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thesis entitled

THE EFFECT OF TONAL PATTERN INSTRUCTION
ON THE SINGING VOICE DEVELOPMENT OF
FIRST GRADE STUDENTS

presented by

RENEE MICHELLE VANDE WEGE

has been accepted towards furfillment
of the requirements for the

Masterof Music degree in Music Education

 

 

 

 

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5/08 K:IProj/Acc&Pres/CIRC/DateDue.indd

THE EFFECT OF TONAL PATTERN INSTRUCTION ON THE
SINGING VOICE DEVELOPMENT OF FIRST GRADE STUDENTS

By

Renee Michelle Vande Wege

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF MUSIC IN MUSIC EDUCATION
School of Music
2005

 

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ABSTRACT

THE EFFECT OF TONAL PATTERN INSTRUCTION ON THE
SINGING VOICE DEVELOPMENT OF FIRST GRADE STUDENTS

By
Renee Michelle Vande Wege
The purpose of this study was to determine whether pattern instruction,
specifically those designed by Gordon in his Learning Sequence Activities (LSA), affects
the development of singing voice in children. The specific problem of this study was to
determine if first grade students who received tonal pattern instruction experienced greater
gains in singing voice development than students who did not receive tonal pattern
instruction. Subjects (n=63) came from four intact first grade classes from a semi-rural
school district in Michigan. Two classes served as the experimental group, and two
classes served as the control group. For 18 weeks, all students received instruction from a
music specialist for two 42-minute sessions. The tonal aptitude of all students was
determined prior to treatment, using Gordon’s Primary Measures of Music Audiation
(PMMA). All students were individually pre- and posttested with Rutkowski’s Singing
Voice Development Measure (SVDM). The experimental group received 11 weeks of
pattern instruction for the first five or ten minutes of each music class. Two qualified,
independent raters scored SVDM performances. Their interj udge reliabilities were high. A
t-test was performed on gain scores to determine if pattern instruction had an effect on
the singing voice development of first grade students. No significant difference was found

according to treatment.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am thoroughly grateful for the opportunity to complete this thesis and could not
have accomplished my goals were in not for the support of several important people. I
would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Cynthia Taggart, for her knowledge of music
education, passion for research, hours of manuscript review, and dedication to this study.
She has monumentally impacted this project and my career as a music educator. I am also
grateful for the expertise of Dr. Mitchell Robinson and Margaret Brand. Their
professionalism, encouragement, and input made committee meetings valuable and
enjoyable.

I am thankful to count Elizabeth Hager and Lea Anne Steenwyk as colleagues and
friends. I appreciate the time and effort they spent on judging student performances, as
well as their dedicated support throughout this endeavor. I am also grateful to David
Cairy, principal of Cedar Trails Elementary School, for recognizing music’s place in our
school’s core curriculum and for taking time to learn about music class. I must also thank
Jennifer Cook, Maureen Herman, Kathy Laraway, Kristen Martin, Matt Sartore, Sue
Sendler, and Liz Sullivan for their flexibility in scheduling and enthusiasm for educating
first grade students in Cedar Springs. It is an honor to teach with each of them.

I would like to thank the first grade students who participated in this study. Their
vivacious attitudes toward life, learning, and music make my job delightful! In addition, I
thank their parents, who entrusted me with their children’s music education.

Finally, I extend a grand thank you to my family and friends for their interest,
love, and spirited reassurance throughout this project. I am grateful for the editorial
insight of my sister, LaVonne Meyer, and her eagerness to help me complete this thesis. I

am especially indebted to my husband, Aaron, for the sacrifices he has made in allowing

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me the opportunity to complete this degree.
I treasure each of these excellent people and thank them for choosing the paths
which they walk. Their contributions to this project have enriched my journey, and for

that, I am ever grateful.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. vi

LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... vii

CHAPTER ONE

LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................... 1
Singing Voice .......................................................................................................... 1
Tonal Pattern Instruction ........................................................................................ 8
Purpose and Problem ............................................................................................ 12

CHAPTER TWO

RELATED RESEARCH ................................................................................................... 14
Singing Voice Development Measure .................................................................. 14
The Effect of Instruction on the Development of Singing Voice ......................... 18
Summary ............................................................................................................... 23

CHAPTER THREE

METHOD ......................................................................................................................... 24
Subjects ................................................................................................................. 24
Design ................................................................................................................... 24
Procedures and Criterion Measures ...................................................................... 25
Analysis ................................................................................................................ 31

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND INTERPRETATIONS .......................................................................... 32
Reliabilities ........................................................................................................... 32
Means and Standard Deviations ........................................................................... 32
Discussion ............................................................................................................. 33

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .......................................................... 37
Purpose ................................................................................................................. 37
Problem ................................................................................................................. 37
Summary ............................................................................................................... 37
Implications for Practice ....................................................................................... 38
Suggestions for Future Research .......................................................................... 39

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 41

 

 

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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1 - Means and Standard Deviations .................................................................... 32

TABLE 2 - Composite of Judges Scores .......................................................................... 33

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1 - Suggested Singing Ranges and Tessituras for Grades K-6 .......................... 4
FIGURE 2 - Tonal Sequence in D Major ....................................................................... 27
FIGURE 3 — D Major Patterns from Tonal Unit 1, Section A, Criterion l .................... 27
FIGURE 4 - Rutkowski’s Tonal Patterns (SVDM) ....................................................... 29

vii

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CHAPTER ONE
LITERATURE REVIEW
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Throughout the last 50 years, researchers and music educators have studied the
use and development of singing voice in children. This is not surprising, considering the
quantity of class time music educators spend singing with their students. Unfortunately,
this focus on singing voice also is a result of the large number of students who are labeled
“non-singers” (Levinowitz et al., 1998). Researchers and teachers are trying to help
students learn to use their voices so that they can express themselves vocally.

Levinowitz, Barnes, Guerrini, Clement, D’April, & Morey (1998) discovered an alarming
number of children who were considered non-singers: 75 to 90 percent of those
participating in their study. Kinesthetic and psychological (acquisition and processing)
development of the singing voice must no longer be ignored. This problem must be
addressed in current music education practices.

Singing voice does not develop because of maturation alone. Successful singers in
the primary grades often come from rich singing environments. However, unsuccessful
singers who have not had the same rich backgrounds may have equal or greater singing
potential but never have been taught how to sing during the primary grades or at home
(Atterbury, 1984).

Singing in-tune and using a singing voice are separate constructs (Rutkowski,
1990, 1996; Rutkowski & Miller, 2003), and each must be understood in order to
provide children with appropriate music instruction. Before a child can sing in-tune, he or
she must be able to produce sounds other than those used for speaking. A child may sing
a song out-of-tune, even to the point that the melody is unrecognizable, but be able to

use a wide range of pitches (high and low) in a singing voice quality. Such a child would

be considered to have a well-developed singing voice, because he or she is using pitches
that are outside the range of a speaking voice and is using a singing voice quality. Often,
children with well-developed singing voices can match pitch, but accurately matching
pitches is different from the focus of this study, which is the development of children’s
singing voices.

Although singing has often been characterized as an innate ability, current
researchers and practitioners believe that it is a teachable skill (Apfelstadt, 1984; Goetze,
Cooper, & Brown, 1990; Gordon, 1971; Gould, 1968; Jones, 1979; Roberts & Davies,
1975; Wolner & Pyle, 1933). Methods of remediation used by researchers in the past
include daily, individual lessons in matching pitches (Wolner & Pyle, 1933); the speech-
to—song approach (Gould, 1968; Roberts & Davies, 1975); visual and verbal
reinforcement with the aid of a vertical keyboard (Jones, 1979); and emphasis on musical
concepts or visual and kinesthetic pitch reinforcement (Apfelstadt, 1984).

Several factors are involved when teaching children to use their singing voices.
These factors include gender of the singer, type of vocal models used, style of
accompaniment, age of the singer, song range, use of text versus neutral syllables, large-
group versus individual instruction, and instructional method. Understandably,
researchers have studied these factors in a variety of ways, creating some inconsistencies
among the results.

Apfelstadt (I984), Pederson & Pederson (1970), and Sinor (1985) found no
significant differences in singing accuracy on the basis of gender. However, J ordan-
DeCarbo (1982) found that girls sing more accurately than boys. Also, the gender and age
of the vocal model used when preparing a child to sing results in differing levels of singing
accuracy. Sims, Moore, & Kuhn (1982) were interested in the effects of female and male

vocal stimuli, tonal pattern length, and age on vocal pitch-matching abilities of five- and

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six-year-old children from England and the United States. They observed that it is
difficult for children to replicate tones sung or played in a register other than their own
and concluded that a female vocal model elicited more correct responses than a male
model. Green (1990) built upon this discovery when studying subjects from grades one
to six. She found that not only did the adult female model result in more correct
responses than the adult male, but that subjects most accurately matched pitch after
hearing a child’s vocal model rather than that of an adult.

Researchers also have studied the use of accompaniment in relation to singing
accuracy (Atterbury & Silcox, 1993; Guilbault, 2004; Stauffer, 1986). Recently,
Guilbault (2004) studied the effect of chord root accompaniment on the tonal
achievement and tonal improvisations of kindergarten and first grade students. Although
root melody accompaniment did not significantly improve singing accuracy, the use of
root melody accompaniments during instruction enhanced students’ tonal strength during
improvisation.

Atterbury & Silcox (1993) studied the effect of piano accompaniment on
kindergartners’ developmental singing ability. While no significant differences were found
between students who received a year of singing instruction with piano accompaniment
and students who received identical instruction without piano accompaniment, subjects
with high music aptitude scored significantly higher on posttest song scores than those
with low or average aptitude.

Stauffer (1986) studied the effects of melodic and harmonic contexts provided
during melodic echo training on the development of singing skills and aural discrimination
abilities in first, second, and third grade students. She concluded that aural discrimination
of tonal patterns, vocal imitation of melodic patterns, and ability to sing rote songs are

strongly related; aural discrimination and singing skills improve with training, regardless

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of musical context; harmonic context used in music training tasks may be more beneficial
to older children than younger children; girls tend to score higher on singing tasks than
boys; and musical skills are affected by maturation with more rapid grth occurring in
earlier grades.

Researchers tend to agree that singing accuracy improves with age or maturity
(Geringer, 1983; Goetze, Cooper, & Brown, 1990; Roberts & Davies, 1975; Rutkowski
& Miller, 2003), but they caution educators not to assume that improvement will occur
without specific and attentive instruction. Vocal range also extends with age. Children’s
vocal ranges have been assessed by numerous researchers (Jones, 1979; Moore, 1991;
Rutkowski & Runfola, 1997; Wassum, 1979). Wassum (1979) discovered no significant
difference between genders prior to puberty, but the range she identified for all pre-voice-
change singers was wider and higher than that identified by Jones (1979). Three registers
have been identified (low, middle, and high), and children can be taught to use all three.
Nevertheless, Rutkowski & Runfola (1997) cautioned against using songs that do not fall

into the following ranges and tessituras for each prescribed grade level described below.

Grade Range Tessitura
K-l D3 to B3 D3 to F#3
2-3 C3 to C4 D3 to A3
4-6 BZ to E4 D3 to A3

Figure 1 - Suggested Singing Ranges and Tessituras for Grades K-6

Moore (1991) studied the preferred vocal ranges and tessituras of musically
talented children (ages eight to eleven) and adults (ages 20 to 40). He discovered that both
groups had extremely similar range spans (about two octaves), and, if no initial pitch was

provided, subjects sang in the lower half of their range. He suggested that music teachers

encourage students to use their upper vocal range.

A number of researchers (Goetze, 1986; Levinowitz, I989; Lange, 2000; Sims,
Moore, & Kuhn, 1982) have questioned the use of text and its effect on children’s vocal
development, because a child’s language development may affect his or her ability to
learn a song with words. If text becomes the child’s primary concern, he or she may not
be able to focus on the musical elements of the song. In a study conducted by Sims,
Moore, & Kuhn (1982), no difference in pitch accuracy was found when children sang
using text versus neutral syllables. Goetze (1986), however, found that kindergarten,
first, and third grade students sang significantly better and nearer to the modeled pitch
when using the syllable “100” than when singing with text.

Lange (2000) studied the effect of song instruction with and without text on the
tonal aptitude, tonal accuracy, and tonal understanding of kindergarten students and
discovered that students who received song instruction without text experienced greater
gains in tonal aptitude than students who received only song instruction with text.
However, after 24 weeks of instruction, she found no significant difference in the
subjects’ tonal accuracy as a result of treatment. Thus, Lange recommends that children
receive song instruction with and without text.

Levinowitz (1989) conducted a study with kindergarten subjects in which half the
songs were taught each week using text, and the other half were taught using a neutral
syllable. Songs sung on a neutral syllable at the end of the study were performed more
accurately than songs with text. She states that it is possible that two mental processes
are involved when children learn a song with words, one for audiation and the other for
vocabulary; thus, both play an important role in children’s development.

Environment also may have an effect on singing accuracy. Thus, researchers

recommend giving children ample opportunities to sing alone in a supportive

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environment (Goetze, 1989; Rutkowski, 1996). Goetze, Cooper, & Brown (1990)
suggest that children may have difficulty listening to their own voice in the presence of
louder singers, such as other children and/or the teacher.

After studying the effects of individual and small-group activities on
kindergartners’ use of singing voice and developmental aptitude, Rutkowski (1996)
concluded that individual instruction, even within a large group setting, improves singing
accuracy and achievement. Goetze (1989) found similar results with kindergarten, first,
and third grade subjects. She suggested that accurate individual singing is a prerequisite to
successful large-group singing, and that singing individually is easier for children than
large-group singing. Furthermore, Goetze supported previous conclusions that singing
accuracy increases with age, and that girls achieve singing accuracy earlier than boys.
Hence, the presence of other voices has a greater affect on boys than on girls. In light of
these findings, it seems reasonable that, if children only experience large-group singing,
the development of their singing voices may suffer. In contrast, Cooper (1995)
investigated singing accuracy as a function of individual versus unison singing for first
through fifth grade students and found no significant difference in accuracy when children
sang individually or in unison.

When studying children’s ability to sing tonal patterns, recent researchers have
found results that conflict with earlier studies in regard to the ease of singing large and
small intervals (Drexler, 1938; Jarjisian, 1983; Jersild & Bienstock, 1931; Jones, 1979;
Sinor, 1985). Intervals of a second or a third were formerly thought to be easiest to
reproduce (Drexler, 1938; Jersild & Bienstock, 1931). Nonetheless, Jones (1979)
concluded that, after the descending minor third, ascending perfect fourths and stepwise
patterns based on “do-re-mi” were easiest for her second, third, and fourth grade

subjects. Jones also determined that some subjects sang pitches accurately when they

were heard within patterns, but not when they were sounded as solitary tones or scales.
Sinor (1985 ) determined that preschool children find half steps easier to sing than whole
steps and thirds; thirds (particularly the descending minor third) easier to sing than
sixths; and that descending patterns are possibly easier to sing than ascending patterns.
Jarjisian (1983) found both diatonic and pentatonic patterns to be useful, because
diatonic patterns assisted in developing the student’s sense of tonal center, whereas the
pentatonic patterns encourage a sense of melodic contour.

Pitch discrimination has been studied to help determine why these intervals are
easier or more difficult to sing (Apfelstadt, 1984; F eierabend, 1984; Geringer, 1983;
Goetze, Cooper, & Brown, 1990; Joyner, 1969; Zwissler, 1972). Goetze, Cooper, &
Brown (1990) reported several causes for inaccurate singing: failure to notice pitch
changes, psychological inhibition, inability to coordinate the vocal mechanism, low
speaking voices, lack of interest in singing, lack of singing practice, and lack of exposure
to music at home. Zwissler (1972) found pitch discrimination and vocal accuracy to be
related abilities, but Geringer (1983) suggested that they are initially independent and
that the relationship develops with training and maturity. Apfelstadt (1984) reported no
significant correlation between kindergartners’ pitch discrimination and vocal accuracy,
whereas Feierabend (1984) found a significant relationship between the listening and
singing skills of first graders. Joyner (1969), however, suggested that vocal instruction
may produce more benefits than aural skill treatments for children who struggle with
pitch discrimination and vocal accuracy. Goetze, Cooper, & Brown (1990) note that the
inconsistencies in the above findings involve children who can accurately discriminate
pitch but fail to reproduce the pitches vocally. It is possible that an inability to control
the vocal mechanism is the reason for inaccurate singing, rather than an aural deficiency.

As a result of this body of research, much has been learned about the singing

voice. Singing is now recognized as a skill that can be taught, and, with proper

instruction, singing accuracy will increase with age. Proper instruction requires that the
teacher be aware of the difference between the development of a singing voice and pitch
accuracy, as well as how gender differences, healthy vocal models, and vocal ranges affect
singing accuracy. Current practitioners should also understand the importance of
including song instruction with and without text, as well as opportunities for students to
sing individually and in small groups without accompaniment or with root melody
accompaniment in a classroom setting.

While researchers have provided insights into the factors that influence vocal
accuracy, the problem of helping children learn to use their singing voices remains. The
development of a child’s singing voice must occur before he or she can be expected to
match pitches accurately. In order to become singers, students must be taught to find and

improve the use of their singing voices. How can this be done?

Wanna

Tonal pattern instruction has been an important part of most elementary general
music curricula for a century. Kodaly, Orff, and Gordon all use patterns as a part of their
instructional methodologies. Numerous researchers have studied the singing of tonal
patterns with children.

Pattern length affects children’s ability to reproduce a pattern and recognize it
within a larger context (Foley, 1975; Sims, Moore, & Kuhn, 1982). When studying five-
and six-year-old children from England and the United States, Sims, Moore, & Kuhn
(1982) concluded that shorter patterns, consisting of two or three pitches, are easier for
children to replicate accurately. Foley (1975), however, studied the use of longer pitch

patterns, consisting of five or six pitches, with second grade students for approximately

the same length of time and concluded that including 10 minutes of pattern instruction in
each music class significantly increases conservation of both tonal and rhythmic patterns.
Thus, after receiving pattern instruction, subjects were more able to identify patterns in
unfamiliar music that reminded them of patterns they had previously heard. However,
children’s ability to sing these longer patterns was not measured.

Feierabend (1984) and Jordan-Decarbo (1982) studied the difference between
aural recognition and singing ability. Jordan-Decarbo (1982) studied same/different
discrimination techniques, readiness training, pattern treatment, and gender on aural
discrimination and singing of tonal patterns by kindergartners. She discovered significant
differences in regard to gender (girls scored higher than boys), but not in regard to
technique and readiness. She concluded that tonal-pattern training does not affect aural
perception ability and singing ability in the same way. This means that kindergarten
students may be able to determine whether two patterns are the same or different, but
not be able to reproduce them vocally.

F eierabend (1984) examined the relationship between singing ability and aural
recognition of “sameness” and “difference.” He was interested in the effects of training
based on tonal patterns that are easy to sing and/or easy to aurally discriminate on first
graders’ development of singing and aural discrimination skills. Feierabend discovered
that subjects were most successful at correctly audiating patterns containing or ending
with tonic, while they were best at singing patterns containing small intervals. Based on
gain scores, he concluded that although there is little relationship between singing and
aural discrimination abilities, these abilities are more similar when patterns are easy to
sing than when patterns are easy to aurally discriminate. When focusing on singing voice
development, patterns that are easier to sing (e. g., small intervals, tonic patterns) should

be presented prior to patterns that are more difficult to sing.

Pattern instruction in relation to tonality has been studied by Flowers & Dunne-
Sousa (1990) and Jarjisian (1983). Flowers & Dunne-Sousa studied young children’s
abilities to echo short pitch patterns in relation to the maintenance of a tonal center in
self-chosen and taught songs. They suggested that pattern and song performance are less
related than previously thought, but it is possible that singing patterns may serve as
readiness for singing songs.

Jarjisian (1983) studied the effects of pentatonic and diatonic instruction content,
socioeconomic status, and music aptitude on the rote-singing achievement of first grade
subjects. She discovered that subjects who received both diatonic and pentatonic pattern .
instruction scored significantly higher than those who received one or the other.
Additionally, subjects with high aptitude sang significantly more accurately than those
with low aptitude. Thus, the researcher concluded that using both pentatonic and
diatonic patterns provide students with the richest atmosphere for musical growth.

Gordon (1990) designed his Music Learning Theory (MLT) based on the belief
that children’s music achievement increases as they acquire a vocabulary of tonal and
rhythm patterns. An outgrth of this theory is a basal series known as Jump Right In:
The Music Curriculum. It includes activities and techniques based on a sequential
approach to teaching musical skills and content in the general music classroom (Taggart,
Bolton, Reynolds, Valerie & Gordon, 2000). Learning Sequence Activities (LSA)
comprise an important part of a MLT-based curriculum and involve building students’
music vocabularies through singing and chanting specific patterns in a variety of tonalities
and meters. Classroom activities comprise another portion of a MLT-based curriculum
and involve the use of conventional music literature for singing, playing instruments and
moving. LSA are pattern instruction that provide students with a foundation of tonal,

rhythmic, and audiation skills, while classroom activities provide opportunities for

10

students to develop and refine their audiation and performance skills with musicality and
understanding.

Shuler (1987) examined the effects of Gordon’s LSA on third grade students’
music achievement. For the experimental groups, LSA comprised the first 25% of each
class, followed by traditional classroom activities. The control groups received only
traditional instruction. Two teachers were used for this experiment The experimental
group for Teacher One had a mean performance posttest score that was significantly
higher than that of the control group. However, the mean performance posttest score of
the experimental group taught by Teacher Two was significantly lower than the mean of
the control group. Because of these conflicting results, Shuler determined that the
effectiveness of LSA may heavily depend of how well the teacher incorporates LSA into
instruction.

Yang (2002) studied the comparative effects of a curriculum based on MLT,
which included pattern instruction, and the traditional Taiwanese National Curriculum on
the developmental music aptitudes and singing performances of first grade students in
Taiwan. He used four first grade classes (n=141) and randomly assigned two to the
experimental group. These students received music instruction based on MLT. The other
two classes served as the control group and received traditional Taiwanese music
instruction. All classes met for one 40-minute session per week for 12 weeks. Primary
Measures of Music Audiation (PMMA), a standardized instrument designed to measure
developmental music aptitude, was given as a pre- and posttest, and students’ singing
performance for one criterion song was recorded at the end of 12 weeks. These
performances were judged by three independent judges using a rating scale designed by
the investigator.

Significant differences were found only in rhythmic aptitude, not in tonal aptitude

11

or singing performance. The students who received MLT scored significantly higher on
the Rhythm subtest of PMMA than students who received traditional Taiwanese music
instruction. Yang hypothesized that the singing performance test did not produce
significant results for a number of reasons, including: the lack of experience students had
singing alone, the large class sizes in which students received instruction, too short a
treatment period (12 weeks), pre-existing differences between students, the use of only
one criterion song, the absence of piano accompaniment, and the overall lack of difficulty
the song contained. This culminated in a poor representation of student abilities.
Students’ nervousness and inability to use singing voice may have also contributed to the
lack of significant differences in the singing performance test.

The above research highlights some of the benefits pattern instruction offers
students when effectively presented and incorporated into instruction (F eierabend, 1984;
Foley, 1975; Shuler, 1987; Yang, 2002). Experience with rhythm patterns has been
shown to significantly improve students’ rhythmic aptitudes, but the effects of tonal
pattern instruction on tonal aptitude and singing ability remain unclear. Does tonal
pattern instruction affect the development of students’ singing voices? Subjects have
used a greater singing range when imitating patterns than when singing a song (Flowers &
Dunne-Sousa, 1990). Therefore, pattern instruction could help children to explore greater

use of their singing voice better than approaches that use only traditional songs.

WWII:

This study will explore whether pattern instruction, specifically those designed
by Gordon in his LSA, affects the development of a singing voice in children so that this
information can by used to improve elementary general music instruction. The specific

problem of this study is to determine if first grade students who receive tonal pattern

12

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instruction experience greater gains in singing voice development than students who do

not receive tonal pattern instruction.

13

CHAPTER TWO
RELATED RESEARCH

Singing Voice Development Measure (SVDM) (Rutkowski, 1996) is a
standardized measure that provides music educators with a consistent and well-defmed
rubric for measuring singing voice development. While singing voice achievement is often
the focus of research, SVDM provides music educators with means of assessing how
students’ singing voices are developing.

Rutkowski developed SVDM after concluding that other measures for measuring
singing voices failed to separate singing intonation achievement from singing voice
development, which confounded the results. She found that ability to use singing voice
was necessary in order to sing with accurate intonation. However, those who can use
their singing voices do not always have the aural skills to enable them to sing in tune.
Likewise, some students with strong aural discrimination skills are unable to use their
singing voices. She found that, unfortunately, the labels used for children who had not
yet discovered their singing voices could be derogatory (monotones, inaccurate singers,
backward singers, non-singer, problem singer, and partial singer) and failed to recognize
the process of singing voice development. Originally, Rutkowski (1990) identified five
stages of vocal development. Therefore, SVDM was comprised of the following levels
(Rutkowski, 1990).

1 Children who use only speaking-voice inflection but do not sustain tones

2 Children who exhibit use of melodic contour and sustained tones, but use

speaking range or a very high range

3 Children who use a very limited singing range, usually D3 to F #3

4 Children who use initial singing range, usually D3 to A3

14

5 Children who are able to sing over the register lift, B3-flat and above

To establish the validity of this rating scale, Rutkowski conducted a pilot study
using a song familiar to her subjects. She believed that using an unfamiliar song as a
means of assessment might prevent children from singing to their full potential because of
insecurities, which would result in an inaccurate measurement (Rutkowski, 1990).
Thirty-five kindergarten students were asked to perform the song, and their
performances were audio-recorded. They were not given a tonality, starting pitch or
tempo prior to recording their individual performances, because Rutkowski believed that
this would provide the greatest accuracy in capturing the development of their singing
voices. She alsobelieved that children who are secure with their singing voices will
usually sing a familiar song in the key in which they learned it. The children were
recorded as they sang the song again a few days later (Rutkowski, 1990).

After engaging in practice examples to familiarize them with the rating scale, four
qualified judges rated the recorded performances. Inteljudge reliability ranged from .836
to .963, and performer consistency reliability was .918. Rutkowski experimented with
singing “Ready-sing” prior to some subjects’ performances. The judges found this
helpful, but it did not yield a more reliable measure. Their interjudge reliability for the
“Ready-sing” performances was .904. The judges noted that it was difficult to ignore
intonation when rating the performances and to evaluate children’s singing voices based
only upon the performance of a song.

Therefore, for her main study, Rutkowski taught a familiar song and tonal
patterns to a larger group of subjects. The music teacher reviewed the song with the
children every week for a month before the testing, and Rutkowski reviewed the tonal
Patterns with them the day she administered SVDM (Rutkowski, 1990). The patterns

were played on tone bells, then sung by the investigator, and echoed by the subjects.

15

“Ready-sing” was included on a descending tonic chord in the mode and meter of the

familiar song, prior to each subject’s recorded performance. Two of the judges from the

pilot study with the highest interjudge reliabilities (.836 to .963) were used as judges for

the main study. Rutkowski determined SVDM is a valid measure of the development of

singing voice. After discussing with the judges, Rutkowski decided to use tonal patterns

for future studies, rather than songs, because patterns do not take as long to teach and

children do not need to memorize a text or the tonal and rhythm patterns themselves

(Rutkowski, 1990).

In a study conducted in 1996, Rutkowski determined that more levels of singing

voice development were necessary to accurately measure inconsistent singers who fall

between two categories of her original scale. As a result, the original five levels of SVDM

were revised to include nine levels. To accomplish this, Rutkowski included halves,

rather than broadening the scope of the scale. Following is the revised scale used as a part

of SVDM (Rutkowski, 1996).

l
1.5

2.5

3.5

“Pre—singer” does not sing, but chants the song text.

“Inconsistent Speaking-Range Singer” sometimes chants, sometimes
sustains tones, and exhibits some sensitivity to pitch but remains in the
speaking voice range (usually A2 to C3).

“Speaking-Range Singer” sustains tones and exhibits some sensitivity to
pitch but remains in the speaking voice range (usually A2 to C3).
“Inconsistent Limited-Range Singer” wavers between speaking and singing
voice and uses a limited range when in singing voice (usually up to F3).
“Limited-Range Singer” exhibits consistent use of limited singing range
(usually D3 to F 3).

“Inconsistent Initial Range Singer” sometimes only exhibits use of limited

16

singing range, but other times exhibits use of initial singing range (usually

D3 to A3).

4 “Initial Range Singer” exhibits use of initial singing range (usually D3 to
A3).

4.5 “Inconsistent Singer” sometimes only exhibits use of initial singing range,

but other times exhibits use of extended singing range (sings beyond the
register lift: B3-flat and above).

5 “Singer” exhibits use of extended singing range (sings beyond the register

lift: B3-flat and above).

Levinowitz (1998) and five of her graduate students tested the reliability of
Rutkowski’s SVDM in first through sixth grade general music classrooms. They also
explored whether the use of singing voice is developmental, if children can dependably
use their singing voice in major and minor tonalities, and if expectations for the use of
singing voice in students between the first and sixth grades are appropriate. Subjects
(n=170) from five elementary schools with diverse populations in southern New Jersey
participated in this study.

Students were taught two rote songs one month prior to testing. Testing
procedures involved individual performances in front of peers after the tonality of the
song was set by the teacher with a I-V-I progression on guitar or piano. The teacher sang
a cue for the student, took a preparatory breath to direct them, and audio-recorded the
child’s unaccompanied performance for scoring purposes.

The researchers concluded that SVDM, though originally designed for young
children, is accurate through fifth grade. However, it did not produce satisfactory results
for students in the sixth grade. Expectations for the use of singing voice in students

between the first and sixth grades vary among practitioners, but the researchers suggested

17

that current music curricula include systematic approaches to vocal instruction, with the
aim of satisfying the National Content Standard (MEN C, n.d.) “singing alone and with
others.” Finally, they recommended SVDM as a reliable measure for elementary level
students.

The researchers concluded that students can more easily perform a song in major
tonality than in minor tonality, which may relate to the musical background of the
students. If instruction is not provided in all tonalities, students will likely be most
comfortable singing in tonalities emphasized by their culture. The researchers provided a
rationale for their song selection and noted that differences in song length may have been
a cause of inconsistency. However, if minor tonality was not often used in the classroom
prior to testing, it might naturally seem more difficult for the students to perform. The
conclusion that major tonality is more easily sung than minor tonality after one month of
exposure to the songs may be premature.

Furthermore, the validity of this study may have been affected by the
administration process of SVDM, because taping sessions occurred among peers, rather
than individually in a private setting. Although the researchers acknowledge that
students’ nervousness could account for some inconsistency in results, the presence of
peers during taping sessions, no matter how accustomed students are to performing alone

in front of others, can affect the results. For the present study, SVDM will be

administered individually in a private setting.

 

Several researchers have investigated singing voice development and the effect of
different instructional techniques on singing voice development using SVDM as a

measurement tool. These studies are some of the first to separate singing accuracy from

18

singing voice development and use. While some of the following researchers focused only
on the development of singing voice, others included effects of piano accompaniment,
small group instruction and tonal music aptitude.

Atterbury and Silcox (1993) focused on the effect piano accompaniment has on
kindergartners’ developmental singing ability. This study involved children in 15
kindergarten classes. Seven classes received a year of singing instruction with piano
accompaniment, and eight classes received identical instruction without piano
accompaniment. All students were recorded singing a four-phrase song individually in
October and June, and their performances were rated by two judges who were unaware
of the type of instruction that each child had received.

The rating scale that was used was an adaptation of Rutkowski’s five-point

Singing Voice Development Measure (SVDM):

1 “Pro-singer” does not sing but chants the song text

2 “Uncertain Singer” sustains tones, uses both speaking and singing voice
3 “Partial Singer” sings some phrases correctly but not entire song

4 “Singer” sings entire song correctly in one key

The adaptations occurred as a result of a pilot study in which the judging procedures for
Rutkowski’s measure were practiced and refined. Additionally, the highest level of
Rutkowski’s original measure (singer exhibits use of consistent extended singing range by
singing beyond register lift: B3-flat and above) did not apply to this study, because the
song used had a range of D3 to A3.

In May, a slightly adapted version of PMMA was used to determine music
aptitude. Rather than asking students to circle the correct answer, the researchers made
accommodations for students with weak fine-motor skills, and allowed children to draw a

line through the correct answer. Furthermore, the test tape was stopped for an extra five

19

seconds after the first few examples, to ensure that all students were correctly
responding to the task.

No significant differences were found in singing voice development between
students who received a year of singing instruction with piano accompaniment and
students who received identical instruction without piano accompaniment, nor did a
significant difference exist between the experimental and control groups’ composite
scores for PMMA. However, subjects with high aptitude scored significantly higher on
posttest song scores than those with low or average aptitude.

While SVDM is an appropriate criterion measure, the narrow range of the song
used in this study may have affected the validity of the measure. Additionally, the
authors do not state if the song was sung by each child with or without accompaniment,
again calling the validity of the testing process into question. If no accompaniment was
used, the students taught with piano accompaniment throughout the year would be at a
disadvantage when tested individually. The reverse is also true. Also, the name of each
student was stated prior to his or her performance. It is unclear how familiar the judges
were with the students, but recognizing a child’s name or voice may have influenced how
the judges rated the performance, if they were aware of the students’ past levels of
achievement.

The alterations made to PMMA, as well as the condensing of Rutkowski’s scale,
may have adversely affected the results. However, using PMMA and SVDM with
students at this age-level directly applies to the present study. Both tests will be used;
however, this study will follow the testing procedures suggested by Gordon (1979) and
Rutkowski (1986).

Rutkowski and Miller (2003) conducted a longitudinal study of elementary

children’s acquisition of singing voice. A group of 25 children from an elementary school

20

in Pennsylvania were studied from first through fifth grade to determine whether helping
all students learn to use their singing voices within the current structures of general music
instruction is feasible. Students attended music classes once a week for 40 minutes and
were tested individually using SVDM at the beginning and end of first, third, and fifth
grade.

For the testing, each child reported to a familiar room where he or she was audio-
recorded echoing SVDM patterns sung by the teacher. All patterns were sung using text
and the neutral syllable “bum.” Half of the students sang with text first, the other half
sang using “bum” first to control for order of presentation.

Significant differences were found between singing achievement at the end of first
grade and at the beginning of third grade, as well as between the beginning and end of fifth
grade. Children made greater gains in use of singing voice after first grade, and gains were
still possible during fifth grade. By the end of fifth grade, 92% of the subjects were
labeled as inconsistent singers or better.

The researchers wanted to learn if significant gains in the use of singing voice were
made within a five-year stretch of music instruction. They were also interested in the
number of students who could use their singing voice by the end of fifth grade. Hence,
the criterion measure suited the study perfectly, because it measures the use of singing
voice rather than singing accuracy. Because the present study focuses on the
development of singing voice within a semester of first grade, SVDM will be used for
similar purposes as in the study above.

In a different study, Rutkowski (1996) investigated using small-group instruction
within the context of a traditional large-group setting, the relationship between tonal
aptitude and the use of singing voice, and the length of time necessary for instruction to

produce significant results. The researcher concluded that using small-group instruction is

21

more effective than using only large-group instruction, the relationship between tonal
aptitude and singing voice is minimal, and a year of instruction is necessary to produce
significant changes. Furthermore, Rutkowski discovered that the mean of the control
group decreased throughout the study, suggesting that merely using large-group music
instruction can be detrimental to singing voice development.

This study was motivated by the increasing percentage of children under age 13
who are unable to sing simple songs. Both control and treatments groups of
kindergartners (n=99) were given similar large-group instruction, but the treatment group
received additional small-group or individual instruction within the same time frame. The
students were tested with PMMA and SVDM at the beginning and end of the school
year.

The irnpracticality of individual instruction -- or at least the pervasive perception
of such among current music educators -- was discussed by Rutkowski. Though many
researchers (Goetze, 1989; Goetze, Cooper & Brown, 1990; Rutkowski, 1996) conclude
that individual/small-group instruction is necessary and significantly improves the
development of singing voice, it is the present researcher’s experience that a pervasive
opinion about individual instruction being too time-consuming and difficult remains.
Similar results regarding the importance of individualized instruction found through
continued research on the development of singing voice might encourage current music
educators to be willing and able to meet individual children’s needs and find ways around
the difficulties of individual instruction.

The present study can draw from Rutkowski’s 1996 study. Tonal aptitude is
measured and used as an instructional tool in presenting tonal pattern instruction, rather
than as a dependent variable. Additionally, this study takes place over an 18-week

Period, rather than an entire academic year. This is due to the necessity of an

22

acculturation period (first 18-weeks of the school year), during which subjects are

immersed in a variety of tonalities and familiarized with individual singing experiences.

Summm

The above studies allow one to conclude that, when used as intended, SVDM is a
valid measure of the use of singing voice, and that children can be taught to sing within
the confines of traditional general music class settings. However, in order for this to
occur, students must be provided opportunities to perform individually, not only within
a large group, because solely large-group instruction can be detrimental to singing voice
development. Will the delivery of individual pattern instruction, which includes

individual singing, help first grade students learn to use their singing voices?

23

CHAPTER THREE
METHOD

Subjsms

The subjects in this study were predominantly white students in four first grade
“classes” in a low-to-middle-income, semi-rural district of western Michigan. Due to a
school schedule based on teams of four classrooms feeding into three creative arts classes,
each of the four music classes involved in this study contained an intact class and four to
eight additional students from another classroom. Students received instruction from a
music specialist twice a week. Because solely large-group singing can be detrimental to
children’s singing voice development and individual singing can increase children’s
singing voice development (Rutkowski, 1996), all music lessons consisted of large-group,
small-group, and individual singing activities, as well as rhythmic/movement activities.
(Small-group singing was introduced prior to individual singing.) Lesson plans were based

on Gordon’s Music Learning Theory (MLT).

min

This study was a repeated measures experimental design with a treatment group
and a control group. The four creative arts classes were assigned to a treatment or control
group (two classes each), controlling for aptitude as much as possible in the context of
using intact classes (n=63). For 12 weeks, all subjects received instruction fi'om their
regular music teacher (the researcher) for 42 minutes, twice a week. The researcher
administered Singing Voice Development Measure (SVDM), an instrument designed to
measure children’s use of singing voice (Rutkowski, 1986, 1990), prior to instruction.
The treatment group received tonal pattern instruction, as defined and described in

Gordon’s Learning Sequence Activities (LSA) (Gordon, 2001), during the first five or ten

24

minutes of every class period. The control group did not receive tonal pattern instruction
during the first five or ten minutes of every class period, but all other instruction was
identical for both groups. All students in the present study received individual/small-
group opportunities in addition to large-group activities, whether it occurred during LSA
(experimental group) or classroom activities (experimental and control groups). Following
the treatment, SVDM was again used and gain scores were compared to determine if

tonal pattern instruction had an effect on first graders’ singing voice development.

WWW

Prior to treatment (January 2005), all subjects were given the Tonal subtest of
Gordon’s Primary Measures of Music Audiation (PMMA), a standardized instrument
designed to measure developmental music aptitude. Gordon recognized the importance of
the difference between the measurement of music achievement and the measurement of
music aptitude. Achievement refers to accomplishment, whereas aptitude refers to the
potential to achieve. Gordon developed and standardized PMMA, which is a valid
measure of developmental music aptitude for children younger than age nine. PMMA is a
- two-part (tonal and rhythm) test that does not require children to lmow numbers. It
consists of same/different listening tasks. The child hears the name of an object, listens to
two recorded patterns, decides if the patterns associated with the named object are the
same or different, and circles one of two pairs of faces under a picture of the object
named: one pair of faces is the same, the other pair is different. Each subtest contains 40
patterns. Raw scores are converted to standard scores and percentile ranks. Gordon
(2001) believes that teachers need to know the aptitude level of their students in order to
provide appropriate instruction that will balance students’ challenges and successes with

music. Likewise, knowledge of a student’s aptitude is necessary to effectively administer

25

LSA to that student.

Administration of the Tonal subtest of PMMA followed the guidelines presented
in the test manual. Prior to treatment, the researcher scored the Tonal subtest of PMMA
and used the information about individual’s tonal aptitudes from this test to
appropriately adapt administration of tonal pattern instruction for the treatment group,
as recommended by Gordon (2001). The treatment group (two classes) received
individual tonal pattern instruction during the first five to ten minutes of every class
period. With the exception of these tonal patterns, all subjects were taught identical
material with similar instruction. Scores from PMMA also were used to control for
aptitude when assigning classes to treatment and control groups.

LSA include both tonal pattern instruction and rhythm pattern instruction.
However, only tonal pattern instruction was used as the treatment in this study.
Gordon’s tonal pattern LSA provide a systematic way for music teachers to focus on
tonal audiation and the development of students' tonal skills. Individual aptitudes, as
measured by PMMA, were marked on seating charts. The teacher began with Tonal Unit
1, Section A, Criterion 1 from the Tonal Register Book 1 and moved sequentially through
the book. When approximately 80% of students achieved their potential according to
their level of aptitude on any given criterion, the entire class moved forward to the next
criterion (Gordon, 1990).

Gordon labeled the patterns as easy, medium, or difficult to audiate on the basis
of research with large numbers of students of various ages (Gordon, 1997). Students
listened to pairs of recorded tonal patterns and determined if they were the same or
different. The results of the ‘same’ pairs were used to determine levels of difficulty.
Patterns were labeled ‘easy’ if most students correctly determined that they were the

same. If only half of the students were correct, the pattern was labeled ‘medium.’

26

Patterns that only a few students could identify were labeled ‘difficult.’
Each tonal pattern instruction session begins with the teacher singing a tonal
sequence for the tonality and keyality of the day’s set of patterns, performed using

either a neutral syllable or tonal syllables, depending on the level of the students (Figure

Figure 2 - Tonal Sequence in D Major

2).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

For Unit One, only neutral syllables are used because this unit remains at what Gordon
refers to as the aural/oral level of learning, which is the first level of learning. At this level,
students listen to and perform tonal patterns using a neutral syllable. Once the students

are familiar with a set of patterns (meaning they have performed them as a solo in a
particular tonality), they move to the verbal association level. At this level, solfege is
associated with these patterns, which allows students to organize and retain patterns as
new ones are learned. For this study, only major (do re mi fa so la ti do) and minor (la ti
do re mi fa si la) tonal syllables were used. The following is an example of a set of

patterns in D major.

Major B M D

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 3 - D Major Patterns from Tonal Unit 1, Section A, Criterion 1

The easy pattern requires students to sing the root and third of a tonic chord in D

27

major. The medium pattern requires students to sing a three-note descending arpeggiation
of a tonic chord in D major, beginning on the fifth. The difficult pattern requires students
to sing the fifth, then the root, and end on the third of a tonic chord in D major.

After the teacher establishes the tonality using the tonal sequence in Figure 2, the
teacher engages the students in singing patterns as a class. These consist of tonic,
dominant, and subdominant function patterns. The teacher sings a pattern without
rhythm (all pitches are of equal length), pauses for a moment, breathes while giving a
preparatory gesture to signal that the entire class should breathe too, and the
students echo the pattern. The pause enables students to audiate, rather than imitate
(Gordon, 1997). If a pause is not taken, students only imitate the tonal pattern and are
not developing the aural skills necessary for becoming independent and comprehending
musicians. ’

All pattern instruction in this study followed Gordon’s guidelines. Once the
tonality had been well-established through class patterns, the teacher sang the first of the
three tonal patterns (easy, medium, difficult), breathed while giving a preparatory gesture
to an individual student, and sang with the student. Depending on the activity, students
were asked to respond with only the first pitch of the pattern, the resting tone, or the
entire pattern. Only after a student successfully sang the response with the teacher
(teaching mode) was he or she provided the opportunity to sing the pattern in solo
(evaluation mode). Singing in solo occurred after a few other individuals had sung with
the teacher, and all students had engaged in class patterns. Gordon recommends that no
more than three individual patterns be given without also including a class pattern, in
order to keep all students involved in the activity.

The teacher/researcher recorded student successes by making vertical lines and

plus signs on the seating chart. If a child successfully sang with the teacher, a vertical line

28

was drawn underneath his or her name. If a child successfully sang the pattern as a solo,
the previously drawn vertical line was crossed. Students were provided the opportunity
to sing the medium pattern after successfully performing the easy pattern. This was true
even for students with low aptitude. The same method was used to record these
successes. Therefore, a student with high aptitude had achieved his or her potential if
three plus signs (each representing an easy, medium, or difficult pattern) were made
under his or her name on the seating chart. Thus, the teacher had an accurate record of
student progress by using LSA.

SVDM was administered prior to treatment (February 2005) and at the end of the
treatment period (May 2005). In preparation for administration of SVDM, the subjects
practiced the patterns in the large-group setting, following the exact procedures used for
individual testing. This is recommended by Rutkowski in her test manual. For individual
testing, each child reported to a familiar, private room where his or her voice was audio-
recorded as he or she echoed the researcher playing the patterns on a keyboard and then
singing them.

Subjects were introduced to the following patterns four weeks prior to individual

testing. Patterns involve identical rhythms.

 

See the bird, in the tree; See it fly, o-ver me.

 

Look up now, in the sky; there it goes, fly-ing by.

Figure 4 - Rutkowski’s Tonal Patterns (SVDM)

29

The teacher played one measure of the test on a keyboard, sang the pattern on
“burn” or text, and the class echoed. To account for contradictory results from previous
research on the use of neutral syllables or text for evaluating children’s singing, half of the
children sang the patterns first on text and then on the neutral syllable “bum;” the
remaining children sang the neutral syllable first. This same procedure was followed for
the posttest.

Two independent raters, both of whom were familiar with using SVDM to rate
children’s singing voices, rated the recorded performances. Both of the raters were
certified music teachers with experience teaching elementary general music. CDs of all
student performances were prepared for each rater. Performances were presented in
random order on the CDs to ensure that the raters were unaware of the timeframe of the
test (pre- or posttest) and group (treatment or control) to which they were listening. The
raters were not familiar with any of the subjects, nor were they influenced by each
other’s ratings of the performances. The following rubric, which was drawn directly from
Rutkowski’s SVDM, was used to rate the performances.

1 “Pre-singer” does not sing, but chants the song text.

1.5 “Inconsistent Speaking-Range Singer” sometimes chants, sometimes
sustains tones, and exhibits some sensitivity to pitch but remains in the
speaking voice range (usually A2 to C3).

2 “Speaking-Range Singer” sustains tones and exhibits some sensitivity to
pitch but remains in the speaking voice range (usually A2 to C3).

2.5 “Inconsistent Limited-Range Singer” wavers between speaking and singing
voice and uses a limited range when in singing voice (usually up to F3).

3 “Limited-Range Singer” exhibits consistent use of limited singing range

(usually D3 to F3).

30

3.5 “Inconsistent Initial Range Singer” sometimes only exhibits use of limited
singing range, but other times exhibits use of initial singing range (usually
D3 to A3).

4 “Initial Range Singer” exhibits use of initial singing range (usually D3 to
A3).

4.5 “Inconsistent Singer” sometimes only exhibits use of initial singing range,
but other times exhibits use of extended singing range (sings beyond the
register lift: B3-flat and above).

5 “Singer” exhibits use of extended singing range (sings beyond the register

lift: B3-flat and above).

Analysis

Pearson product moment correlation coefficients were computed to determine the
interjudge reliability of SVDM. Means and standard deviations were calculated for
SVDM pretests and posttests. Using a t-test, treatment and control group gain scores
were compared to determine if tonal pattern instruction had an effect on first graders’

singing voice development.

31

CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND INTERPRETATIONS
F. l' I 'l' .

After all ratings had been collected, Pearson product moment correlations were
performed to determine interjudge reliability between the two independent judges.
Interjudge reliability was .90 for SVDM pretest and .93 for the posttest. These interjudge
reliabilities were high and provide evidence of the validity of the criterion measure in the

context of this study.

I I l S l I E . .
Means and standard deviations were calculated for SVDM pretests and posttests.
Theoretical and observed means and standard deviations are reported in Table 1 below.
The theoretical means and observed means were similar, with the observed means being
higher overall for the posttest than the pretest. The observed standard deviation was
greater than the theoretical standard deviation, indicating a platykurtic distribution. In
general, the treatment group tended to demonstrate less singing voice development than

the control group in both administrations of the test.

Table 1 - Means and Standard Deviations

Treatment (N =30) Control (N=33)

 

 

 

 

 

 

Theoretical Theoretical Mean Std. Dev. Mean Std. Dev.
Mean Std. Dev.
Judge One Pretest 3.00 .67 2.72 1.28 3.55 1.18
Judge Two Pretest 3.00 .67 2.80 1.16 3.32 1.01
Judge One Posttest 3.00 .67 3.17 1.35 3.94 1.17
Judge Two Posttest 3.00 .67 3.18 1.25 3.80 .88

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

32

The means and standard deviations for Judges One and Two combined were
calculated for both pretest and posttest ratings (see Table 2). Again, the theoretical and
observed means were similar, whereas the theoretical standard deviation was smaller than
the observed standard deviation. Gain scores were calculated for all students. The average
gain for the treatment group was .83, and the average gain for the control group was .85.

These gain scores are similar.

Table 2 - Composite of Judges Scores

Treatment (N =30) Control (N=33)

 

Theoretical Theoretical Mean Std. Dev. Mean Std. Dev.
Mean Std. Dev.

Pretest 6 1.33 5.52 2.39 6.89 2.15
Posttest 6 1.33 6.35 2.56 7.47 2.40

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A t-test was used to compare the gain scores to determine if tonal pattern
instruction had an effect on first graders’ singing voice development. No statistically
significant difference (df=61) was found between the treatment and control groups. The t-
value was -.03, which was not significant at the .05 level. First grade students who
received tonal pattern instruction did not experience greater gains in singing voice

development than first grade students who did not receive tonal pattern instruction.

E . .
There are several possibilities why the results were not significant. It may have

been necessary to use a longer treatment period in order to detect a significant difference

33

 

between treatment and control groups. If the treatment lasted an entire school year, more
progress may have occurred within the treatment group as more LSA units and criteria
were taught and learned. However, trends in the data are not strongly in support of this
interpretation.

This study was the researcher’s first experience using LSA within a classroom
setting. Her lack of experience administering tonal pattern instruction to students, as well
as their unfamiliarity with the process, may have affected the results.

It is possible that tonal pattern instruction may have made a difference in another
classroom in which students do not sing individually within the classroom setting on a
regular basis. In this study, all children sang individually whether they were part of the
control group or the experiment group. The researcher made a conscious pedagogical
choice to continue incorporating individual instruction, because previous research suggests
that doing so is best practice. If the students in this study experienced individual singing
only during tonal pattern instruction, it is possible that the results would have been
statistically significant. However, such results would not indicate that tonal pattern
instruction was the specific reason for a difference between control and treatment groups,
because singing individually within a classroom setting and outside of the context of LSA
would also be a factor to consider.

In this study, children with low SVDM scores generally had difficulty
reproducing the patterns given to them during LSA. This makes sense, because if a child is
unable to use his singing voice above a certain range and a pattern requires him to do so,
he will not successfully sing the pattern. Gordon did not design or intend for LSA to be
used as a means of developing a child’s singing voice. He designed LSA to build aural
vocabularies (Gordon, 2001). Students with average and high tonal aptitudes who scored

low on SVDM were often unable to reproduce patterns correctly, not because they were

34

 

hearing and aurally processing the pattern incorrectly, but because they had not yet
gained control of their singing voices.

It is possible that strictly adhering to Gordon’s recommendations on how to
administer LSA and repeatedly asking students who have not yet found their singing
voices to attempt to reproduce a pattern correctly, sets those students up for failure. Not
coaching a student on how to find his or her singing voice during an opportune moment
amidst LSA instruction may be a disservice to the child and to music education at large.
Repeated failures of this sort might cause the student unnecessary frustration and
aversion to singing in general.

While teaching LSA, the researcher/teacher found it extremely difficult not to
break the flow of pattern instruction and coach students using hand signals, vocal slides,
individual and group repetition, or verbal feedback, when she instinctively sensed doing
so might be necessary and helpful. On several occasions, she successfully used each of
these techniques. While LSA was not created as a means to improve singing voice
development, if a student has not yet found his or her singing voice, it is possible that
these techniques might be implemented within LSA instruction to evoke success from all
students, whether they are singers or developing singers.

When a child’s SVDM scores are viewed alongside LSA pattern charts,
relationships are evident. The child who is a limited-range singer (scoring a three on
SVDM) cannot yet sing above F3. He is successful at singing the easy pattern of Tonal
Unit 1, Section A, Criterion 1 because the required D3 lies within his singing range. He
cannot, however, successfully sing the medium pattern, because A4 is beyond the range
of his singing voice. He may have average aptitude and be capable of audiating A4 within
the pattern, but he cannot make his voice sing the pitch; thus, he fails to reach his

potential for the first criterion. In Criterion 2, he masters both the easy and medium

35

patterns, because D3 is all that is required of him. However, he fails to sing the easy
pattern in Criterion 3, because it, again, requires him to sing above his capable range.
Thus, children might benefit by being taught how to use their singing voices prior to
receiving pattern instruction. While this instruction may occur indirectly during an
acculturation period, use of a singing voice appears to be a prerequisite to successfully
progressing through LSA pattern instruction, or at the very least should occur
concurrently. As F eierabend ( 1984) suggests, patterns that are easier to sing (e.g., small
intervals, tonic patterns) should be presented prior to patterns that are more difficult to
sing. It appears, as Rutkowski (1990, 1996) espouses, that singing voice development and
aural/oral vocabulary development are separate constructs. Perhaps LSA, which are
sequenced according to research on how difficult patterns are to audiate, might benefit

from taking into consideration what is known about children’s singing voice development.

36

CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Rims:
With the intent of improving elementary general music instruction, the purpose of
this study was to determine whether pattern instruction, specifically those designed by

Gordon in his Learning Sequence Activities, affects the development of singing voice in

children.

Braden
The problem of this study was to determine if first grade students who received
tonal pattern instruction experienced greater gains in singing voice development than

students who did not receive tonal pattern instruction.

man

It is known that children can be taught to sing within the confines of traditional
general music class settings (Rutkowski & Miller, 2003). However, in order for this to
occur, students must be provided opportunities to perform individually, not only within
a large group, because solely large-group instruction can be detrimental to singing voice
development (Rutkowski, 1996). This study focused on the delivery of individual
pattern instruction, which includes individual singing, in an attempt to help first grade
students learn to use their singing voices.

The subjects in this study were first grade students (n=63) from a low-to-middle-
income, semi-rural school district. Students received instruction from a music specialist
for two 42-minute sessions every week for 18 weeks. All music lessons were based on

Gordon’s Music Learning Theory and consisted of large-group, small-group, and

37

individual singing activities, as well as rhythmic/movement activities.

The researcher administered the Tonal subtest of Gordon’s PMMA to determine
subjects’ tonal aptitude and appropriately level pattern instruction. Prior to instruction,
students were introduced to Rutkowski’s SVDM and individually pretested. Following
an 11—week treatment period in which the treatment group received pattern instruction
(defined in Gordon’s LSA) for the first five or ten minutes of each music class, the
researcher administered SVDM to all subjects in the treatment and control groups as a
posttest.

Two qualified, independent raters scored SVDM performances. Their interjudge
reliabilities were high. Gain scores were calculated and a t-test was performed to
determine if pattern instruction has an effect on the singing voice development of first

grade students. No significant difference was found.

1].. EE'

It is important for music teachers to know the individual tonal and rhythmic
aptitudes of their students in order to effectively deliver instruction (Gordon, 1997).
Likewise, they must also be aware of individual students’ ability to use a singing voice.
Tonal pattern instruction, while helpful for building students’ aural music vocabularies,
has not proven useful in helping students develop a singing voice. If a child is unable to
use his or her singing voice, class time spent asking him or her to reproduce pitch
patterns may not be in the student’s best interest, and may not be the best use of limited
instructional minutes. Music teachers must help students acquire their singing voices
prior to or concurrent with asking that they use these voices in tonal assessment

activities, such as LSA pattern instruction.

38

W

The challenge of assisting students in their vocal development remains. More
studies must be conducted to determine successful ways to help students find their
singing voices. Joyner (1969) suggested that vocal instruction may produce more
benefits than aural skill treatments for children who struggle with pitch discrimination
and vocal accuracy. Thus, the tonal pattern instruction designed by Gordon may not be
the best sequence to enhance development of the vocal mechanism. Perhaps a different
taxonomy of tonal patterns should be developed for children who have not yet found
their singing voices. If Gordon’s research-based taxonomy is modified, however, one
must consider the implications a different taxonomy would have on children’s aural skill
development.

Children who can accurately discriminate pitch but fail to reproduce the pitches
vocally (Goetze, Cooper, & Brown, 1990) will continue to struggle until their singing
voices develop. Practitioners recognize that singing is a skill that can be taught
(Apfelstadt, 1984; Goetze, Cooper, & Brown, 1990; Gordon, 1971; Gould, 1968; Jones,
1979; Roberts & Davies, 1975; Wolner & Pyle, 1933), and, with proper instruction,
singing accuracy will increase with age. However, more research must be done on how to
best instruct children in the development of their singing voices. We know that singing
voice and pitch accuracy are different constructs (Rutkowski, 1990, 1996; Rutkowski &
Miller, 2003), so future researchers must recognize the importance of gender differences,
song instruction with and without text, song instruction without accompaniment or with
root melody accompaniment, individual instruction, healthy vocal models, and children’s
singing ranges in order to conduct further studies on singing voice development Does a
full year of pattern instruction effect the development of children’s singing voices

differently than it did in this study? I 5 there a developmentally appropriate age when

39

pattern instruction has a greater effect on singing voice development than with first grade
students? Is the development of a singing voice a prerequisite to success in LSA? What
effects do the use of hand signals, vocal slides, individual and group repetition, or verbal
feedback have on singing voice development with or without individual pattern
instruction? What other music methods and practices might assist children in singing
voice development? Researchers must discover ways to assist children in finding and

improving the use of their singing voices. pm

 

4o

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