skaters: “As a male ice dancer, I am not under as much pressure as the girls to keep my
weight below average. However, the girls are made to believe that a lower body weight will
make them more appealing to judges and easier to lift” (P22, Age 21, Elite, Ice Dancing).
Finally, two skaters (8.7%) reported that pressures to lose or maintain weight exist because of the
thin but muscular build necessary for optimal performance. One skater noted: “The optimal
combination for figure skating is strong muscular and muscular explosiveness. To achieve one's
maximum, he/she must be built of lean muscle, not excessively large, but undoubtedly muscular”
(P19, Age 19, Elite, Singles).
The second most frequently cited dimension was important others (21.7%). For example,
one skater noted that pressures to lose or maintain weight are due to coaches in particular: “Yes
because some coaches think that to be healthy you have to eat only a handful of each thing” (P6,

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Age 14, Sub-Elite, Singles). Another skater reported that pressures exist because coaches want
their athletes to succeed: “They exist because the coaches want you to be the best you can be”
(P27, Age 23, Elite, Ice Dancing).
The third most frequently cited dimension was ideals (13%). For example, two skaters
mentioned that expectations to achieve the ideal skating body is an important source of pressure:
“In skating there is pressure to maintain a pre-pubescent, ‘perfect’ body type that not everyone
can have naturally” (P63, Age 21, Elite, Ice Dancing); “In the type of sport that figure skating is,
athletes are of a certain body type (P233, Age 22, Sub-Elite, Singles).
The fourth most frequently cited dimension was bodies of the best skaters (8.7%). Two
skaters indicated: “I think these pressures exist because there are so many very thin skaters that
do well” (P61, Age 21, Elite, Singles); “I think because all along, there have been no successful
large skaters” (P233, Age 22, Sub-Elite, Singles). Other reported reasons why pressures to lose
or maintain weight exist in figure skating are provided in Table 18.
Table 18
Open-Ended Response Summary for Male Figure Skaters: Why Pressures Exist to Lose or
Maintain Weight in Figure Skating
Dimensions, Themes, Sub-Themes

Frequency

Percentage
(n = 23)

Performance Demands
Attend to Aesthetics/Judging Component
Being Thin/Small Means Better Skating
Perform Technical Elements (e.g., jumps)
Be Thin But Muscular
Important Others
Ideals
Bodies of the Best Skaters

14
6
5
4
2
5
3
2

106

60.9%
26.1%
21.7%
17.4%
8.7%
21.7%
13%
8.7%

Table 18 (cont’d)
Dimensions, Themes, Sub-Themes

Frequency

Percentage
(n = 23)

Pressure to Succeed/Be Perfect
2
8.7%
Miscellaneous
2
8.7%
Note. Due to double-coding and responses categorized as miscellaneous, the number citing a
higher order theme (e.g., dimension or theme) will not always equal the number citing each
respective lower order theme (e.g., theme or sub-theme). Similarly, the total number of
participants responding to the open-ended prompt will not necessarily equal the number citing
each respective dimension.
Sources of pressure to lose or maintain weight in figure skating. Participants were asked
to indicate whether they agreed with the belief that figure skating is linked to pressures to lose or
maintain weight. In addition to explaining why they thought these pressures exist, those who
reported “yes” (23/29 [79.3%]) were also prompted to explain where and/or who these pressures
came from. A total of 21 male figure skaters who indicated “yes” provided an open-ended
response to this prompt. Four dimensions and nine themes emerged from the data (See Table 19).
The most frequently cited dimension was pressure from others (61.9%). Some skaters
reported that coaches in particular were an important source of pressure (42.9%). One skater
noted: “The pressure is always there from the coaches” (P64, Age20, Elite, Singles). The second
most frequently cited dimension was pressure from the self (42.9%). For example, one skater
mentioned that the competitive nature of the sport may cause skaters to internalize feelings of
self-doubt: “I think they come from skaters who internalize their feelings of inferiority – in
skating the rankings are always talked about and it's a competitive lifestyle” (P63, Age 21, Elite,
Ice Dancing). A smaller percentage of skaters (9.5%; fourth most frequently dimension)
indicated that watching others and social comparison were important sources of pressure. One
skater stated: “Just looking at the other skaters, they look good so you work to be like them (P24,

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Age 16, Elite, Pairs). Other reported sources of pressure to lose or maintain weight in figure
skating are provided in Table 19.
Table 19
Open-Ended Response Summary for Male Figure Skaters: Sources of Pressure to Lose or
Maintain Weight in Figure Skating
Dimensions, Themes, Sub-Themes

Frequency

Percentage
(n = 21)

Others
13
61.9%
Coaches
9
42.9%
Family/Parents
6
28.6%
Judges
3
14.3%
Peers
3
14.3%
Fans/Audience/Spectators
2
9.5%
Friends
2
9.5%
Other Skaters
2
9.5%
Self
9
42.9%
Culture/Environment
4
19%
Popular Culture
2
9.5%
Skating Culture
2
9.5%
Watching Others/Social Comparison
2
9.5%
3
14.3%
Miscellaneous
Note. Due to double-coding and responses categorized as miscellaneous, the number citing a
higher order theme (e.g., dimension or theme) will not always equal the number citing each
respective lower order theme (e.g., theme or sub-theme). Similarly, the total number of
participants responding to the open-ended prompt will not necessarily equal the number citing
each respective dimension.
Positive influences of figure skating on body image. Participants were asked to indicate
whether their experiences in skating have positively influenced the way they view their body.
Those who reported “yes” (23/29 [79.3%]) were prompted to explain how. A total of 23 male
figure skaters who indicated “yes” provided an open-ended response to this prompt. Five
dimensions and two themes emerged from the data (See Table 20).
The two most frequently cited dimensions included feeling positive about their bodies
(39.1%) and being fit, active, and in shape (39.1%). Each is discussed in turn. Of the skaters who
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felt positive about their bodies, most reported these good feelings in a general sense (27.1%). For
example, one skater reported having body satisfaction: “I work out often and am pleased with my
body and body type” (P12, Age 19, Elite, Singles). Another mentioned feeling proud: “Yes in the
way that when I see that I am in better shape, I take more pride in myself and my body” (P64,
Age 20, Elite, Singles). Other skaters noted feeling positive about their bodies specifically
because of the way they look (17.4%). For example, one skater reported enjoying his level of
fitness and his appearance when compared to the general population: “I enjoy being fit and
looking good, especially in a world where many people are overweight” (P62, Age 22, Elite,
Singles). Another indicated that he feels positive about himself because of the way he looks in
clothing: “Well I work out a lot, and as a result have a lot of muscle mass. I rarely like to wear
shirts and if I do, I prefer them to be tight or tank tops” (P25, Age 21, Elite, Ice Dancing).
Among those who reported being fit, active, and in shape, one skater noted that he
attributes good performance to being in better physical condition: “If I do well I believe I am in
good shape and am one of the better built people” (P219, Age 12, Sub-Elite, Synchronized).
Another reported that skating participation is a central reason for being fit: “I feel that skating
has put me in awesome shape. I often joke that if I quit skating, I'd have to stop eating because I
wouldn't be working anything off” (P233, Age 22, Sub-Elite, Singles). A third skater suggested
that skating helps him to stay active on a regular basis: “Because I am always doing exercises,
my body is in good shape, and I am moving all the time. I mean active life” (P23, Age 25, Elite,
Singles/Pairs).
The second most frequently cited dimension involved achieving and maintaining one’s
body (26.1%). For example, one skater suggested that skating has helped him to achieve and
maintain a lean and muscular shape: “I feel like I have a lean muscular build, and it makes me

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feel confident” (P69, Age 16, Elite, Ice Dancing). Other perceived positive influences of figure
skating on body image are provided in Table 20.
Table 20
Open-Ended Response Summary for Male Figure Skaters: Positive Influences of Figure Skating
on Body Image
Dimensions, Themes, Sub-Themes

Frequency

Percentage
(n = 23)

Feeling Positive
9
39.1%
In General
5
21.7%
About the Way I Look
4
17.4%
Being Fit/Active/In Shape
9
39.1%
Changing/Maintaining My Body
6
26.1%
Strength
5
21.7%
Being/Wanting to Be Healthy
3
13%
4
17.4%
Miscellaneous
Note. Due to double-coding and responses categorized as miscellaneous, the number citing a
higher order theme (e.g., dimension or theme) will not always equal the number citing each
respective lower order theme (e.g., theme or sub-theme). Similarly, the total number of
participants responding to the open-ended prompt will not necessarily equal the number citing
each respective dimension.
Negative influences of figure skating on body image. Participants were asked to indicate
whether their experiences in skating have negatively influenced the way they view their body.
Those who reported “yes” (7/28 [25%]) were prompted to explain how. A total of 7 male figure
skaters who indicated “yes” provided an open-ended response to this prompt. Two dimensions
emerged from the data.
The most frequently cited dimension was becoming self-conscious about one’s body
(42.9% [3/7]). For example, one skater noted feeling self-conscious in a general sense: “I am
always aware of my weight and critically judging my body” (P70, Age 22, Elite, Singles).
Another skater reported feeling too big: “I am self-conscious about my thigh muscles. Skating
requires strong thighs and quads, and because of it I cannot wear thinner pants. That's about it”

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(P22, Age 21, Elite, Ice Dancing). Finally, a third skater mentioned feeling insecure about his
height: “Because of my height, it's not always easy to be as confident when around non-skaters”
(P63, Age 21, Elite, Ice Dancing). The second most frequently cited dimension involved peers
and social comparison (28.6% [2/7]). One skater noted: “I think because of skating I compare
myself to those around me and tend to be a little critical of my looks” (P21, Age 26, Elite, Ice
Dancing). Responses from three skaters (3/7 [42.9%]) could not be categorized into a dimension,
theme, or sub-theme and were therefore considered miscellaneous.
Positive influences of figure skating on eating and exercise. Participants were asked to
indicate whether their experiences in skating have positively influenced the way they eat and/or
exercise. Those who reported “yes” (25/29 [86.2%]) were prompted to explain how. A total of 25
male figure skaters who indicated “yes” provided an open-ended response to this prompt. Six
dimensions and six themes emerged from the data (See Table 21).
The most frequently cited dimension was eating well (52%). Skaters discussed eating
well in a general sense (32%) and specifically to help their skating (20%). One skater noted: “I
always want to maintain the highest level of performance and thus I try to eat and exercise the
best ways to maintain this level of performance” (P12, Age 19, Elite, Singles). The second most
frequently cited dimension was gaining nutritional knowledge (28%). Specifically, some skaters
described how they have become more aware or conscientious of good eating habits because of
skating (16%). For example, two skaters reported: “I think about eating healthier stuff to get my
muscles happy” (P203, Age 13, Sub-Elite, Ice Dancing); “I am more careful about the foods to
eat and what goes into my body. I think about eating more naturally to be more beneficial to my
body” (P64, Age 20, Elite, Singles). Other skaters indicated that skating has played an important
role in educating them about healthy nutritional habits (12%). One skater suggested that this

111

knowledge came specifically from coaches: “The coaches talk about eating well, like fruits and
health drinks” (P24, Age 16, Elite, Pairs). Finally, a smaller percentage of skaters (16%; fourth
most frequently cited dimension) reported that skating encourages them to be healthy. One skater
noted: “As an athlete, I'm constantly working towards being as healthy and fit as I can in order to
be at my best” (P63, Age 21, Elite, Ice Dancing). Other perceived positive influences of figure
skating on eating and exercise are provided in Table 21.
Table 21
Open-Ended Response Summary for Male Figure Skaters: Positive Influences of Figure Skating
on Eating and Exercise
Dimensions, Themes, Sub-Themes

Frequency

Percentage
(n = 25)

Eating Well
52%
13
In General
32%
8
To Help My Skating
20%
5
Gaining Nutritional Knowledge
28%
7
Becoming Aware/Conscientious Of Good Eating Habits
16%
4
Learning Good Eating Habits
12%
3
Exercising
28%
7
In General
20%
5
To Help My Skating
8%
2
Encourages Me To Be Healthy
16%
4
Enjoy Exercising
8%
2
Being Thin/Not Fat/Losing Weight
8%
2
8%
2
Miscellaneous
Note. Due to double-coding and responses categorized as miscellaneous, the number citing a
higher order theme (e.g., dimension or theme) will not always equal the number citing each
respective lower order theme (e.g., theme or sub-theme). Similarly, the total number of
participants responding to the open-ended prompt will not necessarily equal the number citing
each respective dimension.
Negative influences of figure skating on eating and exercise. Participants were asked to
indicate whether their experiences in skating have negatively influenced the way they eat and/or
exercise. Those who reported “yes” (3/29 [10.3%]) were prompted to explain how. A total of 3

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male figure skaters who indicated “yes” provided an open-ended response to this prompt.
Although the amount of data was not sufficient to organize into dimensions, themes, and subthemes, two of these responses are noteworthy. For example, one skater perceived that eating
more due to increased energy expenditure was a negative influence: “I’m eating more when I
skate more” (P4, Age 15, Elite, Singles). Another noted that he worries about eating because of
the association between nutrition and performance: “Sometimes I'm afraid to indulge in
something because I think there's some link between what I eat and performance” (P63, Age 21,
Elite, Ice Dancing).
Secondary research question 5. Do disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in figure skaters
differ by skating discipline (i.e., singles, pairs, dance, and synchronized)?
H1: Disordered eating attitudes and behaviors will be more frequently reported by figure skaters
in disciplines requiring flight patterns (i.e., singles, pairs, ice dancers) than those that do not
(i.e., synchronized).
An independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare scores on the EAT-26 for the
flight pattern group (i.e., singles skaters, pairs skaters, ice dancers; n = 189) and the non-flight
pattern group (i.e., synchronized skaters; n = 46). Hypothesis 6 was not supported as there was
no significant difference in scores for the flight pattern group (M = 2.80, SD = +1.30) and the
non-flight pattern group (M =3.14, SD = +1.42; t(233) = -1.55, p = .12). The magnitude of the
differences in the means (mean difference = -.34, 95% CI: -.76 to .09) was very small (eta
squared = .01). Thus, only 1% of EAT-26 scores were explained by flight pattern.
Secondary research question 6. Do disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in figure skaters
differ by competitive level?

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H1: Disordered eating attitudes and behaviors will be significantly greater in elite figure skaters
than sub-elite figure skaters.
An independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare scores on the EAT-26 for elite
(n = 99) and sub-elite figure skaters (n = 180). Hypothesis 7 was not supported as there was no
significant difference in scores for elite figure skaters (M = 2.69, SD = +1.29) and sub-elite
figure skaters (M = 2.88, SD = +1.30; t(277) = -1.21, p = .23). The magnitude of the differences
in the means (mean difference = -.20, % CI: -.52 to .12) was very small (eta squared = .005).
Thus, only 0.5% of EAT-26 scores were explained by competitive level.
Secondary research question 7. Do disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in figure skaters
differ by sex?
H1: Disordered eating attitudes and behaviors will be significantly greater in female figure
skaters than male figure skaters.
An independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare scores on the EAT-26 for male
(n = 27) and female figure skaters (n = 256). Hypothesis 8 was not supported as there was no
significant difference in scores for male figure skaters (M = 2.47, SD = +1.16) and female figure
skaters (M = 2.84, SD = +1.30; t(281) = -1.42, p = .16). Although the means were in the
expected direction, the magnitude of the difference (mean difference = -.37, 95% CI: -.88 to .14)
was very small (eta squared = .007). Thus, only 0.7% of EAT-26 scores were explained by sex.
Exploratory Analyses
Although beyond the purposes of the original proposal, the size and scope of the sample
obtained warranted exploratory analyses. Some of these analyses yielded results that are relevant
to the purposes of the study and are described below.

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Exploratory research question 1. Do body dissatisfaction, self-esteem, perceived weight
pressures, negative perfectionism, positive perfectionism, and athletic identity differ by symptom
status among female sub-elite figure skaters?
Scores on the EAT-26 were categorized into a symptomatic group (scores ≥ 20; n = 23)
and a non-symptomatic group (scores < 20; n = 153). An independent-samples t-test was
conducted to compare scores for body dissatisfaction, self-esteem, perceived weight pressures,
negative perfectionism, positive perfectionism, and athletic identity as a function of symptom
status. As illustrated in Table 22, female sub-elite figure skaters who were symptomatic of an
eating disorder showed significantly greater body dissatisfaction, t(25.43) = 5.24, p = .001,
perceived weight pressures, t(166) = 7.14, p = .001, negative perfectionism, t(36.01) =7.53, p =
.001, positive perfectionism, t(161) = 2.59, p = .010, and lower self-esteem, t(26.63) = -3.32, p =
.003, as compared to those who were not symptomatic of an eating disorder. There was no
statistically significant difference between symptomatic and non-symptomatic female sub-elite
figure skaters in athletic identity scores (t(170) = .33, p = .745).
Table 22
Independent-Samples t-test for Psychological Variables of Interest Between Symptomatic and
Non-Symptomatic Female Sub-Elite Figure Skaters

Body Dissatisfaction
Self-Esteem
Perceived Weight Pressures
Negative Perfectionism
Positive Perfectionism
Athletic Identity

Symptomatic
M
SD
2.25
+0.34
19.17
+5.18
3.42
+0.76
72.18
+8.84
85.14
+8.09
47.73
+10.87

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Non-Symptomatic
M
SD
1.86
+0.24
22.93
+4.22
2.18
+0.76
55.89
+12.90
80.52
+7.55
46.93
+10.67

Exploratory research question 2. Can the combination of body dissatisfaction, self-esteem,
perceived weight pressures, negative perfectionism, positive perfectionism, and athletic identity
be used to predict whether female sub-elite figure skaters report a symptomatic score on the
EAT-26 (i.e., ≥ 20)?
A discriminant analysis was conducted to predict whether a female sub-elite figure skater
fell within clinical range of an eating disorder. Predictor variables were body dissatisfaction,
self-esteem, perceived weight pressures, negative perfectionism, positive perfectionism, and
athletic identity. Significant mean differences were observed for all predictors but athletic
identity Statistics for each variable are included in Table 23. The discriminate function revealed
a significant association between groups and all predictors except athletic identity, accounting
for 28.8% of between group variability. However, closer examination of the structure matrix
revealed only four significant predictors, including perceived weight pressures (.755), body
dissatisfaction (.693), negative perfectionism (.600), and self-esteem (-.507) with positive
perfectionism and athletic identity being poor predictor variables. The cross-validated
classification showed that overall 89.2% were correctly classified.
Table 23
Discriminant Analysis for Psychological Variables of Interest Between Symptomatic and NonSymptomatic Female Sub-Elite Figure Skaters

Body Dissatisfaction
Self-Esteem
Perceived Weight Pressures
Negative Perfectionism
Positive Perfectionism
Athletic Identity

Wilks’ Lambda
.80
.88
.77
.84
.97
.99

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F (1, 146)
37.66
20.17
44.69
28.25
4.00
.08

P
.001
.001
.001
.001
.047
.778

CHAPTER V
DISCUSSION
The results of this study are both discouraging and encouraging at the same time. The
findings are discouraging in that they support the notion that disordered eating does exist across
the sport of figure skating (i.e., affecting 13.1% of female sub-elite figure skaters, 13.2% of
female elite figure skaters, and 3.7% of male figure skaters). Disordered eating is clearly a major
health concern that must be addressed by those who govern and coach the sport. However, the
findings are also encouraging in that the vast majority of figure skaters were not found to be
symptomatic of an eating disorder and actually cited a number of benefits of skating on body
image, eating, and exercise. The present study suggests that young skaters can and often do learn
positive health habits when participating, which is seldom mentioned in other research. Accounts
that figure skating should be singled out as a sport that places youth at an abnormally high risk of
disordered eating may therefore be re-evaluated. This chapter provides a general summary of the
results and discusses them in the context of the relevant literature, while areas for future research
are identified throughout. Finally, study strengths and limitations, as well as practical
implications of the findings are discussed.
General Summary of Results
The primary purpose of this study was to examine the frequency and psychological
predictors of disordered eating in female sub-elite figure skaters. The six-month data collection
process across 19 clubs and five states proved to be even more successful than anticipated.
Specifically, enough data were collected to also conduct additional analyses with male figure
skaters and address various group comparisons across the sport.

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Overall, results suggest that disordered eating exists among females at sub-elite levels of
competition. However, these skaters may be no more at risk than the general population of
adolescent and college-aged females. Disordered eating in female sub-elite figure skaters was
significantly predicted by body dissatisfaction, perceived weight pressures, as well as both
positive and negative perfectionism. However, perceived weight pressures, body dissatisfaction,
negative perfectionism, and self-esteem were the only variables found to discriminate between
those who did and did not score within clinical range of an eating disorder. Results also indicate
that male figure skaters may be vulnerable to weight pressures and body image issues, however
far fewer males than females scored within clinical range of an eating disorder. Across the entire
sample, disordered eating was not found to significantly differ as a function of skating discipline,
competitive level, or sex.
Female Sub-Elite Figure Skaters
In line with the primary purposes of this study, the following section will discuss results
relative to female sub-elite figure skaters. In particular, descriptive data on the frequency of
disordered eating and other psychological characteristics, including body dissatisfaction, athletic
identity, self-esteem, perceived weight pressures, and perfectionism, are interpreted. Findings on
the predictors of disordered eating as well as the role of figure skating in shaping body image,
eating, and exercise in this group of athletes are also addressed.
Frequency of disordered eating in female sub-elite figure skaters. A review of the
extant literature suggests that disordered eating exists among female figure skaters at elite levels
of competition (e.g., Rucinski, 1989; Ziegler, Khoo, Sherr et al., 1998). This is not surprising as
pressure to perform at the elite level is presumably higher than lower level skating and because
the performance demands tend to favor an increasingly lighter and leaner athlete. Interestingly,

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results of the current study show that disordered eating is not only evident among female elite
figure skaters (10/76 [13.2%]), but also among those females who have never competed
nationally or internationally (23/176 [13.1%]). Thus, despite competing at lower levels, female
sub-elite figure skaters are not exempt from the development of disordered eating and may face
weight pressures similar to their elite counterparts. Education about body image, good nutrition,
and scientifically-based weight management is needed at all levels of skating and should not be
reserved solely for the elite.
Unfortunately, there are few reports on the frequency of athletes who are symptomatic of
an eating disorder using the 26-item version of the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26) to serve as a
means of comparison and interpretation. However, one study with female collegiate athletes
showed that 27.7% of those in aesthetic sports (i.e., gymnasts, cheerleaders, and divers; n = 72),
14.6% of those in team/aerobic sports (i.e., track athletes-field events, golfers, softball players,
tennis players, and water polo players; n = 96), and 13.6% of those in endurance sports (i.e.,
basketball players, cross country athletes, and track athletes-middle distance and distance events;
n = 257) fell within clinical range of an eating disorder (Beals & Manore, 2002). Another study
with collegiate female athletes who participated in predominantly non-aesthetic sports (i.e.,
basketball, crew, cross-country, diving, golf, soccer, softball, swimming, tennis, track and field,
volleyball, and water polo) showed that only 6% (12/207) were symptomatic (Doninger, Enders,
& Burnett, 2005). Thus, while the frequency of disordered eating in both elite and sub-elite
female figure skaters may not reach levels found in other aesthetic sports like gymnastics,
cheerleading, and diving, estimates may be higher than or comparable to those found among
non-aesthetic sport athletes. This finding is in contrast to the numerous anecdotal accounts

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depicted in the introduction of this dissertation. Despite what stories will indicate, an
overwhelming presence of disordered eating was simply not found in the current study.
In particular, Joan Ryan’s (1995) Little Girls in Pretty Boxes targets figure skating as one
of the most dangerous sports for the development of disordered eating, body image disturbances,
and abuse of youth athletes. The apparent discrepancy between the results of the present study
and Ryan’s anecdotal account may have occurred for two reasons. First, as a journalist, Ryan did
not present any empirical data to support her claims about the scale and scope of disordered
eating among female athletes in aesthetic sports. The book makes an argument to change the
culture of both figure skating and gymnastics based on a small number of extreme cases and may
therefore have overstated the problem. However, it may also be true that Ryan’s assumptions
were accurate and that the book’s negative attention through the media (i.e., interviews on The
Oprah Show, news releases, and a movie) prompted these athletic communities to become better
educated. For example, a two-part article was published in the sports medicine and science
section of Skating magazine on the prevention, detection, and treatment of disordered eating
(Parker, 1995a, 1995b) in the same year Ryan’s book was published. Although in need of
expansion and updating, the US Figure Skating website now offers a nutrition section that
provides resources to athletes, coaches, and parents on proper nutritional practices in competitive
sport (U.S. Figure Skating, 2010). Elite level skaters who struggled with disordered eating are
also speaking out about their experiences with intentions of protecting future skating participants
(J. Kirk, 2009). Such changes could be helping to foster a culture that is less focused on
inappropriate weight management methods, which may have been reflected in the present
findings.

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Importantly, the frequency of disordered eating identified in the current sample appears
to fall between estimates found in other studies with figure skaters. For example, one study using
the 40-item version of the EAT with 23 national level female figure skaters (ages 13 to 22)
showed that 48% were considered symptomatic of an eating disorder (Rucinski, 1989); whereas,
another study of 21 competitive female figure skaters (ages 11 to 16; competitive level not
specified) found only 9% (Ziegler, Hensley et al., 1998). However, unlike the present
investigation where skaters were enrolled across 19 clubs in five states, participants in these
studies were recruited from only one training facility. The large discrepancy in the frequencies
reported may suggest that disordered eating is highly dependent upon the culture of the club or
training program. It is imperative for researchers to avoid generalizing findings from an isolated
training facility, club, or program to all skaters, to be transparent about the representation of their
study sample, and to include the broadest sample possible as a means of achieving the most
accurate estimations. Researchers will also need to re-examine estimates of disordered eating
across figure skating and other sports with the upcoming revisions of the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders that will seemingly loosen the criteria for what is
considered a clinical eating disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 2012).
When compared to normative data, the mean score on the EAT-26 among female subelite figure skaters was comparable to that in adolescent girls (Whitaker et al., 1989) and collegeaged females (Garner et al., 1982). Thus, female sub-elite figure skaters may be no more at risk
for the development of disordered eating than females in the general population. Normative
comparisons also revealed that on average, female sub-elite figure skaters do not resemble
clinically anorexic female patients (Garner et al., 1982). While updated normative data are
clearly needed, these findings are encouraging such that figure skating may be doing no more

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damage than society in general relative to body image, eating, and exercise. However,
proponents of the positive youth development movement (e.g., Gould & Carson, 2008; Martinek
& Hellison, 2009; Petitpas, Cornelius, Van Raalte, & Jones, 2005) would argue that figure
skating, like other athletic endeavors, should aim to improve rather than mirror societal norms.
Parents often enroll their children in sport in hopes that their young athletes will reap a number
of physical and psychological benefits above and beyond what would be accrued as a nonathlete. Thus, although the data are promising, researchers, practitioners, and the figure skating
community may do more to lessen the risk for disordered eating among youth involved in this
sport.
While it is critical to address the potential for some figure skaters to develop disordered
eating attitudes and behaviors, it is equally important to recognize that the vast majority of
female sub-elite figure skaters were not found to be symptomatic of an eating disorder. In fact,
the most frequently endorsed items on the EAT-26 included those that may be considered benign
or even healthy attitudes and behaviors for a committed athlete (e.g., being aware of the calorie
content of foods [54.3%], displaying self-control around food [54.1%], enjoyment in trying new
rich foods [45.9%], and thinking about burning up calories during exercise [40%]). These
findings are corroborated by the number of skating benefits cited in the qualitative portion of this
study, including feeling positive about their body, becoming fit and strong, eating well,
exercising for performance and health, and gaining knowledge about both nutrition and physical
activity. Future research may address ways to not only minimize the risk for disordered eating in
figure skaters, but also maximize the many positive eating attitudes and behaviors that the sport
has to offer.

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Body dissatisfaction in female sub-elite figure skaters. Descriptive data showed that on
average female sub-elite figure skaters perceived their bodies to be larger than desirable both by
societal (i.e., the ideal body) and skating standards (i.e., the ideal body for skating). This finding
is consistent with results of other studies with figure skaters. For example, using similar body
silhouettes, Jonnalagadda, Ziegler, and Nelson (2004) found that their sample of elite female
figure skaters (n = 26) indicated greater preference for a thinner body size. Ziegler, Kannan, et al.
(2005) also found that among female international synchronized skaters (n = 123), the majority
reported wanting to achieve a thinner body size and be lighter than their current weight. Thus,
despite competing at lower levels of competition, female sub-elite figure skaters are also
dissatisfied with their bodies.
This finding is not surprising given that the general psychological literature suggests that
body dissatisfaction and image are a major concern among young women and girls in general
(e.g., Neumark-Sztainer, Story, Hannan, Perry, & Irving, 2002; Paxton, Eisenberg, & NeumarkSztainer, 2006; Presnell, Bearman, & Stice, 2004; Stice & Whitenton, 2002; J. K. Thompson,
Heinberg, Altabe, & Tantleff-Dunn, 1999). However, unlike their female non-athlete
counterparts, female figure skaters may face dual pressures from both society and their sport.
This phenomenon has been explored among female non-aesthetic sport participants at the
collegiate level where athletes must cope with conflicting demands to be thin and feminine by
society’s standards but strong and muscular for their sport (Krane et al., 2004). Future research
may more closely examine figure skaters and other aesthetic-sport participants who may face
compounded pressures to be thin. Interestingly, results of the present study revealed that the
average perceived ideal body and average perceived body for the ideal skater were nearly
identical. Thus, while female sub-elite figure skaters may face pressures to be thin from multiple

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sources (i.e., society and their sport), figure skating may not be pushing them to be any thinner
than sociocultural norms.
To address future inquiries on body dissatisfaction among figure skaters and other
athletic populations, the type and quality of the measures used are important considerations.
While the version of the Contour Drawing Rating Scale (CDRS) employed in the present study is
a recent and psychometrically sound measure (M. A. Thompson & Gray, 1995; Wertheim et al.,
2004), it has been criticized because the figural images do not always match the population being
assessed (Gardner & Brown, 2010). This measure may be improved for use with athletes by
incorporating illustrations that more closely depict an athletic body shape (e.g., one with
muscles) and separate the upper and lower body. Such an instrument would allow for
increasingly specific and more accurate estimates of body preferences and dissatisfaction among
figure skaters and other athletes across varying sport types.
Athletic identity, self-esteem, perfectionism, and perceived weight pressures in
female sub-elite figure skaters. Other descriptive data showed that female sub-elite figure
skaters on average possess high levels of athletic identity, self-esteem, and positive perfectionism
(i.e., scoring within the upper range of each respective scale) but lower levels of negative
perfectionism and perceived weight pressures (i.e., scoring within the lower range of each
respective scale). These results are consistent with other studies measuring athletic identity (e.g.,
Sturm, Feltz, & Gilson, 2011) and perceived weight pressures in athletes (Reel et al., 2010).
Although mean positive and negative perfectionism scores were higher among female sub-elite
figure skaters than those cited in other studies with athletes (e.g., Haase, Prapavessis, & Owens,
2002; Terry-Short et al., 1995), these elevated scores are consistent with anecdotal evidence and
ethnographic data suggesting that the sport of figure skating attracts and promotes perfectionistic

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attitudes (Grenfell & Rinehart, 2003). Interestingly, the mean self-esteem score was also higher
in female sub-elite figure skaters as compared to athletes in other studies (Armstrong & OomenEarly, 2009; Neu, 1993). Elevated scores for self-esteem may reflect true levels in this
population or social desirability. Together, these descriptive data clearly suggest that on average
female sub-elite figure skaters possess positive psychological attributes with a high commitment
to their sport, motivation to seek positive rewards, and a sense of self-worth.
Psychological contributors of disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in female
sub-elite figure skaters. A primary aim of this study was to explore the psychological
contributors of disordered eating in female sub-elite figure skaters. Results indicated that
disordered eating does not vary with years in skating, but may increase with competitive
experience. In particular, disordered eating differed between those who competed locally versus
those participating in regional events, which often signifies a more serious level of commitment
and involvement. Unfortunately, comparisons were unable to be made with those who have
never competed as well as those competing at the sectional and collegiate level due to small
subsample sizes. However, future research may more closely examine competitive experience in
sport as a correlate of disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in both figure skaters and other
athletes.
Upon inspection of the regression model, five of the six proposed psychological variables
were significant predictors of disordered eating in female sub-elite figure skaters, and each is
discussed in turn. Body dissatisfaction was the predictor that contributed most to disordered
eating. This finding is consistent with the literature often citing this variable as a prominent risk
factor in the development of disordered eating symptoms in both athletes (Brannan et al., 2009;
Greenleaf et al., 2010) and non-athletes (Stice, 2002). Importantly, other research suggests that

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disordered eating may develop among figure skaters even in the absence of marked body
dissatisfaction (Ziegler, Khoo, Sherr et al., 1998). Thus, body dissatisfaction may be an
important but not pre-requisite sign of disordered eating in figure skaters.
Perceived weight pressures was the second strongest predictor of disordered eating in the
present study. This finding supports other literature indicating that weight pressures (e.g., from
coaches, peers, parents, skating attire, and required standards of the sport) contribute to the
development of unhealthy weight control habits and a poor body image (Galli et al., 2011; Reel
et al., 2010; R. A. Thompson & Sherman, 2010; R. A. Thompson & Sherman, 1993). Thus,
although female sub-elite figure skaters do not on average perceive high levels of weight
pressure in their immediate environment, those that do may be increasingly vulnerable to
disordered eating, especially in combination with other risk factors. This finding speaks to the
important role of the environment in shaping attitudes and behaviors around eating, exercise, and
body image.
In contrast to predictions based on previous research (e.g., Dunn et al., 2011; Haase,
2011; Haase et al., 2002; Terry-Short et al., 1995), positive perfectionism was not only positively
associated with disordered eating in female sub-elite figure skaters, but also made a significant
contribution to disordered eating over and above that of negative perfectionism. Moreover,
although negative perfectionism significantly predicted disordered eating as expected (Dunn et
al., 2011; Haase, 2011; Haase et al., 2002), the contribution was small. These findings may be
explained in two ways. First, skaters may in fact be both positively and negatively motivated to
achieve standards associated with performance success in their sport. For example, some may
engage in disordered eating behaviors to gain the positive reinforcement associated with a light
and lean figure, such as better performance scores and ease of jumping (positive perfectionism)

126

or to avoid the negative consequences associated with having a less than ideal body type for
skating, such as criticism from a coach (negative perfectionism). Second, these findings may also
reflect measurement issues with the Positive and Negative Perfectionism Scale (PANPS). A
recent study demonstrated concern over the factor structure of the PANPS for use with athletes,
college students, and clinically anxious and depressed patients (Egan, Piek, Dyck, & Kane,
2011). Specifically, positive perfectionism was not in fact associated with positive adjustment,
which suggests that the positive and negative perfectionism sub-scales may not accurately
represent the constructs intended to be measured (Egan et al., 2011). In further support of
possible measurement issues, Haase and Prapavessis (2004) developed a shortened version of the
PANPS with a different factor structure for use with athletes. However, use of this factor
structure did not change the results of the present study. Future research should not only address
the psychometric properties of the instrument, but also the conceptual differences between
positive and negative perfectionism.
Extant research suggests that self-esteem may be an important predictor of disordered
eating in both non-athletes (Button et al., 1997; Button, Sonuga-Barke, Davies, & Thompson,
1996; Shea & Pritchard, 2007) and athletes (e.g., Arthur-Cameselle & Quatromoni, 2011; Engel
et al., 2003; Petrie et al., 2009). Interestingly, findings in the present study are mixed regarding
this hypothesized relationship. Although negatively related to disordered eating as expected, selfesteem was not a significant predictor of disordered eating in female sub-elite figure skaters.
Ferrand, Champely, and Filaire (2009) similarly found that self-esteem did not predict EAT-26
scores among French non-athletes, rhythmic gymnasts, and synchronized swimmers and actually
identified body esteem as a better predictor. Other psychological variables such as body
dissatisfaction, perceived weight pressures, and perfectionism may be more critical than self-

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esteem in the development of disordered eating in figure skaters and similar aesthetic sport
athletes.
In contrast, the discriminant function analysis showed that self-esteem played an
important role in discriminating between those female sub-elite figure skaters who were and
were not symptomatic of an eating disorder. Petrie and colleagues (2009) also found that selfesteem was an important discriminating factor between symptomatic and asymptomatic college
female athletes. Thus, while self-esteem may be associated with disordered eating and
adequately distinguish between symptomatic and asymptomatic groups, it may not always
predict disordered eating above and beyond other strong risk factors. This is consistent with
Baumeister and colleagues (2003) who concluded that the role of self-esteem in the development
of disordered eating is variable. Specifically, they reported that it is not clear whether self-esteem
is a cause or consequence of an eating disorder and that the relationship between self-esteem and
disordered eating may be highly dependent upon the presence of other risk factors such as
perfectionism and body dissatisfaction. Among athletic populations, prospective studies and
advanced statistical modeling (e.g., structural equation modeling) may be used to better
understand the role of self-esteem in the development of disordered eating.
Finally, athletic identity was also assessed as a predictor of disordered eating in female
sub-elite figure skaters. Only two other studies have examined the relationship between athletic
identity and disordered eating (Gapin & Petruzzello, 2011; Jones et al., 2005) and never as a
predictor. It was expected that a strong athletic identity might contribute to skaters’ motivation to
engage in disordered eating behaviors as a means of constructing a desirable image within the
skating community. However, athletic identity demonstrated the weakest relationship and did not
significantly predict disordered eating in the present study. Identification with one’s sport may

128

therefore not be an important determinant in the development of disordered eating. However, this
finding may also shed light on a limitation of the Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (AIMS).
Specifically, the AIMS only examines identity with one’s sport and does not address identities
across multiple domains. It may be true that skaters with an unbalanced identity towards skating
alone (e.g., skating is the only important component to my sense of self) may be more vulnerable
to disordered eating than those with a balanced identity across life domains (e.g., I identify
strongly with skating in addition to school and family life). Development of a measure
examining multiple identities may not only benefit research examining disordered eating among
figure skaters, but also other identity research conducted within the sport context.
Although the psychological predictors included in this study were deemed both important
and appropriate based on previous literature, future research should address the variance that was
not explained in this and other studies. For example, it has often been assumed in the sport
literature that eating disorders occur when a highly committed and perfectionistic athlete is met
with unreasonable weight pressures from both society and the athletic environment (e.g., R. A.
Thompson & Sherman, 2010). While this is a valid and empirically supported argument, a
growing body of literature among non-athletes suggests that eating disorders are not solely a
social and psychological syndrome and that genetics are also an important consideration
(Striegel-Moore & Bulik, 2007). For instance, figure skaters who develop disordered eating may
have entered the sport with a predisposition for such a condition and then received reinforcement
for their disordered eating behaviors in the skating environment. Future research may consider a
broader range of explanations for the etiology of disordered eating in figure skaters and other
athletes.

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Role of figure skating in shaping body image, eating, and exercise in female sub-elite
figure skaters. The role of figure skating in shaping body image, eating, and exercise among
female sub-elite figure skaters was examined through a series of open and closed-ended
questions. Results showed that nearly 60% believed that figure skating is linked to pressures to
lose or maintain weight. Although prominent, this proportion is less than that found in other
research with figure skaters. For example, two studies examining Canadian female dance and
pair skaters found that 94% (n = 32) and 92.7% (n = 41), respectively, believed that there are
pressures associated with their sport to lose or maintain weight (Taylor & STE-Marie, 1999,
2001; Zatalan & Zatalan, 2003). The apparent discrepancy between the current study and other
literature may be due to change over time where skaters are perceiving fewer weight pressures
than previously or sample selection bias among each respective study (e.g., differences in
geographic region, skating clubs). Considered together, it appears that the majority of figure
skaters perceive that some degree of weight pressures exist in their sport.
Interestingly, results on perceived weight pressures differed depending on how the
variable was assessed in the present study. Despite the majority reporting that weight pressures
exist in their sport as measured by a closed-ended question, the mean perceived weight pressure
score was quite low as measured by the female version of the Weight Pressures in Sport scale
(WPS-F). Importantly, the closed-ended question contained in the survey asked about the
existence of weight pressures in the sport in general (i.e., Some believe that the sport of figure
skating is linked to pressures to lose or maintain weight. Do you agree with this belief?), while
the WPS-F tended to question skaters about their firsthand experiences (i.e., my skating peers
notice if I put on weight). Thus, while most female sub-elite figure skaters would agree that
skating is linked to weight pressures potentially because of media stories they have heard or the

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public stigma associated with skating and disordered eating, fewer may have actually
experienced these weight pressures themselves.
In addition, because most of these skaters agreed that their sport is linked to weight
pressures, one would assume that most would also report that skating has negatively influenced
their body image, eating, and exercise. However, the opposite was true in the present study.
Specifically, an overwhelming majority (i.e., between 82% and 92%) indicated that skating has
positively influenced their body image, eating, and exercise while a much smaller proportion
(i.e., between 19% and 39%) reported a negative influence. The disordered eating literature often
assumes that weight pressures perceived in the athletic environment are always harmful,
especially when the word “pressure” carries such a negative connotation. However, these results
suggest that not all skaters are adversely affected by negative weight pressures and that some
may actually perceive these weight pressures to be positive such that they inspire healthy eating
and exercise behaviors that benefit skating and quality of life. This was exemplified by one male
skater who reported “yes, but [weight pressure] is good.” The development of body image
disturbances and disordered eating may have less to do with whether weight pressures exist and
more to do with how they are perceived. For example, the difference between those positively
versus negatively influenced by weight pressures may vary as a function of personal
characteristics (e.g., the ability to cope with external pressures) as well as the interaction with the
environment (e.g., how comments about weight, eating, and exercise are delivered by important
others, including coaches, parents, peers, and judges, and how they are received). Future research
may more carefully distinguish between the impact of positively versus negatively perceived
weight pressures in athletic environments.

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Male Figure Skaters
As part of a series of secondary analyses, the following section discusses results relative
to male figure skaters. In particular, descriptive data on the frequency of disordered eating and
other psychological characteristics are interpreted. Findings on the role of skating in shaping
body image, eating, and exercise in this group of athletes are also addressed. When interpreting
results, it should be noted that the majority of male figure skaters in the present study competed
at the elite level.
Frequency of disordered eating in male figure skaters. Only one male skater (1/27
[3.7%]) was found to be symptomatic of an eating disorder with a score of 23, which is only
slightly over the 20-point clinical cut-off. This proportion is comparable to that found among
competitive male body builders (2/40 [5%]) (Pickett, Lewis, & Cash, 2005), elite male rowers
(2/31 [6%]) (Terry et al., 1999), elite male judoists (0/12 [0%]), and elite male cyclists (0/15
[0%]) (Filaire et al., 2007). Results of the present study suggest that on average male figure
skaters are not symptomatic of an eating disorder and that they are no more at risk than their
male adolescent counterparts. Moreover, far fewer male figure skaters fell within clinical range
than elite (10/76 [13.2%]) and sub-elite female figure skaters (23/176 [13.1%]) in the same
sample.
Similar to female sub-elite figure skaters, the most frequently endorsed items on the
EAT-26 by male figure skaters may be considered benign or even healthy attitudes and behaviors
for a committed athlete (e.g., displaying self-control around food [51.7%], being aware of the
calorie content of foods [41.4%], enjoyment in trying new rich foods [31%], thinking about
burning up calories during exercise [31%]). However, while only one male skater fell within
clinical range, some male skaters still endorsed symptoms of disordered eating that may be cause

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for concern. For example, 20.7% reported being often, usually, or always terrified about being
overweight, 17.2% being preoccupied with the thought of having fat on their body, 13.8%
engaging in dieting behavior, and 13.8% being preoccupied with a desire to be thinner. Future
research examining disordered eating with larger sample sizes is needed to further explore the
scale, scope, and severity of disordered eating among male aesthetic sport athletes in general and
male figure skaters in particular.
Psychological characteristics of male figure skaters. Descriptive data suggest that on
average male figure skaters perceived their current body shape to be only slightly greater than
both their ideal body shape and the ideal body shape for skating. Thus, male figure skaters may
only be minimally dissatisfied with their bodies, which is in marked contrast to their female subelite counterparts who showed a much larger average discrepancy between current and ideal
body shapes. This finding is consistent with a study of 49 elite figure skaters where females had
greater body dissatisfaction scores than males (Jonnalagadda et al., 2004) and other studies
comparing male and female non-athletes (Neumark-Sztainer et al., 2002; Paxton et al., 2006;
Presnell et al., 2004; Stice & Whitenton, 2002; e.g., J. K. Thompson et al., 1999). However, it is
important to note that male figure skaters still reported a preference for a thinner rather than
larger body contour. This may be a product of the aesthetic demands of their sport that differ
from other sport types, such as football and ice hockey where size lends an advantage. Future
research may further examine the demands for size versus leanness among males participating in
varying types of sports.
Other descriptive data showed that male figure skaters possessed similar psychological
characteristics as their female sub-elite peers. Specifically, they showed higher levels of athletic
identity, self-esteem, and positive perfectionism (i.e., scoring within the upper range of each

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respective scale) and lower levels of negative perfectionism and perception of weight pressures
in their environment (i.e., scoring within the lower range of each respective scale). Comparisons
to the existing literature and possible explanations for these results were already discussed in the
previous female sub-elite section of the discussion. Because explanations for the findings among
male figure skaters are the same, this discussion is not repeated here.
Psychological contributors of disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in male
figure skaters. Interestingly, correlational analyses between various psychological variables and
disordered eating did not yield the same results for male figure skaters as for their female subelite counterparts. Specifically, only body dissatisfaction and perceived weight pressures were
significantly associated with disordered eating in male figure skaters. Given that athletic identity
demonstrated the weakest relationship and did not predict disordered eating in female sub-elite
figure skaters, it is not surprising that athletic identity was not related to disordered eating in
males. However, the non-significant relationship between disordered eating and the remaining
psychological variables (i.e., self-esteem, positive perfectionism, and negative perfectionism) is
in contrast to the relationships found among female sub-elite figure skaters and may reflect the
limited size of the male sample. It is also possible that because only a small number of male
skaters reported elevated levels of disordered eating, few individual difference factors became
evident with such a homogenous sample. Larger sample sizes may be employed to better address
the psychological contributors of disordered eating in male figure skaters with the notion that
body dissatisfaction and perceived weight pressures may be important risk factors.
Role of figure skating in shaping body image, eating, and exercise in male figure
skaters. A thorough understanding of the role of figure skating in shaping body image, eating,
and exercise in male figure skaters was limited by the number of males included in the study.

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However, the data collected provides preliminary insight that may be examined in a follow-up
qualitative study employing in-depth interviews. Similar to their female sub-elite counterparts,
the results of the present study showed that a large proportion of male figure skaters (79.3%)
perceived that skating is associated with pressures to lose or maintain weight. However, the
majority reported that skating has had positive influences on their body image, eating, and
exercise. Only seven male figure skaters perceived that skating has had a negative influence on
the way they viewed their bodies, and only three reported a detrimental impact on eating and
exercise. Interestingly, males who reported being negatively influenced by skating cited themes
similar to the females in the study, including being self-conscious about their body, comparing
their bodies to others, and concern over eating. Together, these findings suggest that as with
females, the sport of figure skating has the potential to positively and negatively influence male
figure skaters relative to body image, eating, and exercise. The small but important negative
influence of weight pressures on male figure skaters is consistent with a growing body of
research indicating that male athletes are not immune to body image disturbances and unhealthy
weight control methods and must not be overlooked within the academic literature (e.g., Galli &
Reel, 2009; Petrie et al., 2008; Reel & Gill, 1998).
Disordered Eating Across Figure Skating
Group comparisons made across the entire sample of figure skaters suggest that
disordered eating does not significantly differ by skating discipline (i.e., singles, pairs, ice
dancing, synchronized) or competitive level (i.e., elite, sub-elite). Interestingly, although in the
expected direction, disordered eating also did not significantly differ by sex. This is surprising,
especially when being female is believed to be the strongest risk factor for developing an eating
disorder (Striegel-Moore & Bulik, 2007). However, mean disordered eating scores were quite

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low for both males and females in this study. Future research may re-examine possible sex
differences with a larger number of male skaters.
In addition, age was not significantly related to disordered eating. In fact, those who
scored within clinical range of an eating disorder were as young as 12 and as old as 25 and
covered nearly the entire age span of the sample. Thus, although the majority of skaters do not
fall within clinical range of an eating disorder (249/283 [88%]), disordered eating attitudes and
behaviors do exist among both males and females across age, skating discipline, and competitive
level. Prevention and intervention efforts inclusive of all skaters may therefore be more useful
than those targeted towards a specific sub-population.
Practical Implications
This study offers a number of practical implications for researchers, practitioners, and
important stakeholders in the figure skating community. Specifically, the data collection process
posed a number of obstacles due to the stigma associated with disordered eating in figure skating
(e.g., some administrators were hesitant to have the issue studied). This sport has traditionally
been criticized for the weight and appearance demands that are associated with performance
success. For example, Ryan’s (1995) book Little Girls in Pretty Boxes exposed the dark side of
figure skating by highlighting cases of disordered eating that occurred at the most elite levels of
competition. This book attempted to address a potential problem by “outing skating” and
instilling fear in its participants. Unfortunately, such an approach may have elicited more of a
defensive reaction than a productive one. As mentioned previously, some efforts have been made
to educate the figure skating community, which may have in part come from the negative
attention that the book produced (e.g., a two-part article in Skating magazine in 1995, nutritional
resources on the US Figure Skating website). However, these efforts are quite small. Research

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projects and educational programs attempting to address these sensitive issues are seldom, if at
all supported by major gatekeepers in the figure skating community. In fact, some coaches have
denied all research opportunities in fear of bringing bad publicity to their athletes, their coaching,
and the sport. It is imperative that sport science researchers and practitioners find ways to
overcome this stigma.
One way to convince gate keepers that it is safe to address politically sensitive topics is to
adopt a strength-based approach. Consistent with the positive psychology movement (Seligman
& Csikszentmihalyi, 2000), projects should be conducted with the purpose of using the findings
to not only highlight ways of minimizing possible detriments associated with the sport but also
maximizing important strengths of skating participation. As illustrated in the current study,
skaters reported many positive effects of their skating participation on body image, eating, and
exercise that should not be ignored. In fact, given the current obesity crisis and physical
inactivity epidemic, these positive influences could play a key role in keeping kids healthy.
While we need to be very concerned with the negative influences as they lead to important
physical and psychological consequences, it is also critical to emphasize the positive and healthy
behaviors the sport can teach. Such an approach may foster greater openness and receptivity to
valuable research and programming efforts, improve transparency, and lessen fears associated
with empirical data.
Importantly, a positive psychology approach does not ignore the significance of
minimizing risk factors. In the present study, the 12% of symptomatic figure skaters across the
entire sample are worthy of attention. In addition, although only a small proportion of figure
skaters were considered symptomatic of an eating disorder, it is important to also examine the
eating attitudes and behaviors of those who may not necessarily be considered at risk for a

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clinical condition. For example, a notable proportion of both male and female figure skaters
reported that they are often, usually, or always terrified about being overweight, preoccupied
with the thought of having fat on their body, consumed with a desire to be thinner, and engage in
dieting behavior. These self-reported attitudes and behaviors are not enough to warrant an eating
disorder diagnosis in isolation, but have been shown to predict disordered eating in other studies
(Killen et al., 1996; Rosendahl et al., 2009). If left unaddressed, they may serve as precursors to
the development of a poor body image and/or disordered eating over time.
Practitioners may work to both maximize the benefits of the sport and minimize the risks
of disordered eating among figure skaters in several ways. For example, the most frequently
cited reason for weight pressures in skating were performance demands (i.e., the fact that
jumping, spinning, lifting, and artistic scores are made easier with a lighter and leaner athlete).
Sport psychology practitioners and coaches cannot change the requirements of the sport.
However, they can teach figure skaters about the importance of appreciating their athletic
strengths, show them how to safely manage any current stressors related to performance, and
assist them in developing the coping skills necessary to buffer the impact of negative weight
pressures. Sport nutritionists and coaches may also educate figure skaters about the myths
associated with nutrition and performance (e.g., thinner always means better skating, the best and
only way to lose weight is to restrict your eating) and show them how they can use their sport to
get smart about eating and exercising to sustain health over the lifespan. Importantly, many
figure skaters noted that their skating participation has already helped them to learn about body
image as well as healthy eating and exercise. Thus, it is critical that both researchers and
practitioners identify who is doing the educating and build upon what the figure skating
community may already be doing quite well.

138

Other results showed that the most frequently cited source of weight pressures included
significant others (i.e., coaches, other skaters, parents, and judges). Thus, educational efforts may
be designed for important stakeholders in the figure skating community to help foster
environmental changes that promote healthy and productive discussions on nutrition, body size,
and performance. For example, consistent with other literature (Kerr et al., 2006; Rosen &
Hough, 1988), critical comments from coaches were an important negative influence of skating
on body image, eating, and exercise in the current study. Educating coaches not only on the
nutrition-performance relationship, but also on if, when, and how to communicate with their
athletes about these issues is warranted.
In addition to performance demands and pressure from important others, social
comparison was both a reported weight pressure and negative influence on body image among
female sub-elite figure skaters in particular. Interestingly, recent studies have shown that high
performance-orientations and ego-involved goals are associated with disordered eating in figure
skaters, gymnasts, and other athletes (e.g., de Bruin, Bakker, & Oudejans, 2009; Duda & Kim,
1997; Scoffier, Gernigon, & d’Arripe-Longueville, 2012). In a sport where performance
outcomes are so contingent upon appearance and where the attire so readily reveals body shape
and size, it is unsurprising that performance and ego-involved motivational strategies are linked
to disordered eating among skaters. Sport psychology practitioners often take efforts to help
athletes develop a task or mastery oriented approach, in which the athlete adopts a self rather
than social-referenced sense of competence, to assist in improving performance. However, as the
aforementioned evidence suggests, these efforts may also positively impact body image, eating,
and exercise, especially in sports where appearance demands are high and body comparisons are
likely.

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Finally, gaining an understanding of the psychological predictors of disordered eating
better informs the development of comprehensive screening instruments, prevention, and
intervention programs. Specifically, results of the present study show that indications of body
dissatisfaction, perception of negative weight pressures, and perfectionism may be important
detection tools for unhealthy eating attitudes and behaviors in this group of athletes. Based on the
results of the regression model and discriminant function analysis, programs aimed to teach
athletes about respecting their bodies and coping with negative weight pressures may be more
effective than those only aimed to enhance global self-esteem. In line with a strengths-based
approach, these same programs may also assist athletes in developing an awareness of the ways
that skating has and can continue to improve health and performance with the proper choices.
Strengths and Limitations
The present study demonstrates a number of strengths. For example, to the primary
investigator’s knowledge, 301 participants is the largest sample of figure skaters ever obtained,
which has allowed group comparisons not possible in previous studies. Although not a nationally
representative sample, participants in the current study represented 19 clubs across five states
and thus provided the broadest sample of US figure skaters assessed to date. This study was the
first to more closely examine disordered eating among male figure skaters and to test athletic
identity as a predictor of disordered eating attitudes and behaviors. Using a mixed method that
employed both quantitative and qualitative methodologies to address the pertinent research
questions strengthened the data.
While the strengths of this study are important, the interpretation of results is also bound
by several limitations. Specifically, this study was limited by the self-report nature of the surveys
and the ability and willingness of athletes to honestly and accurately respond to survey items.

140

Participation was voluntary and may have excluded athletes who either did not see the issue as
important or were uncomfortable reporting on the topic because they currently struggle with
clinical or subclinical forms of an eating disorder. While the current study contained the broadest
and largest sample to date, the results are based on a convenience sample of figure skaters and
limited to 19 clubs across five states in the Northeast and Midwest. Although there were several
instances where skaters represented additional US regions and other countries, the results of the
present study may differ from those obtained from a random and more representative sample of
figure skaters nationally and internationally. Moreover, disordered eating was not assessed by
figure skating club or training program membership. Given the potential environmental influence
of the club or training program culture on eating and exercise behaviors, the variance in
disordered eating scores may be accounted for by this variable and should be examined in future
studies. For example, a social network analysis may be used to explore how disordered eating
varies in athletes nested within a coaching staff and within a club or training program. Finally,
this study was also limited by the inability to determine causal relationships between variables
due to the nature of field research and the lack of a true experimental design.
Conclusions
Results suggest that figure skating has the potential to both positively and negatively
influence body image, eating, and exercise. The majority of figure skaters were not found to be
symptomatic of an eating disorder and actually reaped a number of benefits relative to body
image, eating, and exercise from their figure skating experience. Perceived positive influences
are encouraging such that while some figure skaters certainly perceive negative influences of
skating, all the news is not bad. Hence, while there should be concern about weight pressures
that lead to unhealthy attitudes and behaviors, researchers and practitioners should not

141

automatically assume that all figure skaters are negatively influenced and that the sport has no
redeeming qualities in this regard.
While highlighting the strengths of figure skating, it is also important to recognize the
smaller proportion of figure skaters who do show signs of disordered eating attitudes and
behaviors. Education-based prevention efforts inclusive of all figure skaters, identification of
those figure skaters who may be at risk, as well as interventions for those already struggling are
important considerations for the figure skating community. Promoting positive body image and
appropriate eating and exercise behaviors is not only beneficial to the physical and psychological
health of youth skaters, but also skating performance. A dual-pronged approach aimed to both
minimize the detriments and maximize the benefits associated with figure skating will allow
greater opportunities for productive research and applied work in this area.

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FOOTNOTES
1

Although data on training regimen (e.g., hours per week spent training for skating) and reasons

for participation (e.g., primary reasons for involvement) were collected, results are not presented
as the data are not pertinent to the research questions in this study.
2

When means fell on the cut-point (i.e., between two proportions), a conservative approach was

taken and were always classified in the lower proportion.

143

APPENDICES

144

APPENDIX A
Informed Consent/Assent Forms
Parental Permission Form: Participants Ages 12 to 17 Years
Dear Parent/Legal Guardian and Skater,
My name is Dana Voelker, and I am a Doctoral student in the Department of Kinesiology at
Michigan State University. As a former figure skater, I am interested in learning about the eating,
exercise, and other psychological factors critical to the optimal development of skaters ages 12
and over across a range of skating disciplines (i.e., singles, pairs, ice dancing, synchronized) and
competitive levels. This study is being conducted under the supervision of my advisor, Dan
Gould, PhD. Completion of this study is part of my PhD requirements and has been approved by
your skating club official, program director, and/or coach. As such, I would like to invite
you/your child skater to participate in this study. Information gathered in this project will guide
efforts to enhance the positive aspects of skating, promote optimal development and performance
in skaters, and therefore benefit skaters, parents, coaches and judges at all levels of participation.
Your child skater will be asked to complete a packet of surveys at a predetermined date and time.
All surveys will be administered by me and will take approximately 20 minutes to complete.
He/she may benefit from the reflective nature of the questions and use it as an opportunity to
reflect or think about his/her attitudes and beliefs. Although we believe that participation in this
research study will pose little if no risk to your child skater, we understand that your child skater
may not want others to see his/her responses. While we do not ask for your child skater’s name
anywhere on the surveys, they may be identifiable based on the demographic information
requested. To protect his/her privacy, all surveys will be collected as soon as they are completed
and kept in a folder with me at all times while at the rink. Consent forms and surveys will be
separated and shuffled to ensure that your child skater’s responses remain anonymous. All data
will be treated as confidential and will not be shared with anyone beyond the researchers
involved in this project.
Your child skater’s participation is completely voluntary. He/she may decide at any point during
survey administration to discontinue all participation and not have his/her responses used in any
form. Your child skater may also refuse to answer any question. In appreciation of your child
skater’s voluntary participation, he/she will receive a sport mental skills training packet designed
specifically for skaters.
If you or your child skater have concerns or questions about this study, such as scientific issues,
how to do any part of it, or to report an injury, please contact (Dana K. Voelker, (412) 977-7836,
145

voelkerd@msu.edu, 207 IM Circle, MSU, East Lansing, MI 48824) or my supervisor (Dr. Dan
Gould, (517) 432-0175, drgould@msu.edu, 210 IM Sport Circle, MSU, East Lansing, MI
48824).
If you have questions or concerns about your role and rights as a research participant, would like
to obtain information or offer input, or would like to register a complaint about this study, you
may contact, anonymously if you wish, the Michigan State University’s Human Research
Protection Program at 517-355-2180, Fax 517-432-4503, or e-mail irb@msu.edu or regular mail
at 207 Olds Hall, MSU, East Lansing, MI 48824.
Parent/Legal Guardian
To allow your child to participate in this study, you may email Dana Voelker at
voelkerd@gmail.com with the name of your child skater(s) or you may sign, date, and return a
hard copy of this form to Dana Voelker.

_____________________________________
Parent/Legal Guardian Signature

____________________________________
Date

Skater Consent Form: Participants Ages 18 and Over
Skater Assent Form: Participants Ages 12 to 17 Years
Dear Skater,
My name is Dana Voelker, and I am a Doctoral student in the Department of Kinesiology at
Michigan State University. As a former figure skater, I am very interested in learning about the
eating, exercise, and other psychological factors critical to the optimal development of skaters
ages 12 and over across a range of skating disciplines (i.e., singles, pairs, ice dancing,
synchronized) and competitive levels. This study is being conducted under the supervision of my
advisor, Dan Gould, PhD. Completion of this study is part of my PhD requirements and has been
approved by your skating club official, program director, and/or coach. As such, I would like to
invite you to participate in this study. Information gathered in this project will guide efforts to
enhance the positive aspects of skating, promote optimal development and performance in
skaters, and therefore benefit skaters, parents, coaches and judges at all levels of participation.
You will be asked to complete a series of surveys at a predetermined date and time. All surveys
will be administered by me and will take approximately 20 minutes to complete. You may
benefit from the reflective nature of the questions and use it as an opportunity to reflect on your
attitudes and beliefs. Although we believe that participation in this research study will pose little
146

if no risk to you, we understand that you may not want others to see your responses. While we do
not ask for your name anywhere on the surveys, you may be identifiable based on the
demographic information requested. To protect your privacy, all surveys will be collected as
soon as they are completed and kept in a folder with me at all times while at the rink. Consent
forms and surveys will be separated and shuffled to ensure that your responses remain
anonymous. All data will be treated as confidential and will not be shared with anyone beyond
the researchers involved in this project.
Your participation is completely voluntary. You may decide at any point during survey
administration to discontinue all participation and not have your responses used in any form.
You may also refuse to answer any question. In appreciation of your voluntary participation, you
will receive a sport mental skills training packet designed specifically for skaters.
If you have concerns or questions about this study, such as scientific issues, how to do any part
of it, or to report an injury, please contact (Dana K. Voelker, (412) 977-7836,
voelkerd@msu.edu, 207 IM Circle, MSU, East Lansing, MI 48824) or my supervisor (Dr. Dan
Gould, (517) 432-0175, drgould@msu.edu, 210 IM Sport Circle, MSU, East Lansing, MI
48824).
If you have questions or concerns about your role and rights as a research participant, would like
to obtain information or offer input, or would like to register a complaint about this study, you
may contact, anonymously if you wish, the Michigan State University’s Human Research
Protection Program at 517-355-2180, Fax 517-432-4503, or e-mail irb@msu.edu or regular mail
at 207 Olds Hall, MSU, East Lansing, MI 48824.
By signing below, you are agreeing to participate in this study.
_____________________________________
Skater Signature

____________________________________
Date

147

APPENDIX B
Survey Battery: Example For Female Sample
Part A. Please mark an “X” in the space that best reflects the extent to which you agree or disagree with each statement in relation to
your own skating participation.
1. I consider myself a skater.
Strongly
Strongly
Agree
Disagree
2. I have many goals related to skating.
Strongly
Strongly
Agree
Disagree
3. Most of my friends are skaters.
Strongly
Strongly
Agree
Disagree
4. Skating is the most important part of my life.
Strongly
Strongly
Agree
Disagree
5. I spend more time thinking about skating than anything
Strongly
Strongly
else.
Agree
Disagree
6. I need to participate in skating to feel good about myself.
Strongly
Strongly
Agree
Disagree
7. Other people see me mainly as a skater.
Strongly
Strongly
Agree
Disagree
8. I feel bad about myself when I do poorly in skating.
Strongly
Strongly
Agree
Disagree
9. Skating is the only important thing in my life.
Strongly
Strongly
Agree
Disagree
10. I would be very depressed if I were injured and could not
Strongly
Strongly
compete in skating.
Agree
Disagree

148

Part B. Below is a list of statements dealing with your general feelings about yourself. For each item, please circle the response which
best describes what you believe to be true according to the following scale.
Strongly
Disagree
Agree
Strongly
Disagree
Agree
1. I feel that I’m a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others.
1
2
3
4
2. I feel that I have a number of good qualities.

1

149

4

2

3

4

2

3

4

2

3

4

2

3

4

2

3

4

1

10. At times I think I am no good at all.

3

1

9. I certainly feel useless at times.

2

1

8. I wish I could have more respect for myself.

4

1

7. On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.

3

1

6. I take a positive attitude toward myself.

2

1

5. I feel I do not have much to be proud of.

4

1

4. I am able to do things as well as most other people.

3

1

3. All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure.

2

2

3

4

Part C.
1. Select the drawing that you believe most accurately represents your CURRENT body size by circling the number closest to your
present body size. Note: The numbers below each drawing are not clothing sizes.

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

5

5.5

6

150

6.5

7

7.5

8

8.5

9

2. Select the drawing that you believe most accurately represents your IDEAL body size by circling the number closest to the size
you would like to be. Note: The numbers below each drawing are not clothing sizes.

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

5

5.5

6

151

6.5

7

7.5

8

8.5

9

3. Select the drawing that you believe most accurately represents the body size for the IDEAL SKATER by
circling the number closest to the size you think a skater should be. Note: The numbers below each drawing are not clothing sizes.

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

5

5.5

6

152

6.5

7

7.5

8

8.5

9

Part D. Please check a response for each of the following statements. There are no right or wrong answers, so please answer
honestly.
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
1. I am terrified about being overweight.






2. I avoid eating when I am hungry.













3. I find myself preoccupied with food.













4. I have gone on eating binges where I feel that I may not be
able to stop.
5. I cut my food into small pieces.

























6. I am aware of the calorie content of foods that I eat.













7. I particularly avoid food with a high carbohydrate content
(i.e. bread, rice, potatoes, etc.)
8. I feel that others would prefer if I ate more.

























9. I vomit after I have eaten.













10. I feel extremely guilty after eating.













11. I am preoccupied with a desire to be thinner.













12. I think about burning up calories when I exercise.













13. Other people think that I am too thin.













153

14. I am preoccupied with the thought of having fat on my
body.













15. I take longer than others to eat my meals.













16. I avoid foods with sugar in them.













17. I eat diet foods.













18. I feel that food controls my life.













19. I display self-control around food.













20. I feel that others pressure me to eat.













21. I give too much time and thought to food.













22. I feel uncomfortable after eating sweets.













23. I engage in dieting behavior.













24. I like my stomach to be empty.













25. I have the impulse to vomit after meals.













26. I enjoy trying new rich foods.













154

YOU ARE HALFWAY DONE! 
Part E. Please circle the number on the 6-point scale listed below that best describes how you truly feel about your current situation.
There are no right or wrong answers, so please answer honestly.
Never
Rarely
SomeOften
Usually
Always
times
1. Skaters must be a certain body weight to succeed in the
1
2
3
4
5
6
sport.
2. Skating should have a weight limit.
1
2
3
4
5
6
3. My skating peers notice if I put on weight.
4. My coach encourages skaters to maintain a below average
weight.
5. The lightest skaters are at a distinct performance
advantage.
6. My skating attire makes me conscious of my bodily
appearance.
7. The crowd scrutinizes my body and makes me concerned
about my weight and appearance.
8. Body weight and appearance are important to my coach.
9. Body weight and appearance are important to my family.
10. Body weight and appearance are important to my friends
outside of skating.
11. Any of my body flaws are readily apparent in my skating
attire.
12. Other skaters make comments if a skater gains weight.

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

155

13. My coach notices if I gain weight.
14. My coach encourages skaters to drop pounds.
15. There are pressures associated with skating to lose weight.
16. There are pressures associated with skating to maintain a
below average weight.
17. My coach places an emphasis on the weight of their
skaters.
18. The leanest skaters get special treatment.
19. My skating performance would improve if I gained at
least 5 pounds of muscle.
20. My coach encourages athletes to gain muscle mass.
21. My skating attire makes me aware of my build.
22. Weigh-ins are held periodically for skating.
23. My coach notices changes in my weight.
24. The leanest skaters are at a distinct performance
advantage.

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

156

Part F. Read each item carefully and then check one of the following five responses.

Agree

Don’t
Know

Disagree

Strongly
Disagree

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

Strongly
Agree
1. When I start something I feel anxious that I might fail.
2. My family and friends are proud of me when I do really
well.
3. I take pride in being meticulous when doing things.
4. I set impossibly high standards for myself.
5. I try to avoid the disapproval of others at all costs.
6. I like the acclaim I get for an outstanding performance.
7. When I am doing something I cannot relax until it is
perfect.
8. It feels as though my best is never good enough for other
people.
9. Producing a perfect performance is a reward in its own
right.
10. The problem of success is that I must work even harder.
11. If I make a mistake I feel that the whole thing is ruined.
12. I feel dissatisfied with myself unless I am working
towards a higher standard all the time.
13. I know the kind of person I ought or want to be, but feel I
always fall short of this.
14. Other people respect me for my achievements.
157

15. As a child however well I did, it never seemed good
enough to please my parents.
16. I think everyone loves a winner.

5

2

1

4

3

2

1

4

3

2

1

4

3

2

1

4

3

2

1

4

3

2

1

4

3

2

1

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

5
158

3

5

29. I enjoy the glory gained by my successes.

4

5

27. No matter how well I do I never feel satisfied with my
performance.
28. I believe that rigorous practice makes for perfection.

1

5

26. I feel guilty or ashamed if I do less than perfectly.

2

5

24. I gain great approval from others by the quality of my
accomplishments.
25. My successes spur me on to greater achievements.

3

5

22. If I fail people, I fear they will cease to respect or care for
me.
23. I like to please other people by being successful.

4

5

21. My high standards are admired by others.

1

5

20. When I achieve my goals I feel dissatisfied.

2

5

18. When I am competing against others, I am motivated by
wanting to be the best.
19. I feel good when pushing out the limits.

3

5

17. Other people expect nothing less than perfection from me.

4

4

3

2

1

30. I gain deep satisfaction when I have perfected something.

5

1

4

3

2

1

4

3

2

1

4

3

2

1

4

3

2

1

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

5

159

2

5

37. I enjoy working towards greater levels of precision and
accuracy.
38. I would rather not start something than risk doing it less
than perfectly.
39. When I do things I feel others will judge critically the
standard of my work.
40. I like the challenge of setting very high standards for
myself.

3

5

35. I like it when others recognize that what I do requires
great skill and effort to perfect.
36. The better I do, the better I am expected to do by others.

4

5

34. I get fulfillment from totally dedicating myself to a task.

1

5

33. I worry what others think if I make mistakes.

2

5

32. My parents encouraged me to excel.

3

5

31. I feel I have to be perfect to gain people’s approval.

4

4

3

2

1

ALMOST THERE! 
Part G. Please respond to the following items as openly and honestly as possible.
1. Some believe that the sport of figure skating is linked to pressures to lose or maintain weight. Do you
agree with this belief? Circle one: Yes No
If yes, why do you think these pressures exist?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
If yes, where and/or who do you think these pressures come from?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. In general, have your experiences in skating positively influenced the way your view your body?
Circle one: Yes No
If yes, in what ways?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. In general, have your experiences in skating negatively influenced the way your view your body?
Circle one: Yes No
If yes, in what ways?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
160

4. In general, have your experiences in skating positively influenced the way you eat and/or exercise?
Circle one: Yes No
If yes, in what ways?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
5. In general, have your experiences in skating negatively influenced the way you eat and/or exercise?
Circle one: Yes No
If yes, in what ways?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

161

THIS IS THE LAST SECTION! 
Part H. Please complete the following information about yourself as honestly as possible.
Characteristics and Background
1. Circle one: Male
Female
2. Age: _________years old
3. _____Caucasian/White
_____Hispanic/Latino/Mexican American
_____African-American/Black
_____American Indian
_____Asian American/Pacific Islander
_____Other; Please specify:_______________________

4.

Please complete the boxes below:

Your
Current Height

Your
Ideal Height

Your
Current Weight

Your
Ideal Weight

Ideal Height for Skating
Partner (If it applies)

5. Females only: Have you had your first period? (Circle one) Yes
No
a. If yes, how old were you?__________ years old
b. If yes, have you missed your period in the past 3 months? (Circle one) Yes

162

No

Ideal Weight for Skating
Partner (If it applies)

Skating Experience
6. How many years have you been skating? ___________years
7. Age of first competition: ___________years old
8. Circle all levels of competition that you have ever competed:
a. I have never competed.
b. Local competition
c. Open event/Non-qualifying Regionals
d. Qualifying Regionals
e. Sectionals
f. Collegiate competition
g. National competition
h. International competition
9. For your highest level of competition, please specify the competition title and event (For example: U.S Junior Championships,
Junior Pairs event).
Competition Title: ______________________________________________________________
Event: ________________________________________________________________________
10. Circle your current skating discipline(s). If more than one, star the discipline you spend the most time in (your “focus”).
a. Singles Skating
b. Pair Skating
c. Ice Dancing
d. Synchronized Skating

163

11. Using the table below, circle your current competitive level in each of the following categories. If you have never competed in a
particular category, indicate your highest test passed. If you have never competed or tested in a particular category, leave that
column blank.
Free Skate

Pair

Compulsory Dance

Free Dance
Juvenile

Synchronized
Skating
Beginner 1-3

Moves in the
Field
Pre-preliminary

Pre-preliminary

Pre-preliminary

Preliminary

Preliminary

Preliminary

Pre-Bronze

Intermediate

Preliminary

Preliminary

Pre-Juvenile

Pre-Juvenile

Bronze

Novice

Pre-Juvenile

Pre-Juvenile

Juvenile

Juvenile

Pre-Silver

Junior

Open Juvenile

Juvenile

Intermediate

Intermediate

Silver

Senior

Juvenile

Intermediate

Novice

Novice

Pre-Gold

Intermediate

Novice

Junior

Junior

Gold

Novice

Junior

Senior

Senior

International

Junior

Senior

Senior
Open Collegiate
Collegiate

164

Training
NOTE: If you are done with schooling (no longer attend school), skip question 12 and move to question 13.
12. How many hours per week do you currently practice skating:
a. During the school year?
_____hours per week on-ice
_____hours per week off-ice
b. During the summer?

_____hours per week on-ice
_____hours per week off-ice

13. How many hours per week do you currently practice skating:
a. During the competitive skating season? _____hours per week on-ice
_____hours per week off-ice
b. During the off-season?

_____hours per week on-ice
_____hours per week off-ice
_____I don’t have an off-season; I compete consistently year-round.

14. How often do you typically engage in exercise outside of skating?
a. Never
b. Occasionally
b. 1 or 2 days a week
c. 3-5 days a week
d. 6 or 7 days a week
e. More than once daily, 7 days a week

165

15. If applicable, please indicate the amount and type of exercise you perform outside of skating:
Type of exercise outside of skating
Hours per week
Do you perform this exercise during the competitive skating
season? (Indicate Yes or No)
EXAMPLE: Running
3 hours per week
Yes
EXAMPLE: Volleyball practice
5 hours per week
No

Participation
16. Circle the 3 primary reasons why you participate in skating.
a. To do something I’m good at
b. To stay in shape
c. To get exercise
d. To lose weight
e. To please my coaches
f. To please my parents
g. To make new friends
h. To have fun
i. To improve my skills
j. To learn new skills
k. For the excitement of competition
l. For the challenge of competition
THANK YOU SO MUCH FOR YOUR PARTICIPATION! 
If you have an interest in learning more about the topics addressed in these surveys,
a resource sheet is available from Dana.
166

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167

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