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A COMPARISON OF THE EFFECTS OF TWO TYPES OF

MOVEMENT INSTRUCTION ON THE DEVELOPMENTAL

RHYTHM APTITUDE AND RHYTHM ACHIEVEMENT OF
KINDERGARTEN STUDENTS

presented by

DAVID OLSEN PIETROWSKI

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A COMPARISON OF THE EFFECTS OF
TWO TYPES OF MOVEMENT INSTRUCTION
ON THE DEVELOPMENTAL RHYTHM APT ITUDE AND
RHYTHM ACHIEVEMENT OF KINDERGARTEN STUDENTS

By

David Olsen Pietrowski

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulﬁllment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTERS OF MUSIC IN MUSIC EDUCATION

2003

ABSTRACT
A COMPARISON OF THE EFFECTS OF Two TYPES OF MOVEMENT
INSTRUCTION ON THE DEVELOPMENTAL RHYTHM APTITUDE
AND RHYTHM ACHIEVEMENT OF KINDERGARTEN STUDENTS
By

David Olsen Pietrowski

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of movement instruction that
included continuous ﬂowing movement with the effects of movement instruction that
only focused on beat on the rhythmic aptitude and achievement of kindergarten students.
The problems of the study compared the rhythm aptitude gains, beat synchronization
ability, and rhythm chant performance ability of kindergarten students in the two
treatment groups.

Two intact kindergarten classes (n=27) were assigned to the combined ﬂowing
and beat movement treatment group, and 2 classes (n=23) were assigned to the beat-only
treatment group. All participants were given a pre-test Of the Primary Measures of Music
Audiation (PMMA) before instruction began.

Instruction consisted of one 30-minute class session each week for 23 weeks. One
treatment group experienced a variety of activities featuring continuous, ﬂowing
movements in addition to movements to beat. The other treatment group experienced
movement activities exclusively to beat. After the treatment period, PMMA was re-
administered, and video and audiotaped beat synchronization and chant performances
were rated by two independent judges using researcher-designed rating scales.

There were no signiﬁcant differences between the two treatment groups for any of

the criterion measures employed.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank my advisor, mentor, and friend Dr. Cynthia Crump Taggart
for her expert advice, inspiring dedication, and unceasing support. It has been a delight to
work with her throughout my time at Michigan State University.

I would also like to extend my sincere thanks to the other members of my
committee, Dr. Albert Leblanc and Dr. Midori Koga. Their enthusiastic, helpful feedback
and kind words of encouragement helped smooth and direct my path. I am also grateful to
all of the faculty of the School of Music for their dedication to music education and the
craft of teaching

I would like to thank the faculty, staff, administration, and especially the students
of Woodside Elementary School. Without them, this document could not have been
written.

Additionally, I would like to acknowledge the work of Dr. Edwin Gordon and
thank him for his friendship and inspiration.

Special thanks are due to my parents Anthony and Christine Pietrowski and my
adopted parents Ken and Kathy Olsen—my faithful cheerleaders all the way!

Finally, my deepest thanks to my wife Kate for her unﬂagging support and love.
You stood by my side all the way to Michigan and back, and your sacriﬁces will always

be remembered and appreciated.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................... vi
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 1
Dalcroze ....................................................................................... 2
Orff ............................................................................................ 2
Kodaly ......................................................................................... 3
Laban .......................................................................................... 4
Gordon ........................................................................................ 5
Music Aptitude ...................................................................... 6
Preparatory Audiation .............................................................. 6
Music Babble ........................................................................ 8
Gordon’s Incorporation of Movement ............................................ 9
Statement of Purpose ...................................................................... 13
Problems of the Study ..................................................................... 14
CHAPTER 2
RELATED RESEARCH ........................................................................... 15
Research on Developmental Music Aptitude .......................................... 15
The Effect of Movement Instruction on Rhythmic Acheivement ................... 20
The Effect of Laban-based, Non-discrete Movement ................................. 25
Summary .................................................................................... 3 1
CHAPTER 3
STUDY DESIGN .................................................................................... 32
Subjects ...................................................................................... 32
Procedure .................................................................................... 33
Criterion Measures ......................................................................... 36
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS ............................................................................................ 4O
PMMA Pre-test Results .................................................................... 41
PMMA Reliability Results ................................................................ 41
Interjudge Reliability Results ............................................................ 42
Means and Standard Deviations ......................................................... 42
Results for PMMA Rhythm Scores ...................................................... 44
Results for Beat Synchronization ......................................................... 45
Results for Rhythm Chant Performance ................................................ 45
Interpretation of Results ................................................................... 46
CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................... 49

iv

Summary ..................................................................................... 49

Results ....................................................................................... 51
Conclusions ................................................................................. 52
Recommendations for Future Research ................................................. 53
APPENDIX A: Letter of Consent ................................................................. 55
APPENDIX B: Beat Synchronization Rating Scale ............................................. 56
APPENDIX C: Rhythm Chant Performance Rating Scale ..................................... 57
REFERENCES ...................................................................................... 58

Table 1:

Table 2:

Table 3:

Table 4:

Table 5:

Table 6:

Table 7:

Table 8:

LIST OF TABLES

Types and Stages of Preparatory

Audiation ............................................................................. 7
Means and Standard Deviations of PMMA Pre-test scores .................. 41
Results of T-test on PMMA Pre-test Scores ................................... 41

Means and Standard Deviations of PMMA
Post-test, and Gains Scores ...................................................... 43

Means and Standard Deviations of Beat Synchronization and

Rhythm Chant Performance Rating Scales .................................... 44
Results of T-test on PMMA Gains Scores ...................................... 44
Results of T-test on Beat Synchronization

Composite Mean Scores ......................................................... 45
Results of T-test on Rhythm Chant Composite Mean Scores ............... 45

vi

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Music educators have considered movement to be a central component of the
music education of children. Common to the pedagogical approaches of Dalcroze, Orff,
Kodaly, and Gordon is the idea that children should be encouraged and instructed to
respond kinesthetically to the rhythmic elements of music. The philosophy and
techniques of Laban, a movement and dance educator, have also inﬂuenced music
educators, notably Nash and Gordon (Nash, 1974; Gordon, 1997a, 1997b), to stress the
importance of movement in the holistic music education of children. Common to all is
the belief that movement experiences will enhance children’s ability to perform,
discriminate among, and understand the rhythmic and even stylistic aspects of music.
Despite the shared conviction that movement should be central to music education, the
aforementioned educators, as well as other members of the music education community,
have widely varying conceptions of what constitutes appropriate and beneﬁcial
movement instruction. Research is needed to examine the various aspects of rhythmic
movement and provide guidance for teachers as they design and implement movement
curricula. With this goal in mind, the current research begins by summarizing the Views

of prominent music educators on the subject of movement in music education.

Dalcroze

Emile Jacques-Dalcroze, a Swiss music educator, developed an approach to music
education based on the concept that “execution should precede perception and criticism”
(Jacques-Dalcroze, 1921, p.81). For Dalcroze, the body served as a mediator between
actual musical sounds and the cognitive understanding of those sounds (Shehan, 1987).
Central to the Dalcroze approach is the practice of Eurythmics, in which students are
taught to respond to the various elements of music, such as beat, meter, phrase, and
dynamics, with movements of the whole body. By practicing Eurythmics, children are led
to develop a “mastery of movements in relation to energy, Space, and time,” and an
internal sense of rhythm (Jacques-Dalcroze, 1921, p. 83). “The muscular system I
perceives rhythms. By means of repeated daily exercises, muscular memory may be
acquired, conducing to a clear and regular representation of rhythm” (J acques-Dalcroze,
p. 80). Dalcroze believed that each child possesses an internal, instinctive sense of time
as evidenced by the regularity of the heartbeat, the pattern of inhalation and exhalation in
breathing, and the regular, metrical division of time inherent in the walking gait. Dalcroze
Eurythmics uses walking as the point of departure in the rhythmic training of children.

Orff

According to Carl Orff, “Elemental music is never music alone but forms a unity
with movement, dance, and speech” (Keetrnan, 1970/1974, p. 107). Orff perceived this
essential unity between movement and music in the traditional musics of non-Westem
cultures and regretted the disconnection that was manifest in Western art music. Orff’ s
approach to the rhythmic training of children was strongly inﬂuenced by the work of

Dalcroze (Shehan, 1987). The young Orff Visited Dalcroze’s institute for dancers and

musicians in Hellerau, Germany, a Visit that was instrumental in the formation of the
Schulwerk. Like Dalcroze, Orff believed experience should precede understanding. Thus,
in an Orff approach, the child is led to experience rhythm through speech and movement
that is familiar and natural to the child’s world (Keetman, 1970/ 1974). Orff Schulwerk
teaches children a movement vocabulary that includes walking, stamping, patting,
clapping, snapping, skipping and other locomotor and non-locomotor movements. The
focus is on teaching children to move with an accurate sense of rhythmic pulse, leading to
more rhythmically coordinated ensemble participation. The development of a steady
sense of beat through movement is central to the Orff curriculum.
Kodaly

Zoltan Kodaly devoted much of his life to re-invigorating the musical education
system of his native Hungary. His efforts inspired many other educators and musicians to
contribute to what has become known as the Kodaly Method, a constantly evolving
approach to children’s music education based on Kodaly’s philosophies. The goals of the
approach are “to aid in the well-balanced social and artistic development of the child, and
to produce the musically literate adult” (Choksy, 1974, p. 15). A fundamental tenet of the
Kodaly Method is the belief that children ﬁrst should be educated in their musical
“mother tongue,” that is, the folk music of their culture. Although not speciﬁcally
stressed by Kodaly himself, movement experiences have become an important part of the
Kodaly approach and can be categorized as two types. The ﬁrst, inﬂuenced by Dalcroze
and similar to Orff methodology, are movements designed to develop children’s beat
competence. Children are encouraged to move to the beat of their own singing, and later,

these movement experiences are connected to the teaching of music notation. Thus,

similar to Dalcroze methodology, Kodaly teachers encourage the experiencing and
feeling of concepts before they are labeled or formally taught. The other category of
movement experiences in the Kodaly approach is the teaching of the singing games and
folk dances of children’s native culture. Besides strengthening the child’s rhythm skills
and sense of beat, such activities serve as ends in themselves, since the transmission of
native musical culture is a primary goal of the Kodaly method (Choksy, 1981).
Laban

Although not a music educator himself, Rudolph von Laban developed concepts
of movement and dance instruction that have proven inﬂuential and useful to music
educators. Primarily a dance educator, Laban emphasized the central role of movement in
the daily lives of persons, and he believed that movement provides an important link
between the mind and body (Jordan, 1989). For Laban, movement could be categorized
by the quality of the effort extended by the mover. He labeled these effort elements Time,
Space, Weight, and Flow. Laban encouraged movement instructors to provide
experiences for students with various combinations and characteristics of these effort
elements. Such experiences would provide a vocabulary of movement that could be
internalized by students and later recalled during movement, dance, or music experiences,
as well as enhancing one’s day to day life (Chemohorsky, 1991). These internalized
qualities of movement can be directly related to the kinesthetic feelings required of
expressive music performance. Laban’s movement ideas have been incorporated into the
music education curricula espoused by prominent music educators. The “creative
approach” to music education advocated by Nash relies heavily on Laban’s conception of

effort elements (Nash, 1974). She considered experiences in movement, Speciﬁcally

experiences focused on various combinations of Laban effort elements, to contribute
immeasurably to children’s musical development. “Therefore, the direct and natural path
for the child’s understanding of music and musical form, and his development of
musicality, muscular coordination and freedom of self-expression, lies in
movement. . .There are different effort elements (weight, space, time and ﬂow) in
movement which vary according to man’s different attitudes, reasons, purpose and intent.
Children become aware of these elements through a deliberate experiencing of these
motion factors (Nash, 1974, p. 80). Gordon’s conception of rhythm education was also
heavily inﬂuenced by the work of Laban (Gordon, 1997a, 1997b). His ideas will be
discussed in depth.
Gordon

Gordon has developed a comprehensive Music Learning Theory that provides a
description of how music is processed in the brain and how children’s musical learning
might be guided. Central to Gordon’s theory is the concept of audiation (Gordon, 1997a).
Audiation involves assimilating and comprehending music when the actual sound is no
longer or never was present. Audiation in music is analogous to thinking in language. As
one thinks in language he or she understands the meaning of the words that form
thoughts; likewise, when music is audiated, its syntactical musical meaning is
comprehended on some level. Just as one’s ability to think grows in complexity with age,
maturation and experience, one’s audiation ability may likewise expand in response to
musical experiences and appropriate formal and informal instruction in music (Gordon,
1997a). An individual with more developed audiation abilities is able to bring more

meaning to music that he is listening to, performing, composing, improvising, and

reading in notation. To Gordon, the role of the music teacher is to guide students to
develop their audiation ability to the fullest extent allowed by their musical aptitudes.
Music Aptitude

Central to Gordon’s theory of music learning is his conception of music aptitude.
Gordon theorizes that all persons are born with an innate potential to achieve in music.
This aptitude for music is highly variable from individual to individual (Gordon, 1997a).
One’s aptitude is multi-dimensional in that one can have a high level of tonal aptitude
while at the same time having a low level of rhythm aptitude. Also signiﬁcant to the
music educator is Gordon’s identiﬁcation of developmental aptitude as distinguished
from stabilized music aptitude (Gordon, 1997a). Gordon hypothesizes that at birth, a
child possesses his or her highest level of music potential, aﬁer which the child’s aptitude
ﬂuctuates, depending on the quality of that child’s music environment, until it stabilizes
at about age nine. If a child is immersed in a music-rich environment and is given quality
instruction in music, the decline in his or her aptitude aﬁer birth can be slowed. A child’s
developmental music aptitude can even Show positive growth with appropriate instruction
(although Gordon believes that the level of aptitude at birth will not be surpassed) when
the child’s aptitude is still in the developmental stage. Thus, a child’s early musical
experiences are crucial in determining his or her future musical achievement.
Preparatory A udiation

In his application of Music Learning Theory to early childhood, Gordon describes
three types and seven stages of preparatory audiation that children pass through as they
are acculturated in, learn to imitate, and ﬁnally are able to assimilate the musical syntax

of their culture (Gordon, 1997b). The types and stages of preparatory audiation are

outlined in Table 1. As children move through these stages of musical development, they
gradually internalize the musical syntax of their culture as they experience and
experiment with musical sounds. The musical responses of children in preparatory
audiation have been described by Gordon as “music babble” (Gordon, 1997b).

Table 1

TYPES AND STAGES OF PREPARATORY AUDIATION

 

 

 

TYPES STAGES
1. ACCULTURATION: 1. ABSORPTION: Hears and aurally
Birth to age 2-4: collects the sounds of music in the
Participates with little consciousness of environment.
the environment. 2. RANDOM RESPONSE: Moves and

babbles in response to, but without
relation to, the sounds of music in the
environment.
3. PURPOSEFUL RESPONSE: Tries
to relate movement and babble to the
sounds of music in the environment.

 

 

l. IMITATION: l. SHEDDING EGOCENTRICITY:
Ages 2-4 to 3-5: Recognizes that movement and babble
Participates with conscious thought do not match the sounds of music in the
focused primarily on the environment. environment.

 

2. BREAKING THE CODE: Imitates
with some precision the sounds of
music in the environment.

 

 

2. ASSIMILATION: 1. INTROSPECTION: Recognizes the

Ages 3-5 to 4-6: lack of coordination between singing,
Participates with conscious thought chanting, breathing, and movement.
focused on the self. 2. COORDINATION: Coordinates

singing and chanting with breathing
and movement.

 

 

 

 

(Gordon, 1997b, p. 33)

Music Babble

Music babble responses do not reﬂect an understanding of music syntax on the
part of the child, but represent random, purposeful, or imitative responses to a music
stimulus that is not yet understood through audiation. Music babble corresponds closely
to the language babble behavior of infants. AS babies become acculturated to the
language environment that surrounds them, they use babble as a tool to “play” with
language until they are able to break the language code and communicate verbally
(Taggart & Gouzouasis, 1995). Similarly, children play with the tonal and rhythmic
components of music through both verbal and kinesthetic responses. Typically,
movement responses are the ﬁrst to appear and represent the most pervasive form of
babble response (Hicks, 1993). A child’s emergence from music babble and the period of
preparatory audiation is heralded by his or her ability to sing in tune with a sense of
tonality and perform rhythmically with steady tempo and a sense of meter. These musical
responses are outward signs of the inner growth of audiation ability. The age at which
children emerge from music babble is highly variable and dependent on the interactions
between the child’s music aptitude and the quality of his or her musical environment.
Since most children are not provided with a musical environment that is of comparable
richness to the language environment in which they are immersed, it can be expected that
many children will enter school while still passing through the preparatory audiation
stages. With this in mind, it is important that teachers of beginning elementary school
students provide ample informal guidance to help such children emerge from music
babble. For Gordon, the goal of early childhood music education is to guide children

through the stages of preparatory audition by providing them with a rich musical

environment and by encouraging their music babble responses through instruction. With
such guidance, students can begin to reach their audiation potential.
Gordon’s Incorporation of Movement

Gordon emphasizes the central role of movement in the development of children’s
ability to audiate rhythmically (Gordon, 1997a, 1997b, 2000). To Gordon, the
understanding of rhythm cannot be separated from the kinesthetic “feeling” of rhythm.
“Rhythm is movement and cannot be understood apart from movement as it relates to
breathing. Thus, rhythm, movement, and breathing are inseparable. Rhythm must be felt--
it only begs the question to intellectualize about it” (Gordon, 2000, p. 2). This View
echoes Dalcroze’s conception of movement as an intermediary between the sound of
music and the cognitive understanding of it. Movement is especially essential to the
informal guidance appropriate for young children passing through the stages of
preparatory audiation. Before a child begins to vocalize rhythmically, his or her rhythmic
babble responses will consist of various types of movement. As the child matures, he or
she will begin to coordinate her movement with his or her breathing and vocal babble
(Reynolds, Valerio, Bolton, Taggart & Gordon, 1998). Since such natural responses tend
to be unrelated to the beat of music stimuli, Gordon (1997b) stresses that informal
movement guidance should proceed from these natural responses and focus on the
modeling and training of smooth, continuous movement that is free from tension.

The ability to move is necessary for learning to be rhythmical, and to learn

rhythm, movement must be of the continuous, sustained type. Whereas the adult

emphasizes time and space for ﬁne motor movements in daily life and seldom

considers weight and ﬂow, young children intuitively and initially address

themselves to weight and ﬂow because so much of their focus is on locomotion,

on learning to roll over, crawl, walk, Skip, or hop, for example. When children are

guided to follow their early natural inclination and not forced to engage
consciously in moving that involves time and space, they will then be able to
develop the necessary rhythm skills to acquire musicianship in its broadest sense.

(p. 83)

Gordon’s statement that young children demonstrate a natural inclination to
express weight and ﬂow through non-discrete movement (movement that does not
conform to beat or pulse) is supported by studies undertaken by Moog (1968/ 1 976) and
Hicks (1993). Moog observed the responses to various musical stimuli of 500 children
with ages ranging from birth to six years. The stimuli included songs, chants, percussion
ensembles, instrumental compositions, and sound assemblages that he termed
cacophonies. Moog noted the earliest movement responses of children at the age of
approximately six months. These earliest responses involved the elements of ﬂow and
weight consisting of whole body swaying from side to side and bouncing up and down.
Throughout the early childhood period observed by Moog, children’s movement
responses could be primarily characterized as experiencing ﬂow and weight in a variety
of ways. Movements included continued swaying and bouncing, conducting movements
with arms, kicking, rocking from leg to leg while standing, swaying and nodding the
head, and Spinning in a circle. While repetitive motions were common among the
observed children, movements were rarely related to the pulse of the music. Not until age
5 or 6 did children begin to consistently exhibit beat-synchronized movement. Moog

interpreted the appearance of clapping responses at this age as a product of socialization

10

in nursery school or kindergarten. Even at this age, a minority of children displayed beat
competency through movements with consistent accuracy. Moog’s descriptions of his
sample population supports Gordon’s assertion that whole body movement combining the
elements of ﬂow and weight is the natural inclination of young children who are hearing
musical performances.

Hicks ( 1993) observed the responses of children ages 6 to 14 months who were
exposed to an early childhood music curriculum based on Gordon’s Music Learning
Theory. Eight children were selected from 22 who participated in weekly 35-minute
sessions over a 20-week period. Three observers viewed videotapes of these children, and
any responses to the musical stimuli were noted. The curriculum for the classes included
singing and chanting without text in a variety of tonalities and meters. The instructor and
caregivers modeled relaxed, free-ﬂowing movements to accompany their singing and
chanting. Many of the movement responses demonstrated by this small sample of
children corresponded with the movement types noted by Moog. Hicks characterized
movement responses as non-pulsating, pulsating, or miscellaneous (extraneous and
probably not music-related.) Many of the movements were repetitive in character and
made use of the elements of ﬂow and weight: rocks and sways hips, sways torso from
side to side, rocks forward and backward, swings arm, twists torso and swings arms, pats
side with arms while standing. Hicks did observe movements that corresponded to the
beat of the music stimulus, but such movements were less frequent than other non-beat
synchronized movements. The subjects of the Hicks study were clearly experimenting

with the element of weight, at times connected with the feeling of ﬂow.

11

Gordon’s advocacy for the teaching of ﬂowing, non-discrete movement with
young children reﬂects his view of age-appropriate instruction. In Gordon’s View, most
young children have not reached a level of physical maturity that will enable accurate
beat keeping. Since children may lack the necessary motor skills, teaching beat will often
prove ineffective and may lead to frustration and rigidity on the part of the child. To
Gordon, the combination of ﬂowing movement and rhythmic chanting will best develop
the rhythmic understanding and feeling of children until they reach a level of motor
development during which steady beat keeping can be achieved. The experience of
weight and ﬂow is seen as providing excellent preparation for future rhythmic
development.

Besides potentially lacking the physical coordination to maintain a steady beat,
young children may lack the rhythmic audiation capacity that is, in Gordon’s View, a
necessary prerequisite for accurate rhythmic performance. To Gordon, rhythmic
audiation, or, alternatively, the ability to think and image rhythm, is anchored in the
ability to perceive the metrical syntax of music. Persons who are able to perceive and
kinesthetically feel the onward ﬂow of macrobeats and their regular or irregular divisions
into duple or triple microbeats in music have developed the readiness to perform music
with rhythmic understanding. Gordon holds that the development of rhythmic audiation is
essential if one is to perform music with consistent meter and tempo. To Gordon,
teaching students to move to beat before they are able to audiate beat is unlikely to result
in Optimum rhythmic development (Gordon, 1997b).

Gordon’s conception of informal movement instruction is strongly inﬂuenced by

the Laban effort elements of Space, Time, Weight, and Flow, especially emphasizing the

12

element of ﬂow (Reynolds, et al., 1989). Gordon encourages parents and teachers to
model relaxed, ﬂowing, continuous movement using the entire body. Since it is believed
that future rhythmic achievement is dependent on children’s ability to move in this
manner, it is essential that children learn to move with continuous ﬂow before they are
encouraged to move to beat. Gordon holds that a child will have difﬁculty sustaining a
consistent tempo in performance unless he or she can internalize the feeling Of ﬂow
through experience in movement activities (Gordon, 1997b). In addition to being
foundational to a child’s rhythmic development, smooth, ﬂowing movements
incorporating different feelings of weight, are also believed to contribute to the
expressive qualities of a child’s musical responses and future musical performances
(Reynolds, et al., 1998). As children progress into the later stages of preparatory
audiation, Gordon does recommend that teachers and parents to help children
kinesthetically experience the feeling of beat without tension, and he encourages
movement to beat. However, moving to beat is always connected to the feeling of
continuous ﬂow that underlies musical pulse. This emphasis on free ﬂowing, continuous
movement at the root of children’s rhythmic development distinguishes Gordon’s
approach from the methodologies of Dalcroze, Orff, and Kodaly, in which moving to beat
is central and foundational.
Statement of Purpose

With the goal of improving music instruction, the purpose of this research is to
compare the effects of movement instruction that includes continuous ﬂowing movement
with the effects of movement instruction that only focuses on beat on the developmental

aptitude and rhythmic achievement of children.

13

Problems of the Study

The problems of this study will be (a) to compare the gains in developmental
rhythm aptitude of kindergarten students who are given informal guidance in continuous
ﬂowing movement in addition to being taught to move to beat with the gains in
developmental rhythm aptitude of kindergarten students who are only taught to move to
beat, (b) to compare the beat synchronization ability of kindergarten students who are
given informal guidance in continuous ﬂowing movement in addition to being taught to
move to beat with the beat synchronization ability of kindergarten students who are only
taught to move to beat, and (c) to compare the rhythm chant performance ability of
kindergarten students who are given informal guidance in continuous ﬂowing movement
in addition to being taught to move to beat with the rhythm chant performance ability of

kindergarten students who are only taught to move to beat.

14

CHAPTER TWO

RELATED RESEARCH

Three main streams of inquiry are related to and have informed the present study.
Several studies have examined the concept of developmental music aptitude and the
effect of instruction on aptitude. Also germane to the present research are studies
exploring the effect of instruction on the development of rhythmic skills, especially
instruction that features kinesthetic movement experiences. The third branch of inquiry to
be discussed includes studies by Kim (2000), Jordan (1986), Chemohorsky (1991), and
Blesedell (1991). These researchers have examined the effects of Laban-based, non-
discrete movement on music aptitude and achievement.

Research on Developmental Music Aptitude

Research has supported Gordon’s concept of developmental music aptitude,
suggesting that music aptitude can be positively affected by instruction. As discussed in
Chapter 1, Gordon theorizes that music aptitude, one’s potential for achievement in overt
musical behaviors, is developmental in nature during the years prior to age nine. Gordon
designed the Primary Measures of Music Audiation (PMMA) (Gordon, 1986a) as a test
battery designed to measure developmental music aptitude. Research has tended to
validate Gordon’s (1980) ﬁndings that PMAM scores are sensitive to ﬂuctuations in

music aptitude due to instruction and other environmental inﬂuences.

15

Flohr (1981) undertook a study to determine whether a short period (12 weeks) of
music instruction would effect positive change in the PMMA (Gordon, 1986a) scores of
ﬁve-year-old children. The 29 research participants were divided into three groups: the
ﬁrst received instruction based on Orff Schulwerk instrumental improvisation techniques,
the second group experienced an eclectic curriculum including singing, percussion
instrument playing, expressive movement, dance, and singing games, while the control
group received no music instruction. F lohr discovered signiﬁcant gains in the music
aptitude scores of the two groups that received music instruction, while the control group
showed a non-signiﬁcant negative trend. Because there was no difference between the
two groups who received music instruction, Flohr was not able to recommend either
instruction approach as superior; yet, because the groups who received music instruction
had greater gains in aptitude then the control group, he concluded that PMMA test scores
can be affected by instruction. He interpreted his results as being supportive of the
concept of developmental music aptitude.

Although Flohr found that a 12-week instruction period could result in
signiﬁcantly improved PMMA scores, the present study uses a longer instruction period
of 23 weeks. While Flohr only studied music aptitude, the present study also examines
music achievement, namely children’s ability to move to beat and perform rhythmic
chants. The present study also shares a similar sample population, kindergarten children,
although the present study will use a slightly larger sample size then Flohr’s 29 students.
Since Flohr demonstrated that music instruction led to signiﬁcant gains in aptitude,

whereas no instruction did not, the present study did not include a control group receiving

16

no instruction. Instead, the present study contrasts two approaches to rhythmic movement
instruction.

Moore (1984) compared the effects of two teaching approaches as well as no
instruction on the rhythmic and overall aptitude levels of second and third grade children.
The experimental group received special rhythm and movement lessons based on Orff
Schulwerk techniques, combined with the movement approach of Phyllis Weikart, and
informed by Gordon’s Skill and content learning sequences. The ﬁrst control group
received traditional instruction consisting primarily of singing using standard elementary
school music textbooks, while the ﬁnal group did not receive school music instruction.
Following the instruction period, Moore found a signiﬁcant increase in rhythm aptitude
as measured by PMMA (Gordon, 1986) in the experimental group. Neither control group
showed signiﬁcant change. Moore did not ﬁnd signiﬁcant increases in overall music
aptitude in any of the three groups.

The Moore study reinforces Gordon’s concept that music aptitude for children is
ﬂuid and responsive to instruction. Since the lessons used with the experimental group
were based heavily on motor responses to rhythm in the form of body movement and
instrument playing, the study suggests that such a kinesthetic approach can encourage a
positive trend in rhythmic aptitude scores. The current study also examines the effect of
instruction on the rhythmic aptitude of students, but, in contrast to the Moore study, it
compares two different types of movement instruction. The present study also includes
instruction in continuous ﬂowing movement, a technique not included in Moore’s

curriculum. The current study also examines the effect of movement instruction on

17

younger children than those included in the Moore study, since the aptitude of younger
children is thought to be more malleable and more easily inﬂuenced by instruction.

In the Moore study, the experimental group heard and chanted rhythm patterns in
both duple and triple meters in addition to movement activities. Pattern instruction
followed Gordon’s skill learning sequence, and patterns were performed both on neutral
syllables and with rhythm solfege. It is probable that this sequential pattern instruction
contributed to the rhythmic aptitude of the research participants. In the current study,
both experimental groups received similar sequential pattern instruction to ensure that the
treatment of different movement approaches is the sole variable.

Research by Taggart (1997) provides additional empirical evidence that
instruction can have a positive effect on music aptitude. The sample group for the study
consisted of 138 at-risk children enrolled in Lansing, MI schools. The students were
instructed as intact classes for two, twenty-minute periods per week for the duration of a
school year, with a curriculum based on Gordon’s Music Learning Theory. Students
experienced a variety of singing, chanting, and movement experiences, as well as tonal
and rhythm pattern instruction in major and minor tonalities and duple and triple meters.
Pre- and post-test administrations of Audie (Gordon, 1989), a music aptitude test for pre-
school children, and PMMA (Gordon, 1986) found signiﬁcant growth in music aptitude
for all ages, with especially strong gains for the younger participants. Taggart
administered the aptitude tests again following a summer hiatus, ﬁnding that the gains in
aptitude resisted extinction in the absence of instruction. When these fall test results were

compared with pre-tests of the same age group from the preceding fall, Taggart was able

l8

to conclude that the increased music aptitude of students with one year of instruction
could not be accounted for by growth and maturation alone.

DeYarmen and Schleuter (1977) and Morgan (1996) have reported research
results that seem to contradict the preceding studies. DeYarmen and Schleuter (1977)
found that children who experienced music instruction in kindergarten through grade 4
demonstrated non-signiﬁcant change in music aptitude measures. These ﬁndings led the
researches to suggest that music aptitude stabilizes at ages 5 or 6, since older students
failed to demonstrate improvements. However, since this study was undertaken before
the development of PMMA and instead made use of Gordon’s Music Aptitude Proﬁle
(Gordon, 1965), an aptitude test that is designed to measure the stabilized music aptitude
of older children and adults and is not a valid test of developmental music aptitude, the
validity of this research is questionable. (Gordon, 1980) Additionally, the lack of growth
in music aptitude could have been attributable to poor quality of instruction or inadequate
curricular content.

Morgan (1996) compared ﬁve different instructional approaches and their effects
on the rhythmic aptitude of second grade students. He found no signiﬁcant growth in
music aptitude scores for any of the treatment groups. Morgan’s results can be called into
question due to the short, eight-week instruction period. Morgan also used the
Intermediate Measures of Music Audiation (IMMA) (Gordon 1986b) an aptitude test that
is designed to Show ﬁner distinctions in groups in which more than half of the children
have high aptitude. (Gordon, 1986b) This may not have been an appropriate criterion
measure for this comparison. Once again, the quality of instruction experienced by the

treatment groups may also have contributed to the lack of aptitude improvement.

19

The studies discussed here have tended to support Gordon’s assertion that the
music aptitude of young children can ﬂuctuate in response to environmental inﬂuences.
Since it has been shown that instruction in music can have a positive impact on a child’s
future potential to achieve in music, it is important for research to clarify the best
approaches for delivering this instruction. To this end, studies have been undertaken to
explore the use of movement as a component of music instruction. These studies suggest
that movement can play an important role in furthering the development of rhythmic
Skills.

The Effect of Movement Instruction on Rhythmic Achievement

As previously discussed, many prominent music educators have suggested that
movement should be a key component in the rhythmic education of children. Researchers
have looked for evidence that movement instruction will improve the rhythmic skills of
students. The conclusions drawn from this research have been contradictory. Weikart
(1982), Burnett (1983), High (1987), and Rohwer (1998) found that instruction that
included movement experiences did positively effect rhythmic achievement, while Jersild
& Bienstock (193 5), Groves (1969), and Rainbow (1981) could not ﬁnd evidence to
support that instruction signiﬁcantly improved various rhythmic skills

Weikart (1982) studied the rhythmic skills of children and concluded that
rhythmic instruction can have a positive effect on the development of these skills.
Weikart considers the ability to keep a steady beat as foundational to the development of
rhythmic competency, and consequently, her approach to movement education is heavily
focused on beat movement. She developed her Rhythmic Competency Analysis Test

(RCAT) (Weikart, 1982) to measure the ability of children or adults to synchronize bodily

20

movements to beat. The test asks participants to pat the beat with both hands on the head,
pat the beat on two alternating levels (head, shoulders), and walk to the beat. All of these
tasks are synchronized with an external music source. Weikart found that ﬁrst graders
who experienced seven months of music classes emphasizing bodily movement to beat
made improvements in their RCAT scores. These children scored much higher than
children of the same age who did not receive movement instruction. The children in the
experimental group experienced a teaching progression designed to lead them to
rhythmic competency through a sequential series of beat experiences. Each level of
experience required greater coordination as students engaged in more difficult beat
keeping tasks. Weikart concluded that rhythmic competency in children is not solely
gained through maturation but is directly effected by instruction and musical experiences.

Burnett (1983) found similar results in a study involving handicapped preschool
children. Children who experienced rhythmic instruction during a 12-week period scored
signiﬁcantly higher on a post-test administration of RCAT (Weikart, 1982) than similar
children who received no instruction. Instruction was based on movement to the pulse of
rhythmic speech, songs, instrumental music and recordings. Although Burnett’s small
sample size of 23 and her specialized population makes generalization difﬁcult, her study
does support the View that rhythmic growth can be effected by musical experiences.

The purpose of a study by High (1987) was to examine the effects of two different
approaches to rhythm instruction on the beat synchronization skills of kindergarten
children. High compared a teaching approach based on Weikart’s model with an
approach that was labeled “traditional.” The experimental group (n=50) was taught a

curriculum based on kinesthetic movement to beat for 30 minutes once a week for 14

21

weeks. Children experienced keeping time with various body movements to a variety of
musical stimuli. Only beat movements were stressed. The traditional approach (n=50)
featured body movement to rhythmic phrase patterns. For example, students were
instructed to clap along with the melodic rhythm of a song. A comparison of pre- and
post-test scores on the RCAT (Weikart, 1982) led High to determine that instruction in
kinesthetic movement to beat led to signiﬁcant growth in steady beat competency. Since
the gains in beat-keeping Skill were signiﬁcantly greater for the experimental group than
the group experiencing the traditional rhythmic instruction, and both groups began at
equal levels, High was able to conclude that gains in skill were inﬂuenced by instruction
and not by maturation alone.

In their study of the beat synchronization ability of 98 children ages two to ﬁve
years, Jersild and Bienstock (1935) found that a child’s ability to perform in time by
patting the hands or stepping to the beat of music played on a mechanical piano increased
steadily with the age of the participant. A smaller treatment group (n=14) was given
opportunities to practice beat-keeping tasks for 23 to 33 ten-minute periods over a ten-
week period. Although the group did show slightly improved rhythmic skills at the end to
this practice period, the change in their ability to synchronize to beat was not statistically
signiﬁcant. The researchers also found no signiﬁcant difference between the
performances of the treatment group and those of a control group (n=9) who received no
instruction or practice. Jersild and Bienstock tentatively concluded that beat-keeping skill
is most affected by maturational factors and is unlikely to be improved by the type of
direct instruction or practice used in their study. The small treatment group employed by

Jersild and Bienstock makes generalization of their conclusions problematic.

22

Additionally, as acknowledged by the researchers, the type of instruction given to the
treatment group was quite limited and rigid, consisting of patting the beat and stepping to
the beat in time to the same four musical selections, and instruction was given within a
limited time frame.

Groves (1969) researched the effect of motor-rhythmic instruction on the rhythm
synchronization ability of ﬁrst, second, and third grade students. The treatment group
(n=61) was given rhythmic instruction that included movement in response to rhythmic
patterns for 24 weeks. Groves found no signiﬁcant differences between the control group
(n=70), which did not receive instruction, and the treatment group. He found that motor
skills as measured by an adaptation of the Brace Scale of Motor Ability and age were the
most signiﬁcant inﬂuences on motor-rhythmic abilities and rhythmic synchronization
skills.

Several problems with the Groves study are evident and render his results
inconclusive. Groves’ description of the nature of the instruction given to the treatment
group is lacking in clarity and speciﬁes. He states that students were instructed to move
to various rhythmic patterns in response to music stimuli, but the nature of this movement
iS unspeciﬁed. His report seems to suggest that students were asked to move with rhythm
pattern ostinati to music rather than maintain steady macrobeats or microbeats. Since the
nature of Groves’ treatment is so unclear, it is difficult to generalize his results or give
credence to his conclusion that age and maturation are more inﬂuential than instruction
on the rhythmic synchronization ability of children.

Rainbow (1981) compared the ability of preschool children aged three and four to

successfully perform a variety of rhythmic tasks. These tasks included clapping, patting,

23

and walking to beat, vocally chanting rhythmic patterns with text, and clapping various
rhythmic patterns. The students’ rhythmic skills were rated several times during a three-
year enrollment in a preschool program. The children experienced music instruction at
for two or three ﬁfteen-minute periods per week. Rainbow found that four-year-old
students were signiﬁcantly more successful with the majority of the rhythmic tasks than
three-year-old students. He found no signiﬁcant differences between four-year-old
students following a full year of instruction and those who experienced only four months
of instruction. Rainbow found that less than 50 percent of four-year-old children
participating in his study were capable of maintaining a steady beat with bodily
movement to a music stimulus. Rainbow concluded that physical maturation had a much
greater impact on the rhythmic growth of preschool children than instruction. He also
cautioned that the task of keeping a beat with bodily movement posed a difﬁcult
challenge for the majority of preschool children.

Rainbow does not provide much detail in his description of the curriculum
employed in his study. He vaguely states that rhythmic activities were included as part of
“a normal sequence of musical events” (Rainbow, 1981, p. 70). This makes it difﬁcult to
generalize his results and casts doubts on his conclusions. However, his ﬁndings do
support Gordon’s suggestion that steady beat instruction for many preschool children
might be premature.

High and Burnett’s research bolster Weikart’s claim that beat competence can be
positively effected by instruction. This conclusion conﬂicts with Jersild & Bienstock,
Groves, and Rainbow who found no evidence to suggest that instruction has positive

effect on rhythmic ability. Evidence does seem to show that instruction that stresses

24

rhythmic movement to beat can lead to increases in children’s ability to perform this
particular rhythmic skill. The Weikart, Burnett, and High studies did not speciﬁcally
compare beat synchronization ability to music with a variety of tempi. The current study,
compares two contrasting types of rhythmic instruction and their effects on beat
competence in a variety of tempi and meters. The discovery of signiﬁcant differences
between the two treatments would lend support to the claim that beat competence can be
effected by instruction. In the current study, Weikart’s model of bodily movement
exclusively to beat is compared to an approach in which continuous ﬂowing movement
precedes beat movement. Beat competence is measured in response to music of both slow
and fast tempi in both duple and triple meters. The current study is also expanded to
evaluate the ability of children to perform rhythmic chants with accuracy and consistent
meter and tempo.

The Effect of Laban-based, Non-discrete Movement

Other researchers have examined the use Of movement activities that are not beat
related as a component of a music education curriculum. These researchers have
examined whether such movement activities could encourage positive trends in music
aptitude and/or achievement in music students.

Rohwer (1998) compared the beat competence of sixth grade beginning
instrumentalist who were taught in a traditional manner with those whose instruction
included movement activities. The treatment group experienced beat-focused movement
as well as movement activities based on the Laban elements of weight, ﬂow, time, and
space. Following the treatment period, the three dependent variables of rhythm

perception, synchronization, and performance were assessed by researcher designed

25

criterion measures. Rohwer found that the treatment group receiving movement
instruction scored signiﬁcantly higher on measures of rhythm synchronization and
performance. She concluded that movement instruction could contribute to improvements
in students’ abilities to synchronize movement to a steady beat and to perform with
consistent tempo.

Like the Rohwer study, the present study compares the effectiveness of two
different instructional approaches. In the Rohwer study, the treatment group experienced
both beat and non beat-focused movement activities. In the current study, one of the
treatment groups also experienced both beat and non-beat movement activities with a
focus on continuous ﬂowing movement, while the second treatment group only
experienced beat movement. Since the results of Rohwer’s study support the conclusion
that instruction incorporating movement is better than instruction with no movement, the
present study seeks to clarify which type of movement activities might have a greater
impact on children. Rohwer looked at sixth grade students with stabilized music aptitudes
in a beginning instrumental setting. The present study is concerned with developmental
music aptitude in a population of kindergarten students in a general music class setting.
Since Rohwer found signiﬁcant improvement in the achievement areas of heat
synchronization and rhythm performance, the present study will uses criterion measures
designed to assess these same aspects of music achievement.

Kim (2000) studied the effects of movement instruction on the singing Skills and
developmental tonal aptitudes of ﬁrst grade students. Students were divided into two
treatment groups and one control group. Treatment group A (n=27) experienced

sequential movement instruction based on Laban effort elements in conjunction with

26

singing instruction. Treatment group B (n=26) received singing instruction without
movement, while the control group (n=25) did not receive any music or movement
instruction. At the conclusion of the ten week period, Kim rated each child’s solo singing
of a criterion song and administered the tonal sub-test of PMMA (Gordon, 1986a). After
this short treatment period, no signiﬁcant differences were found between the three
groups, although the trends in the results seemed to favor movement instruction over no
movement instruction, and both types of instruction over no instruction.

Like Kim’s study, the current study seeks to examine the effects of non-discrete
movement instruction on the aptitude and achievement of children. Rather than
comparing two different types of movement instruction, Kim compared movement
instruction to no movement instruction. Also, in contrast with the current study, Kim was
interested in the effects of movement instruction on the development of tonal
understanding and Skills. Since Kim concluded that ten weeks was an inadequate
treatment period for signiﬁcant results to emerge, the current research engages
participants in 23 weeks of instruction.

Jordan (1985) examined the effects of informal music instruction based on the
movement philosophy of Laban on the rhythm achievement of high school students.
Three treatment groups were all given movement instruction based on different
combinations of Laban’s effort elements. The ﬁrst group experienced activities based on
weight and ﬂow; the second group experienced activities based on the elements of time
and space, while the third group experienced activities the focused on various
combinations of the four effort elements. Following the eleven week treatment period,

Jordan administered his Rhythm Discrimination Criterion Measure and his Rhythm

27

Performance Criterion Measure (Jordan, 1985) to all students in order to determine the
comparative effects of movement activities using different combinations of Laban effort
elements on the rhythmic discrimination and performance skills of students. Jordan found
that students who received informal movement instruction using all four combined effort
elements of weight, ﬂow, time, and space demonstrated superior rhythm performance
skills to students who only received instruction in weight and ﬂow combined or time and
space combined.

The Jordan study supports the hypothesis that informal movement instruction,
speciﬁcally non beat-related movement, can improve the rhythm achievement of
students. There are important differences between the Jordan study and this study. Jordan
worked with high school students with stabilized aptitudes, whereas this study examines
kindergarten students with developmental aptitudes. Jordan compared the effects of
different types of Laban movement activities, while the present study focuses it’s
comparisons on movement based on the Laban effort element of ﬂow versus movement
to beat. In addition, Jordan only examined the effect of movement on rhythm
achievement, whereas the present study examines the effect of movement on rhythm
achievement as well as developmental rhythm aptitude.

The purpose of Chemohorsky’s study (1991) was to compare the effects of
Laban-based movement activities on the rhythm performance abilities and developmental
rhythm aptitude of students in second grade and students in kindergarten. Students in
both grades were given movement experiences based on the Laban effort elements of
weight, ﬂow, time, and space as well as activities that focused on general body

awareness. The treatment period was twenty-three weeks and was preceded and followed

28

by the administration of the PMMA (Gordon, 1986). In order to measure the rhythmic
achievement of the children, three criterion chants were taught, and solo performances of
the chants were rated on a continuous ratings scale by a panel of judges. Although
Chemohorsky was unable to support the hypothesis that movement instruction would
have a greater effect on the rhythm performance achievement of kindergarten students
than on that of second graders, she did conclude that Laban-based movement instruction
had a signiﬁcant effect on the developmental rhythm aptitude of students with low
aptitude.

Chemohorsky examined the interactions between grade level and aptitude level
on the rhythm achievement and developmental aptitude of children who were exposed to
a single type of movement instruction. In contrast, the current research compares two
types of movement instruction. Similar criterion measures, PMMA and a rhythm
performance ratings scale, are used in both studies. However, the current study also
contains a beat synchronization criterion measure. The Chemohorsky study compared
second grade and kindergarten students, while in this study, only kindergarten students
are examined.

The Blesedell study (1991) is most similar to the present study. Blesedell
compared the effects of two different types of movement instruction on the rhythm
achievement, movement abilities, and aptitude of three- and four-year-old students
enrolled in an early childhood music program. One treatment group received Laban-
based movement instruction focusing on the effort elements of weight, flow, time, and
space, while the second treatment group received movement instruction based on

Dalcroze Eurythmics. The Laban instruction was based on a researcher-written story,

29

with movement activities reﬂecting various elements of the story. The Dalcroze groups
also experienced the effort elements of weight, ﬂow, time, and space. Eurythmics
activities also included various beat-related movements and activities that encouraged
movement responses to various musical concepts including changing tempi, changing
dynamics, meter, and accent. The Dalcroze instruction stressed large muscle responses.
Criterion measures employed by Blesedell included pre- and post—test administrations of
Audie (Gordon, 1989), a music aptitude test designed for preschool children, a movement
ability rating scale, and a rhythm synchronization ability rating scale. Blesedell did not
discover any signiﬁcant achievement or aptitude differences between the two treatment
groups. She did ﬁnd that both types of movement instruction contributed to Signiﬁcant
increases in aptitude scores. Blesedell concluded that both Dalcroze and Laban
movement instruction are beneﬁcial for three- and four-year-old children.

Like Blesedell, this researcher began with the assumption that movement
instruction is better than no movement instruction in the rhythmic education of children.
The problems of the current study focus on determining what Speciﬁc approach to
movement instruction might be more beneﬁcial. In the Blesedell study, both treatment
groups experienced non beat-focused movement activities. The Dalcroze group also
received beat-focused instruction. In the current study, the treatments consist of (a) beat
only movement activities and (b) both beat-focused and continuous ﬂowing movement
activities. The current study also shares Similar criterion measures with the Blesedell
study, employing PMMA (Gordon, 1986), a music aptitude test that is similar to Audie

but is more appropriate for kindergarten-age children. Similar to the Blesedell study, the

30

current Study employs a beat synchronization ratings scale, although its scope is
expanded to include a rhythm chant performance rating scale.
Summary

The research reviewed in this chapter represents three streams of inquiry: (a) the
effect of instruction on developmental music aptitude, (b) the effect of movement
instruction on the development of rhythmic skills, especially beat synchronization ability,
and, more Speciﬁcally, (c) the effect of non-discrete movement on musical skills and/or
aptitude. Based on this review the current research begins with the following
assumptions: (a) the music aptitude of kindergarten students is developmental and can be
effected by instruction, (b) instruction that includes movement can positively effect
rhythmic skill, especially beat competence, and (c) research is needed to determine
whether non-discrete movement, especially based on the Laban effort element of ﬂow

can contribute to gains in music aptitude and achievement.

31

CHAPTER THREE

STUDY DESIGN

This study is a two-treatment group design with the two treatments being (a)
instruction with movement activities exclusively to beat and (b) instruction with both
movement activities to beat and movement activities with non-discrete, continuous-
ﬂowing movement.

Subjects

The participants in the study were kindergarten students attending a public
elementary school in a small town in coastal Maine. The participants were almost
exclusively Caucasian and represented diverse socio-economic levels. Approximately
30% of the school population is eligible for free or reduced lunch under the federal Title
1 program, although the percentage of kindergarten students who participate in this
program was not determined by the researcher. A total of 50 students were included in
the study, and they were divided among four intact kindergarten classes. Twenty-nine
participants were male and 21 were female. The town in which the study took place is
located in close proximity to a United States Navy air base, and approximately 20% Of
the school population are members of Navy families. This factor contributes to a transient
school population. Eight students who began the study relocated before post-test
measurements were taken, and eight students joined the kindergarten during the course of

the treatment period. Data was not collected from these students for inclusion in the study

32

analysis. The same classroom teacher taught two of the classes, with one in the morning
and one in the afternoon. The remaining two classes were taught by different teachers,
also with one in the morning and one in the afternoon. All of the students also
participated in a Kinderstart program that was taught by a non-certiﬁed educational
technician, resulting in essentially a full-day kindergarten. All kindergarten students
attended music class for one half-hour period weekly. Music class was taught in a
separate music room, and all classes were taught by the researcher.

Procedure

Before the beginning of the school year, the study proposal was submitted for
approval to the University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects
(U CRIHS). The administration of the school in which the study was to be conducted was
also apprised of the details of the study. Approval was granted by both UCRIHS and the
school, paving the way for the study to proceed. A consent form (Appendix A) was sent
home with all of the kindergarten students informing parents of the research and the fact
that participation was voluntary. Signed consent forms were returned to the researcher,
and only those children for whom consent was given participated in the data-collection
for the study.

During the third week of the school year, after two music class sessions, the
rhythm sub-test of Primary Measures of Music Audiation (PMMA) (Gordon, 1986a) was
administered to all children. All students experienced the same lesson plans during the
ﬁrst two class meetings, which were designed to introduce the children to their new
music teacher and teach classroom procedures and expectations. There were no

signiﬁcant differences between the aptitude levels of the four kindergarten sections prior

33

to treatment. The classes were assigned to one Of two treatments: beat only and ﬂow and
beat combined. Since one classroom teacher taught two of the classes, to minimize any
teacher effect, one of her classes was assigned to the beat group and other was assigned
to the ﬂow and beat group. Since this ﬁrst ﬂow and beat group was a morning
kindergarten class, an afternoon class was designated as the second ﬂow and beat group.
The second beat only group was a morning kindergarten class resulting in one morning
and one afternoon class for each treatment.

In the beat—only treatment group (n= 23), the children experienced and
participated in a variety of activities that featured movement to beat. The instructor
modeled movement to the beat as the class performed songs and chants and listened to
recorded music. The songs and chants included in the curriculum represented a variety of
meters, but focused on duple and triple. The songs presented a variety of tonalities, with
major and harmonic minor being the most prevalent. Rhythmic movements included
patting with both hands on the knees, head, and shoulders, both bilaterally and
alternating. Students also engaged in locomotor movement activities, including walking,
tiptoeing, and stomping to music, as well as traditional children’s singing games. Rhythm
instruction was enhanced by the use of various instructional materials including
beanbags, egg-shaped shakers, rhythm sticks, and pitched and non-pitched percussion
instruments. During all movement activities, beat synchronization was modeled and
encouraged by the instructor. Another element of the music class curriculum was tonal
and rhythm pattern instruction. Students learned a vocabulary of two, three, or four pitch

tonal patterns in major and harmonic minor tonalities, as well as two measure rhythm

34

patterns in duple and triple meters. Students were taught this pattern vocabulary through
group and solo call-and-response experiences.

The ﬂow and beat treatment group (n=27) experienced the same songs, chants,
and musical games as the beat-only group. This treatment group was also presented the
same vocabulary of tonal and rhythm patterns. Effort was made to ensure that the only
treatment variable was the inclusion of non-discrete, continuous ﬂowing movement. In
contrast with the beat-only group, the ﬂow and beat combined treatment group
experienced ﬂowing movements as modeled by the instructor. These movements
included smooth waving of the arms, torso, and whole body. Students were also
encouraged to move with continuous ﬂow through imagery such as, “Soar like an eagle,”
“Sway in the breeze,” “Stir the soup,” or “Swim through the water.” Flowing movements
were performed with songs, chants, and recorded music by the instructor as well as the
students. For the ﬁrst ten weeks of instruction, exclusively ﬂowing-type movements were
included in the class sessions. Starting with the eleventh week, pulsing and beat
movements were included alongside continuous ﬂowing movement. Pulsing movements
are a combination of continuous ﬂow with the arms and/or body with Simultaneous
bouncing of the hands to the rhythmic pulse. This type of movement, similar to the arm
motions of a conductor, was included based on the recommendations of Gordon (1997b)
and Reynolds, et. al. (1998), who suggest that early experiences of beat should merge
with rather than supplant the feeling of continuous movement and ﬂow. For the
remainder of the treatment period, students in the beat and ﬂow group received
instruction featuring a combination of ﬂowing, pulsing, and beat movements. Similar

instructional materials, including beanbags, egg shakers, and percussion instruments were

35

used in both treatment groups, with the addition of colorful nylon scarves to enhance the
ﬂowing movements of this second group.

The treatment period consisted of one half-hour class session each week for 23
weeks of the school calendar. This treatment was preceded by one week of PMMA testing
and followed by three weeks of post-treatment data collection. During the last ﬁve weeks
of instruction, two four-measure criterion chants representing duple and triple meters
were taught to all participants. These chants were performed with the neutral syllable
“bah.”

Criterion Measures

In order to address the problems of the study, three criterion measures were
employed at the conclusion of the treatment period. PMMA was re-administered to all
children and beat synchronization and rhythm chant performance rating scales were used
to rate participants performances of these rhythmic tasks.

Gordon’s Primary Measures of Music Audiation (PMII/M) (1986a) was used to
measure any ﬂuctuations in the developmental rhythm aptitude of the research
participants. Gordon designed PMMA as a measurement of the audiation potential of
children younger than age nine: children for whom music aptitude has not yet stabilized.
The test is divided into two sub-tests measuring rhythm and tonal aptitude respectively.
For the current study, only the rhythm sub-test was administered. The rhythm sub-test of
PMMA consists of 40 test items recorded on a compact disk. Each test item consists of
two short rhythm patterns played on a Moog music synthesizer. Children are asked to
determine whether the two patterns sound the same or different, and they are instructed to

mark their choice on the answer sheet. Since the target age group for this test often lacks

36

reading or number comprehension skills, the answer sheet is pictorial. Children circle
pictures of faces that are the same if the patterns sound the same or pictures that are
different if the patterns sound different.

According to Gordon (1986a), the test measures the ability of children to “derive
immediate impressions and make intuitive responses in audiation” (p. 8). Since not
enough time is allowed between the two patterns to allow memorization of the ﬁrst
pattern, successful determination of same and different does not depend on short-terrn
memory. Since “it is impossible to teach another or oneself to derive immediate
impressions and make intuitive responses in audiation,” (p. 8) the ability of children to
discriminate between test patterns indicates their innate level of audiation potential and
reﬂects the quality of early musical experiences (Gordon, 1986a). During the ﬂuid period
in which a child’s aptitude is developmental, “ﬂuctuations result from the continuous
interaction between a child’s innate capacities and his environment” (p. 9). Since PMMA
is sensitive to changes in children’s audiation potential, it is an appropriate measure of
the effects of different musical environments.

The second research problem of the study concerns the ability of children to
synchronize their movements to an external beat source. Students were instructed to pat
the “steady beat” on their laps with both hands as they listened to recorded music. The
instructor modeled the correct movement for a few measures and then encouraged the
students to continue after the modeling stopped. Instrumental music from the
Rhythmically Moving (Weikart, 1999) series Of folk music recordings provided the
external beat source, and the musical selections represented the following meters and

tempi: triple meter, fast tempo (macrobeat= mm. 100); duple meter, fast tempo

37

(macrobeat=mm. 100); triple meter, slow tempo (macrobeat=mm.48); and duple meter,
Slow tempo (macrobeat=mm.50). The variety of meters and tempi were included to
provide a holistic and broad picture of the students’ beat synchronization skill.
Additionally, inclusion of both slow and fast tempi was inﬂuenced by Walters (1983),
who found that beat synchronization to different tempi posed varying degrees of
difﬁculty for a child depending on whether the external beat corresponded to his or her
internal, personal tempo. For most children, beat synchronization to Slow tempi poses a
greater challenge. Students were videotaped in groups of three or four as they performed
the beat-patting task. A panel of two independent judges rated the students’ performances
using a ﬁve-point continuous rating scale. The judges were graduate students in music
education with extensive music teaching experience. The rating scale is shown in
Appendix B. Since the research question was concerned with a holistic and broad View of
beat synchronization Skill, only the composite ratings of the judges on all of the musical
selections was included in the data analysis.

The ﬁnal criterion measure corresponds with the third research question,
comparing the rhythm chant performance skills of the two treatment groups. Each child
was audiotaped as they performed two previously learned criterion chants, one in duple
and one in triple meter. Due to scheduling and time constraints, the recording took place
in the context of a regular music class session, and all class members were present during
the taping. After the tempo and meter were established through group chanting and beat
patting, the researcher recorded each participant in turn as they were seated in a circle.
The instructor prompted each child to begin his or her performance by saying, “Ready,

go” in tempo. Two independent judges rated each child’s ability to perform the chant

38

with accurate durations while maintaining a consistent tempo and meter using a ﬁve-
point continuous rating scale. The rhythm chant performance ratings scale is included in

Appendix C.

39

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

The purpose of this research was to compare the effects of movement instruction
that includes continuous ﬂowing movement and beat movement with the effects of
movement instruction that only focuses on beat on the developmental rhythm aptitude
and rhythm achievement of kindergarten students. The speciﬁc areas of rhythmic
achievement explored were the ability to synchronize movement to the beat of an
external music source and the ability to perform rhythmic chants with accurate durations,
and consistent meter and tempo.

Data was collected and analyzed using the following statistics: a) means and
standard deviations Of the pre-test scores on the rhythm sub-test of the Primary Measures
of Music Audiation (PMMA), b) t-test to look for signiﬁcant differences between the pre-
test PMMA scores of the two treatment groups, c) corrected split-halves reliabilities for
the PMM4 pre- and post tests, d) interjudge reliabilities for the beat synchronization
rating scale and the rhythm chant performance rating scale, e) means and standard
deviations of the post-test and gain scores on the rhythm sub-test of PMMA for the two
treatment groups, 1) means and standard deviations of the raw scores for the two rating
scales for both treatment groups, and g) t-tests to look for signiﬁcant differences between
the two treatment groups’ rhythm aptitude gain scores, beat synchronization rating

scores, and rhythm chant performance rating scores.

40

PMMA Pre-test Results

The rhythm sub-test of PMMA was administered to all participants before
treatment began. The PMMA pre-test scores were analyzed to determine whether the
developmental rhythm aptitude levels for each treatment group were comparable. Means
and standard deviations for each treatment group are shown in Table 2. For the beat-only
treatment group, the mean of the PMMA rhythm pre-test scores was 19.50, and the
standard deviation was 3.71. For the ﬂow and beat group, the mean of the PMMA rhythm
pre-test score was 21.50, and the standard deviation was 5.03. The results of a two-tailed
t-test (Table 3) showed that there were no signiﬁcant rhythm aptitude differences

between the two treatment groups.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 2
PMMA Pre-test
Standard
Mean Deviation
Beat Only
(n=20) 19.5 3.71
Flow and Beat
(n=24) 21.5 5 .03
Table 3
Mean
Difference DF t-value p-value
PMMA
Pre-test 2.0 42 1 .474 . 148
(p>.05)
PMMA Reliability Results

PMA/M pre- and post-test corrected split-halves reliabilities were calculated and

then corrected using the Spearman-Brown Prophecy Formula. Pre-test reliability was

41

found to be .78. Post-test reliability was found to be .69. These are satisfactory
reliabilities, although marginally so for the post-test.
Interjudge Reliability Results
Interjudge reliabilities between the two independent judges were determined for
both the beat synchronization and rhythmic chant performance rating scales using the
Pearson correlation. For the beat synchronization rating scale, the reliability of the
composite ratings for students’ synchronization to the beat in triple meter, fast tempo;
duple meter, fast tempo; duple meter, Slow tempo; and triple meter, slow tempo was .78.
On the rhythm chant performance rating scale the reliability of the composite ratings for
duple and triple meter chant performances was found to be .91 . This represents an
acceptable level of interjudge agreement. The two judges scores were combined for the
following statistical analysis.
Means and Standard Deviations
Table 4 shows the mean scores and standard deviations for the two treatment
groups for the PMMA post-test and gain scores. For the beat-only treatment group, the
mean of the PMMA rhythm post-test scores was 24.55, and the standard deviation was
5.15. For the ﬂow and beat group, the mean of the PMMA rhythm post-test scores was
24.54, and the standard deviation was 4.21. For the beat-only treatment group, the mean
of the PMMA rhythm gains scores was 5.05, and the standard deviation was 5.53. For the
ﬂow and beat group, the mean of the PMMA rhythm gains score was 3.04, and the

standard deviation was 4.41.

42

Table 4

 

 

 

 

PMMA Post-test PMMA Gains
Mean Std Mean Std
Deviation Deviation
Beat-Only,
n=20 24.55 5.15 5.05 5.53
Flow and
Beat, n=24 24.54 4.21 3.04 4.41

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The trends in the data suggest that the beat-only treatment group tended to show
greater gains in PMMA rhythm scores following the treatment period than did the ﬂow
and beat group.

Table 5 shows the mean scores and standard deviations for the two treatment
groups on the beat synchronization and rhythm chant performance dimensions of the
study. The beat-only treatments group’s mean of the composite beat synchronization
ratings was 27.04, and the standard deviation was 5.83. The ﬂow and beat treatments
group’s mean composite of the beat synchronization ratings was 25.54 and the standard
deviation was 8.0. The beat-only treatments group’s mean of the composite rhythm chant
ratings was 13.91 and the standard deviation was 3.15. The ﬂow and beat treatments
group’s mean of the composite beat synchronization ratings was 11.87, and the standard

deviation was 4.46.

43

Table 5

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Beat synchronization composite Rhythm chant composite
ratings ratings
Std.
Mean Std. deviation Mean deviation
Beat only,
n=23 27.04 5.83 13.91 3.15
Flow and
beat, n=24 25.54 8.0 11.87 4.46

 

For both the beat synchronization and rhythm chant criterion measures, the trend

of the mean scores tended to favor the beat-only treatment group.

Results for PMlI/M Rhythm Scores

Two-tailed t-tests were used to determine if any signiﬁcant differences existed

between the PMMA gains scores of the two treatment groups. The results are reported in

Table 6. Neither of the results are signiﬁcantly different (p>.05). It cannot be determined

from this data that either treatment method is more likely to inﬂuence kindergarten

students to achieve greater gains in rhythmic aptitude as measured by PMMA.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 6
Mean
Difference DF t-Value p-value
PMMA
Gains -2.008 42 -1 .341 .1872
(p>.05)

44

 

 

Results for Beat Synchronization
A two-tailed t-test was used to determine if there were any signiﬁcant differences
between the two treatment groups on scores for the beat synchronization rating scale. The
composite ratings beat synchronization were analyzed. The results are reported in Table
7. This result is not statistically signiﬁcant (p>.05). It cannot be determined on the basis
of this data that either treatment method will have a signiﬁcantly greater effect on the

beat synchronization ability of kindergarten students.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 7
Results of t-test on beat synchronization composite mean scores
Mean
Difference DF t-value p-value
-1.502 45 -.733 .467
(p>.05)

Results for Rhythm Chant Performance
A two-tailed t-test was also used to look for a signiﬁcant difference between the
mean scores of the two treatment groups on the rhythm chant performance rating scale.
The composite ratings of chants were compared (Table 8). Again, the result was not
statistically Signiﬁcant (p>.05). It cannot be determined on the basis of this data that
either treatment method will have a signiﬁcantly greater effect on the rhythm chant

performance ability of kindergarten students.

 

 

Table 8
Results of t-test on rhythm chant composite mean scores
Mean
Difference DF t-value p-value
-2.043 44 -1.797 .079

 

 

 

 

 

 

(p>.05)

45

Interpretation of Results

The results reported above Show no signiﬁcant differences between the two
treatment groups for any of the criterion measures employed in the study. One cannot
conclude on the basis of these results that either of the two types of instruction,
movement to beat or the combination of both ﬂowing and beat movement, when
employed during a 23 week period, has a greater effect on gains in developmental rhythm
aptitude. This study also does not suggest that either instructional method is preferable
for teaching beat synchronization skills or rhythm chant performance skills. However, an
interpretation of these results should consider several factors that may have contributed to
this outcome.

It is necessary to consider that the data collection methodology may have
inﬂuenced the results that were obtained. This is especially true for the beat
synchronization rating scale. Children were videotaped while patting the beat to
accompanying recordings in groups of three or four. This methodology may have
affected results, since individuals may have been unduly inﬂuenced by the skill level of
other children seated in close proximity. For example, a child who vigorously patted the
incorrect beat might have thrown off other children who would have received higher
ratings if they were performing in isolation. Additionally, during the videotaping, other
children were in the room awaiting their turn to perform. These off-camera children may
have been a distraction to the children performing the criterion task. Time and scheduling
pressures that are difﬁcult to avoid in a public school setting necessitated this less-than-
optimum data gathering procedure. This method of collecting data is probably reﬂected

in the moderate interjudge reliability of .78. Also, the judges may have had difﬁculty

46

focusing on individual children and objectively noting the degree of beat synchronization
with several children appearing on the screen.

Also worth consideration is the possibility that the criterion chants used in the
rhythm chant performance criterion measure were too short to provide an accurate
measure of performance skill. Since comparing the ability to sustain a consistent tempo
and meter throughout a performance was a primary objective of this measure, perhaps a
longer chant length would have led to greater ease and accuracy in rating. However, the
high degree of interjudge reliability does suggest that the chant length was of adequate
length for fair conclusions to be drawn. The data collection procedure for this criterion
measure also may have influenced the results. Since the participants were recorded in a
group setting, they may have been distracted by classmates, or they may have suffered
nervousness about performing in front of peers. Also, the errors of some children may
have been absorbed and repeated by subsequent performers.

The recorded music that was used for the beat synchronization criterion measure
was unfamiliar to the students. Also, the task of synchronizing to recorded instrumental
music was less familiar to the students than keeping the beat to songs and chants
performed by the teacher. Students did experience beat synchronization activities using
recordings, but with much less frequency. Perhaps the relative novelty of the task resulted
in lower ratings that failed to accurately reﬂect children’s true beat competence levels.

Another important factor to consider in the interpretation of results is the make-up
of the two treatment groups. With research using intact classes in a real-world school
setting, it is difﬁcult to control the variables between groups and ensure that the

measurements obtained reﬂect only differences based on treatments. In the current

47

research, differences in student behavior may have inﬂuenced the data. One of the classes
who received instruction in both ﬂowing and beat movement posed difﬁcult classroom
management challenges for the instructor. Due to these behavior issues, the children in
this class received less direct music instruction than the other classes, since considerable
time and effort was spent on re-direction and correction of classroom behavior.

There also may have been important differences in the amount and quality of
music instruction given by the classroom teachers throughout the school day in addition
to the instruction received in music class.

Since the researcher taught all classes, it is possible that ﬂowing movements were
inadvertently incorporated into the instruction of the beat-only treatment group. For
example, while patting the beat to a song, subtle head and torso swaying might have been

modeled by the instructor.

48

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary

Music educators have strongly advocated movement as an important component
of general music curricula. Movement has been seen as especially useful for the
cultivation of rhythmic ability. Research ﬁndings have tended to support these assertions.
A review of the research literature suggests that more research is needed to clarify which
types of movement instruction might be most beneﬁcial in encouraging rhythmic growth
in young children.

The purpose of this research was to cOmpare the effects of movement instruction
that included continuous ﬂowing movement and beat movement with the effects of
movement instruction that only focused on beat on the developmental aptitude and
rhythmic achievement of children. The study focused on three speciﬁc research
problems. First, would there be any signiﬁcant difference in the developmental rhythm
aptitude gain scores of kindergarten students who experienced only movement to beat
with those who experienced both continuous, ﬂowing movement in addition to movement
to beat. Second, would there be any signiﬁcant differences between children in the two
treatment groups in the ability to synchronize body movement to an external musical
beat. Finally, would there be any signiﬁcant differences between children in the two
treatment groups in their abilities to perform a rhythm chant with accuracy and consistent

meter and tempo.

49

The current study represents a two-treatment group design. Forty-seven
kindergarten children from a public elementary school in a small Maine town participated
in the study. Four intact kindergarten classes were divided into two treatment groups, the
beat only group and the combined ﬂow and beat group. The researcher taught all classes
for one half-hour each week for a total of 23 weeks. Before treatment began, the rhythm
sub-test of the Primary Measures of Music Audiation (PMMA) (Gordon, 1986a) was
administered to all participants.

For the beat-only treatment group, the instructor modeled a variety of movements
that synchronized with the beat of songs, chants, and recorded music. A large percentage
of the class time included movement to beat. Students also performed to beat on various
percussion instruments and experienced a vocabulary of rhythm patterns that were
chanted in call-and-response style.

For the combined beat and ﬂow group, the instructor began the treatment period
by exclusively modeling smoothly ﬂowing, non-discrete movements. Children were
instructed to sway their arms, torsos, and whole bodies in a ﬂuid, continuous manner in
accompaniment to songs, chants, and recorded music. After ten weeks of instruction in
exclusively ﬂowing movement, the instructor began to include pulsing movements in
which ﬂow and beat movements were combined, as well as more traditional beat-keeping
activities. For the ﬁnal 13 weeks of instruction, both ﬂowing and beat keeping movement
activities were experienced by the children in this treatment group. Students in this
treatment group also experienced the same rhythm pattern vocabulary as the beat only
group and, during the ﬁnal 13 weeks of treatment, were given similar instrument playing

experiences.

50

Following the treatment period, three criterion measures were used to compare the
effects of the two treatments. The rhythmic subtest of PMMA was re-administered to
measure developmental rhythmic aptitude gains. Participants were videotaped as they
patted their laps along with the beat of folk music recordings representing duple meter in
fast and slow tempi and triple meter in fast and slow tempi. A ﬁve-point, continuous
beat-synchronization rating scale was used by a panel of two judges to rate the
videotaped performances of the participants. Finally, participants were tape-recorded as
they performed two rhythmic chants on a neutral syllable, one in duple meter and the
other in triple meter. A ﬁve-point, continuous rhythm chant performance rating scale was
used by a panel of two judges to rate the taped chant performances. Both the beat
synchronization rating scale and the rhythm chant performance rating scale were
designed by the researcher for this study.

The judges’ ratings on these post-test measures were analyzed for inter-judge
reliability. Means and standard deviations were calculated for the pre- and post-test
PMMA scores as well as the PMMA gains scores. Means and standard deviations were
also calculated for the beat synchronization ratings and the rhythm chant performance
ratings. T-tests were used to analyze the data to determine if signiﬁcant differences were
found between the treatment groups for the three criterion measures.

Results

NO signiﬁcant differences were found between the two treatment groups on any of
the criterion measures. It cannot be determined based on the results of this study that
either type of movement instruction is more effective in encouraging growth in rhythmic

aptitude. It also cannot be determined based on the results of this study that either

51

treatment will lead kindergarten classes to achieve greater beat synchronization
competence or rhythm chant performance skill.
Conclusions

No signiﬁcant differences were found between the two treatment groups for any
of the problems of the study. One cannot conclude from the results of this study that
either treatment will result in larger gains in developmental rhythm aptitude. The results
of the study may tend to conﬁrm the concept of developmental music aptitude, since both
treatment groups showed positive gains in PMMA test scores, although these gains may
be due to the maturation of the participants.

One also cannot conclude from the results of this study that either type of
movement instruction will result in greater beat synchronization ability. It should be
noted that although the members of the beat-only group had substantially more practice
with movement to beat than the combined ﬂow and beat group, their ratings were not
Signiﬁcantly higher on the beat-synchronization measurement. This suggests that the
inclusion of ﬂowing movement in the music curriculum, with a corresponding decrease
in the frequency of beat-keeping activities, does not signiﬁcantly hinder the development
of beat synchronization skill. Since the possible beneﬁts of ﬂowing movement, which
might be discovered with further research, does not appear to come at the cost of delayed
beat competency, teachers should consider including both types of movement in their
kindergarten music classes until such research is undertaken.

Finally, one cannot conclude from the results of this research that either type of
movement instruction will have a greater effect on the ability of kindergarten students to

perform rhythm chants with accuracy and consistent meter and tempo.

52

Recommendations for Future Research

Due to the limitations of this study and the lack of signiﬁcant results, it is clear
that further research in this area is needed. The recognition of this need leads to the
following recommendations:

This study should be repeated with a larger population Of students. This would
better control for the inevitable variations between groups that were encountered in the
present study. The combination of small sample size and variations in student behavior
may have inﬂuenced the results of the current study.

This study should be repeated with a more reliable beat synchronization
measurement instrument. Videotaping students individually and using a more familiar
beat synchronization task might lead to more accurate and reliable measurements of beat-
keeping skill.

Future studies comparing students who experience ﬂowing movement with those
who were only instructed to move to beat should be carried out for a longer period of
time. Perhaps differences in aptitude and rhythmic achievement may appear after an
extended treatment period. It would be especially valuable to undertake a longitudinal
study exploring the rhythmic ability of older elementary school children whose ﬁrst
movement experiences in preschool or kindergarten consisted of continuous ﬂowing
movement.

After experiencing the responses of kindergarten children to these two contrasting
approaches to rhythmic movement, the researcher is led to question whether the speciﬁc

criterion measures employed in this study adequately address the true value of ﬂowing

53

movement instruction. Perhaps other aspects of musicianship besides beat
synchronization or chant accuracy are positively effected by ﬂowing movement
instruction. Further research should examine other facets of musical skill, especially in
the areas of expressiveness and phrasing. Flowing movement instruction may be a
valuable companion to beat movement instruction in encouraging the holistic musical
development of children.

Similar research Should be undertaken with younger students. Flowing movement
might be especially valuable for younger children who are less able to coordinate their
movements to beat. Flowing movement in the preschool years might provide a valuable
foundation for the commencement of beat instruction beginning in kindergarten.

The non-signiﬁcant results obtained by this research might be interpreted to
support the View that improved beat synchronization ability is more a product of
maturation than a result of instruction. Further research is needed to separate the effects

of age, physical coordination, and type of instruction on beat synchronization ability.

54

APPENDIX A

CONSENT LETTER

Woodside Elementary School
42 Barrows Drive
Topsham, ME 04086

9/15/2002
Dear Kindergarten Parent or Caregiver,

We are beginning an exciting new year in the music department at Woodside School, and I am
delighted to have the opportunity to share music with your kindergarten student. I am writing to inform you
about a research study that I will be undertaking in connection with my Masters degree thesis, and, more
importantly, to enhance my understanding of children’s musical learning. The focus of the study will be on
kinesthetic movement experiences and their effect on the rhythmic growth of children. All children will
participate in rhythmic movement activities throughout the year, some focusing on relaxed, ﬂowing
movement, and others focused on movement to steady beat. Student achievement in rhythmic tasks will be
measured in the spring, and rhythmic music aptitude will be assessed both before and after the study.
Student performances of rhythm activities will be videotaped to aid in the collection of information, and
two qualiﬁed music educators in addition to me will view the videotapes. All information gathered for this
study will be kept conﬁdential, and all results will be published anonymously. All instructional activities
and assessments used in this project correspond with Maine Learning Results standards. Your child’s
participation in this project is completely voluntary. If you do not wish to have your child included in the
study, he or she will still participate in all activities and aptitude assessments, since these are part of the
kindergarten music curriculum at Woodside School. Non-participating children will simply not be
videotaped, and their scores on assessment tests will not be included in the study analysis. Children who are
not videotaped will be given an alternative music activity to experience on the day that videotaping takes
place. If you have any questions or concerns about this study, please feel free to contact me at Woodside,
or, alternatively, questions can be directed to my advisor at Michigan State University. I hope that you will
all lend your support to this project by returning the attached consent form.

Thank you,

David Olsen Pietrowski
Music Teacher

cc: Sandra Trach, Principal
Jennifer Cotreau, Assistant Principal

If you have any questions about this study please contact Mr. Olsen Pietrowski at 798-4719 or e-mail at
pietrowskid@link75.org . If you have questions or concerns regarding your rights as a study participant, or
are dissatisﬁed at any time with any aspect of this study, you may contact - anonymously, if you wish —
Ashir Kumar, M.D., Chair of the University Committee on Research Involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS)
by phone: (517) 355-2180, fax: (517)432-4503, e-mail: ucrihs(rD,msu.edu, or regular mail: 202 Olds Hall,
East Lansing, MI 48824.

55

APPENDIX B

BEAT SYNCHRONIZATION RATING SCALE

Synchronizes beat with music for all or most of the time

Synchronizes beat with music for some of the time

Maintains a steady beat for all or most of the time, but not synchronized with
music

Maintains a steady beat for some of the time, but not synchronized with music

Pats lap without a consistent or steady beat

56

APPENDIX C

RHYTHM CHANT RATING SCALE

Performs chant with correct meter, maintaining established tempo, with accurate
durations

Performs chant with correct meter, maintaining established tempo, with some
inaccurate durations

Performs chant with correct meter. Maintains a consistent beat that differs from
the established tempo

Performs chant with correct meter. Beat does not remain consistent

Performs chant with incorrect or inconsistent meter

57

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