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FOOD CONSUMPTION STUDY OF A RANDOMIZED SAMPLE
OF TWENTY YOUNG MARRIED STUDENT COUPLES OCCUPYING
LIVING QUARTERS ON MICHIGAN STATE COLLEGE CAMPUS

By

Jean Audrey Johnson

A THESIS

Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan
State College of Agriculture and Applied Science
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Department of Foods and Nutrition

1952

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The writer wishes to express her sincere appreciation
to Dr. Margaret A. Ohlson for her guidance, interest and
patient assistance throughout this study; and to the twenty
married couples who served as subjects and whose cooperation
made this study possible.

The writer also wishes to acknowledge with deep
appreciation the scholarship provided by the W. K. Kellogg
Foundation without which this study could not have been

accomplished.

£10fo .--.
*u 1."'“1;I"})'}H

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE
I. INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . 1
II. REVIEW OF METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Individual Food Consumption Studies . . . . 20

Diet History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Twenty-four Hour Recall Diet . . . . . . 22

Metabolic Balance Study . . . . . . . . . 24

Family or Group Food Consumption Studies . 24

Family Food Accounts Method . . . . . . . 24

Food Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Food List Method or Recall . . . . . . . 26

III. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE . . . . . . . . . . . SO
Determining the Sample . . . . . . . . . . SO
Recording Initial and Closing Inventory . . 51
Computation of Certain Nutrients . . . . . 33

IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Evaluation of Adequacy of Diets . . . . . . 36

V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . 55
VI. BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
VII. APPENDIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Sample Diet Record Computation . . . . . . 65

Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

 

LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE

1 Comparison of American, British, and

Canadian Dietary Standards for Calories

and Certain Nutrients for Sedentary Man

Weighing 154 lb. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lO
2 Influence of Income on Dietary Adequacy.

Per Cent of Families Deficient . . . . . . . . 12
5 Per Cent of Persons in the United States,

Distributed According to Geographical

Sections, who were found not to eat

Certain Protective Foods. (5) . . . . . . . . 18
4 Characteristics of Age, Height. Weight,

Calorie Consumption Per Person Per Day,

and Incidence of Pregnancy of Twenty

Couples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5 Intake of Calories, Protein, Calcium,

Vitamin A and Vitamin C of Twenty Couples . . 57
6 Comparison of Food Cost, Average Income,

Source of Income and Student Status and

Calories Ingested by Twenty Couples . . . . . 44
7 Marketing and Meal Preparation Practices

of Twenty Couples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
8 Commodities Owned by Twenty Couples . . . . 52
9 Consumption of Beer and Cigarettes of
Twenty Student Couples . . . . . . . . . . 54
lO Calculation of Certain Nutrients of Food
Consumed in One Week by a Representative

Couple . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . 65

INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The problem of determining the caloric content of
human diets has been of fundamental significance since early
days, not only as the basis of the knowledge of nutrition,
but in the history of science generally. The modern era of
chemical advances is believed to have originated around 1770
through introduction by Lavoisier of the balance and the
thermometer in clinical and biologic studies. The eXperi-
ments performed by Lavoisier on animal and human subjects.
led to the establishment of the principle that the com-
bustion of foodstuffs resulted in the formation of carbon
dioxide and water. with a simultaneous production of heat
which was measurable by its effect on the temperature of a
surrounding mass of water.

During the second half of the nineteenth century,
the Munich school of physiologists, under the leadership
of Voit and Rubner, showed that if studies were performed
with sufficient care, the caloric content of ingested food
minus the caloric equivalent of the urine and feces was
strictly equivalent to the heatiproduced by the subject.
This was taken as proof that the principle of the conser-
vation of energy could be applied to life. and to man in

particular. and established the fact that there was no
mysterious 'vitalist force” at work in living organisms
which would prevent the application of chemical thermo-
dynamics to physiology, nutrition, or medicine. (1)

The advances in science that were being made by
research workers in EurOpe, were introduced into the United
States during the end of the 19th Century and the beginning
of the 20th Century. The nutrition research in this country
was greatly benefited by the studies of the fuel value of
the important foods in American dietaries performed by
Dr. W. C. Atwater. Voit in Germany, had been Atwater's
professor, consequently the eXperiments performed in the
United States were an extension of the EurOpean accomplish-
ments in research.

The analysis of the fuel value of the principal foods
appearing in the diets of people in the United States was
accomplished by classifying the foods into groups. The per
cent of protein. fat and carbohydrate contributed by each
food group was calculated, and the energy value determined.
The specific fuel values were established for each.food
group by determining the heats of combustion, the coefficient
of digestibility of each food, and making allowances for the
energy value of urinary nitrogen. The fuel values determined
by Atwater for protein. carbohydrate and fat are still
widely used in present day food composition tables.

The first few decades of the 20th Century marked
the beginning of the deveIOpment of various methods for
the collection of dietary data. The total food intake of
members of a family or group were estimated by weighing all
foods consumed during a Specified period of time. Dietary
information on an individual basis was calculated by dividing
the total amount of food ingested by the number of subjects
comprising the sample, with suitable weighting for the
composition of the family. The information furnished by
the early diet surveys was not of a highly specific nature,
such as has been obtained through the controlled balance
studies of later years. The initial diet surveys were of
value, however, in providing a better understanding of the
food habits of various groups in different geographical
areas.

Dunluce and Greenwood in 1918 (2) surveyed diets in
hostels for munition workers and determined an over-all
consumption per man per day of the workers in one hostel
as being 3951 Calories daily. Details of twenty-three
foods consumed in this one hostel, in quantities per man
value weekly, were included in their study, the total energy
value of these being 5575 Calories per man per day. The
authors explained the discrepancy between the over-all mean

value and that of the detailed entries by the inclusion in

4
the latter of nutritive constituents of a large number of
smaller items (eggs, dried fruit, poultry, etc.) which were
not consumed in sufficiently large quantities per head for
their detailed tabulation to be useful:

Data have been collected and analyzed on a nation
wide scale in the United States and abroad, which throw
light on the extent to which various groups of the papulation
share in the national food supplies, and the degree of ade-
quacy in terms of the probable nutrient requirements, of the
customary diets ingested by the various peoples of a country.
The numerous family dietary studies that have been conducted
in the United States since the early 1920's, as well as the
United States Department of Agriculture's statistical analyses
of the average quantities of various groups of foods dis-
appearing in consumption channels, have shown that there has
been a tremendous rise in the sugar and citrus fruit intake
by the citizens of the United States, as well as an upward
trend in the consumption of dairy products and fruits and
vegetables as a whole. Paralleling these increases, there
has been a decline in the consumption of potatoes, meat, and
grain products. According to dietary studies made during
the period 1885 to 1957, the decline in the consumption of
grain products by village and city families, has been greater
among those with comparatively low food expenditures. Among

families spending less than average amounts for food

($1.87 - $2.00 per person per week, 1955 retail food prices)
meat consumption fell to a low level in 1915 - 1924, and
since that period has increased relatively little. In
contrast, in families spending more than average amounts
for food, meat consumption declined relatively more in the
decade 1915 - 1924, but since that period has increased
considerably. The rate of increase in the consumption of
milk and leafy green vegetables during the last fifty years,
has been of about the same order of magnitude among all
eXpenditure groups, whereas the relative increase in the
consumption of vitamin C rich foods has been more striking
at lower than at higher budgetary levels.

In 1955 in New York City a nutrition survey revealed
that 48 per cent of the low income families included in the
representative sample, had an average daily caloric intake
below that estimated to be the minimum allowance. (4) In
the same year a survey of low-income families in Baltimore,
Cleveland, Detroit, Pittsburgh and Syracuse showed that
27 per cent of them had an average daily caloric intake
lower than the minimum standard, 18 per cent had diets with
a caloric value approximately 20 per cent or more below

that standard. (5)

6

Among families of employed wage-earners and clerical
workers in forty-three industrial centers in eight major
geographical regions, it was found during 1955 - 1956 that
the maximum proportion of white families with good diets in
any region was only 21 per cent. In the region with the
poorest showing, no more than 11 per cent of the families
had good diets, classified according to the National Research
Council Recommended Allowances. (6)

The Food and Nutrition Board of the National Research
Council has promulgated the recommended dietary allowances
of essential nutrients in the daily diet, with the object
of having the standards applied as representing not merely
the minimal requirements of average individuals, but as
levels enough higher to substantially cover all individual
variations in the requirements of normal peOple. The
recommended dietary allowances are thus to be understood
as desirable goals or objectives. The standards that have
been recommended are generally higher than average require-
ments but generally lower than the doses used to meet needs
created by pathological states or in certain environmental
conditions, or in compensating for an earlier period of

depletion. A diet shown to be below the recommended

allowance would thus not necessarily indicate a condition
of deficient nutrition, but a diet which meets the allowances

can be assumed to provide adequate nutriture.

7

Dietary investigations conducted in sixty-six counties
in five different geographic regions during 1956-1957 showed
that only 55 per cent of white farm Operator's families in
the North and West, and 27 per cent in the South had diets
meeting recommended allowances. Thirty-four per cent of the
families in the North and West, and 50 per cent in the South-
east had diets rated as fair. The diets rated as fair in
this study were those containing less than 50 per cent Calories
above the estimated minimum requirement. Among the negro
families in the Southeast, 24 per cent had diets rated as
fair and 65 per cent had diets rated as poor. (7)

According to the allowances of the essential nutrients
to be contained in the daily diet as determined by the
National Research Council, less than one-fifth of the
families in the United States had food supplies in 1956
that met the Council's recommendations. About one-fourth
of the farm families were in this category, but only about
one-seventh of the non-farm families. At least 60 per cent
of the village and city families fell short of the Council's
allowances with reSpect to calcium, vitamin Bl’ ascorbic
acid, and/or riboflavin, and 50 per cent with reSpect to
vitamin A. (7)

A comparison of the American, British, and Canadian
dietary allowances shows that though differences exist

between the three tables, the basic figures seem to be

8

fundamentally similar. Most of the differences are considered
to derive from different uses for which each standard is
intended. The chief differences come from ”a difference in
the philosophy underlying the nature and purposes of Feeding
Standards” . (8)

The American Recommended Dietary Allowances are “levels
of nutrient intakes which the Food and Nutrition Board
recommends as normally desirable goals or objectives“. (9)
”They are intended to represent not merely the literal .
(minimal) requirements of average individuals, but levels
enough higher to substantially cover all individual vari-
ations in the requirements of normal people“. In most
categories (calories are an exception), the ”margin of
safety” for the average person is estimated to be from
thirty to one hundred per cent.

The British Medical Association figures ”are believed
to be sufficient to establish and maintain a good nutritional
state in representative individuals of the groups concerned“.
They "concern the needs of healthy individuals”, not the
sick or convalescent. (10)

The Canadian dietary standard "is recommended as a
basis for planning food supplies for individuals or groups,
except where clinical observations or tests have established

particular or Special food requirements“. (11) They “can

9

also be used to assess the amount of each nutrient provided
by a diet for an individual or for a group of people”.
Finally, they “indicate a nutritional floor below which
maintenance of health in people cannot be assumed”. ”The
Standards presented have been eSpecially based on the
concepts of size, and for certain nutrients, of maintenance
plus work". (11)

Thus British Standards are based on average require-
ment; the American on an average requirement plus a margin
of safety to describe the highest need of anyone in an age
or sex category; and the Canadian on the use of variations
in.body size in order to extract the probable cause of the
individual variations in needs. The Canadian Standard is
believed to represent a closer approach to the needs of the
individual, in contrast to those of a population group,
than is true of the other two standards. Table l illus-
trates the three dietary standards.

In a food consumption study of twenty-nine families
with an income between $500. and $1,500. in Edmonton,
Alberta in 1959, Sandin gt al,(l2) found that the average
intake of calories, protein, fat,and phOSphorus was in
excess of the requirements as defined by the Canadian
Council on Nutrition. However, though the mean consumption

of these nutrients for the group was more than adequate,

10
Table l

COMPARISON OF UNITED STATES, BRITISH, AND CANADIAN
DIETARY STANDARDS FOR CALORIES AND CERTAIN NUTRIENTS
FOR A SEDENTARY MAN WEIGHING 154 LBS. (8)

 

Nutrients

 

Calories
Protein (gm.)
Calcium (gm.)
Iron (mg.)

Vitamin A (I.U.)

Thiamine (mg.)

Riboflavin (mg.)

Niacin (mg.)

Ascorbic Acid (mg.)

U. s. fiadim
Recommended Dietary
Allowances, Standards,

Including British to be
"Margin of Dietary Adjusted for
ngety' Standards Body Weight

2400 2250 2476

70 66 67
1.0 0.8 0.7
12 12 6
5000 5000 5000 (as
carotene)
1.2 0.9 0.75
1.8 1.4 1.2
12 9 7.5
75 20 50

 

Footnote: The standards are stated on a per day basis.

11
great variation in intake was found even in the small
sample under observation. Some families appeared to be
very deficient in calcium and iron. Twelve of the twenty-
nine families studied were recorded as ingesting adequate
amounts of all nutrients. The families living on the lowest
incomes were shown to be deficient in protein, calcium and
iron. The mean intakes in families with no children were
above standards; those with one child had a low iron intake;
where there were two children in the family group, there
was a deficiency in calcium and iron. The larger the family,
the more deficient the diet.

Pett and Hunter conducted a dietary survey in
Edmonton, Alberta in 1941. (15) The authors employed the
individual consumption method in their study of seventy-
six families (525 individuals). The sample was comprised of
88 per cent British stock, 9 per cent French, and 5 per
cent Scandinavian and Chinese. A weighed inventory was
taken of all foods on hand at the beginning of the week of
study, records were kept of all food consumed at each meal
by each individual during the week, and then a final inven-
tory was made at the end of the week. A comparison was
made of the number of families in the low income group
($500. per annum) who were deficient as compared to those

in the higher income group ($1,500.).

12
Table 2

INFLUENCE OF INCOME 0N DIETARY ADEQUACY
PER CENT OF FAMILIES DEFICIENT

 

— :‘Z

 

F C c S’ 0
Low Income 60 64 57 70 71
Higher Income 48 48 50 50 60

 

Studies have been made on college students to determine
their nutritional needs. Hetler (l4) determined the urinary
nitrogen, basal metabolism, and protein and caloric intake
of eighty-five women students at the University of Illinois,
ranging in age from nineteen to thirty-seven years. Records
of food intake were kept by the students eating their custom-
ary diets at dormitories, restaurants and at home. The
individuals in the group ingested daily quantities of protein
which ranged from 0.5 to 1.5 grams per kilogram of body
weight, and showed an average basal metabolic rate of 1260
Calories per twenty-four hours which was below the standard.
(Harris-Benedict Standards based on Age and Stature for
Women). A definite relationship between low protein intake
and low basal metabolic rates was not established.

In 1942, NhKay gt_a1,(l5),studied the calcium,

phosphorus and nitrogen intakes and retentions or losses

15
of a large group of young college women. The women carried
on their customary activities and consumed their usual diets.
During two consecutive school years, a study was made of the
calcium, phOSphorus and nitrogen intakes and retentions of
nine young women when they were on basal diets supplemented
during each of three periods by one, two and three cups of
milk, reapectively. The calcium in the diet varied with
the amounts of milk used. The mean daily intake of calcium
was shown to be 0.9 grams for a group of 124 who were eating
according to their customary dietary habits, with large
individual variations. Mean daily retentions were signifi-
cantly dependent on intake. Lower intakes of calcium were
more efficiently utilized when the diet adequately provided
other dietary factors than when customary food intakes were
consumed.

The nitrogen intakes of the women college students
observed by McKay at al,, varied only slightly from the
daily allowance of 60 grams of protein, with the retentions
being significantly related to intake. No evidence was
shown of better nitrogen utilization with a controlled
diet than when the subjects were consuming their customary
food intake. That milk increased calcium retention due to
the improvement of the diet in.factors other than calcium

is a conclusion suggested by the authors. The desirability

14
of a generous allowance of calcium.for young women is
believed by the authors to be indicated by the findings
of the study.

Calcium and phosphorus retentions were studied when
cod liver oil and yeast were added to the usual, unrestricted
dietaries of thirty-four women by Hunscher and others. (16)
No consistent changes were noted in the retentions by the
addition of the concentrated vitamin supplements.

Nutrition surveys, wherein medical evaluation and
biochemical determinations of nutrient levels in the body
fluids are analyzed, have develOped during the last two
decades. A more complete appraisal of the state of nutrition
of the individual or groups of pe0ple can be accomplished
by approaching the over-all evaluation from several view-
points. The medical examination furnishes information
concerning the clinical condition of the individual, but
tends to be a subjective analysis which does not measure
minor degrees of under-nutrition. Biochemical methods for
measuring nutritional status are as yet too limited in
number to provide a complete evaluation of all the essential
nutrients in the diet. The techniques of recording dietary
information that have been formulated through the years in
the organization, collection of data, and interpretation

of the findings of the survey have contributed greatly

15
to the reliability in the interpretation of the results
of surveys. The modern trend of employing a variety of
skills or "tools“ in the dietary evaluation of individuals
still depends to a large extent on the diet survey as a
means of assessing nutritional status.

A medical survey of nutrition in Newfoundland corre-
lated the food intakes observed in eight hundred and sixty-
eight subjects in St. John‘s and several other outports
with clinical and biochemical evidence of abnormality
relating to nutrition. The diets consumed by the pe0p1es
of Newfoundland were found to be adequate in calories and
protein, but deficient in calcium, ascorbic acid, vitamin A
and riboflavin. In keeping with the very poor average diet,

a very large pr0portion of the p0pulation was found with

dry skin, staring, lusterless eyes, edema of the tongue,
swollen gums, or other abnormalities of the skin and mucous
membrances which have come to be regarded as signs of mal-

, nutrition. A high infant mortality rate is prevalent amongst
the inhabitants of Newfoundland as well as an elevated death
rate from upper reSpiratory infections. (17)

In a nutrition survey of Norris Point, Newfoundland, in
1944, Goldsmith g§_a1, (18) studied one hundred and twenty-six
subjects who were all under physiologic stress due to growth or

pregnancy. The initial survey was conducted in 1944 prior to the

16
compulsory flour enrichment and fortification of margarine
program. A second survey was organized.four years later
upon the same fishing and 10gging village to determine the
effects of the enrichment program. The 1944 initial survey
showed a deficiency of vitamins A and riboflavin, and iron
to be prevalent among the p0pulation. In 1948, following
the administration of a school lunch program wherein the
children were given cocoa and cod liver oil; pregnant and
lactating women and infants received concentrated orange
juice; and 0.5 per cent bone meal with 51 per cent calcium
was added to all flour, the caloric content of the.diet as
well as the total protein, thiamine, iron and niacin all
appeared to be adequate. The physical findings which
correlated with the increased dietary intake, were a
decrease in glossitis and neurological signs, increased
height in children, elevated plasma protein readings, as
well as higher hemoglobin in the blood, no avitaminosis A,
and a lack of improvement in ascorbic acid and riboflavin
nutriture.

Diet surveys conducted in the United States during
1940 - 1941 have shown that over-all per capita consumption
of many foods was higher in 1940 than in 1956, as a result
of the combined influence of educational programs, increased

power of consumers to buy, food distribution, and more

17
abundant food supplies. Gains were greatest in fruits and
vegetables and the utilization of fresh citrus fruits was
more than one-third higher. Other fruits and fresh vegetables
have risen 10 to 15 per cent in consumption. The intake of
meat and eggs was 8 to 10 per cent higher, but dairy products
less than 5 per cent higher. There was a slight decrease
in the quantities of grain products and potatoes consumed.
These shifts probably have meant considerable increases in
the ascorbic acid content of American diets and some increase
in the consumption of protein, thiamine and riboflavin. (5)

A nation-wide canvass in February 1945, in which
one-day diet records were obtained from selective sampling
of the population in each of forty-eight states, showed
that the per cents of persons as listed in Table 5 were
found not to eat these protective foods.

The peak years in average intake of food were
1945 - 1946. Intakes of calcium have increased as is
true of riboflavin, which reflects the fact that milk,
which is an excellent source of both these nutrients,
has contributed from two-thirds to three-fourths of the
calcium and nearly half the riboflavin in the national
diet. Higher intakes of vitamin A.as well as ascorbic

acid can be associated with the increased consumption

Table 5

PER CENT OF PERSONS IN THE UNITED STATES,
DISTRIBUTED ACCORDING TO GEOGRAPHICAL SECTIONS,
WHO WERE FOUND NOT TO EAT CERTAIN PROTECTIVE FOODS. (3)

18

 

-. 5. FUO.‘

Citrus fruits,
tomatoes and
greens

Dairy products

Leafy and yellow
vegetables

Other vegetables
and fruits

Meat, fish and
poultry

Whole grain or
enriched products

NewIEngland
and

:i 0

A

46
45

28

:n 1

31

26

12

55
31

21

12

14

28

24

14

 

19
of vegetables and fruits. The greatest increases in nutrient
intakesin.recent years, as shown by diet survey studies,
have been in thiamine, niacin, riboflavin and iron. About
one half of these increases are the result of the enrichment
of bread and flour. (19)

‘Man's life span, initiative, and productivity are all
intimately related to his food intake and dietary habits,
and in consequence, the more that is known about the food
intake of peoples from.all the walks of life, the more that
can be added to the fund of knowledge which is necessary
for the betterment of mankind. The following study is a
contribution towards the appraisal of the daily diet habits

of a representative sample of young married college students.

REVIEW OF METHODS

The techniques to be used in studies of what families
and individuals eat may be determined by the primary purpose
to be served in the resulting information, whether nutritional,
sociological, psychological or economic. Rarely is a study
useful for only one purpose, but the main objective of the
study will affect the methods selected and the use to which
the final results can be applied. Outlined here are some
of the methods commonly used for studying the food consumption
of p0pulations.

Studies of the diets of individuals differ from family
studies with reSpect to methods used and objectives. The
methods employed in estimating the consumption of individuals
range from a qualitative diet history or food habit inquiry
to quantitative laboratory measures of the quantity and
composition of the food eaten. The procedures for collecting
food intake information may be enumerated as follows:

The dietary history aims to discover the usual food
pattern over a relatively long period as contrasted to a
list of the quantities of different foods eaten during a
defined Span of time. This procedure is useful in revealing
major individual deviations from the traditional concepts

21
of good food habits.and furnishes a basis for classifying
individuals into certain broad groups such as those falling
above or below determined standards in one or more nutrients.

Some investigators believe that diet histories can
be obtained with sufficient accuracy and completeness to
justify calculation into terms of nutrients and appraisal
of the individual's dietary practices. The evaluation of
the dietary history must be done keeping in mind that an'
adequate diet can be obtained from a variety of food combi-
nations. A set pattern of food consumption need not be
adjudged as the basis for evaluation of adequacy. The
daily food intake composed entirely of meat, milk and fruit
for example, can provide a fully adequate diet.

The individual diet record may be obtained by
estimating or measuring the food actually eaten by the
individual, using common measures, or the subjects may be
taught to use balances or scales. The subjects are shown
how to keep the individual record for a period of seven
days or more. A.fu11 description of the food, and a recipe
of all mixed dishes is obtained. Compound cooked dishes
greatly complicate the individual survey. These are dealt
with in one of three ways:

1. A recipe is procured with the dietary record and a
weight for the cooked dish is assumed, or an experi-
mental dish is cooked and the result is taken to

represent the dish of which part was actually eaten.

22
2. The analyses in food composition tables are used.
5. The ingredients of the dish are recorded, the
weight of the cooked dish is determined, and the
weights of the individual portions are referred
to the original ingredients.
The third method has been shown to be the most reliable.

Another method for collecting individual data, is
that in which the subject is asked to recall what he ate
during a previous period, usually the last twenty-four or
forty-eight hours. The subject may be asked for an estimate
of the quantity of each food in terms of food models and
standard measurements supplied by the investigator. The
information from this type of study is of most value as a
basis for determining the need for educational programs.
Average values of nutrients consumed during the defined
period may be computed from standard food composition
tables and compared to the recommended dietary allowances
for an evaluation of adequacy.

There are inherent errors in the collection of
information concerning the dietary practices of the
individual by the methods whereby the subject is asked
to keep his individual record for a period of seven days
or more, as well as that in which he is asked to recall

what he ate during a previous period. The subject may

25
keep an incorrect record; the analyst may err in translating
the subject’s quantitative measures or estimates into units
employed in the food table used; the food tables may not
be applicable in a given case. However, various studies
have shown that the carefully taken individual food record
is of value in nutrition surveys. (20) Studies of this
type permit reasonably good characterization of the dietary
habits of groups.

A modification of the individual record method is
that in which a duplicate sample of each serving of food
which is consumed by the subject, is taken for analysis.
This method is of value even though two portions of the
same food, equal by weight, may vary in chemical composition,
as the variation inherent in food samples is of lesser
magnitude than that existing in the analysis of nutrient
intake by computation from standard food composition tables.
A factor which must be considered in applying this method
is the possibility of non-inclusion in the duplicate of
small items taken with or between meals. A.further COD!
sideration is the effect the weighing of all food consumed
has on the subject. The factor of having to weigh all food
eaten during the day, usually causes the individual to cut
out between meal snacks, thus altering the usual intake.

24

The application of the above mentioned methods may
be extended to include the metabolic studies executed under
controlled laboratory conditions by research groups with
Special facilities for the collection and analysis of data.

Accurate information collected in diet surveys
depends to a considerable degree upon the personal relations
established between the investigator and the subject. Skill
in interviewing is an essential quality in the person con-
ducting the investigation, as many seemingly unrelated facts
can be elicited through general conversation which will
increase the accuracy of the data being recorded. The
establishment of good personal relations between the persons
being questioned and that of the investigator is thus a
factor of considerable importance in all types of dietary
surveys.

Three general methods commonly employed in the study
of diets of families or other groups of individuals may be
designated as follows:

A perpetual inventory of food purchased and produced
for household use is recorded in the family food accounts
method. Day by day records of food purchases and food
expenditures furnish valuable facts about family food
consumption, eSpecially among urban groups who keep only

small stores of food on hand. This method is readily

understood by the homemaker, requires low cost in the
collection of data and, in households where food purchasing
is pretty much hand to mouth, it is not necessary to keep
food accounts over a very extended period. The limiting
factors may be a lack of interest on the part of the home-
maker resulting in an incomplete record and difficulty in
getting a random sample, as the participants must be co-
0perative and able.

A record by weight of food on hand at the beginning
and end of a Specific period of time is the procedure
followed in the food inventory method. A daily entry of
all food brought into the home during the designated period
under study is recorded by weight. A trained investigator
takes the initial and closing inventory so as to minimize
the possibility of error. A calibrated scale is left at
the home with careful instructions concerning the daily
recording by weight of food purchased. A record of menus
is obtained for the same period of study to serve as a
check on the inventory records. Daily visits are made by
the investigator to supervise the daily record.

The food inventory method provides one of the most
accurate measures of food consumption for individual families
as well as averages for groups of families. The limitations

of the method are that it does not distinguish between food

26
intakes of family members; there is no record of plate and
kitchen waste; the frequent visits of the investigator may
influence the customary food pattern of the family; and
the burden it places on the household that is collaborating
may be considerable. A relatively high proportion of families
drawn in the sample may fail to cooperate. Another limitation
of this method is the high cost involved in the collection
of field data and in the tabulations that follow the field
work, when a survey of extensive magnitude is being conducted.

In the food list method or recall, a report is obtained
from the homemaker of the estimated quantity by weight, house-
hold measure or retail unit of the various foods consumed
during the previous seven days. The interviewer uses a
schedule covering a complete list of foods. The food list
method has been proved to give a fairly accurate measure of
food bought or procured by individual families, though
understatements tend to be high. For an individual family,
the over-estimates of some food may partially offset the
under-estimates of others, so that in terms of various
nutrients, errors may be less than for individual foods.

The advantages of this method are that only a single and
relatively short visit by the investigator is required
and a greater degree of 000peration by the homemaker can

be expected. The cost of the method is low.

27

The original data collected in diet surveys, may be
translated into nutrient terms by various methods, one of
which is the computation of food values from food composition
tables. The daily dietary may be estimated by the calcue
lation of each individual item.figuring on the food record,
or the short method of dietary analysis may be adopted.
Several food composition tables have been devised in different
areas in the United States which permit the calculation of
dietaries on the basis of the customary pattern of food
consumption in the region. Foods are grouped according
to the extent to which they figure in the dietary, and are
weighted in accordance with the findings from food consumption
studies of the area.

The Food Composition Table for Short Method of Dietary
Analysis of Leichsenring and Donelson Wilson (21), was
develOped for the computation of food consumption data
collected in the Northeastern section of the United States.
The values in the food table were computed chiefly from the
figures compiled by Watt and Merrill in Agriculture Hand-
book No. 8, Composition of Foods - Raw, Processed, Prepared,
(22) supplemented by some values from the tables of Bowes
and Church. (25). Values for cooked foods were used except
for those foods customarily eaten raw. The means for the

food groups were derived from the values for commonly used

28
foods, and weighted in accordance with the findings from
food consumption*studies in the United States for the years
1946 - 1948, inclusive. (24) In most instances the values
were computed for the size of portions commonly used, as
suggested by Bowes and Church. Foods are listed as separate
items when they deviated sufficiently in composition from
the means of any group to alter significantly the value
obtained for any one nutrient. Certain.foods which are
highly seasonal in use, or which occur infrequently in
American diets were not included in the table. (21)

The accuracy of the values analyzed by means of the
short method were tested on two series of dietary records.
These were computed first by the usual method whereby each
food item is calculated separately and then by the short
method. Comparison of the results obtained by the two
methods showed a high degree of accuracy for the values
in the food composition table. The observed differences
were shown by statistical tests to be due to error in
random sampling and not to real differences between the
two methods. (21)

The diet survey conducted on the twenty student
couples attending Michigan State College, was organized
employing the food inventory method in the collection of

dietary data, and was analyzed for nutrient content by the

29

Food Composition Table for Short method of Dietary Analysis
of Leichsenring and Donelson Wilson. The Short Method was
used on account of the similarity of food consumption

patterns of the pe0p1es in Michigan and those of the other

states included in the Northeast region.

PROCEDURE

The study of the food intake of twenty married couples
was initiated by securing a list of the couples living in
the married student housing areas from the Housing Office of
Michigan State College. The unit numbers of the apartments
of the married students without children were placed in two
boxes. A total of fifteen numbers from each box were
selected at random. Fifteen couples living in the Barracks
section and fifteen in the Trailer Village comprised the
initial sample. Because six of the couples from the Barracks
refused to participate, a sixteenth family was chosen.

The interviewer selected at random two couples from
each area to be studied each week. No particular order of
sequence was established. Six couples in the Barracks
section and four in Trailer Village refused to cooperate
in the survey, stating that the lack of time did not allow
them to do so. Since a total of twenty couples were es-
tablished as a desirable sample, one couple from the Trailer
Village was not used. Ten couples from each living area
comprised the final sample.

The collection of data was commenced during the three
week period following the closing of the nine week summer

session, and prior to the beginning of Fall Term. As the

51
survey extended throughout the last weeks of the summer,
and into the beginning of the hunting season in the fall,
several of the couples made week-end canoeing and hunting
trips which increased the total amount of physical activity
exerted during the period they were serving as subjects.

The couples living in the Barracks quarters were
contacted on two separate evenings at the beginning of
each week, and two couples in Trailer Village were inter-
viewed on two consecutive evenings at the end of each week,
for a period of six consecutive weeks. The subjects were
given an explanation of the project and their cooperation
was solicited. The couples were not contacted prior to the
evening on which the study was to be initiated, to avoid
any possible change in the normal pattern of food habits.

A questionnaire was completed on the initial visit
which comprised information concerning the economic status
of the couple. A twenty-four hour recall diet and a brief
dietary history were obtained at this time, to determine
the characteristic dietary habits of each couple, as well
as the distribution of food between the husband and wife.

An inventory by weight of all food on hand was made
of all fresh foods, left-overs, meat and produce, and a

record was kept of the measured contents of all canned

52

goods as stated on the container. Fresh groceries were
weighed as edible portions.

A daily record sheet was left with each couple which
was to be used to record all food items brought into the
home during the seven consecutive days that were being
studied. The importance of keeping an accurate account
by weight of all items introduced into the home was ex-
plained, and a Spring scale was left at the home of each
subject. Prices of all food recorded on the daily record
sheet were obtained simultaneously.

A.form was given to each couple for checking all the
meals eaten in the home, and for recording in terms of
Servings per person, all food consumed other than.from
the home food supply.

One or two visits were made by the interviewer on
each couple throughout the week of study. Answers were
given to questions concerning the daily record sheet, and
a check was made to ascertain whether all items were being
descriptively recorded.

The closing and final inventory was made by weight,
seven days following the initial interview and the recording
of the first inventory. The daily record sheet was collected,
and all food items that had been included in the week's

menus were checked, and all left-overs were weighed.

55

The total food consumption for each couple was
determined by subtracting the items recorded on.the final
inventory from that of the initial inventory. The purchases
included on the daily record sheet that had been utilized
during the week were added to the inventory data. The food
eaten away from the home was totaled and contributed towards
the final over-all estimate of intake. While the nutritive
value of food from gardens, and eaten away from home was
included, no attempt was made to estimate the cost of this
food.

The total consumption of calories, protein, calcium,
vitamin A and ascorbic acid were calculated on a weekly
basis employing the Food Composition Table for Short Method
of Dietary Analysis of Leichsenring and Donelson Wilson. (21)
Food items that were not included in the table, were de-
termined by computation.from the values reported in the
United States Department of Agriculture Handbook No. 8. (22)
The consumption of each nutrient per day was assessed by
dividing the total intake for the week equally by seven days.
The computed value of each nutrient on a per day basis was
then divided equally between husband and wife for each couple.

The economic data collected at the time the question-
naire was completed, were compiled into tables to aid in
interpretation of the dietary information.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The weighed inventory method requires a proportionate
amount of time expended by the subjects in a diet survey,
but the degree of cooperation is relatively high in a college
student sample. College students in general, have an
intellectual interest in all types of research; are quick
to understand the purpose of the investigation and are
guided by a willingness to help a fellow student. The
percentage of acceptance was quite high in the couples who
were asked to participate in the study. Thirty couples were
contacted, twenty of whom collaborated in the diet survey.

The recording of the initial and final inventories
required on an average of two hours per couple. The greater
proportion of the homemakers in the sample were working
wives and thus were not home during the day, making it
necessary to conduct the recording of the data during the
evening hours. The subjects were asked to maintain a
continuous record of all food purchases during the seven
day period comprising the dietary study, as well as checking
all meals eaten in the home. The food consumed at the home
of parents, or other than from the home food supply was
recorded in terms of average number of servings.

Table 4 shows the characteristics of age, height,
weight, and calories consumed per day in the twenty couples

55

Table 4

COMPARISON OF AGE, HEIGHT, WEIGHT, EXISTENCE OF PREGNANCY
AND CALORIES INGESTED BY TWENTY COUPLES

 

 

Calories Age Height Weight
Family Per Person Years Inches Lbs. Wife
Ngmber Per Day A; F M F M F Preggggt
5 2,146 25 25 70 64% 156 98 No
18 2,556 21 2O 71 64 165 124 8 months
12 2,656 22 19 66 62 140 115 No
2 2,678 25 20 69 61 170 140 No
19 2,755 20 21 68 66 157 118 No
15 2,757 21 22 71 62 155 98 . No
16 2,761 24 24 67% 65 165 120 5 months
4 2,811 24 25 72 70 165 142 7 months
20 2,812 22 21 72% 65 215 140 No
7 2,950 50 29 72 67% 190 140 No
11 2,989 22 21 66 61 140 102 No
10 5,051 29 26 67 61 160 108 No
1 5,067 24 22 75 69 205 150 8 months
15 5,069 25 21 70 65 170 150 No
9 5,245 25 21 68 62 150 108 No
8 5,510 57 51 66% 65 160 160 No
17 5, 408 20 20 70 62 210 115 8 months
14 5,615 26 25 67 65 158 119 No
6 5,695 27 25 76 69 185 150 No

5 5,805 27 5O 69% 62 180 125 No

 

56

comprising the randomized sample for the dietary survey,
as well as the incidence of pregnancy amongst the wives
of the group. The mean age in years of the twenty males
was 24.6, with a range of 20 to 57 years. The mean age
for the women was 25 years, with a range of 19 to 51. The
average weight for the men was 167 lbs and that of the
women was 124 lbs. The height in inches for the men ranged
from 66 to 76. The height for the women was from 61 to 70
inches. The mean calorie intake per person per day was
2,990 with a range from 2,146 to 5,805 calories. No
obesity was apparent in the group. Two of the women were
of stocky build and might be considered somewhat, though
not excessively, overweight. Five of the twenty women in
the sample were pregnant, one-fourth of the sample. Three
of the five pregnancy cases were in the third trimester of
their term, but were not consuming the higher caloric intakes.

Table 5 records the intake of calories, protein,
calcium, vitamin A and ascorbic acid of the twenty couples.
Both members of each couple were receiving a fully adequate
number of calories per day, as can be seen by comparing
the computed values determined by an analysis of the food
intake for one week to that of the National Research

Council Recommended Allowances.

37

Table 5

INTAKE OF CALORIES, PROTEIN, CALCIUM,
VITAMIN A AND VITAMIN C OF TWENTY COUPLES

 

 

Couple Calories Protein Calcium Ingérfiiigofial VNIEIIE C
Ngmber Per Day Grams Grams Units grgms
5 2,146 81.5 .64 1,988 58.1
18 2,556 95.1 .91 8,210 118.5
12 2,656 85.6 1.06 4,565 89.0
2 2,678 97.9 .96 18,790 51.7
19 2,755 95.0 .97 5,594 46.8
15 2,757 95.8 1.16 5,559 74.5
16 2,761 100.9 1.51 16,746 170.7
4 2,811 110.7 1.80 14,905 65.6
20 2,812 96.7 1.04 6,291 84.0
7 2,950 122.0 1.17 11,561 99.9
11 2,989 106.2 .48 26,250 68.1
10 5,051 106.8 1.05 11,691 98.9
1 5,067 127.8 1.58 4,619 21.8
15 5,069 78.7 1.57 7,266 79.0
9 5,245 101.6 .62 28,200 79.4
8 5,510 122.5 .75 12,145 140.6
17 5,408 111.1 1.71 7,110 74.5
14 5,615 114.1 1.06 8,272 84.4
6 5,695 112.9 1.45 16,626 117.0
5 5,805 150.5 2.20 16,185 192.0

 

58

The mean calorie consumption per person per day was
obtained by weighing all food as edible portions, and allow-
ing for the waste factors of bone in meat, vegetable refuse
and loss of vitamin content during cooking and processing.
No correction was made for plate waste. The mean caloric
intake per person per day would be 2,691 calories if the
10 per cent plate waste factor of the British per capita
calorie estimate is assumed. A11 nutrient estimates were
calculated on the basis of an equal distribution of food
items between the two members in the household. This was
based on the information provided by the diet history
recorded by each couple at the time of the initial interview.

The Food and Nutrition Board of the National Research
Council has suggested that an intake of 2,400 calories per
day can be applied as a standard for the average, sedentary,
seventy kilogram man, and 2,000 calories per day for the
average fifty-six kilogram sedentary woman. The Recommended
Daily Dietary Allowances represent group averages however,
and the proper calorie allowance is considered to be that
which will maintain body weight at the degree most conducive
to well-being of the individual over an extended period.
The absence of any manifest obesity may be taken as an
indication that the subjects included in the study were

not consuming an excessive number of calories.

59

The average protein intake of each individual studied
exceeded the National Research Council Allowance of 70 grams
per day required by a seventy kilogram average man, and the
60 grams per day which is recommended for the average sixty
kilogram woman. The protein allowances recommended for normal
adults are based on the standard of one gram of protein per
day for each kilogram of body weight. This allowance carries
generous provision for differences in the proteins of normal
diets, as well as for individual variations of protein
requirement among normal pe0p1e. The total protein intakes
of the subjects studied in the diet survey, consisted of
both animal and vegetable protein and ranged from 85 to
156 grams per person per day. This range of intakes easily
covers the needs of the five women known to be pregnant,
all of whom were consuming more than 100 grams of protein
per day, even if a 10 per cent plate waste were assumed and
deducted from the protein intakes reported.

A comparison of the total daily calcium intake of
the twenty couples with the Recommended Allowances suggested
that seven couples consumed less than the allowance for
calcium. The recommended allowance for calcium is stated
as being one gram per day for adults of average needs,
which is believed to cover the needs of all but one in

one hundred of the so-called ”normal" adult population.

40
The allowance includes a margin of safety for those indi-
viduals requiring a greater intake due to stress, poor
nutritional history, faulty absorption or for other physiologic
reasons. However, according to the most recent information,
an allowance of 0.50 grams per person per day is believed to
be sufficient to cover average needs. (25) The couple that
was consuming 0.48 grams per person per day of calcium may
therefore be assumed to be meeting the minimum standards,
although no margin of safety may have been available on this
intake. The seven couples consuming 0.96; 0.64; 0.75; 0.98;
0.62; 0.91; and 0.97 grams per person per day, reSpectively
may be assumed to be covered with varying margins of safety.
The wife in the couple with the intake of 0.91 grams per day
was in her last trimester of pregnancy, and may therefore
have been meeting only her minimum needs. The remaining
thirteen couples were all consuming generous amounts of
calcium.

Three-fourths of the subjects in the study were
consuming more than the National Research Council Allowance
for vitamin A. The intakes ranged between 1,988 and 26,250
International Units per person per day. Studies on the
allowance of vitamin A for adults have indicated that the
average requirement is 25 to 55 units for each kilogram,

or 2,000 to 4,000 units of vitamin A per gg daily for the

41
adult, and twice these amounts or more if the sole source is
carotene from foods. One couple can be considered to be
ingesting a minimum amount with an intake of 1,996 International
Units per person per day, only 800 of which was provided as
pre-formed vitamin A. Three of the twenty couples were
consuming 5,559; 4,565; and 4,674 International Units per
person per day, reapectively, which would be in the lower
range of adequacy. However, approximately one-third of this
was consumed as vitamin A and thus would probably meet the
needs of the body for this vitamin.

The recommended allowance for ascorbic acid is
75 milligrams for the adult man and 70 milligrams daily
for the adult woman, with a standard of 100 milligrams
for the latter part of pregnancy. Five of the twenty
diets analyzed by computation were found to be below the
National Research Council Recommended Allowance for ascorbic
acid, their intakes being the following: 51.7; 65.6; 58.1;
68.1; and 46.8 milligrams per person per day. However,
there is little evidence that adult maintenance requires
these allowances for vitamin C. 0n the other hand, three
of the wives who were pregnant were below the standard.
One case, who was in the last trimester of pregnancy, had
an average intake of only 21.8 milligrams, which may be

considered lower than desirable. The values computed in

42
the daily food intakes of the twenty couples were calculated
with allowances being made for a decreased content of
ascorbic acid in canned fruit Juice as well as in frozen
Juices. Cooking losses were also accounted for, consequently
the final values probably do not over-estimate the value of
the food as actually eaten.

The thiamine, riboflavin and niacin content were not
calculated in the twenty food intake records as the protein
intake exceeded the recommended allowance and therefore,
these vitamins would most probably be present in adequate
quantities. The amount of milk consumed by the subJects
may be considered to have supplied the necessary riboflavin,
except in the case of the couple who had the intake of 0.48
grams of calcium. This diet was examined for other sources
of riboflavin and appeared to contain quantities of protein
sufficient to meet the allowances for this vitamin. The
niacin and thiamine intakes would be directly related to
the liberal intakes of high quality protein. The calculation
of other nutrients did not seem Justified.

The effect of season should be considered on the
economic status as well as on the dietary intake of each
couple. The abundance of fresh foods on the market and
from vegetable gardens, enabled the couples to increase

their over-all caloric intake without a subsequent increase

45
in the total food budget. Fourteen of the couples had
acquired a Job during the summer months when they were
not attending classes. If it is assumed that the average
income of more than half of the subJects was probably
slightly higher during the period under study than during
the rest of the year, it may be believed that the caloric
and protein content of the diet would be increased
proportionally. ,

The average expenditure for food by the twenty
subjects was calculated as $1.10 per person per day. The
total food cost was determined on the basis of the local
food store prices, and did not include the savings effected
by the possession of a vegetable garden, nor by the gifts
of food given to the couples.

The average expenditure for food was based on the
food purchases made during a seven day period, with
allowance for food used from the inventory. As can be
seen in Table 6, the majority of the couples were re-
ceiving contributions from their parents. Three couples
were financed almost entirely by their reapective parents,
but fourteen couples received presents of groceries or ate
at the home of their parents on the week-ends. Thus, the
actual food cost per couple was probably above the

calculated figure. The lowest caloric intake was that

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335.268 2 mafia

46
of the couple who had the lowest total food eXpenditure
(81 cents per person per day). However, they did not have
the lowest income. This couple consumed a very moderate
amount of food during the week, making up for it during
the week-ends at the home of their parents.

The majority of the subjects had been occupying
living quarters on the campus for at least six months
and thus had availed themselves of the Opportunity to
develop a vegetable garden. Thirteen couples depended to
a large degree on the produce obtained from their gardens.
The decreased cost of fresh vegetables produced in this
manner influenced the total intake of vitamin A and ascorbic
acid considerably. The couples who did not own a vegetable
garden likewise had an elevated intake of fresh foods, as
these items were reasonably priced in the grocery stores.
The parents and friends of many of the couples presented
them with gifts of fresh foods which contributed signifi-
cantly to the total food consumption. The seasonal effect
on the total food intake could thus be assumed to be
considerable.

Table 6 also presents the source of income of the
twenty couples included in the diet survey. Three of the
couples were receiving a living allowance from the govern-

ment through the 6.1. Bill. Three couples were being

47
financed by their parents, though part time summer jobs
held by the husband of each of these couples contributed
to their total income. Ten of the homemakers were working
full time, their salary being the principal source of income
for the couple. Three wives and twelve of the husbands
held part time jobs. Two of the husbands were working
full time on the night shift at one of the factories in
down-town Lansing, and attending classes during the day.
Two of the husbands were being financed by scholarships
through their college career, which afforded a subsistence
allowance for both the husband and wife. It is believed
that the stated incomes of couples number 2 and 15 are
underestimated, as these two couples appeared unwilling
to furnish reliable facts concerning their economic status.

There were seven wives who had a full time Job, who
also carried the reaponsibility of all meal preparation in
the home. Six of the twenty wives included in the study
shared the meal preparation duties with their husbands,
and six non-working wives and one husband did all the
cooking. The husband who did all the cooking for the
couple, was a full time student during the college year,
as well as a full time factory worker during the night

shift on six evenings a week. His wife had a full time
Job.

48

The mean money income per month was $241. with a
range from $110. to $425. per month. The daily food
expenditures did not bear a very close relationship to
the total monthly income, as can be seen in Table 6.

The lack of correlation between the two figures may be
explained on the basis of the contributions provided by
the parents of each couple.

In the majority of the couples the reSponsibility
for marketing was shared by the husband and wife. Thirteen
couples customarily marketed on the week-ends, the remain-
ing seven couples shOpped several times during the week.
Table 7 shows that more couples buy in the chain stores
than at the more expensive independent stores located
near the college campus. One couple bought daily in an
independent store, and another couple shOpped daily at
the c00perative store located on the college campus.

The degree of education in the twenty couples
included in the dietary survey was high, as can be
eXpected in a group of college students. Thirteen of
the husbands were completing their senior year in under-
graduate school, and seven were candidates for a graduate
degree. The seven graduate students consisted of two who
were working on a master's degree and five who were

studying for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Two of

Table 7

OF TWENTY COUPLES

MARKETING AND MEAL PREPARATION PRACTICES

49

 

Family
Number

Marketing Practices

 

 

18
12

19

15

16

20

q

Week-end
Every day
Friday P.M.
Saturday

Every other
day

Any time

Three P. M. 's
a week

Week-end
Thursday P.M.
Saturday
Saturday

Thursday or
Friday

Friday P.M.
Evenings

Thursday or
Friday

Every day

—-

Place

 

Chain Store
Chain Store
Chain Store
Chain Store

Father‘s Store

Independent
store

Chain Store
Chain Store

Chain Store
Chain Store
Chain Store
Chain Store
Chain Store

Chain Store
Chain Store

Father's Store

Chain Store

Campus CO-Op

Meal
Buyer Prepgged by
Wife Wife
Wife Wife
Both Both
Both Husband
Both Wife
Both Both
Both Wife
Both Wife
Both Both
‘Wife Wife
Wife Wife
Both Both
Both Both
Both Wife
Wife Wife
Wife Wife

Table 7 (Continued)

50

 

 

 

 

Family Marketing Pragtiges Meal
EEEQ§£:4 ._;_lfl9 a r
17 Week-end Chain Store Both Wife
14 Week-end Chain Store Both Wife
6 week-end Chain Store Both Both
5 Every other Chain Store Both Wife

day

 

51
the wives were graduate students, and three were in their
senior year of undergraduate school.

Table 8 shows the number of families possessing a
car, radio, telephone, or television set. Nineteen of the
twenty couples owned a car, one hundred per cent of the
couples owned at least one radio, and in many instances,
there were two or three radios in the home. Ten of the
couples interviewed had a telephone, and seven owned a
television set. The couples who possessed a television
set were not necessarily those who had a more liberal
monthly income. Five of the television sets had been
given to the couples by their reSpective parents.

A factor which needs to be considered in the
critical evaluation of the diet consumed by twenty couples
living on the campus of Michigan State College, is the
effect that the mechanics of recording the food consumed
had on the general pattern of dietary habits. The presence
of the interviewer can be considered to have had only a
minor effect on the customary food habit patterns of the
twenty couples, as the subjects were not contacted more
than three times during the period of one week in which
' they were being recorded. However, the knowledge that
an evaluation was to be made of the food consumed during

the week, could safely be said to have influenced the

Table 8
COMMODITIES OWNED BY FAMILIES

 

 

Family
Number Car Ba 0 T evi ion T 1e
1 Yes Yes Yes Yes
2 Yes Yes No No
5 No Yes No No
4 Yes Yes Yes Yes
5 Yes Yes Yes Yes
6 Yes Yes No Yes
7 Yes Yes Yes Yes
8 Yes Yes No Yes
9 Yes Yes Yes Yes
10 Yes Yes Yes No
11 Yes ‘Yes No No
12 Yes Yes No No
15 Yes Yes No ‘ No
14 Yes Yes No Yes
15 Yes Yes Yes No
16 Yes Yes No No
17 Yes Yes No Yes
18 Yes Yes No No
19 Yes Yes No No
20 Yes Yes No Yes

 

55
subjects in their buying habits. The caloric content was
probably increased by the study, but an elevated intake of
meat and eggs can be assumed as the most probable change
that was made.

In summary, it may be stated that whereas the diet
consumed by the twenty students included in the sample was
generally considered quite adequate, the food intake may
not be representative when considered on a yearly basis.
The abundance of fresh foods from vegetable gardens, their
availability on the market, and the contributionsfrom the
parents would increase the total food consumption during
the summer months, but these sources of extra food may be
lacking at other seasons of the year. A further con-
sideration would be that a number of students in the study
had taken temporary Jobs during the late summer. They may
not be able to supplement their incomes by extra jobs
during the school year. A.more limited budget might
decrease the total food intake but in particular less
meat and similar high cost protein tends to be purchased
thus decreasing the protein content of the diet. It is
recommended that further studies be conducted on the food
intake of a representative sample of students at other
seasons of the year to determine the adequacy of the diet

over a more extended period of time.

Table 9

CONSUMPTION OF BEER AND CIGARETTES
BY TWENTY COUPLES

 

 

family . OIPZEEE—PEQ Week
Numb tt 3 Pa We b W
5 6 ‘None None
18 6 5 5
12 5 5 None
2 None 7 None
19 48 5 5
15 None None None
16 None None None
4 None 8 None
20 6 None 5
7 7 4 5
11 None None None
10 None None None
1 12-16 5 5
15 None None None
9 None 6 6
8 12 5 5
17 None 4 4
14 2 7 None
6 12 7 None
5 None 1% None

54

 

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The food intake of a randomized sample of twenty
married couples was measured. Ten of the couples occupied
living quarters in the area commonly referred to as "The
Barracks” and ten were located in 'Trailer Village” at
Michigan State College.

A weighed inventory of all food on hand at the
beginning and end of a seven day period was recorded. A
questionnaire was completed which comprised information
concerning the economic status and food history of the
couple. All food purchases that were made during the week
were recorded, as well as the food items that were taken
outside of the home.

The total number of servings of each foodstuff
consumed in seven days was converted into terms of
nutrients by means of the values included in the Food
Composition Table for Short Method of Dietary Analysis
of Leichsenring and Donelson Wilson (21) and the Agriculture
Handbook No. 6 - Composition of Foods - Raw, Processed,
Prepared (22).

The findings of the diet survey may be stated as
follows:

1. The average age of the male subjects was 24.6 years,

with a range from 20 to 57 years. The mean age for the

56
women was 25 years, ranging from 19 to 51 years. The
average weight for the men was 167 lbs, and that for
the women 124 lbs. The height in inches for the men was
between 66 and 76, with that for the women between 61
and 70 inches. Five of the twenty homemakers were
pregnant.

2. The average caloric intake per person per day
was 2,990 or 2,691 calories per person per day if a ten
per cent plate waste factor is applied. Plate waste was
not recorded.

5. The protein intake was in excess of the standard
of one gram per kilogram, even with an allowance for plate
waste.

4. All couples probably were receiving at least
minimum amounts of calcium.

5. Vitamin A intakes ranged from 1,996 to 55,596
International Units per person per day.

6. Six of the twenty diets analyzed had less than
75 milligrams ascorbic acid per day. Three of the wives
who were pregnant were below the recommended allowance of
100 milligrams per day for the latter part of pregnancy.

7. The total food cost per person per day was
calculated as $1.10, but did not take into account food

which was not purchased.

57

8. Three couples were financed by their parents,
and three were receiving government allotments. Three
wives and twelve husbands worked part time, and two husbands
held full scholarships. Seven of the twenty wives were
working full time, and two husbands worked the night shift
at a factory. Six of the couples shared the meal preparation
reaponsibility; thirteen wives and one husband did all the
cooking. The majority of the couples did the marketing
cooperatively between the husband and wife.

9. Nineteen of the twenty couples owned a car, and
all of the subjects had at least one radio in the home.
Ten couples possessed a telephone, and seven couples owned
a television set.

10. The diet consumed by the subjects appeared to be

adequate, but included many inexpensive seasonal foods
which would not be available at other times during the year.

1.

2.

5.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

58
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Mayer, J.: Food Composition Tables and Assessment of
the Caloric Content of Diets. Journal American
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Dunluce and Greenwood: Medical Research Council
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Stiebling, H. K.: Adequacy of American Diets.
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Wiehl, D. G.: Diets of Urban.Families with Low Incomes.
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11.

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15.

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59

Report of the Committee on Nutrition. London:
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Sandin, H.; Patrick, H.; Stewart, A.: Food Consumption
of 29 Families in Edmonton, Alberta. Canadian
Journal Public Health Vol. 50:177, 1959.

Pett, L. B.; and Hunter, G.: Dietary Survey in
Edmonton. Canadian Public Health Journal
Vol. 523259, 1941.

‘Hetler, R. A.: Protein Intake and Basal Metabolism

of College Age Women. Journal of Nutrition
Vol. 5:69, 1952.

McKay, H.; Patton, M. B.; Ohlson, M. A.; Pittman, M. S.;
Leverton, R. M.; March, A. G.; Stearns, G.; and
Cox, G.: Calcium, PhOSphorus and Nitrogen
Metabolism of Young College Women. Journal of
Nutrition Vol. 24:567, 1942.

Hunscher, H. A.; Donelson, E.; Erickson, B. N.; and
Macy, I. G.: Results of the Ingestion of Cod
Liver Oil and Yeast on Calcium and PhOSphorus
Metabolism of Women. Journal of Nutrition
Vol. 8:541, 1954.

Adamson, J. D.; Joliffe, N.; Kruse, H. D.; Lowry, O. H.;
Moore, P. E.; Platt, B. S.; Sebrell, W. H.:
Medical Survey of Nutrition in Newfoundland.
ganadian Medical Association Journal Vol. 52:227,
945.

Goldsmith, G. A.; Darby, W. J.; Steinkamp, R. 0.;
Beam, A. 8.; McDevitt, E.: Resurvey of Nutritional
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Phipard, E.; Stiebling, H. K.: Adequacy of American
Diets. Journal American Medical Association
Vol. 159:579, 1949.

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22.

25.

24.

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27.

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29.

60

National Research Council, Committee on Nutrition
Surveys, Food and Nutrition Board: Nutrition
Surveys: Their Technique and Value. National
Research Council Bulletin No. 117, May 1949.

Leichsenring, J. N.; Wilson, E. D.: Food Composition
Table for Short Method of Dietary Analysis. (2nd
Revision). Journal American Dietetic Association
Vol. 26:586. 1950.

Watt, B. K.; and Merrill, A. L.: Composition of Foods -
Raw, Processed, Prepared.. United States Department
of Agriculture Handbook No. 8, 1950.

Bowes, A. deP.; and Church, C. F.: Food Values of
Portions Commonly Used. 6th ed. Philadelphia:
College Offset Press, 1946.

United States Department of Agriculture: Consumption
of Food in the United States, 1909 - 1948.
United States Department of Agriculture Misc.
Pub. No. 691, 1949.

Ohlson, M. A.: By personal communication.

Cornell University Agriculture Experiment Station,
Ithaca, New York: COOperative Nutritional Status
Studies in Northeast Region. 1. Techniques.
Northeast Regional Publication No. 5 Cornell
University Agriculture Experiment Station Memoir
507, March 1951.

Maynard, L. A.: The Atwater System of Calculating
the Caloric Value of Diets. Editorial Review.
Journal of Nutrition Vol. 28:445. 1944.

Chalmers, F. W.; Clayton, M. M.; Gates, L. 0.;
Tucker, R. E.; Wertz, A. W.; Young, 0. M.;
Foster, W. D.: The Dietary Record e How Many
and Which Days? Journal American Dietetic
Association Vol. 28:711. 1952.

Lewis, H. B.: Fifty Years of Study of the Role of
Protein in Nutrition. Journal American Dietetic
Association Vol. 28:701. 1952.

50.

51.

52.

35.

54.

55.

56.

57.

58.

61

Morris, T.: Dietary Surveys. Their Techniques and
Interpretation. Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations. December 1949.

Stiebling, H. K.: Better Nutrition as a National Goal.
Food and Life. Yearbook of Agriculture 1959.
United States Department of Agriculture.

Stiebling, H. K.; Monroe, D.; Phipard, E. F.;
Adelson, S. F.; Clark, F.: Family Food Consumption
and Dietary Levels. Consumer Purchases Study.
Farm Series. Misc. Pub. No. 405. Bureau of Home
Economics. United States Department of Agriculture.
1950.

Leitch, 1.; and Aitken, F. 0.: Technique and
' Interpretation of Dietary Surveys. Nutrition
Abstracts and Reviews. Vol. 19:507. 1950.

Storvick, C. A.; Schaad, B.; Coffey, R. E.;
Deardorff. M. B.: Nutritional Status of Selected
Population Groups in Oregon. 1. Food Habits of
Native Born and Reared School Children in Two
Regions. Millbank Memorial Fund Quarterly Vol. 29
No. 2, 1951.

Burch, H. B.; Salcedo, J.; Carrasco, E. 0.;
Intengan, C. Ll.; Caldwell, A. B.: Nutrition
Survey and Tests in Bataan. Philippines. Journal
of Nutrition Vol. 42:9, 1950.

Hunscher, H. A.; and Macy, I. G.: Dietary Study
Methods. 1. Uses and Abuses owaietary Study
Methods. Journal American Dietetic Association
Vol. 27:558. 1951.

Young, C. M.; Hagan, G. C.; Tucker, R. E.; Foster,
W. D.: A Comparison of Dietary Study Methods.
III. Dietary History vs. Seven-Day Record vs.
24-Hour Recall. Journal American Dietetic
Association Vol. 28:218. 1952.

Young. C. N.; Chalmers, F. W.; Church. H. N.;
Clayton..M. N.; Tucker, R. E.; Werts. A. W.;
Foster. W. D.: A Comparison of Dietary Study
Methods. 1. Dietary History vs. Seven-Day Record.
Journal American Dietetic Association Vol. 28:124.

952.

59.

40.

42.

44.

45.

46.

47.

62

Young, C. M.; Musgrave, K.: Dietary Study Methods.
11. Use of Dietary Score Cards. Journal American
Dietetic Association Vol. 27:745. 1951.

Thomas, R. U.; Rutledge, M. M.; Meyer, E. B.;

Miller, 0. N.; Robinson, A. R.; Coryell, M. N.;
Metz, H.; Beach, E. F.; Macy, I. G.: Nutritional
Status of Children. XII. Evaluation by Computing
the Food Intake of a Group and by Weighing and
Analyzing Foods Eaten by Representative Subjects.
Journal American Dietetic Association Vol. 26:788.
1950.

Steele, B. F.; Franklin, R. E.; Smudski, U} 14
Young. C. M.: Use of Checked Seven-Day Records
in a Dietary Survey. Journal American Dietetic
Association Vol. 27: 957, 1951.

Thomas, R. U.; Rutledge. M. M.; Beach. E. F.;
Moyer, E. R.; Drummond, M. C.; Miller. 8.;
Robinson, 0. N.; Coryell, M. N.; Macy, I. G.:
Nutritional Status of Children. XIII. Accuracy
of Calculated Intakes of Food Components with
Reapect to Analytical Values. Journal American
Dietetic Association. Vol. 26:889. 1950.

Young, E. G.: A Dietary Survey in Halifax. Canadian
Public Health Journal Vol. 52:256. 1941.

McHenry, E. W.: Determination of Nutritional Status.
Canadian Public Health Journal Vol. 52:251. 1941.

Patterson. J. M.; McHenry. E. W.: A Dietary
Investigation in Toronto Families Having Annual
Incomes between $1,500. - $2,400. Canadian
Public Health Journal Vol. 52:251. 1941.

Patterson, J. M.; McHenry, E. W.: Errors in the
Calculation of the Nutritive Value of Food Intake.
1. Comparison of Calculated and Determined Amounts
of Calories. Protein and Fat. Canadian Public
Health Journal Vol. 52:562. 1941.

Young, C. M.; McHenry, E. W.: Errors in the Calculation
of the Nutritive Values of Food Intake.
II. Comparison of Calculated and Determined Amounts
of Ascorbic Acid. Canadian Public Health Journal
Vol. 55:224. 1942.

65

48. Young, C. M.; McHenry, E. W.: Errors in the Calculation
of the Nutritive Value of Food Intake.
III. Comparison of Calculated and Determined Amounts
of Iron. Canadian Public Health Journal
Vol. 54:567. 1945.

49. Semmons. E. M.; MCHenry, E. W.: Errors in the
Calculation of the Nutritive Value of Food Intake.
IV. Comparison of Calculated and Determined Amounts
of Calcium. Canadian Journal Public Health
Vol. 55:286. 1944.

50. McHenry, E. W.; Ferguson, P.; Gurland, J.: Sources of
Error in Dietary Surveys. Canadian Journal Public
Health Vol. 56:555. 1945.

APPENDIX

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1.
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5.
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8.
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10.
ll.
12.
15.
14.
15.
16.
17.
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19.
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68

Interview Form to be filled out on First Day of
Inventory

Name of Family:

Unit Number.

Members in the Family: ‘Name ‘Age_ Height- Weight
Wife

Husband
Is husband or wife on 0.1. Bill?
If not. what is main source of income?
Does husband and/or wife have a part time Job?
Assistantship? ' I
(husband
How long has (wife been a student on the campuS?
How much rent do you pay. including all utilities?-
Do you own a car? .
Do you own your furniture?
Do you own a radio? '
Telephone? I
Television?
Does housewife or husband prepare the meals?
Who does the marketing? '
When is it done? '
Where is it generally done?
Has husband or wife taken any Home Economics courses?
Do you have a vegetable garden? .

Is any member of the family taking vitamin preparations?

22.
25.
24.

25.

26.
27.

28.

29.
50.

51.
52.

69
Any medicine such as iron. laxatives, etc.?
Is any member of the family under a doctor‘s care?
Is wife pregnant? I ‘

When was last pay cheque received in relation to this
study?

When is pay day customarily?

Please check figure closest to your monthly income.

10 $1000 ' $120. "
20 $1200 " $1400 -
30 $1400 " $1600 "'

40 $160. " $1800 "
5. $180. - $200. -

6. $200. - $250. -
7. $250. - $500. -
8. $3000 " $4000 "

90 $4000 "’ $5000 ‘

Does the religious affiliation of the family affect
the food pattern in any way?

Does wife/husband smoke?

How many packets of cigarettes does the family buy
per week?

How many bottles of beer do you buy per week?
Other liquor?

7O

Recall Sheet of Food Consumed by Family in one Twenty-Four
Hour Period

Name:

Day of the week:
Date:

Unit Number:

Directions: List all the food that you ate during the day.
including butter, sugar, cream, and beverages.
Tell whether one member of the family did not
eat all foods on menu, or if one person ate a
double serving of one food. Tell whether food
was raw. cooked.
If ice cream is included during the day, list
the kind and brand.

Egogs eaten for Breakfast
pagcziptioa. Eatan by bggh aaabara?

List any in-between meal foods such as coffee, fruit, milk.
cookies, etc.

1.
2.

5.
4.

71

Foods aaten.for Lungh
Qascyipgion , , Eaten by bgph aambeya?

List any insbetween meal foods such as coffee, fruit, milk,
cookies, etc.

Foods eagen gor Diaaer
Qascriptiga. Eaten by bath aembars?

Cgagt N9. 1

72

Please check meals eaten at home by each family member

during the week.

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52. If lunch was not eaten at home. was a box lunch taken

from the home?

55. If any meal was eaten away from the home, where was it

taken?

75

Daily Record Sheet

To be filled out each time a food product is brought into
the house during the week that the inventory is being taken.
Record the item, description such as brand, and the weight
or measure.

Please include all vegetables or fruits that are home grown.

Quantity, weight
Naaa of Product Dascriptiga or meaaaya Ezgga,

Example: Bread Whole Wheat 1 large loaf t$.20

Product

1.

6.

Milk:
Fresh
Canned
Powdered
Evaporated

Bread:

Whole Wheat
Cracked Wheat
White ‘
Rye

Raisin

Other

Eggs

Butter
Oleomargarine

Meat:

Cold cuts
Weiners
Hamburger
Sausages
Pork ch0ps
Stew meat
Bologna
Salami
Other

Flour:
Enriched
Nonenriched

Salt:
Regular
Iodized

Crackers:
Soda
Graham
Ry-KriSp
Cheese

Initial Inventory

Weight or heasure

Description

74

Bales.

Product

9.

IO.

11.

12.

14.

15.

16.

Canned Soups:
Kind and brand:

Fresh Fruits:

Canned Fruits:

Dried Fruits:

Frozen Fruits:

Fresh Vegetables:

Canned Vegetables:

Frozen Vegetables:

Dried Beans

Dried Lentils

Dried Peas

Macaroni, Spaghetti,

Weight 0r Measure

noodles

75

Description Price

27.

51.

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55.

Product

21. Coffee:
Instant
Regular

22. Cocoa

25. Tea

24. Beer

25. Coca-cola

26. Orange P0p

Carbonated Beverages

Cookies

Cigarettes
Candy Bars

Prepared Foods in Cans:

Prepared Mixes:

Baked Goods:
Bread

Cakes
Cookies

Pies

Home Produced Foods:
Fresh Vegetables

Weight or Measure

76

Description Price

Product

54. Fresh Fruits

55. Frozen Fruit Juices:
Orange
Lemon
Grapefruit

56. Others:

We ight o r

heasure

77

Description

Price

A .

ROOM USE ONE.

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