A SUGGESTED PROGRAM FOR THE
DEVELOPMENT OF THE HIDfi AND SKIN
INDUSTRY IN PAKISTAN BASED ON
AMERICAN PRACTKES

Thai: for the Dogma of M. A.
MlCH-lGAN STATE COLLEGE
Bahram Khan

' 1951

 

This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

A Suggested. Frog-am for the Development
of the Hide and Skin Industry in Pakistan
Based on American Practices

presented by

Behram Khan

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

 

Master of Arts degree in General Business
(Marketing)

 

/*i7/Q/M/€_

Major professor

 

Date November 8, 1951

0-169

 

 

 

 

 

-
4M~A—v --mm*-_-A AV .

 

 

 

A SUGGESTED PROGRAM FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF
THE HIDE AND SKIN INDUSTRY IN PAKISTAN

BASED ON AMERICAN PRACTICES

By

BEHRAM KHAN

A THESIS

Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan
State College of Agriculture and Applied Science '
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of General Business

1951

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author feels pleasure in expressing his sincere ap-—
preciation and most grateful thanks to all those who helped in
the completion of this study and the preparation of this manu-
script. ‘ Valuable Iguidance was specially given by Professor
E. A. Gee, Head of the Department Of Business Administration
in planning and arranging my visits to the packing houses and
the hide and skin dealers at the beginning of the fall, 1950,
when this study was first started under his supervision.

The study became more interesting and has assumed this
form due to the special interest of Dr. Brand in my project
keeping in view the benefits of the study to my Country (Pak-
istan). It is all due to his assistance, guidance, great concern,
invaluable criticisms and constant encouragement in the conduct
of this work that this manuscript has assumed this form.

The author is also indebted to Dr. 0. Flaherty, Director
of the Tanner's Research Laboratory and Professor W. T.

Roddy for affording every facility for my study at the Tanner's

Research Laboratory at University of Cincinnati.

208350

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER
I. Introduction
II. Hide Structure
III. The Hide and Skin Industry in the
United States
IV. The Hide and Skin Industry in Pakistan
V. The Hide and Skin Industry in Pakistan
(Continued)
VI. Slaughtering in Pakistan
VII. The Cure and Preservation of Hides
VIII. The Application of American Practices
in Pakistan
IX. Smnmary
BIBLIOGRAPHY

APPENDIX

Page

19

43

56
78

93

105
119
123

12.6

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

Before coming to the United States of America the
writer worked in the livestock section as an Assistant Mar-
keting Officer in the Cooperation and Marketing Department
of the Government of Pakistan. This department in undivided
India was designated as the Central Agricultural Marketing
Department, which came into existence in the year 1935 as a
result of the recommendations of the Royal Commission on
Agriculture. When this department was opened in Pakistan,
the Sphere of its activities was extended and a new section on
Cooperation was created and attached to it. This step was
taken to prOpagate amongst the masses a spirit of cooperation
and to strengthen the cooperative movement which promises
so much for a newly—born state like Pakistan. This depart—-
ment is known at present as the Cooperation and Marketing
Department and is under the charge of the C00peration and

Marketing Adviser to the Government of Pakistan.

2

Agriculture being the mainstay of Pakistan, the welfare
of a major section of the population depends upon an effective
system of marketing agricultural products including livestock
and livestock products. This department in addition to many
other duties is vested with the responsibility of conducting in—
vestigations into all problems of marketing and evolving effec—
tive measures to combat defects in the present—day trade in
agricultural produce, and livestock products.

Survey reports compiled by this department on various
commodities have brought out the fact that the producer’s
share in the consumer price is very small; that the quality of
the produce is low, and the price paid by the consumer is very
high. This is caused by several defects in the existing channels
of marketing such as unorganized assembling and distribution,
unregulated markets, lack of standard weights and measures,
inadequate and expensive means of transportation, poor storage
facilities, absence of a standard system of grading, etc.

Projects undertaken by this department include the com-
pilation of survey reports and planning developmental works.
The survey reports on the marketing of various commodities

are compiled by this department and give an over—all picture

of each commodity in respect to its supply, demand, market
preparation, prices, assembling, distribution, transportation,
financing, grading, etc. These reports also embody a sum-
mary of the main conclusions and recommendations f0r rectify-
ing the defects in the present—day trade. The development work
of the department includes measures taken to improve market-
ing conditions through the introduction of standard grades,
standardization of weights and measures, provision of market
facilities, standardization of market charges and practices,
issuing of price bulletins, etc.

It may be mentioned that this Department in spite of
several difficulties has been able to organize several ghee
and egg grading stations. As economic and political conditions
become more settled and funds are made available to the
department more grading stations and other marketing facilities
will be established.-

Jute in Pakistan is the principal export while hides and
skins are second in importance. Pakistan's position in world
market has been weak due to defective methods of preparation
resulting in a low quality product; and the absence of a standard

system of grading leading to uncertain supplies of uniformly good

4
quality hides. These defects weaken both internal and external
markets.

To take practical steps to remedy these defects and to
improve the quality of hides and skins the Pakistan Government
convened an all—Pakistan Hide Dealers conference in the year
1950. As a result of this conference the Government sent
the writer to the United States to study the hide and skin in-
dustry and return with recommendations for improving Pakistan
position in the world market.

The writer has spent considerable time in studying the
processing of hides and skins in the United States‘ packing
plants and also the hide markets in New York, Chicago and
Omaha. This background, coupled with marketing work at
Michigan State College, has enabled the writer to make this
study of the hide and skin industry in the United States and

Pakistan.

CHAPTER II

HIDE S TRUC TURE

the derma commonly known as the corium. Beneath the corium
is a layer of fatty and connective tissue which is called the
adipose or subcutaneous tissue. This tissue layer connects

the skin to the carcass.

The skin carries out several functions: It protects the
animal from external injuries and injurious influences; it re—
ceives sensory impulses from the outside; it helps to regulate
the temperature of the body; it excretes various substances to
the outside. The skin is provided with numerous accessory
Organs, such as hair, sebaceous glands, etc.

The characteristics of skin have been studied from skin
preparations which have been fixed in formaldehyde and then

cut into cross-sections. The skin is composed of two main

tive structures are composed of many elements. Let us con—
sider them separately. The epidermis is composed of four
layers or stratum and has associated with these, the hair, the
sebaceous glands, the sudoriferous glands, the erector peli
muscle, and the elastic tissue. The corium is composed of
collagenous fibrils, fibers and fiber bundles, connective or
reticular tissue, cellular elements, nerve tissue and blood ves—

sels. All of these structures unite.

Epide rmi 5

skin by the tanner, a knowledge of its components, is helpful
in many cases, especially when all of the epidermis is not re—
moved, as in the case of improper unhairing. The presence
of epidermal scale on the grain surface of leather results in
a poor finish and often results in tender grain that will peel
off very easily. Not all of the components of the epidermis
remain behind to cause such difficulty.

The epidermis is known as stratified epithelium, because

it is composed of four strata. These strata are, going from tOp

7
to bottom, stratum corneum, stratum granulosum, stratum lu—
cidum, and stratum germinatum. As the germinating layer
gives rise to the other three layers its characteristics will be

considered- first.

them with each other, and all possesses a well~defined and
easily—stained nucleus. As these cells reproduce, they push
outward and since there is very little intercellular substance,
they are poorly nourished. The smallest blood vessels, the
capillaries, terminate in the basement membrane of the derma.
The farther away the cells get from the basement membrane,
the greater are the metabolic changes, due to the lack of
nourishment, and in consequence to this, we find a layer in

which degenerative changes are manifested by kerato—hyaline

8

granules in the cells. This layer is designated as the ”stra-
tum granulosum. " It is composed of one or more rows of
cells which are in direct contact with this stratum germinatum.
These cells have either lost their power of reproduction or
resort to the simple direct method, and as further reproduction
occurs in the stratum germinatum they are pushed still further
from the source of nourishment and the kerato-hyaline granules
are changed, chemically, to eleidin. This has a very hyaline
appearance microsc0pica11y and is seen as a more or less
clean layer to which the name ”stratum lucidium" has been
applied. Still further removed from nourishment, the cells
undergo dehydration and become hard and horney in nature.
This represents the outermost layer of the skin and is known
as the “stratum corneum. " The cells of this layer are at all
times being voided by wear and injury. All of these layers
vary in the number of cell rows, according to the part of the
skin examined. It is very difficult to demonstrate all of the
layers, however in places where the skin is thick they are very

apparent. The four layers are demonstrated in Figure l.

Stratum Corneum Stratum Luctdtun

  
 
 

Vl_;r .m. -- "‘
1.:J1L‘v+ : .._.‘
WW”
L”: .‘LJFEJ? -(‘| I
‘V (1 i I 1' ’1' .
stratum granulosum - y ,2, ' Stratum Germinatum .
I," // ""1“, 'r. 1'
P
/ ll, / 1 u A'fo’

?1sUPe 1- semanstration or the four layers or the

eoidermts that are round in calf skin.

 

 

 

 

 

 

10

Basement Membrane

On the boundary between the epidermis and the corium
is found a special basement membrane. The question as to
whether this is a derivative of the epithelium or connective
tissue is not yet settled, although the epidermis is removed dur-
ing unhairing while the basement membrane is usually not re-
moved. This membrane is penetrated by the marginal spines

of the cylindrical cells of the stratum germinatum.
Hair

The hair on the calf skin is much softer in character
than that of the steer hide. In small calf skins the hair re—
sembles fur and is used for that purpose in the making of calf
fur coats. This hair still being in the formative stage is not
as thick as the adult hair and therefore is more resilient. The
outer cells of calf hair are tightly packed and having but slight
protrusion which do not form a good adhesive surface, do not
make good material for packing purposes. During the liming
process the outer cells of the calf hair are attacked and be-

come very smooth in direct contrast to the steer hair which is

'not so noticeably attacked.

11

The hair is composed of the cuticle, the cortex and the
medulla, going from the outside to the inside. The cuticle is
composed of the same material as the horney layer of the
epidermis. The surface epidermis dips down into the corium
and forms a pocket which it lines. I The pocket and its lining
form the follicle in which reposes the hair root. Beginning at
the bottom of the follicle we find that the root is expanded and
has a bulb—like shape; the expanded part is indented on its lower
surface by the entrance of a small blood vessel and this arrange—
ment gives rise to a pincer shape. From the bulb part the
hair extends upward as many rows of cells are arranged in a
parallel manner. Each cell in a row is continuous with its
neighboring cell and the rows of cells are arranged upon each
other in layers circularly disposed about the central core of
cells. Beginning in the very center of the hair we see a core
composed of fairly large columnar—shaped cells arranged end
to end in a row. This part is called the medulla. Outside,
and surrounding the medulla, we see an area of smaller cells
which constitute the cortex. On the outside of the cortex is

a very thin layer of very flat cells arranged in an overlapping

12

high concentration of the pigment. However, basically there

the cells which make up the hair.
Sebaceous Glands

The sebaceous glands are scattered over the entire sur~

face of the skin. They are always associated with hair and are

licle. Their excretory duct opens into the neck of the hair

sac. Sometimes more than one gland is connected with one

The excretory ducts of sebaceous glands are lined by a

stratified squamous epithelium which is continuous with the 'ex-

ternal root sheath of the hair or directly with the malpighian

layer of the epidermis.

   

 

  
 

l ,;
Cuticle
.(fl ‘ Shaft
i Cortex *} ' Medulla
/
t (7/
' ' ‘ /.':-
I p \ A l \\
. / , \\1.
« Lining or
follicle

Figure 2. Diagramstic drawing of Typical Hair.

 

l3

at the base of the hair root; usually on the posterior side of
the hair, as shown in Figure 3. They are tubular and are of

a corkscrew shape. The secretory portion has the shape of a

ucts into the hair follicle above the sebaceous gland duct. The
outer wall of the gland is composed of a membrane of connec—

tive tissue. The cellular elements on the-inside of the membrane

contain elongated nuclei, surrounded by mitochondria, and the

14. 4

 

Figure

 

' Sebaceous duct

Sebaceous Gland

i- Sudoriferous duct

—- Sudoriferous Gland

3° Diagramatic drawing showing th= releti:n
of the glands to the other epidermal

appendages.

15

16

rest of the cellular space is filled'with longitudinal fibrils.

It
is supposed that these "myo-epithelial” cells, by contracting,

help to discharge the secretion.

It is connected with

1tS place of attachment by networks of elastic fibers

muscle 15 involuntary and is not within the control of the ani-

mal, and the function is contraction.

Curing

It is well known that bacterial action sets in very soon

after the death of an animal, making it desirable to start cur-

ing as quickly as possible after the animal heat of the hide has
been dissipated. Delay in curing causes the salt to be taken

by the hide at a very much slower rate, thus favoring bacterial

r-..‘~wo

Figure 4.

, //(1
j I, I I Villa—L-
x:/. v.
.t x", K,
. -,/
;//__/
‘ 15’, “'Arrector p111
;/ IIIUBOIO
, /’
//_-
/’

D187P8m8tlc drawing showing the relation
of the hair muscle to the other epidermal

appendages.

« r

. . “‘4‘ :LA‘_

I»

 

v_<._._

l7

18

l
have proved. that delaying curing

action. McLaughlin and Theis

one hour caused the salt to diffuse into the hide only 69 per

cent as fast as when curing was started at once. A delay of

six hours reduced this diffusion rate to only 26 per cent. The

hide ultimately becomes saturated with salt, but the retardation

of its diffusion into the hide permits more time for putrefactive

changes which lower the quality of the hide.
The object of curing the hides is to protect them against

the putrefactive action of bacteria. Salt does not kill bacteria,
but it restricts their activities and reproduction. The primary
object of the elaborate application of salt is to saturate the

water of the hides with salt so as to restrict bacterial action.

Time enough must be allowed to permit diffusion of salt to

every part of the hides.

Approximately 62 per cent of a green hide is water.
Thus, 62 pounds of water can dissolve a maximum of 23 pounds

of salt. If one pound of salt is used per pound of hide (green
weight), it leaves 77 pounds as undissolved salt. Some of the

undissolved salt is recovered to be re-used.

 

l McLaughlin and Theis, E. R., J. Am. Leather Chem.
Assoc. , XVII, 400 (1922).

 

CHAPTER III
THE HIDE AND SKIN INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES

Hides are a by—product of the meat industry and are

derived from animals killed for food or otherwise. All the

hides produced thus are converted into leather regardless of

the demand for the leather produced from them. The demand

for meat and not for leather determines its production.

The United States is largely self—sufficient in its pro—
duction of cattle hides but it does also import some hides from
the surplus producing countries, mostly from Argentina, and to
a lesser degree from other western and the far eastern coun-

tries. The domestic hides are about 70 per cent from large

packing houses and the rest come from local slaughter—houses,
butchers, farmers, etc. Those produced in packing houses are
of superiOr grade compared to those produced otherwise.

Hides in this country are prevented from deterioration

by preserving them by green-salting, but some are also cured

by drying and also by dry—salting. The green-salted hides are

superior compared to the dry or dry-salted hides and the tanners

20

prefer them. The quality of hides also varies with the season

and the hides produced in summer are better than those pro-

'duced in winter.

The defense prOgram of the country has put a great

strain on the domestic production and in order to assure sup-

plies for Inilitary use the National Production Authority has

placed hides under complete allocation and issues periodic

quotas to local tanners. Lately, the federal government has

been considering the possibilities of a continuous import trade
with other countries.

Production

The annual domestic production is approximately 19,199,000

hides, while imports from foreign countries constitutes about

2,940,000 hides, making a total supply of about 22,139,000 hides

available for consumption (see Table I, page 21).
As regards sheep and lamb skins, the total production

is 11,739,000 skins per annum. Sheep skins are used for shoe

uppers, gloves, hand-bags, etc., while some skins from shearling
lambs are tanned with wool left on and are used for jackets,

slippers, etc. In order to assure an ample supply of shearling

TABLE I

1

21

NEW SUPPLY OF CATTLE HIDES IN THE UNITED STATES
(in thousands)

 

 

 

 

Domestic Production

Total

Year Federally Uninspected Mitzi-ts New
g g

1945 15,541 8,093 22,634 767 23,381
1946 11,413 9,600 21,013 102 21,115
1947 15,526 8,300 23,826 39 23,787
1948 12,995 7,500 20,495 2,128 22,623
1949 13,222 7,300 20,522 154 20,368
1950 13,103 6,096 19,199 2,940 22,139

 

 

skins for the use of armed forces the National Production Au—

thority has ordered all shearlings of military grade to be re—

served for military use.

on foreign producers.

As regards goat skins, the United) States is dependent

Her major sources of supply of goat

skins are South America, Mexico, South Africa, Pakistan and

India .

pp. 170—175.

”Hides and Leather," Commodity Year Book, 1951,

22

Playing (Skinning)

Preparing hides for the market begins with the flaying,
after killing the animal. In the United States every detail of
work involved in slaughtering and flaying of the animal is done
in a highly specialized manner. In large packing houses flay—

ing is done by more than a dozen highly-skilled butchers, each

ard pattern.

The repeated performing of only one portion of the skin—
ning job brings the work closer to perfection than is possible
when the same man is required to do a number of different

Operations. Since defects in flaying lower the value of a hide,

the big packer's hide is taken as the standard of workmanship.

The second quality grade constitutes the hides from
small packing houses, where fewer workmen perform the oper—
ation and the same degree of perfection is not usually reached.
Hides from the small packing houses are known as small-packer
hides.

Next in quality are the hides from city butchers. In

city abattoirs one or two butchers skin the whole carcass and

23

Cattle. The cattle are kept off feed for at least 24
hours previous to slaughter. The fasted animals bleed out

more thoroughly, they are easier to dress and the finish is

of slaughter. Undue handling or excitement causes a rush of
blood to the animal’s capillaries from which it is drained out
with great difficulty. The blood then left behind gives a pink

tinge to the carcass and consequently lowers the keeping qual-

ities of the meat.

Tools. Usually a six-inch skinning knife, a steel saw,

and a stunning axe are used in the dressing of a beef animal.

Stunning. The cattle are driven to the knocking pen or
tied to a post or ring in the floor and a sharp blow is given

With the axe on the forehead midway between the eyes and the

top of the poll. This crushes the bone into the brain structure

Sticking.

Sticking is usually performed in two ways:

(a) the standard method; (b) the kosher method.

Standard methgd. The sticker takes a position with his

back to the brisket. An incision is made over the point of the

brisket towards the jaw. The knife is inserted in front of the

brisket and the carotid artery is cut.

Kosher metho_d. This type of slaughter is done for the

Jews. In this method the animal is not stunned.

It is hoisted

and the throat is cut across.

After sticking by either method the animal remains in

the hoisted position until the blood is drained out. At this

point the animal is dead and the process of flaying or removal

of the hide begins.

Before describing the skinning operation it would not be

out of place to mention an interesting operation which I witnessed

25

at Shapiro and Brothers, while I was on a tour to Detroit.

The killing Operation in brief is given below.

sticker kills them. After the animals are bled they pass

through a shower to wash the hide. Next the flayers begin

skinning operations.

Flaying in Large Packing Houses

Heading. The first operator is the header, who ap-—
proaches the animal, which is still hanging head downward,
inserts his knife at the top of the head toward his left and

Opens the hide from the horn to the nostril and skin is re—

moved from the front of the face. The opening is continued

from the sticking point down through the center of the jaw and

26

the side of the face is skinned out. The head is then turned
and the opposite side is skinned. The jaw is grasped in one
hand and the head is bent back on its poll and the top spinal

column joint (the altas joint) is cut and the head is removed.

Shanking or legging. The carcass is then moved to the
skinning bed, it is lowered to the floor and placed on its back
and held upright by means of beef pritchers inserted on either
side of the brisket. The leggers then open the hide on the rear
of the fore shank and the rear of the hind shank. The cut is
continued to the midline to be made on the belly from the neck
to the bung. Thetendon is severed by cutting across the shank
and the dew claws are snipped off. The shanks are skinned and
removed at the smooth joint below the knee and hock. This
joint is at the enlargement, about an inch below the knee joint,
just where it tapers down to the cannon bone. It is cut around
on either side and the shank is grasped near the foot and a

sharp thrust is given downward and outward.

Siding. While still in the pritched position the carcass
is opened at the belly from the sticking piece to the tail. The

floorman then starts working on the side. The hide is removed

27

with long smooth strokes of the skinning knife. The knife is

held flat to the hide to avoid making cuts or scores. This is

fects in its most valuable portions. Next he starts removing
the hide from the fore quarters. The floorman then starts
cutting upwards from the Opened center cut, beside the bag in
the cow or scrotum in steer and to about six inches from the
tail depending upon the size of the animal. The cut is contin—
ued to join the cut made by the hind legger. Having completed
the skinning of one side, the pritcher is changed to the other
side to permit the skinning of the .Opposite side. The breast
and aitch bones are sawed to facilitate the separation of the
carcass into two sides. The carcass is then slightly hoisted

by hooks placed in the hind legs to permit skinning out the

hind quarte r s .

Rumping. The tail puller skins and pulls out the tail
bone and the fell-cutter removes the hide from the hind legs at

the round. The rumper cuts the hide away from the base of

the tail and rump. The tail is severed two joints from the

body. Cut is made around the bung and it is let drOp inside

28
the carcass. The fell-beater then removes the hide where it
adheres tightly at the front of the round and flank, beating it
with the back of cleavers as other workmen hold the hide and
pull it, thus removing the hide down to the hips of the carcass.
The carcass is now raised to. a half—hoist position with the
shoulder and neck on the floor. The entrails and the pluck
are then removed. The butcher then removes the hide from
the back and shoulders.

The carcass is then raised and hung off on the rail
permitting the complete removal of the hide. The clearer-out
skins the hide from the fore leg, and under the side of the
neck. The hide dropper then removes the hide from the shoul-
der and the remainder of the neck. The hide is then spread
on the floor and inspected for imperfections caused by the
flayers and the defects, if any, are pointed to the respective
butchers. The green hide at this stage weighs about 6 to 7

per cent of the live weight of the animal.

Skinning sheep andagoats. Tools and equipment: A skin-

 

ning rack on legs is about 18 inches high and six inches wide at
the bottom with a sloping side about six inches high. In the

absence of a rack 21 table or platform 'may be used.

29

While the sheep is lying on its back a foreleg is grasped
and the skin is Opened on the front down to the jaw, the same
is done on the other foreleg. The cuts meet in front of the
brisket. The hind leg is Opened down the back of the leg from
the hoof to the bung._ The knife is held fairly flat to avoid any
cut to the pelt or muscle; The hind shank is skinned and the
foot removed above the hoof at the joint above two joints from
the pastern. The back tendon over the hock is loosened and
then the other hind leg is skinned.

Standing to the rear left side of the carcass the cut
edge of the skin is grasped at the bung, pulling while fisting it
with the right hand. The skin is then loosened round the flank
and the udder area. Now the V~shaped piece of the pelt at the
brisket is grasped. The belt is fisted over the belly. The pelt
is opened down the center of the belly and it is fisted and
loosened around the side and up the leg. It is better to fist
up the leg than to pull the pelt down the leg, because pulling
may tear the protective fell and expose the muscle. The bung
is severed and the pelt is pulled from the tail. The pelt is
then fisted over the shoulder and pulled off the back and neck.

The head is cut at the altas joint and skinned out.

30

Curing Operation in the United States

The hide is allowed to cool for nearly two hours before
curing is started. In big packing houses the workmen first
inspect the hide for class, grade and weight and then trim off
the snout, lips, ears, earbase and gristle to conform to the
standard pattern. After the hide has been cooled to room tem-
perature curing should not be delayed, because bacterial action
rapidly sets in. On the other hand if curing is started before
the body heat is out, bacterial action on the hide is encouraged.
The hide is cleaned of blood, if any, because if it is left in the
hide it not only helps bacterial action but also greatly increases
the amount of salt required for effective preservation.

The places constructed for building the hide-pack have
drainage towards the front. The area is fairly large. There
is no hard or fast rule for the pack size but length is about
twice width, say 15 by 30 feet or 20 by 40 feet in area. Pack
heights do not exceed 4 to 5 feet. It is well known that folded
hides show a greater shrinkage in curing than unfolded hides.
Having selected the spot for the pack liberally scatter on the
floor No. 2 size rock salt so that the hair side of the bottom

layer of hide will be protected with brine and also prevent the

31
hide sticking to the floor. The pack is made level to retard
the brine run-off and permit the hide to remain in good condi-
tion for a longer period. The hides are spread in the pack
with flesh side up. Salt is liberally applied to each hide. On
the side, the hides are folded towards inside with a liberal
amount of salt filled in the laps. Care is taken so that no
portion of the hide remains without salt. In making corners
the flesh and hair side of the overthrown portion are well cov—
ered and the pockets are well filled with salt.. When the edges
are made the hides are spread in the middle so that the pack
will be made level. When the pack reaches its normal size
(4 to 5 feet) the tOp is covered with salt. The hides remain in
this condition for at least 30 days before they are sold to tan-
neries. Hides thus packed remain in good and marketable
condition for more than 6 months.

During the curing operation, the salt causes much water
to COme out of the hide and drain off as brine. This causes
the loss in weight of the hide known as shrinkage. One hun-
dred pounds of green hide, containing 62 pounds of water loses

about 35 pounds of water and gains about 6 pounds of salt.

32
The second practice is that after flaying the hides are
washed to remove blood and soluble protein matter and the
hair is scraped under a spray of water. The flesh side is
then brushed vigorously and surplus flesh is removed. The
hides are then soaked for 45 hours in a strong brine (25 per
cent) and allowed to drain, after which they are salted. The
brine hides produced more leather than the dry—salt process

and thicker and firmer leather.
Grading in the United States

Before describing grading it is essential to be familiar

with the nomenclature and classification of hides and skins:
Skin. A small hide is a skin.

Calf skin. In the case of cattle a hide weighing less

than 15 pounds in the green-salted state is called a calf skin.

Kip hide. A cattle hide weighing 15 to 25 pounds is
called a kip hide. It is called an overweight kip hide when it

weighs from 25 to 30 pounds.

33
Hide. A cattle hide weighing more than 30 pounds is a
hide. A cow hide is called light or heavy when its hide weighs

less than 53 pounds or more respectively.

Edes from male animals. They are classified as bull,
steer and stag according to the characteristics of the hide caused

by castration.

Bull hid_e_s. They are taken from animals that have not

 

been castrated, and are characterized by a very thick and rough
neck and shoulders with loose flanks. They are poor in qual-

ity and the weight ranges from about 60 pounds to more than

100 pounds.

Steer hide. These are hides from animals castrated as

 

calves after the age of about three months. The hide is smooth

and uniform in thickness and structure. It is much denser and

lighter than bull hide.

Stag hide. These are from male animals not castrated
at so early an age as the steers, often not until they are over

a year old. During the period preceding castration, they usually

deveIOp a hide like bulls, and the longer castration is delayed

34

the more the hide becomes like bull hide. In the market they
have no official designation of their own and are accepted as

steer or bull, whichever they more nearly resemble.

Etive hi3. A hide from unbranded animal is called
native hide. The term native merely indicates that the hide is

without brand marks.

Colorado steer hide. It means that the hide has been

branded on the side or butt area or both.

Texas steer hide. A branded hide of compact, narrow

and close pattern and plump is called a Texas steer hide.

Butt branded. When a hide is branded on the butt area

 

back of the break it is known as a butt-branded hide.

Pacific Coast hide.' If an animal is slaughtered and
flayed in one of the packing houses known in the trade as a

west coast plant, the hide is known in the trade as a Pacific

Coast hide.

Spreadx. Hides that are unusually wide are often called

spready.

35

Pimp hifid_e_. They have a dense structure and usually
have surface area small in proportion to their weight.

Hides are also designated according to the time of the
year that the animal was slaughtered such as January hides,
June hides, October hides, etc., or sometimes merely as winter
hides or summer hides. It is important to know the time of
slaughter because it greatly affects the yield and quality of
leather from them. Hides taken off during the months of July,
August, and September usually give the best results. On the

other hand a winter hide contains less hide substance and more

hairy weight than a summer hide.
Classification

In the United States hides are mainly classed as: (1)
big packer hides; (2) big small packer hides; (3) regular small
packer hides; (4) country hides.

In a large packing house, many butchers are engaged in

flaying the hide from a single animal. Each of these butchers

becomes highly skilled in one portion of the work of flaying.
This high degree of specialization results in less damage due

to improper flaying and the subsequent curing is also carried

36
out more efficiently and the hide is cut into a correct pattern
in the big packing houses, resulting in superior hides for man-
ufacturing into leather. Such hides are referred to in the trade
as big packer hides.

In small packing houses, where there is less special—
ization of work, and where two or three butchers may assist
in flaying the hide, the hides are usually of lower standard and
are known as small packer hides.

Most hides taken off by country butchers and inexperienced
farmers are badly damaged in flaying and are not well cured.
Although they may have come from animals of the same class
as those of the big packer hide, such hides are referred to as
country hides.

The hides from big packing houses have become the stand-
ard pattern, by reason of the high specialization of workmanship

in the complete removal of the hide and its subsequent curing.
Grading

In the trade only the big packer hides are considered of

standard pattern and they are sold under the following selection,

37

while the others are sold on "all weight” bases as will be

mentioned below.

BIG PACKER HIDES.

 

Heavy native steers - weight from 58 pounds up
Light native steers — weight from 48 to 58 pounds
Extra light native steers - weight from 30 to 48 pounds
Heavy native cows - weight from 53 pounds up
Light native cows — weight from 30 to 53 pounds
Heavy Texas steers - weight from 58 pounds up
Light Texas steers - weight from 48 to 58 pounds
Extra light Texas steers - weight from 30 to 48 pounds

Butt branded steer (spready type).

— weight from 58 pounds up

 

Heavy

Light - weight from 48 to 58 pounds
Colorado steer (side branded).

Heavy - weight from 58 pounds up

Light - weight from 48 to 58 pounds

38
Branded cow_s_. All weights (30 pounds and up) and

include branded hide s .

Extra light steers -— weight from 30 to 48 pounds
Native bulls - all weights
Branded bulls -— all weights

Calf skin_s. Skins weighing 15 pounds and under are
called calf skins. While skins weighing from 15 pounds to 30

pounds are called kips.

Packer Northern - weight from 9—1/2 to 15 pounds
Packer Northern - weight under 9—1/2 pounds
Packer river point — weight from 9-1/2 to 15 pounds
Packer river point -— weight under 9-1/2 pounds

BIG SMALL PACKER HIDES. They sort hides in the
same selection as the big packer, mentioned above and usually
receive big packer prices, when the market is normal or strong.
They may possibly receive a slightly lower price than the big

packers price when market is not too strong.

REGULAR SMALL PACKER. He usually kills from 500

to 1,000 animals per week. He sells his stock of hides on "all

weight" basis—~30 pounds and up——cows, steers branded, natives

39

all together. He receives a price about 2—1/2 cents per pound
below the big packer price depending upon the average weight

or depending upon tanner's preference of small packer hides.

_§_ountry hide_s. They are sold on ”all weight" basis
by dealers who collect these hides from butchers and farmers.
They receive between one and 1—1/2 cents per pound less than

the small packer's price.

Calf skin_s. They are sold on untrimmed basis by weight,
as 9-1/2 pounds down and 9—1/2 pounds to 15 pounds. They are
also sold on trimmed basis by piece. Untrimmed are when
heads and shanks are left on, while trimmed, are those from
which heads, shanks, etc., have been trimmed off.

Trimmed skins are sold in the following selection of
weights: 3 pounds to 4 pounds; 4 pounds to 5 pounds; 5 pounds

to 7 pounds; 7 pounds to 9 pounds; 9 pounds to 12 pounds.

Kip skins. They are from 15 pounds to 30 pounds in

weight. Fifteen to 25 pounds is kip while 25 to 30 pounds is

called overweight kip. While on trimmed basis they are sold

as 12 to 17 pounds and 17 to 30 pounds.

40

Market Grades

No. 1 hide. (a) Grain damage and sores: Hides having
sores or other defects on the hairside causing broken grain of
whatever length and diameter are not accepted in No. 1.

(b) Warty hide: No warty hides are accepted in No. l.

(c) Grub marks: No grub marks are allowed in No. l
hides. Grubby hides are delivered separately on an allowance
of one cent per pound less than the No. 1 price.

(d) Scored hides: A deep score or gouge halfway or
more through the hide is allowed if situated below the straight
line drawn through the break in the hair of the fore and hind
flank, i..e., approximately less than five inches from the edges
of the hide provided it is otherwise of a standard pattern.

(e) If the cut is less than three inches from the edge of
the hide and can be trimmed off without spoiling the pattern,
it shall be trimmed with the least possible waste and delivered
as No. 1 provided it is satisfactory in other respects.

(f) A cow hide having the bags trimmed off is not con-

sidered an off pattern and if otherwise of proper pattern is

delivered as NO. 1..

41
(g) If a hind shank has a cut, hole or blemish above
the hock such hide shall be accepted in No. 1 selection if

otherwise satisfactory in other respects.

fl. 2 hide. (a) Cut hides: Hides having a cut or hole

 

which cannot be trimmed without spoiling the pattern of the hide
is a No. 2 without trimming.

(b) Scored hides: A hide having a deep score or gouge
halfway or more through the hide and located approximately
within five inches or more from the edge of the hide is deliv—
ered. in NO. 2 without being skewered.

(c) Sore hides: A sore hide is delivered as No. 2.

(d) Grain damaged hides: Any hide having a defect on
the hairside causing the grain to be broken one inch or more
in length or diameter or having two or more such defective
spots which aggregate in measurement one inch or more in
length or diameter is delivered in No. 2 without being skewered.

This includes sores, rubs, scuffs and deep scratches.

Warty hides. (a) If the area covered by warts does

 

not exceed 36 square inches, the hide shall be delivered in

No. 2.

42

(b) If the areas covered by warts exceed 36 inches, but
are less than 72 square inches, the hide is delivered at 2 cents
per pound under the No. 1 price.

(c) If the warty areas are larger than 72 square inches
the .hide may be rejected, or if agreeable to both buyer and
seller, it may be delivered at a price 20% to 30% lower than
the No. 1 price.

((1) Any shank having a cut or hole below the knee or
hock one inch or more in length shall be corrected by trimming
straight across at the top of the cut.

(e) If the cut or hole be smaller than the above, such

shanks shall be accepted without trimming provided it is other-

wise of proper pattern.

Grubby hides. Any hide containing five or more grub

 

holes which may be punctured by the use of a wooden skewer

are graded as grubby hides. They are invoiced on the basis

of an allowance of one cent per pound. The percentage of

grubby hides is ascertained in a carload and applied against

the weight of No. l hides in the car.

CHAPTER IV
THE HIDE AND SKIN INDUSTRY IN PAKISTAN

Pakistan is essentially an agricultural country and rais-
ing livestock 'is vital to her economy. The actual contribution
made by different species of livestock has not been measured
since statistical data on production for the country as a whole
is not available.

In the year 1948 just after the creation of Pakistan as
an independent country, the necessity of maintaining data, par-
ticularly in regard to livestock production and the available
supplies of their products, has assumed greater proportion.

An attempt was made by Dr. I. Hag and the author to compile
whatever data could be collected from different sources and
published the same in the form of a marketing series, "Live-
stock Wealth of Pakistan."

Pakistan, in addition to her purely agricultural resources
possesses livestock wealth of which the country can justifiably
Certain breeds of oxen have achieved world-wide

take pride .

reputations, for instance, Red Sindhis and Sahiwals for milk

44

and Bhagnaris and Dhaniris for draught purposes. All types of

animals and birds contribute to the wealth of Pakistan by pro-

viding power, food, clothing, etc. The estimated annual produc—

tion of livestock, poultry, etc., is as follows:

 

 

 

TABLE II1
Annual Production

Domesticated livestock over 48 million heads
Poultry over 27 million heads
Annual catch of marine and

fresh water fish over 31 million maunds
The aggregated value of live—

stock, poultry, etc. ,

had been over 3,519 million Rupees
The value of their product over 3,776 million Rupees

 

 

Hides

Hides are obtained from oxen and buffaloes and repre-

sent an important raw material which Pakistan produces in large

quantities. Besides a substantial annual surplus of raw hides

for export, small quantities of tanned and dressed leather are

consigned to foreign markets.

 

 

l
Haq, 1., and B. Khan, ”Hides," Livestock Wealth _o_f_

Pakistan, 1949.

45

Approximately half of the internal demand for hides is
accounted for by the country pattern shoes, one-fifth for western
style shoes and the remainder for water bags, saddelry, suit—
cases, ropes and other articles of industrial or agricultural
use, including their repair. Considering the country's huge
population, the local consumption of leather goods is small
compared to that of western countries. This is due to the
absence of big factories for making footwear and other leather
goods, and the low quality of locally—produced leather goods.
There exists, therefore, a considerable import trade in foot-
wear and leather goods.

No estimates have been made of the hides collected
from camels, horses, and donkeys. Camel hides are frequently
used to make oil cans, table lamps and flower vases, etc.,
while those of equines are used for the production of coarse
leather goods. It should be mentioned that considerable prog-
ress has been made in western countries in developing industries
which utilize the by-products of the hide and tannery industry,
while in Pakistan efforts to conserve and utilize such material

economically have not yet been made even on a small scale.

46
As a result, hide trimmings, fat scraps, hair, etc., which could
be turned into products such as glue, tallow, and felt go as

waste.

Production. The annual production of hides has been

 

estimated at 5,149,000 pieces, valued at about 61 million ru-
pees (see Table III). Owing to the greater number of oxen
than buffaloes, the production of kips (88 per cent) is much
higher than that of buffs (12 per cent). Of the total, 61 per

cent are ”fallen” hides and 39 per cent slaughtered hides.

Qualities. In Pakistan standard specifications for hides
do not exist. Therefore the classification followed by merchants
vary considerably. Generally speaking, they classify hides ac—
cording to (1) region of production (e.g. , Decca's and North-
western), (2) type of cure (e.g., arsenated and dry—salted),

(3) quality (e.g., slaughtered and "fallen”), (4) weight (e.g.-,

lights and he avie 5).

Remarks. Pakistan produces many hides, more than
can be utilized for internal consumption, thereby creating a
surplus available for the foreign markets. Although hides have

been consigned to Western markets for a very long time, the

 

III
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48
processing of hides and skins has not progressed sufficiently
to enable Pakistan to compete in the international markets and
bring maximum returns to the producer. This has been due to
defective methods of flaying and curing, resulting in a compar—
atively low quality product and absence of a standard system of
grading, leading to uncertain supplies of hides of uniformly
good quality.

Defective preparation and faulty sorting of hides affect

the trade adversely both in the internal and external markets.

Skins

Sheep and goat skins also represent an important raw
material which Pakistan exports to foreign markets in large
quantities. Both these types of skins produce valuable leathers.
Small sized goat and kid skins are generally used for white or
light—tinted leather which is made into gloves, shoe uppers, etc. ,
while large—sized skins having fine grain are converted into
quality products such as Morocco leather. Cabinet maker's
cheap type of Morocco leather is prepared from large-sized
goat skins, having coarse grain. Sheep skins are made into

imitation Morocco leather. The consumption of skins in the

 

 

49

country itself is small. About three—fifths of the home demand
is accounted for by the manufacturer of shoe uppers, about

one -fourth for water bags, bOok binding material and repairs
and the remainder for miscellaneous articles such as ladies

hand bags, suit-cases, purses, etc.

Production. The annual production of skins has been

 

estimated at 7,564,000 pieces valued at 15 million rupees (see

Table IV).

Qualities. Skins are not graded according to any stand—
ard specifications. Sorting and classification vary in different
parts of the country and from market to market. The system
of classification generally followed by shippers is similar to

that described for hides.

Remarks. Owing to the faulty methods of rearing ani-
mals and the defective flaying and curing foreign markets have
not been favorable to sheep and goat skins from Pakistan. Im-
prOper market preparations coupled with the absence of any
system of standard grading has been responsible for the under—
developed trade in skins. Apart from improving the market

preparation and introducing a system of standard grading, it is

50

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51
necessary to establish local leather industries in Pakistan for

meeting its growing needs of different types of leather.
Fur and Fancy Skins

Fur skins include lambs and kids and fur—bearing animals
such as jackals, lynxes, and martens. Fancy skins include
reptiles such as snakes, lizards. and crocodiles; and wild ani—
mals such as tigers, leopards, deer and others. The fur and
fancy skins produced for home consumption is extremely small.
Such skins are costly and are used for the preparation of high—
class luxury goods as fur coats, fancy shoes, hand bags, gloves,
caps, etc. The pOpular caps, like the Jinnah cap, are made
from lamb skins, particularly from Karakul pelts, which .are
available along the Northwestern Border. Tiger and deer skins
generally enter the export trade but are often mounted locally

for decorative purposes .

Production. The annual production of fur and fancy skins

 

has been estimated at 1,903,000 pieces, valued at 8 million ru-
pees. Fur skins account for 63 per cent and fancy skins 37

per cent of the total (see Table V).

52

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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53

Qualities. Standard grade specifications for fur and
fancy skins do not exist. Assortments vary from merchant to
merchant and from one place to another. The usual classifi—
cation followed by shippers is:

Lamb skins: First quality (moire or Takkiy) — wool
small, soft, silky and fine witheverlasting curls; second quality
(nazakcha) - wool soft and fine with lasting curls; third quality
(Guldar) - wool bigger than those of Moire and Nazukcha, curls
Open and loose; fourth quality (plain) - wool loose, open and long,
with practically no curls.

Kid skins: First quality (moire or Patterns) - hair,
lustrous soft and soft and finely arranged; second quality (sur—
face pattern) -.hair less lustrous, less soft and less finely
arranged than in the case of moire; third quality (plain) - hair
not lustrous and not arranged in any order.

Crocodile skins are usually classified according to their
size and the type of grain surface. Lizard skins are sorted
into different colors and then classified the same as crocodile
skins. Snake skins meant for export consist of primes only,

the defective pieces being rejected by the shippers.

54

W. Fur and fancy skins fetch handsome prices
locally as well as in foreign markets. It is therefore, desir-
able that impetus should be given to this lucrative trade, both
qualitatively and quantitatively.

Pakistan's Position in World Markets
for Hides and Skins

Pakistan supports about 24 million head of oxen, 6 mil-
lion head of buffaloes, 6 million head of sheep, and 10 million
head of goats.

The world stock of cattle is estimated to be about 600
million head, 'while the number of sheep and goats is not known.
The world production of hides and skins has been estimated to
be between 76 and 102 million. Pakistan raises nearly five
per cent of the world's cattle, and her estimated production of
hides and skins is about 13 million—approximately 7 per cent
of the world production. Thus, one important point to be borne
in mind as regards Pakistan's position in the world market is
that quantitatively she is a large supplier.

Another important consideration is that among the chief
stock-raising and hide—producing countries of the world, Pakistan

is in a position to spare a big surplus for export.

55

Thirdly, the fact that a large proportion of cattle hides
produced in Pakistan are light—weight hides (i.e., kips) enables
Pakistan to influence the world markets for kips to a greater
extent than her share of the world's total production of hides
and skins indicates.

As regards goat skins, Pakistan's position is Somewhat
stronger, with an estimated production of about one-fourteenth
of the worldz supply. Even though her share of the world's
production of goat skins is only a little higher than her share
of the world's production of hides and kips, it is generally
believed that her position in the world's markets is stronger
in the case of goat skins than it is in the case of hides. It
has been claimed that certain classes of goat skins, especially

those produced in Eastern Pakistan, possess unique quality.

 

2 India hide cess—enquiry committee report, Vol. 1,

pp. 13 and 24.

CHAPTER V

THE HIDE AND SKIN INDUSTRY IN PAKISTAN
(Continued)

Hides and skins of adequately—nourished and properly-
kept animals are superior to those of animals not cared for and
left to semi-starvation.

In Pakistan animals are at present bred for different
purposes. Cattle are bred mainly for draught and milk and in
a few cases for breeding. In general buffaloes are reared for
milk with draught as a subsidiary function. Meat is, generally
speaking, not even a secondary consideration, the only possible
exception being the male buffalo calf. Sheep are raised for both
wool and meat, the exact relative value of each product varying
in the different provinces according to local habits and according
to the proximity to large centers of mutton consumption. Goats
are reared almost entirely for meat, milk being in some parts
of Punjab an important subsidiary factor. Among all these

animals, however, one factor is common, viz., the hides or the

skins are invariably treated as a by—product. This is true of

all countries whether economically advanced or backward. But

57
where cattle are bred for meat, the hide becomes an important
by~product and therefore enters into the stock raisers' calcula-
tions when breeding the animals. In Pakistan, however, except
in the case of the goat and to a certain extent the sheep, the
value of the hides or skins hardly ever receives consideration
by the producer. It is no doubt an important consideration
with the butcher, but from the breeders' point of view it is of
little consequence.

The improvement and prOper care of the animals has
been variously described (see Figure 5). The hide from a
well-nourished animal has a silky mellow and supple feel, the
texture is more compact, the tensile strength greater, and the
surface is more even and smooth than the hide from under-
nourished animals. Great emphasis should be placed on de—
veloping adequate diets for animals. At the present time the
inadequacy of funds at the-disposal of Pakistan limit the rate
of progress. Hence it is recommended that funds be raised
from the placing of a cess on hides and that it can be usefully
spent on research and develOpment in this direction, and that

apart from the general benefit to the rural folk some direct

improvement of hides and skins will also result.

58

 

 

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A

D

 

59

Defects Due to Disease and Pests and Old Age

Disease, like anthrax, renders the hide or skin unfit
for use before it is thoroughly disinfected. Rinderpest,
Haemorrhagic septicaemia, ”Red water” and cow and sheep pox
rob the hide or the skin of some of its hide substance and thus
impoverish it. Rinderpest moreover causes pock marks which
greatly damage the pelt. "Black quarter," Actinomycosis,
Multiple abcess, Ulurative lymphamgitis, Malignant turnours,
Filaria haemorrhaidalis and all wounds, especially with maggots,
cause holes, sores or'breaches in the hides or the skin. Ring-
worm, scalies, eczema, dermatitis and intestinal paracites im-
poverish the hide or skin and render it liable to show marks
during and after tannage.

The various forms in which the damage to the hide or
the skin occurs are holes, open sores, boils and pimples, scars
fully or incompletely healed, a mangey or scaly appearance,
scratching or rubbing and dents.

The fighting of animal diseases is however a vast prob—
lem in which the question of national gain through the improve-
ment of hides and skins must play a subsidiary though important

part. In the eyes of the veterinary department the prevention

60
and treatment of the diseases of animals with a view to the
improvement of hides and skins is hardly more important than
the preservation intact of the brown paper wrapping or covering
of a parcel. It is a fact that the primary producers principally,
and the traders, shippers, and Pakistan tanners to a lesser de—
gree, stand to gain by the reduction of the incidence of disease
among the Pakistan‘s livestock. It is recommended that vet-
erinary research and development work should receive greater
attention than the question of breeding, feeding and maintenance
of the livestock.

The present organization for veterinary research and
relief in Pakistan is based on the necessity of fighting epi-
demics. The meagre veterinary staff employed in the provinces
finds itself more than fully occupied with the w0rk of prevent-
ing the spread of serious outbreaks of contagious diseases. Its
strength, equipment and other resources have been admitted to
be inadequate for the purpose of dealing with important non—
contagious diseases. Needless to say that the treatment of
simple ailments and diseases like boils, pimples, sores, cuts,
itches, wounds, callouses, though not in itself difficult, is beyond

their means. Rural folks in the countryside are not altogether

61
devoid of rudimentary veterinary knowledge, but it is traditional
and nonprOgressive. It is unusual to find any attempt to spread
knowledge about animals, their diseases, and the care of such
diseases.

It is important to impart elementary knowledge about
such matters through school textbooks. Facilities which at
present are almost nonexistent for procuring supplies of drugs
and medical equipments in the rural areas should be provided
by the Federal Government.

It is better that a part of the cess fund raised be spent
in the form of grant—in-aid for specific purposes to the various
provincial veterinary departments and leave the development
work to be financed in the main by the local government con-
cerned, and research would be financed principally by the cen—

tral government.

Insects and Vermin

The most- important of these are warble flies, ticks,
mites, weevils, lice,_etc. These are not peculiar to Pakistan
butiare found in many other countries. The warble is the

most vicious of all these pests which damage the hides and

6?.
skins. The enormous extent of the recurring loss caused by
it has been responsible for considerable research in various
European countries. The problem has been attacked in EurOpe
and America with varying degrees of success.

A complete treatise on grubs, their life habits and methods
of control is available to the livestock owners by securing a
c0py of the United States Department of Agriculture Farmer's
Bulletin No, 1596.

Although the warble problem has not so far been syste-
matically tackled in Pakistan an examination of the larval stages
has shown that the Pakistan warble fly is the same as the
EurOpean and American fly, viz. , the bineatum species. Its
life history appears to be definitely season. The season for
the different stages of the parasite Ls life history differs slightly
in different countries. The appearance of the adult fly coincides
with the rainy season from June to August but some believe it
begins toward the close of April and ends towards the close of
July. The warble appears on the skin from September onwards
and it is between November and January or February that more

of the warbled hides and skins come to the markets. The

63
larvae escape between November and May and after pupation
appears as mature flies chiefly during the rainy season.

The nature of the damage to hide and skin caused by
warbles is known to the trade. A badly damaged warbled hide
looks as if it had been fired at with a shotgun. An Indian
kip exhibited in the museum of the leather department of the
University of Leeds has not less than 680 warble holes.

Next to warble flies the parasites which cause the most
damage both directly and indirectly to hides and skins are
ticks. They are found among cattle, sheep and goats.

Cattle ticks pass the greater part of their lives on the
hide or the skin of the animal. When the female tick is ap-
proaching the time of egg—laying, she drops to the ground and
lays eggs there. The hatched larvae ascend plants and other
vegetation nearby and collect on leaves, stems, and blades of
grass. They take no food during this period and if a host
animal is not found, they ultimately die of starvation. When—
ever the young ticks get an opportunity, they crawl up the hair
of cattle or other animals and are found on all parts of the
host's body, but. generally they prefer the parts where the skin

is thin.

64

Some ticks are continuous and some interrupted feeders.
The sucking of blood which is the tick‘s sole food is of course
of considerable detriment to the animal's health. Owing to the
perforations which the tick makes in order to suck the blood,
a ticky hide or skin looks as if it had numerous pin—holes.
They look like tiny sores more or less healed and break the
smoothness of the grain. The quality of the leather made from
such hides and skins is appreciably reduced. Exact figures are
not available to show the extent of damage caused by ticks to
the hides or skins. It is estimated that the damage runs to

several hundred thousands of rupees per annum-.

Remedial action. In America the problem of dealing

 

with the tick has been found to be simpler and easier than the
warble problem, though not inexpensive. The tick has no mo-
bility of its own and one field is not often infected from another.
Hence whenever plenty of pasture is available, it is not a dif—
ficult matter to eradicate ticks by keeping cattle in one field
till the females drop off to lay their eggs and then moving the
animals to another enclosure. The cattle are not allowed to go
back to the first field until the ticks have been starved out.

The necessary period for the starving out varies from one to

65
eight months according to the season and the lattitude, but it
is certain that they can be starved to death. In thickly—pop—
ulated countries and in unfenced areas (as in Pakistan) the
usual method of eradicating is to dip the affected animals in
tanks containing tick destroying solutions. Of such solutions
white arsenic, caustic soda, lye, soda ash, sal—soda, pinetar,
tobacco, lime and sulphur are some of the common ingredients.
When correctly compounded and used dips have been found
very useful in destroying ticks. Common methods are spray-
ing, liming, and burning of the ground on which ticks have
dropped for egg-laying. Full details of the seriousness of
cattle fever ticks are set forth in the United States Department
“of Agriculture Bulletin No. 1057. All livestock raisers should

read this booklet.

Defects Due to Wounds and Injuries

Branding is confined to cattle and takes two forms——
hot-iron branding and "Acid” branding. In the former case a
piece of iron or other metal is heated and while still red hot
is applied to the hide or the skin. The latter form is applied

by wetting an instrument, usually of wire, with a strong acid.

66

Acid branding is naturally less painful and causes less damage
to the hide or skin. A fire brand burns into and sometimes
through the grain and renders that part unsuitable for good
leather, for which smooth and unimpaired outer surface is nec-
essary. Branded hides are usually sorted out for sole leather.
Deep branding may weaken the whole structure of the corium
and reduce the parts affected to waste, as shown in Figure 6.

Branding is resorted to with one or more of the follow-
ing motives: (I) In the most rural parts of Pakistan the super-
stitious belief seems to be prevalent that branding is an effec—
tive remedy against certain disease, especially colic. The owner
sometimes believes that he is exercising the evil spirit from
the body of his animal. In no country do superstitions die an
early death. In Pakistan the position is complicated by the
paucity of veterinary facilities, so that even if the owner is
desirous of obtaining veterinary assistance, he has to resort to
branding as the second best choice. It is hoped that with the
wider spread of facilities for veterinary relief branding would
decrease. It is also hoped that veterinary work will go on ex-

panding and that in a course of time the system of private

Photograph showing damage caused
deep brand marks.

 

by

67

68

veterinary practice will develop, and that these automatically
will solve the problem' of branding for purposes of cure.

(2.) Sometimes branding is resorted to for the easy iden—
tification of the animals because cattle lifting is still a com—
mon crime in many parts of Pakistan, especially those lying
on the border. Giving of information to the police and rec0g-
nition of the animal when recovered are facilitated, if the ani-
mal bears some distinguishing marks. Moreover cattle passed 1
for the supply of beef to the army are generally branded usually
on the best part of the hide, viz., the butt with the object of
rendering the substitution of inferior and unpassed cattle im—
possible. Various suitable substitutes can be made for this
sort of branding, viz. , branding on the horns and hoofs, mark-
ing with indelible dyes or coal tar that is not too hot, clipping
of ears, and tattooing of the gums or inside of the ears.

(3) In certain parts of the country, the poisoning of cattle
is still a somewhat common crime. The poisoner's object is
to obtain the hide which according to custom, would be his pre-

requisite on the animal's death. Hence the owner of the cattle

deliberately ruins the living hide, as shown in Figure 7. Branding

Figure 7.

PhotOgraph showing
marks .

 

extensive brand

69

70
in such cases is extravagant. The hide often looks like the
skin of a zebra with all sorts of fantastic stripes.

An anaIOgous though far more cruel form of crime which
is still practiced in Madras '(now part of India) is the flaying
alive of the animal for the sake of the hide. _The hide thief
does not wish to take the risk of lifting the cattle and there—
fore administers a dose of some substance, which it is said
to paralyze the nervous system and enables the thief to flay the
animal alive without the animal being able to raise or bellow
or bleat. As these crimes indicate a low level of public se-
curity, it is hOped that it will decline with increasing of security
this form will diminish.

(4) Branding is occasionally inflicted for decorative pur—
poses. Such branding is very rare in Pakistan. No specific
remedy is possible, but with changing notions about what consti-
tutes decoration we hope this form of branding will disappear

in a few decades.

Goad marks. Another form of damage to hides is the

 

scratchy and uneven grain of the best part of the hide (viz. ,
the butt) resulting from the marks left by the gopad universally

used in Pakistan for driving draught animals. The goad has a

71
pointed nail fixed to the center of one end of a stick, and its
use is sometimes so merciless that the nail punctures the butt
and causes bleeding, as shown in Figure 8. It is not unusual
for sores to form around such parts.

There is practically no remedy for eliminating or even
materially reducing this form of damage. It is however sug—
gested that the society for the prevention of cruelty to‘animals
should be subsidized to carry on its work more vigorously. It
is also suggested that further powers should be conferred on
those who have to administer the police act and that other offi-
cials might be empowered to report cases of excessive use of
the goad.

- A certain amount of propaganda is no doubt possible,
and if an appeal to the humanitarian sentiment, to which the
average man in this country is particularly susceptible, is re—
inforced with an appeal to the economic interest of the owner,
some good might result. In particular, schemes of education
for rural peOple both young and adult, might include simple
statements of facts relating to avoidable economic waste re—
sulting from the present practices in the rural areas. Similar

prOpaganda by the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals

‘1!"

 

Figure 8.

Photograph showing hide
by goad marks.

 

 

damage caused

72

73
and other suitable organizations can, and should be assisted
with small grants—in—aid for work. on approved lines.

The problem of the damage resulting from yoke marks
(called Kandha in Pakistani) is in essence similar to that re-
lating to the goad marks though the nature and extent of the
damage are different, yoke pressure and rubbing gradually re-
sult in thickening of that part of the hide on which it rest.
Such thickened patches lose the grain, elasticity and tensility of
the natural hide. The neck portion is not however, so valuable
for leather as the butt which is damaged by the goad marks.
The actual national loss from yoke marks is a much smaller
amount than in the case of goad marks. In the case of many
classes of hide, the yoke damage is reduced by the fact that
the pressure of the 'yoke is borne by a fatty lump and the
hump. So. long as the oxen and buffaloes are used for cart
driving, it is impossible to provide a practical remedy. But
the practice, prevalent in certain parts of the country, of pro-
viding Some padding under the yoke, should be popularized in
the same manner and through the same agency as in the case

of goad marks.

74

The defects arising from miscellaneous sources—punc-
tures and cuts due to thorns and barbed wire fencing, scratch—-
ing of the grain owing to rubbing against hard rough surfaces
(e.g., the trunks of trees, boulders, stones or brick walls,
rough posts), sores and scars resulting from wounds received
in panic or in a fight with other animals cause an appreciable
national loss. Considering that except in a few parts of the
country stall-feeding is hardly ever practiced, that large
stretches of the country support only coarse shreddy vegetation,
and that the ever-increasing pressure of cultivation on pasture
lands has driven cattle and especially goats and sheep to jungle
grazing, there seemed to be no practicable solution for this
kind of damage.

The hides, and skins of ”fallen" animals are, by im—
memorial custom over the greater part of the country, the
prerequisite of the village chamar or sweeper. The owner of
the animal has no further interest in the hide or skin. The
chamar removes the dead carcass, and the hide or skin is
supposed to be his fee for his service.

The dead body is dragged toa special spot—generally

a customary assignment on the part of the local zamindar,

 

75
community or government—and skinned there. The dragging
causes various injuries to the hide or the skin, usually scratch-
ing and rubbing of the grain. Not infrequently a long interval
takes place before the skinning begins. During this time the
hide or skin is exposed to the ravages of vultures, as shown
in Figure 9. The putrifying action of heat, damp and surround-
ing filth causes what is technically known as ”taint,” a form
of incipient decay. Frequently the chammar is not an expert
skinner. He has no interest in the dead animals' flesh, and
the skinning is therefore somewhat better as regards cuts or
scores. But he tends to leave superfluous fat and flesh on the
hide or the skin especially the former. The origin of this
flaw is, in essence, a form of "loading" resorted to with the

object of artificial addition to the weight.

Remedial actions. Many of these defects are inherent

 

and hardly any remedy would be practicable. As regard the
ancient custom of the country by which the chammar is entitled
to the dead hide or skin as his prerequisite, it is not recom-
mended that it should be disturbed. It is believed that this

custom is slowly disappearing. It would be very difficult to

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Figure 9. Photograph showing damage to the hide

caused by the ravages of vultures.

 

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76

77

give the chammar training or more practice. His craft is

hereditary, and considering the various handicaps under which
he does his work he does it remarkably well. But I think it
is possible to educate him by various forms of propaganda to

realize his own economic loss caused by actions which he can

control.‘

CHAPTER VI

SLAUGHTERING IN PAKISTAN

The general—perhaps the universal—~practice in Pakistan
is to tie the legs with ropes and then ”throw” the animal. The
floor is invariably hard and damages the hide, especially in the

case of heavy animals.

F laying

It is however in connection with the handling of the car—
cass that some of the most serious defects occur.

It is true that compared with flaying in certain other
trOpical countries, e.g., Nigeria, East Africa, etc. , flaying in
Pakistan has been almost perfect and excellent. But compared
to American methods the standard of hide flaying is poor. The
flesh side of the hide often gets scored and even cut by care-
less use of the flaying knife. The knife cuts make long and
sometimes deep dents into the substance of the hide and occa—

sionally even slit the hide, as ShOWn in Figure 10.

Figure 10. PhotOgraph showing damage caused by
unskilled flayers.

 

79

 

80

These cuts or scores reduce the tensile strength of the
leather produced from the hide or skin so damaged. If the
leather is finished on the flesh side its appearance 'is also
marred. If the leather is intended for belt, straps and other
purposes involving its subjection to sharp or sustained strains,
the value of the leather is seriously reduced. On account of
these facts the raw hides or skins go down in the “grading“
0r "selection. "

The reasons for causing much national loss are: (l)
in the flayer's lack of skill and general carelessness; (2) ma—
terial and environmental (unsuitable knives, insufficient space,
dim light, lack of suitable arrangements for suspending the
carcass, etc.), and (3) those connected with conditions of meat
supply, the system of buying the slaughtered hide and the system

of employment of flayers and their work.

Remedial action. Training by itinerant trainers and

 

demonstrators would yield good results, the practice of employ-
ing juveniles and women as helpmates should be discouraged.
Flaying is a craft and long and sustained practices is a sine
qua non of faultless work. The'saving affected by the employ-

ment of untrained men cannot be a large amount, and in all

 

81
probability they are more than counterbalanced by the depre-
ciation of the hide flayed by nonprofessionals.

The use of fist and the elbow and the wooden knife or
hammer should be encouraged by suitable propaganda and dem—
onstrations.

Careless and indifference as well as lack of experience,
are the only excuses for unnecessary cutting and scoring of
skins and hides during flaying. The loss to the farmer, live-
stock raiser, butchers and tanner for the inferior hides may
be estimated in millions ‘of rupees annually. "Butcher Cuts,’l
scores and other flaying damage are doubly regrettable because
they can by care and effort be avoided.

A dull knife is the cause of cuts in many instances,
but a sharp knife in the hand of an inexperienced skinner, or
an indifferent person, will also result in unnecessary cuts and
scores. In Pakistan there are no large packers and slaugh-
tering is done in municipal slaughter houses by individual
butchers who slaughter from 1 to 10 animals a day.

A blunt mallet is satisfactory for removing heavy hides
but should never be used on light skins as it will break and

weaken the grain, making the leather of less value.

82

The Space available for flaying is, broadly speaking, in-
sufficient. The flaying has often to be done on the same spot
where the animal's throat is cut. Apart from the defects
arising from the lack of room for free movement when flay—
ing, the hide must get stained with blood and dung and other
filth. Uneven flooring harbors filth and micro-organisms, both
of which are injurious to the ”grain" hide. The lighting ar—
rangement -is unsatisfactory and often makes it impossible to
avoid flaying flaws. The slaughter houses have no arrange—
ments for heating which is bound to affect the response of the
flayer's hands and fingers in the cold weather. Moreover
owing to the exigencies of the meat trade in Pakistan, slaugh-
tering and flaying generally speaking have to take place in the
evening in the big cities and in the early hours of the morning
in the towns. In the winter this is very trying to the generally
ill~clad and none too well nourished flayer.

From the point of view of hide-flaying, however, the
most important drawback is that few slaughter houses have
suitable arrangements for suspending the carcass. It is not
very expensive to have facilities for suspending the carcass,

on the lines of the American Packing Houses. The animal,

83
immediately after it has been stunned, is suspended by its hind
legs. The throat is then cut and the blood is allowed to drain
off. The hanging carcass is then moved slowly along a trolley
of conveyor. A team of flayers is employed, each doing a
specific task. In Pakistan this system of teamwork is so far
unknown. There are no large slaughter houses in the country
to use such teamwork. But there seems to be no reason why
adequate and efficient equipment for suspending the carcass can

not be provided in the slaughter houses.

Hide purchased before slaughter. Of greater consequence

 

however is the system, sanctioned by tradition, under which the
hide is purchased while the animal is still alive. It is clear
that the butcher can have no great incentive left for careful
flaying when the hide, however it might be flayed, has already
become someone else's prOperty.

It is an irrational practice. It should be discouraged
because it takes away the monetary incentive from the butcher's
and the flayer's mind, and gives rise to an unnatural relation
between the flayer and the purchaser of the hide characterized
by the absence of a sense of responsibility on the part of the

former towards the latter.

84
Piece wages. Very often flayers are employees of the
butchers who pay them by piece. The piece wage leads to
hurried and even scamped work which the butcher, having no

further interest in the hide, doesn‘t supervise.

Lack of supervision. If flayers were in the employ of

 

the purchaser of the hide on the living animal or in the employ
of the slaughter house authorities, some of the evil results of
the system described above would be reduced.

The flayers are seldom required to have a license. There
being no system of registering the flayers. Even though a
license is necessary at Karachi the purpose of the license is
to insure against undue congestion. It is not designed to con-
fer power on the licensing authority to compel the licensee to
turn out satisfactory work. The net result is that even when
the slaughter house authorities insist on a license being taken
out, they do not hold themselves responsible for the quality of.
the flaying, the butcher feels no incentive in property which has
ceased to be his own, and the flayer has to hurry through with
his work as his earning depends on the quantity and not on the

quality of his work.

85

Presentjractice. The manner in which Pakistan hide

 

or skin is handled after it is taken off the carcass leaves much
to be desired. Instead of being immediately spread or pegged
to dry in the shade above the ground, the hides or the skins
are all thrown tOgether on the ground. The cooling and drying
takes place unevenly. Harmful micro—organisms soon begin
their insidious though deadly work on the substance of the hide
or the skin. The stains due to blood, dung, dirt, etc. , get

time to get more firmly fixed. In most places the hides and
skins are removed by contractors from the slaughter houses

and it is not unusual for the hide or a skin to be left on the
floor for even twenty—four hours before it is removed. A green
hide or skin is perishable and the nature and extent of the dam—
age which such delays in its removal must cost can be easily

imagined.

Preparation. The methods followed in Pakistan for

 

preparing hides and skins for curing and preservation, though
somewhat in advance of those in some other Asiatic countries,
are still in the main, primitive. Considering that labor em-
ployed in foreign tanneries is costly, the primary producer of

the hide or the skin in Pakistan stands to gain more than the

86
money equivalent of the extra labor. It is both possible and
desirable that as much as possible of the preparatory work
should be done by the primary producer and that the only ir-
reducible minimum should be left to be done at the exporting
ports or in the foreign ports. The primary producers and the
members of their families usually have plenty of spare time
which they should be trained to put into their goods. The
removal of foreign matter, the shaving of the flesh side so
as to reduce the matter in which bacterial action is liable to
start, the preparation of the smooth surface by applying pre-—
servatives and the stretching of the hides on frames or, if that
be not practicable, by pegging them out on the ground are among
the important preparative processes needing more attention than

they receive at present.

Chief defects. The chief defects are: (l) adherence

 

of foreign matter, (2) freezing, sun blisters, (3) uneven cooling
and drying and crumping, (4) over—drying, and (5) dragging and
scratching or rubbing of the grain.

(1) Foreign matter. A minor form of damage is that
caused by the presence of foreign matter like blood, flesh,

dung, manure, and farm and floor refuse, as shown in Figure 11.

Figure ll.

 

Photograph showing damage caused by
refuse left on the hide during curing.

87

88
They give the hide or skin a dirty appearance, make handling
unpleasant, cause difficulties regarding the proper valuation of
the article, and involve unnecessary labor in the tannery to
cleanse it.

Suitable prOpaganda, designed to appeal to the economic
interest of the producer should go a long way to increase the
general standard of cleanliness.

(2) Freezing, sun—blisters or burns and surface drying.
Owing to the climate that prevails over the greater part of
Pakistan freezing does not take place except in the highly moun—
tainous regions. Freezing does not by itself damage the hide
substance, but alternate exposure to bitter cold at night and a
bright and warm sun at midday tends to cause damage, espe-
cially on account of undue expansion and contraction. In the
present circumstances the installation of air-conditioned cellars
is not advisable and practicable, but all that can be done is to
educate the producer to realize waste.

Sun—blisters and burns are far more common. In dis-
tricts with stony or gravelly soils and even cities and towns
hides and skins are often left to dry on boulders, stones and

gravel and on stones or brick flooring. These get considerably

89
heated up during the middle of the day in the hot weather.
The parts resting over them are apt to get blistered and burnt.
Sometimes the surface dried up so fast that a hard crust is
formed which retards the drying of the interior substance.

All these defects can be avoided with a little care and
thought. The value of drying in the shade is not ,unknown to
the average primary producers in Pakistan but he is somewhat
careless and indifferent. Systematic prOpaganda is needed to

bring home to him the heavy price he has to pay.

Uneven dryirg and cooling. Uneven drying and cooling

 

takes place not only in the case of "fallen” hides and skins
from the villages but also in hides and skins from the slaughter
houses. When exposed to dry on a flat surface the "green"
hide or skin is apt to crumble, as shown in Figure 12.. When
this occurs and unless it is put right, some portions cdol

down and dry more quickly than others. Such unevenly-dried
pieces depreciated considerably. Sometimes the hide is laid
flat on the ground and secured by pegs, but though this helps
considerably against crumbling, the contact with the ground
even on the hair side is not desorable. In some parts of the

country rough wooden frames called "farms” are often used

Figure 12.

 

PhotOgraph showing irregular shape
caused by uneven drying.

9O

91
for dryingehides. This arrangement is quite satisfactory. A
drying frame need not be costly, as rough timber or bamboo
can be had in most rural areas fairly cheap. The piecing to-
gether of the parts is a simple matter. If the frame has,
besides the four outside pieces, the necessarynumber of inter-
mediate. strips-both longitudinal and latitudinal, one frame can
be used for hides and skins of varying dimensions and both
sides can be used. The work of designing such frames and
popularizing their use and of providing the necessary facilities
for their supply or local manufacture should engage the atten-
tion of the local authorities. As. the production of "fallen"
hides and skins by each producer is casual and small, cooper-

ative methods should be encouraged. So as to reduce the cap-

ital cost to individual producer.

Over—drying. Over—drying is another common defect

 

during the preparatory stage, and gives the hide a stony feel.

It renders resoaking at the tannery very difficult.

Rubbing and scratching. Rubbing and scratching of the

 

grain often occurs' in the case of hides left on the ground to

dry; the damage occurs chiefly when the hides are turned; heavy

92
hides are particularly liable to it. With little extra care and

thought it can be altOgether avoided.

CHAPTER VII
THE CURE AND PRESERVATION OF HIDES

The cure of raw hides and skins is one of the most im~
portant factors determining the grading or selection by the
tanners. Recent research has shown that the bacterial de-
cay of raw stock begins soon after the animal dies—whether
a natural death or in slaughter house. Hence "cure" is
necessary for preserving the raw stock from decay during the
period of storage and transport. Not only should the putre~
factive action of bacteria and other micro—organisms be checked,
but also, if possible, the bacteria, etc., should be killed.

The curing methods in use vary according to the local-
ity, the ‘climate, the materials available for curing, the length
of time for which cure is desired and the atmospheric condi-
tions in which the tanning is to take place. They can however

be broadly divided into two groups, wet and dry curing.

94

Wet-curing

Wet-curing is green or wet salting. Cormnon salt is
spread evenly on the flesh side and is rubbed in. The saline
liquor into which the natural moisture is converted permeates
the hide substance and draws out the blood which, if allowed
to remain, would cause discoloration. It is, however, a cheap
method which serves the needs of Pakistan tanners, but it re—
quires considerable care and judgment. The cure should begin
soon after, but not much before the animal heat has been given
out, the salting must be thorough and even and must not be
disturbed too much, the brine must be properly drained out.
The salt used must be pure, clean and fresh. Impure or un—
clean salt generally result in stains which are not always per-—
ceptible in the raw stock but come out indelible during tannage.
The use of ”spent" salt is risky, and it is desirable to dis-
courage its use. For proper cure the quantity of salt should
be about the same as the weight of the hide. Technical re-
search should be undertaken to find a cheap but efficacious
substitute, e.g. , a mixture or compound by which salt is
denatured and rendered unfit for human consumption. Along

with the technical investigation the education of the men

95
concerned should be promoted. This should begin with the
important slaughter houses and then be extended to the smaller
ones. The problem of educating the village chamar is difficult,
but as the small hide and skin dealer or his collecting agent
is the only available link with the producer in the village, a
few such dealers and agents will have to be trained as pre-
liminary to the training of the chamars. It is also feasible
that by offering inducement it should be possible to train a
few scores of such men in each province. It will also be use-
ful to appoint demonstrators or demonstrations parties. The
wet—salting method is best adapted to the local circumstances

of this country.
Dry—curing

Dry-curing takes various forms but the simplest and
the cheapest is drying the hide or the skin in the air. It has
the additional advantage of lightness in transport. If properly
carried out preferably in the shade, it undoubtedly enables the
raw stock to be kept indefinitely, unless other conditions are
unfavorable. It must be kept from being wetted or damped by

contact with water, steam or vapor. The air—dried stock

96
becomes almost as hard to the touch as stone; this is why air
drying is alternatively called flint-drying. In spite of these
disadvantages and risks, air drying is extensively resorted to,
the chief reasons being its simplicity and cheapness.

In order to prevent insects and maggots from attacking
air—dried stock it is usual to treat the surface with a solution

of white arsenic, which "poisons" the surface.
Dry—salting

Salt is rubbed on the flesh side while the hide is still
"green. " The salting and drying processes are repeated—
sometimes as often as six times. This method suits the damper
regions. far better than air-drying; hence it is extensively em-
ployed. in the rainy season and in damp places, e.g., eastern
Pakistan, but is more costly than air—drying and by adding
weight increases the cost of transportation. It also lends
itself easily to ”loading" and thus to fraudulent weighting, that
is, the hide is plastered with mud mixed with cement and other
materials, as shown in Figure 13. The. plastering is often
ingeniously done and gives a misleadingly neat appearance to

the flesh side.

Figure 13.

 

Photograph showing worker scraping
a "loaded" hide.

97

98

O

Dry-salted stock is however less liable to putrefaction
and damage by insects than merely air-dried stock. The dry-—

salted stock is now largely cleaned by exporters.
Remedial Actions

Dirty or bloody skins and hides keep poorly regardless
of the amount of salt present. All filth (which is ideal food
for germs) should be removed before'the curing salt is added.
A quick wash in cold water and the removal of the excess of
iwater before salting will yield a good return in the price of
this skin or hide. When dirty salt is used it adds germs to
the skin and such germs that live on dirty salt are able to
destroy skins and hides even when part clean salt is added.

‘ A clean skin or hide will keep better than a dirty one and will
produce much better leather.

Manure, blood and other filth encourage germs (bacteria)
to multiply and become active, and destruction of skins and
hides. results.

Regardless of the method used in curing a skin or hide,

there are some musts which should be followed:

99

(1) Careful take-off is so important, every cut, score
or tear reduces the value of the skin for leather manufacture.

(2) Excessive amount of fat left in the hide are unde—
sirable as they interfere with salt or brine entering the skin

or hide.

(3) Cleanliness is an essential with skins and hides as

it is with meat.

(4) Dirt and filth means germ life and since the animal
skin already has a large amount of germ life present and the
circumstances for germ development are ideal in a freshly

flayed animal skin, more filth must not be added which would

mean more germ life.
(5) Keep the animal as clean as possible.
(6) Let the skin or hide lose its animal heat before

salting. This will require 1 or 2 hours according to the

weather. It is very poor practice to leave skins or hides

from one day's kill until the next day before salting.
(7) Hides and skins should be trimmed to a good pat-

tern. Remove snouts, ears and long shanks, tail and uneven

edges. This will assure a better cure, and those parts re—

moved all have no leather value.

100

(8) Apply the proper sized clean salt liberally. For
calf skins use medium coarse ice cream salt. For hides use
a coarser grade. In the trade the most ideal salt for calf
skins is known as G.A. size salt. For hides, No. 2 rock
salt. If old salt is used on hides, at least half new salt should
be mixed with the old.

(9) Store the salted skin or hide in a cool dry place.

(10) Protect the cured skin or hide from insects or
rodents. The reason for all this is that a skin or hide will
make good leather if it is properly preserved. Clean salt
should be used because even dirty salt cannot prevent germ

life from develOping. The germ life on dirty salt is so ac-
customed to the salt, that it is capable of destroying valuable

skin substance even when such dirty salt is present.

The following suggestions are also worth consideration:
(1) The scientific aspect of the use of ”green" hides
in the local tanneries without a suitable cure for keeping the

'stock from the initial stages of bacterial decay should be in—

vestigated.

(2) The producers of raw stock should be trained in the

scientific handling of the various stages of proper wet-salting.

101
This work should begin in the important slaughter houses and
then be extended to other less important ones. Raw stock
dealers and their collecting agents should be induced by suit-
able means to acquire some grasp of the prOper stages and
processes. It is h0ped that this knowledge will, in due course,
filter down to the producers of ”fallen” raw stock. A few
experimental demonstrations should be made and the result
watched before launching out any ambitious schemes of demon-
strations.

(3) TechnolOgical research should be undertaken to find
cheap, easily applicable and efficacious substitutes for common
salt.

(4) The use of arsenic should be encouraged, but as it
is deadly poison its use must be kept under control. Arsen~
ication could take place on the spot, the primary producer would
benefit in the form of additional price for work done in spare
time. But at the same time its widespread distribution in the
rural areas is very risky. Hence this process should be left
to be done at central curing houses—possibly on cooperative
lines. Meanwhile research should be undertaken to find out

efficacious substitutes which would not be poisonous to human

102
beings and could not be mistaken by rural folks for any edible
article.

(5) The economic waste resulting from plastering for
the purpose of loading (Figure 13), and other forms of loading
and also from the various defects due to unscientific methods
of dry—curing should be brought home to the primary producer
and the dealer by means of suitable advertising, posters. and
slides. Attempts should be made to ascertain whether and
under what conditiohs the work done at the exporting centers
can be done as near the place of production as possible.

(6) The suitability of dry—brining process should be
ascertained.

(7) Technical research should be undertaken with the
object of finding suitable substitute for khari salt for dry-

curing.
Defects Due to Loading and Adulteration

Reference has already been made to various defects,
some of which amount to deliberate loading or adulteration.
The former term is generally used to denote the foreign matter

which should be but is not removed from the raw stock or which

103
is brought in from outside and left on it. It may be part of
the animal body, e-g., blood, flesh, fat, tail bones, pieces of
horn or of the hoofs, cheeks and other trimmings. These should
be removed if satisfactory cure is intended. It is moreover a
very common practice in many parts of the country to aggravate
the evil by bringing the genuine foreign body and fixing or plas—

tering it on the raw stock.

Loading. Loading is done with one or two objects, viz. ,
to conceal defects or to gain false weight. The defects which
loading can help to conceal are scores, and butcher cuts, holes
caused by warbles, ticks and other vermin, vulture marks,
stains and many other defects on the flesh side. The more
common motive of loading is however to gain false weight.
Loading is therefore done in those parts of the country where
hides are sold by weight. In some cases excessive salt, usu-
ally spent salt, is used, and some of it is left on the hide for
the purpose of adding weight. The reason why air-dried stock
is often preferred by foreign tanners is that they are sure of

what they are buying.

104

Adulteration. Sometimes the stock is wetted just before

 

railing or local shipment. 'The practice of accepting weight
as recorded in the railway receipt at the station of dispatch
has encouraged the mode of adulteration.

A part from giving false weight, loading may cause
damage—sometimes serious—not contemplated by the person
reSponsible for the loading. Thus the use of impure salt and
mineral causes stains and discoloration. Adulteration may ser-
iously affect the hide or skin substance. Thus, prolonged soak-
ing may result in its partial dissolution.

All these forms of loading and adulteration do not go
undetected, and tanners and shippers endeavor to make ample
allowance generally to cover themselves against damage to the
stock or loss in its weight. But, even then the national loss

remains.

Remedial actions. Apart from the education of the pri-

 

mary producer, so as to enable him to see how enormous the
loss is to the country as a whole and how he too must bear a
share of it, the remedy, if any, is in the hand of the trade. The
Government can, however, force it by enforcing compulsory grad-—

ing and strict inspection of the consignments before shipment.

CHAPTER VIII
THE APPLICATION OF AMERICAN PRACTICES IN PAKISTAN

It is a fact that Pakistan, being a young country, there.
is neither any big packing house on the level of the United
States nor does there exist any big develOpment and research
prOgram to improve the beef-type animal. It would be futile to
attempt development in total of the United States methods at the
beginning. However, there seems to be no reason why adequate
and efficient measures suitable to conditions in Pakistan should
not be applied, for its development and mould them according
to her environment.

As has been mentioned, great improvements in the qual-
ity of hides and skins can be effected by suitable nourishment
and proper care of the animals. Pakistan, being largely an
agricultural country, there should not be any dearth of fodder
and concentrates, but a little effort to organize the livestock
producers and to form them into cooperative societies which
should provide fodder and concentrates throughout the year and

also provide other marketing facilities for their members.

106
Hides and skins, being perishable commodities, require
immediate attention after the animal is slaughtered to prevent
autolysis and bacterial action affecting the quality of hides and
skins. Detailed suggestions have already been made in the
discussion in the previous chapter regarding each stage in the
process of preparation. However there are a few other Oper—
ations which should also receive adequate consideration if prOp-

er development in the industry is to be sought.
Slaughtering

The custom to tie all the four legs of an animal and to
drop him on the floor must change for the practice prevalent
in the United States. The animal should be stunned first and
then suspended by his hind legs; the throat should then be cut
while the animal is hanging with head down, from the pully.
The equipment for suspending the carcass should be provided
in the slaughter houses. This would not only allow thorough
bleeding of the animal but would prevent soiling the body in
blood and dung and as well as prevent bruising by tossing him
to the ground, moreover it would save labor because one man

would be able to secure an animal however furious it may be.

107
Whereas by performing the same Operation by the present
method (of ”tying and tossing") a team is required to secure
an ordinary animal for slaughtering and the body is all soiled

with dung and blood and the hide is damaged and bruised.

Halal Method (cutting the throat). In Pakistan the pop-

 

ulation is predominantly Moslems who slaughter the animal by
cutting the throat ("Halal"). This can be very easily accom-
plished by the method called "kosher. " This process I wit-
nessed in the packing houses supplying to Jewish pOpulation.
This method is briefly as follows. In this .method the animals
are not stunned. They are brought into the slaughter house by
a narrow lane, the end of which is guarded by a big door which
can be raised and lowered at will. The door is lifted knee—
high when the animal reaches the dead end. The hind legs of
the animal are chained by the attendant from the slaughter
house side‘through the slit made by the lifting of the pan. The
door is then gradually raised while the man at the pulley raises
the animal slowly from the ground to a convenient height, and
the head of the animal stretched on the ground for cutting the

throat.

108

This process may further be facilitated by a very sim—
ple device consisting of a wooden pole 4 to 5 feet long, with
a board 9" x 12” x 1” attached to one end. The board has a
thick canvas strap fixed to its longitudinal sides as is shown
in Figure 14. The head of the animal is caught in the strap
loop in such a way that the board rests against the frontal
head bone and the strap under the jaw bones. The animal is
thus perfectly secured with the head stretched and the throat
can be very easily cut. This method exactly fits in the require—
ments of Pakistan Halal method. This will prevent spoiling the
hide pattern and would avoid too wide cutting of the throat
which is very often the case in the present “tie and toss meth-
od. " It is the pattern which counts mostly in the grading of
the hides and Pakistan will save quite a big sum of money by

offering good standard pattern hides in foreign markets.
Flaying

Pakistan as mentioned cannot afford to erect large pack-
ing houses of the United States style, but at the same time it
can however obtain the benefits resulting from the specialization

of work in the big packing houses.

109

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 14. Halali butcher's aid.

110

It is needless to start with big plants. The only thing
she should do is:

h (1) Provide trolleys and other simple equipment which
will help in conveniently handling the animal. ‘

(2) StOp piece-work system of flaying. V

(3) The flayers should be all registered and licensed
issued only to those who qualify. A test should be given on
the job after training and education.

(4) The flayers should be the employees of the author—
ities owning the slaughter house (in most cases it is the local
government or the district. board authorities).

(5) The flayers should be able to do all the skinning
operations with perfection but he should be quite an expert in
the special operation which he is required to do again and again
on each carcass for which he is held responsible if any cut
or score occurs at that particular job (as is the case in big
packing houses in the United States).

A (6) Greater incentive should be given for work done
satisfactorily and up to the standard and a fine imposed for

not keeping up to the standard.

Ill
(7) Provide for good lighting in the Slaughter houses
to facilitate strict supervision and thorough inspection of each

hide that comes out of the slaughtering floor.
Grading

Grading can easily be adopted in Pakistan. The speci—
fication already mentioned in the section on grading can be
changed to fit the conditions in this country. Special consider—
ation should be made for the type of the hide, cut, score, grubs,
warts and other damages resulting from curing Operation, and

hide sorted accordingly.
Preserving

Hide and skin is a living tissue when removed from the
animal body after slaughter. As such it is not different from
meat and subject to the same type of spoilage. A spoiled hide
and skin loses its value as leather.

To avoid such Spoilage the hides and skins are preserved
by curing. The various methods, their merits and demerits,
have been discussed in detail in previous chapters. In this

chapter mention will only be made of the best method practiced

112
in some leading packing houses and research laboratories on
experimental basis and from which good results have been
claimed.

Argentina is an important cattle raising country and she
has developed a great packing industry. Argentina has become
noted as an enormous producer and exporter of hides. The
hides from their. large packing houses are known as Frigorifico
hides and are comparable to the United States big packer hides.
In the matter of cure, they are considered even superior to the
United States big packer's average run of hides.

The cure used by Argentina is called "Brine Cure. "
Much investigation and research work has been done on Brine
Cure in Research Laboratory at the University of Cincinnati
and in the research institutions of the big packers like Swift
and Company, etc. The results of the various laboratories
and tannery scale tests have shown the superiority of Brine
Cured hides over those cured by various other methods. The
merits claimed by various investigators are given in a brief

summary in the following lines.

 

1 Curifl Hides and Skins i_I_1_ Saturated Brine. Frank
L. Debeukelaer. (A summary of the address of Dr. 0. Fla—
herty, Director of the Tanner's Research Laboratory, Univer—
sity of Cincinnati.)

 

 

 

113

(1) "The cure is faster, more uniform and affords
greater protection when product is subjected tO adverse con-
ditions during shipment or subsequent storage. "

(2) "The cure practically eliminates so—called 'salt—
stains' 'even after prolonged storage. "

(3) "Produces leather of plumper and cleaner grain. ”

(4) ”Requires no washing Of hides before 'soaking back,‘
permits latter process to be shortened, and allows subsequent
Beam House practice tO be followed without modification. "

Experimental work has also established the necessity
for brining in saturated or nearly saturated brine. for a min-
imum Of about 14 to 16 hours. Brine curing of hides and
skins have emerged from the experimental stage and is now
in practical Operation at a number Of packing stations.

The essential equipment needed for this method Of cur-
ing consists Of units for preparing saturated brine in adequate
volume and for the brining process tOgether with means for
transferring the solution from point of make—up to that of us-
age. Proper agitation Of the charge during brining is a must.
The brine should be kept at or close to the saturation point

during the curing cycle. The saturation strength can be tested

114
by Salometers, shown in Figure 15. The charge should consist
Of one part by weight Of green hide and four parts by weight Of
saturated brine. However, a large prOportion of brine may be
necessary tO insure prOper agitating device employed. In other
words, sufficient brine should be used to secure prOper agitation
whenever the above minimum ratio'is inadequate. A vat capac—
ity of 8 cubic feet for each 100 pounds green hide or skins
should be adequate. A paddle—wheel type Of agitator is very
satisfactory.

Equipment for producing saturated brine will depend on
the requirements for saturated brine in terms of volume and
rate of production. In design, this dissolver or restrengthening
box may be extremely simple, consisting of a tank of sufficient
cross-sectional area and depth to hold rock salt in excess Of
the amount required for rapid saturation Of the partially un—
saturated brine and to form a bed having satisfactory percolating
performance. All that is needed is an oval—shaped tank con-
structed from concrete with means for circulation Of brine
through a salt-restrengthening box and for keeping hides mov-

ing through the brine.

115

A salometer.

Figure 15.

116

B rining

The brine curing although quite a simple Operation re—
quires very strict supervisionin all its detail if satisfactory
' products are to be Obtained. The Operation begins by having
the curing tank charged with saturated brine to not less than
four times the estimated green weight of hides and skins to be
cured. Promptly, after trimming and weighing, each individual
1 hide. is thrown on the surface of the brine, as fully spread out
,as possible. ‘ Brine circulation through the salt restrengthening
box and mixing of the curing tank contents should start with
. the introduction of the first hide. Continue this procedure for
.lat least six hours after placing the last hide in the curing tank.
If at this time a Salometer reading shows the brine to be prac-
tically saturated, circulation may be discontinued and stirring
of the vat charge may be intermittent thereafter but should be
at least 'On an hOurly basis, and for sufficient interval to in-
sure changing the position Of all hides in the vat. This. prO-
cedure should be continued for at least 14 hours after the last
hide is placed in the brine.

At the end of the ’brining period, the hides are with-

drawn from the curing solution and permitted to drain for a

117
period sufficient to rid them of more Of the adhering brine.
The "draining" can be recovered and reused.

Brine hides are ready for shipment several weeks ear-
lier under comparable conditions, than green salted hides.

It is possible to use a given batch Of brine repeatedly,
provided it is periodically processed 'tO remove dissolved or-
ganic matter. This is accomplished by coagulating the Organic
matter through heating the brine to the boiling point. Heating
also serves to sterilize the brine. The most satisfactory
temperature range for the brining process is 600 F. to 700 F.
Temperature above 750 F. should nor. be employed.

For calf skins the brining period may be shortened to
about 6 tO 8 hours since the structure and the thinness Of the
.skin permits rapid take—up of dissolved salt. Draining and
holding in pack are required as in the case of hides.

The "Brine Curing" method of preserving hides is very
well suited tO Pakistan Hide Industry and can be applied in its
simplest form as follows:

The animal should be washed thoroughly. After slaughter
the hide should be washed to remove blOOd, dung, and soluble

protein matter and the hair should be scraped under a spray Of

118
water. The flesh side should be then brushed vigorously to
remove surplus flesh and fascia. The hide should then be
soaked for 48 hours in strong brine and drained after which
they should be salted and dried as before.

In addition to the better curing Obtained by brining it
removes more Of the coagulable proteins in the skin than does
salting. The brine hide show no salt stains and the leather
is plumper than from the regular cured hides and show uni—
formity. Brine hides give slightly superior leather yields,
plumper leather, and freedom from salt stain.

The substitution Of brining and then dry—salting for dry
salting alone, the quality Of Pakistan hides could be improved
to a very great extent. This will not involve any great expense,
because in Pakistan there is no scarcity Of salt. The only
initial expense would be the construction Of brine tanks and
other requirements mentioned above at important slaughter
houses in big consuming centers. The initial expenses and the
operation costs can be very well Offset by levying a nominal

fee per piece or per dozen pieces.

CHAP TER IX
SUMMARY

Hide is an organ such as meat and bacterial action will
soon deteriorate its value as leather if not looked after and
well-preserved soon after it is flayed.

In the United States the hide is well flayed and properly
cured. In large packing houses the hides are of very high
quality, because flaying is very systematic, each flayer is an
expert on the part he flays and is accountable for any damage
done to that part. The flayers are the employees of the packer.
The hide is wellcleaned of blood and manure and then properly
cured with prOper grade of salt and placed in the pack fOr about
30 days before they are shipped to tanneries.

The slaughter houses are well equipped with modern
killing equipment and conveyOrs. The animal is hung from
hind legs after stunning and the hide is thus prevented from
being soiled with dung and blood, as well as from damages and

bruises caused by struggling on hard floors.

120

In the United States the hides are sold on a basis Of
quality. There are standard grades and every consideration
is given to the quality of the hide and prOper pattern. Every
dealer tries to compete on quality basis and intentional adul—
teration and loading is not done,

Hide is an important raw material which Pakistan prO-
'duces in large quantity. Her annual production of hides and
skins is valued at about 84 million rupees (Pakistan currency)
and her export is valued at about 53 million rupees. The
domestic industries are not well develOped to take care Of
her large production. Therefore it is mainly exported to
foreign markets. But it is not commended in the international
market and her produce is exchanged at very low rates and
only when there is great demand. This has been due to de-
fective flaying, curing and absence Of standard specifications.
The sorting followed by merchants varies considerably and the
buyer is uncertain Of supplies of uniformly good quality hides.
This has affected her trade adversely.

There is much to be done at every phase of prepara—
tion from breeding and feeding to the final stage when the hide

reaches terminal market for export. The preparation Of the

121
hide on the killing floor is very essential and needs immediate
attention. This could be accomplished by:

(l) Flaying, curing should beimproved.

(a) Organizing elaborate research program and issu—
ing popular pamphlets giving improved and economical methods
of preparing hides.

(b) Providing peripatetic demonstration parties for
educating flayers, curers and other connected with the preparation
of hides.

(c) Controlling skin diseases, especially mites and
warble fly infestation on a large scale.

(2) All hides, whether for internal consumption or ex-
port, marking according to standard specification should be
required by law. See Appendix for detail specifications for
grading tO be done by the Cooperation and Marketing Depart-
ment.

(3) The producers should be organized in cooperative
societies for collective marketing of their produce.

(4) Survey should be undertaken for investigating the

availability Of hides from camels, horses, donkeys and mules,

12.2.
the uses to which they are put at present, and the possible
uses to which they might more profitably be put in the future.

(5) While developing the local tanning industry efforts
should be made to take up simultaneously the manufacture,
standardization and marketing of by-products such as glue, ob-
tained from hides, trimmings, fat scraps, hair, etc. , which

are being wasted at present.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Arnold, John R., "Hides and Skins," A. W. Shaw CO., Chi-
cago and New York, 1925.

Clark, I. D. , Conserving Hides — Salting and Shipping, Bureau
Of Agr. and Indust. Chemistry, USDA (August, 1943),
pp. 1-6.

Clark, 1. D., Conserving Hides — Skinning, Bureau Of Agr.,
and Indust.. Chemistry, USDA (August, 1943), pp. 1-8.

Ferny, R. W., F. P. Veitch, R. W.- Hickman, and C. V.
Whalin, Country Hides and Skins, USDA, Farmers Bul—

letin NO. 1055 (October, 1942), pp. 1-48.

Haq, I. , and B. Khan, Hides — Livestock Wealth Of Pakistan
(August, 1949), pp. 58—66.

Hides Cess Enquiry Committee. Report, 1929-1930. v. 1
Calcutta, India Central Publication Branch, 1930.

Jiler, H. , G. Seymour, W. J. Milton, and W. Rober, Hide
and Leather — Commodity Year 1951 Book (June, 1951),

376 pp.

Kaye, M., The Preservation Of Hides with Brine and Salt.
J. Soc. Chem. Ind.; 48, l4l-T (1929).

McLauglin, G. D.; Post-mortem Changes in Hide. J. Am.
Leather Chem. Assoc.; 16, 435 (1921).

McLauglin, G. D., and E. R. Theis, Practice Of Heavy Hide
Curing. J. Am. Leather Chem. Assoc.; 17, 399 (1922).

, Science of ,Hide Curing. J. Am. Leather Chem. As-

soc.; 17, 376 (1922).

124

McLauglin, G. D., I. H. Blank, and G. E. Rockwell. On

the Re-use of Salt in the Curing of Animal Skins. The
Jour. of the Amer. Leather Chemists Association, vol.
XXIII, No. 7 (1928), pp. 301-318.

O'Flaherty, F., and W. T. Roddy, A Microscopic Study Of the

Price,

The Romance of Leather.
Seymour-Jones, A.; PhysiOlOgy Of the Skin.

Thomas, A. W., and S. B. Foster.

Effect Of Follicular Mange on Skins, Hides and Leather.
J. Am. Leather Chem. Assoc. 26, 394 (1931).

, Leather Defects. Hide and Leather With Shoe Fac-
tory.

l. Barb wire damages, Sept. 11, 1937. 2. Skin and
Hide Damages During Flaying, Oct. 9, 1937. 3.- Curry-
Comb Damage to Calf Skins, Nov. 13, 1937. 4. Skins
and Hide Damage During Curing, Dec. 11, 1937. 5. Sca-
bies Damage to Leather, Jan.- 8, 1938. 6. Grub Damage
to Skins, Hides and Leather, Feb. 12, 1938. 7. Wire
Damage to Skins, Hides, Machinery and Leather, March
12, 1938. 8. Mange Damage to Leather, April 9,

1938. 9. Wart—Damage on Leather, Oct. 8, 1938. 10.
Prod damage on hides, Nov. 12, 1938. ll. Ringworm
Scars On Skins and Hides, July 9, 1938. 12. Lice
Damage to Skins and Hides, May 14, 1938. 13. Tick
Damage to Skins and Hides, June 11, 1938.

, Wart Damage to Leather. J. Am. Leather Chem.
Assoc.; 33, 257 (1938).

Jas. , Jr_.; "North American Packer Hides," Pratt

Bros. CO., Chicago, 1939.
New York, Tanners' Council Of

America, 1937. 35 pp.

J. Soc. of
Leather Trade Chem.; (serially) 1917-21.
The Destructive and

Preservative Effect of Neutral Salts upon Hide Substance.
Ind. Eng. Chem.; 17, 1162 (1925).

125

William, D. R. The Microscope as an Aid in Leather Manu—
facture — Shoe and Leather Reporter (February, 1937),
pp. 1—16.

Wilson; J. A., “The Chemistry Of Leather Manufacture," 2nd
ed., Vol, 1, 1928.

Wilson, J. A.; "Modern Practice in Leather Manufacture"
(Reinhold Publishing Corp.) 1941, New York.

APPENDIX

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