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dissertation entitled

EXAMINATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELF-
DIRECTEDNESS AND OUTCOMES OF THE ONLINE COP
TRAINING PROGRAM IN THE TURKISH NATIONAL POLICE
CONTEXT

presented by

MUSTAFA BULENT HALICIOGLU

has been accepted towards fulfillment
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PhD. degree in Criminal Justice

 

 

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EXAMINATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELF-DIRECTEDNESS AND
OUTCOMES OF THE ONLINE COP TRAINING PROGRAM IN THE TURKISH
NATIONAL POLICE CONTEXT
By

Mustafa Bulent Halicioglu

A DISSERTATION
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulﬁllment of the requirements
for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Criminal Justice

2010

ABSTRACT
EXAMINATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELF -DIRECTEDNESS AND
OUTCOMES OF THE ONLINE COP TRAINING PROGRAM IN THE TURKISH
NATIONAL POLICE CONTEXT
By
Mustafa Bulent Halicioglu

It is widely accepted that online learning is a self-directed learning environment
and the participants need to have self-direction in learning. However, there is lack of
empirical studies focusing on the relationship between online learning and self—directed
learning and examining the relationship between self-directedness of learners and
outcomes of online learning programs. Especially in the occupational training ﬁeld or the
police training ﬁeld we cannot locate any signiﬁcant study on these issues. Therefore,
this study focused on an online community oriented policing (COP) training program
conducted by the Turkish National police and aimed to examine the relationship between
self-directedness of the participants (ofﬁcers) and outcomes of this training program.
Moreover, this study also sought to ﬁgure out what other factors predict ofﬁcers’ success
in the online training program.

Based on Brockett and Hiemstra’s (1991) Personal Responsibility OrientatiOn
(PRO) model indicating a relationship between self-directedness and outcomes of self-
directed learning environments, and previous literature related to online learning and
police training, during this study a logic model was developed to predict outcomes of the
online COP training program. The outcomes were deﬁned as perceived learning level of
ofﬁcers, their satisfaction with the training program, and change in their attitudes toward

COP. Ofﬁcers’ attitudes toward COP was measured by six different constructs, and to

 

measure the changes in attitudes, a one- group pretest posttest research design was
applied. Whereas self-directedness of the ofﬁcers was measured by the 24-item Oddi
Continuing Learning Inventory (OCLI) in the pretest, the other independent and control
variables are measured in the posttest. All participants of the 4‘11 term online COP Basic
Training program (n=1406), conducted between May 25 and June 5, 2009, were selected
as the sample of this study and questionnaires were delivered through a web-survey
method administered before and after the training program. Whereas the response rate
was 83% (1162) for the pretest, it was 72% (1006) for the posttest.

To examine the relationship between self-directedness of the ofﬁcers and
outcomes of the online training program and to ﬁgure out what other factors predict those
outcomes, multivariate Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression analyses were
conducted. Results showed that self-directedness of the ofﬁcers was an important
predictor of the outcomes of the online COP training program. According to the ﬁndings,
the other important predictors of those outcomes were the assigned unit of the ofﬁcers
(COP related or not), gender, and internet accessibility.

On the other Side, ofﬁcers working in COP related units are trained only through
the online training program in Turkey. Therefore, for the success of COP, it is vital to
understand if online training is effective. This study also provides some information
about effectiveness of the online COP training program. Finally, some practical

implications of this study and some recommendations for future research are suggested.

 

COPyn'ght by
MUSTAFA BULENT HALICIOGLU
2010

Dedicated to my wife Ilknur, my daughter Zeynep, my son Mehmet, my mother and
father...

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Throughout this dissertation process, many people have supported me, providing
advice, encouragement, and wisdom. I want to express my appreciation and sincere
gratitude to all of them. First of all, I wish to thank Dr. Edmund F. McGarrelI, advisor
and chair of my dissertation committee, for his guidance, continued support, and
mentorship. I deeply appreciate his understanding, concern and effort in the completion
of my dissertation despite his busy schedule. His leadership and thoughtful directions
facilitated my job and helped me to complete the dissertation on time successfully. I
would also like to show my gratitude to the other members of my dissertation committee,
Dr. Jeremy M. Wilson, Dr. Charles Corley, and Dr. John M. Dirkx. They were very
helpful and provided invaluable insight and encouragement throughout this process. It is
an honor for me to have worked with each of them during this endeavor. Many thanks
should also go all the staff and faculty members of the School of Criminal Justice at
Michigan State University, whose classes have provided me with a large and helpful
academic perspective and knowledge which served as a foundation for my research.

Most importantly, my sincere thanks go to my precious family who were with me
during all parts of this challenging journey. This dissertation would not have been
possible without my wife’s (Ilknur HALICIOGLU) patience, positive encouragement,
support, and devotions. I am also thankful to my daughter Zeynep Dilara and my son
Mehmet Levent for their patience. Finally, I would like to acknowledge and thank all the
members of the Turkish National Police (TNP) and my TNP colleagues at Michigan State

University for their constant and generous support.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. ix

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................ x

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 1
1.1. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY ..... 1
1.2. IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY .......................................................................... 4
1.3. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY .............................................. 5
1.4. ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY .................................................................... 14

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................. 16
2.1. COMMUNITY ORIENTED POLICING .............................................................. 16
2.2. TRAINING AND POLICE TRAINING ............................................................... 27
2.3. TRAINING TECHNOLOGIES AND ONLINE LEARNING .............................. 35
2.4. ADULT LEARNING ............................................................................................. 48
2.5. SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING ............................................................................ 54

CHAPTER 3

THE CONTEXT OF THE STUDY: TURKISH NATIONAL POLICE .......................... 83
3.1. HISTORY AND STRUCTURE OF TURKISH NATIONAL POLICE ............... 83
3.2. TRAINING OF TURKISH NATIONAL POLICE ............................................... 87
3.3. USE OF TRAINING TECHNOLOGIES AND ONLINE LEARNING IN THE
TNP ............................................................................................................................... 93
3.4. COMMUNITY ORIENTED POLICING IN THE TURKISH NATIONAL
POLICE ......................................................................................................................... 96
3.5. THE ONLINE COP BASIC TRAINING PROGRAM ....................................... 100

CHAPTER 4

METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................................... 104
4.1. RESEARCH QUESTION AND HYPOTHESES ............................................... 104
4.2. DATA .................................................................................................................. 106
4.3. MEASUREMENT OF THE VARIABLES ......................................................... 115
4.4. VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY ....................................................................... 132
4.5. ANALYTIC STRATEGY ................................................................................... 136

CHAPTER 5

ANALYSES AND FINDINGS ...................................................................................... 138
5.1. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS ............................................................................. 138
5.2. BIVARIATE ANALYSIS ................................................................................... 146
5.3. MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS ........................................................................... 152

vii

5.4. SUPPLEMENTARY ANALYSIS FOR POSSIBLE INTERVENING EFFECT OF
SATISFACTION BETWEEN SELF-DIRECTEDNESS LEVEL AND LEARNING

..................................................................................................................................... 166
CHAPTER 6
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ............................................................................ 170
6.1. DISCUSSION ...................................................................................................... 171
6.2. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS ............................................................. 186
6.3. LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH .................................................... 201
APPENDICES ................................................................................................................ 207
APPENDIX A — PARTICIPANTS OF THE 4TH TERM ONLINE COP BASIC
TRAINING PROGRAM ............................................................................................ 208
APPENDIX B — LESSONS PRESENTED IN THE ONLINE COP BASIC
TRAINING PROGRAM AND THEIR SHORT DESCRIPTIONS ........................... 209
APPENDD( C - SURVEY INSTRUMENT (ENGLISH VERSION) ....................... 215
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................... 234

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Population of the TNP According to the Rank and Gender of the Personnel 86

Table 2: The Number of the Ofﬁcers Graduating from Police Schools (PS) and PVTC

between 2005 and 2009 ................................................................................................... 89
Table 3: Types of In-service Training Programs Applied in the TNP ........................ 90-91
Table 4: COP Basic Training Programs and Their Participants .................................... 101
Table 5: Demographic Characteristics of Participants of the 4th Term Online COP Basic
Training Program ........................................................................................................... 102
Table 6: Comparison of Distribution of Participants of the Training Program and the
General Population of the TNP according to their gender and rank .............................. 109
Table 7: Descriptive Statistics for Independent and Control Variables ......................... 139

Table 8: Attitudes toward COP before/after the Training Program and Signiﬁcance of

Change ........................................................................................................................... 142
Table 9: Descriptive Statistics for the Outcome Variables ............................................ 144
Table 10: Bivariate Correlations among all Variables ............................................ 148-149
Table 11: Regression of Perceived Learning Level and Satisfaction on the Independent

Variables ........................................................................................................................ 153
Table 12: Regression of Gain Related Outcomes on the Independent Variables .......... 160

Table 13: Examination of Intervening Effects of Satisfaction and Perceived Learning
Level .............................................................................................................................. 166

Table 14: Bivariate Correlations between Self-Directedness Level and Pre/Post Attitudes
toward COP .................................................................................................................... 174

Table 15: Regression of Outcomes on Independent Variables Including Pretest Scores of
Each Dependent Variable .............................................................................................. 177

ix

 

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: The Logic Model for Online COP Basic Training Program ............................ 11
Figure 2: The Personal Responsibility Orientation (PRO) Model ................................... 63
Figure 3: The Logic Model for Online COP Basic Training Program .......................... 116

Figure 4: Examination of Possible Intervening Effect of Satisfaction between Self-
Directedness and Perceived Learning Level .................................................................. 168

Figure 5: Examination of Possible Intervening Effect of Perceived Learning Level
between Self-Directedness and Satisfaction .................................................................. 169

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
Major technological developments over the past 100 years have been continuing
to affect all areas of human life (Fitzgerald, 2003). There is no doubt that the teaching
and learning area is also one of those ﬁelds that are inﬂuenced by technological
developments. In the teaching and learning ﬁeld, a number of technologies have been
used to facilitate and support learning activities. These are called education and training
technologies (Bates, 2005; Galusha, 1997). In today’s world, the internet is accepted as
the most important and widely used education and training technology (Gray, 1999).
Many educational sectors (such as universities, colleges, even high schools) offer online
courses for their students in the world, especially in the United States. Additionally, for
approximately two decades, some public and government organizations, including the
police, have also started to use the internet to provide training for their personnel.
Police ofﬁcials are aware that in a changing world, to be able to struggle with

crime and criminals, and to be able to achieve policing efﬁciently, police organizations
should modify and renew themselves constantly. They also know that a prerequisite of
achieving this is having well-skilled, knowledgeable, and talented ofﬁcers. There is no
doubt that to have well-skilled, knowledgeable, and talented personnel, training and re-
training is necessary. The Turkish National Police (TNP) is also aware of the importance
of training. The Training Unit of General Directorate of the TNP, located in the capital
of Turkey, is responsible for the training of all the ofﬁcers around the country. This

makes it difﬁcult to provide continuous and efﬁcient training for all ofﬁcers and it is very

costly. To address this challenge, in 2006, the TNP invested signiﬁcant resources in a

new class called “smart class” that offered training programs for some special topics

through online instruction offered all around the country.1 In the current study, the central
issue of concern is one of those online training programs, “Community Oriented Policing
Basic Training Course.”

The Turkish National Police has been interested in community oriented policing
(COP) for less than a decade. Recently, the TNP implemented COP principles in all cities
of Turkey. To achieve it, some city police departments established new units focusing on
COP or they attempted to incorporate principles of COP into existing units. However, it
is clear that a prerequisite of success for this kind of initiative is training of personnel
who will be responsible for applying those principles (Adams, Rohe, & Arcury, 2002;
Chappell, 2007; Cheurprakobkit, 2002; Dantzker et al., 1995; Goldstein, 1987; Haarr,
2001; Palmiotto, Birzer, & Unnithan, 2000; I. Zhao, Thurman, & Lovrich, 1995). To
provide training, the General Directory of TNP organized a two-week, 60-hour program.
However, because bringing all the personnel from cities to Ankara, which is capital of
Turkey, will cost a lot of money, TNP decided to offer this training program through
online distance learning technologies (that is, through smart class). The mission of this
program is to build positive knowledge about COP, to teach the philosophy and aims of
COP, to support the implementation of COP, and to inform ofﬁcers about the importance

of community relationships in solving the problems. That is, this program aims for police

 

l
http://wwwcgm.gov.tr/egitim’index—7.html

ofﬁcers to gain positive attitudes toward COP and to learn basic information about it and
its implementation.

One of the problems is that, although TNP invested a lot of money in this smart
class and although a number of courses have been conducted online, there is no scientiﬁc
study or research examining online training in TNP. It is clear that in order to improve
this kind of training program and increase its efﬁciency, it is vital to understand to what
extent participants learn, if they are satisﬁed, and what affects their satisfaction and
learning level. Moreover, understanding the effectiveness of online training is also
important for the success of COP. Researchers claim that successful implementation of
COP requires that “ofﬁcers’ attitudes, perceptions, and behaviors must be substantially
changed before community policing can be put into practice” (Lurigio & Skogan, 1994,
p. 315). Therefore, online training programs offering by TNP need to be examined
scientiﬁcally in order to learn their effectiveness, their deﬁciencies, factors affecting their
outcomes, etc.

On the other hand, the main problem necessitating this study is related to the
relationship between online learning and self-directed learning. Literature shows that
online learning is considered as a learning method in which learners organize their
learning, control their learning pace, time, place, and assess their learning themselves;
that is, online learning is considered as a self-directed learning environment (Killion,
2000; King, 1998; Murphy, Levant, Hall, & Glueckauf, 2007; Sitzmann, Kraiger,
Stewart, & Wisher, 2006; Thombory, 2003; Trombley & Lee, 2002). In these kinds of
learning environments, learners are also expected to be self-directed. However, although

online learning is accepted as a self-directed learning environment and its participants are

supposed to be self-directed in learning, there is lack of study and research focusing on
self—directed learning and online learning together and examining the relationship
between self-direction and outcomes of online learning. Especially in the occupational
training ﬁeld or police training ﬁeld, we cannot locate any signiﬁcant study focusing on
these issues.

Consequently, the primary purpose of this study is to examine the relationship
between outcomes of online COP training and self-directedness of ofﬁcers in Turkish
National police, and to understand what other factors predict those outcomes. In addition,
through examining the Community Oriented Policing Basic Training Course conducted
by Turkish National Police, this study aim to ﬁgure out to what extent the online training
inﬂuences ofﬁcers’ learning, their satisfaction with training, and the change in their
attitudes toward COP.

1.2. IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY

As mentioned in the statement of the problem, there is no study conducted so far
to examine online training programs in Turkish National Police. This study is the ﬁrst
scientiﬁc study focusing on online police training in the Turkish context. Although the
main aim of this study is not evaluation of the online training programs, it gives an idea
about the effectiveness of the online training programs (especially about the online COP
training program). This study also helps us to understand the factors affecting the success
of ofﬁcers or outcomes of the training (e. g. learning, satisfaction, and, for this study,
change in attitudes toward COP) in an online learning environment. That is, once the

factors affecting the outcomes of online training are found empirically, researchers,

instructors, and policy makers should be able to ﬁnd feasible instructional strategies and
to produce policies in order to deal with these aspects (Chou & Chen, 2008).

There are only a few studies focusing on self-directed learning and online learning
together (e.g., Corbeil, 2003; Doherty, 2000; Ibrahim & Silong, 2000; Johnson, 2005;
Pachnowski & Jurczyk, 2000), and all of these studies were conducted in university or
college settings. There appears to be no studies focusing on self-directed learning and
online learning together in occupational training settings, including the police. This study
can be accepted as one of these few studies focusing on this area. The other problem with
previous research is that most studies were conducted with small sample sizes of people,
such as 39 for Pachnowski & Jurczyk (2000), 98 for Corbeil (2003), and 85 for Johnson
(2005). Therefore, this study is the ﬁrst to use a large sample size in this kind of research.

In terms of training of community oriented policing, although importance of COP
training in changing ofﬁcers behaviors, skills, and attitudes toward COP is accepted
broadly, there are few studies focusing directly on such training (such as Cheurprakobkit,
2002; Haarr, 2001; Rosenbaum, Yeh, & Wilkinson, 1994). This research is one of the
few studies examining COP in-service training programs and their effects on attitudes of
ofﬁcers toward community policing, and it is the ﬁrst study focusing on an online COP
in-service training program.

1.3. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY

1.3.1. Predictors of Outcomes of Online Training:

As mentioned, the main purpose of this study is to understand if there is any
relationship between self-directedness of ofﬁcers and outcomes of online training and to

identify what predicts these outcomes in an online training program. However, when we

look at the online distance learning ﬁeld, we encounter a gap in terms of theory to
understand this ﬁeld comprehensively (Imel, 2003). The literature shows that online
learning offers a self-directed learning environment (Chou & Chen, 2008; Ibrahim &
Silong, 2000; Killion, 2000; King, 1998; Murphy et al., 2007 ; Sitzrnann et al., 2006;
Thombory, 2003; Trombley & Lee, 2002). Therefore, in terms of theory predicting the
outcomes or success of the online learning, this study focuses on self-directedness of
adults in self-directed learning environments. There Should be a link between self-
directedness of the learner and their success in the online learning environment. This
belief is based on adult learning theories (especially, andragogy), self—directed learning
theory and theoretical models in SDL ﬁeld (especially PRO model), and literature related
to both self-directed learning and online learning.

Andragogy theory, also called adult learning theory, assumes that “as a person
matures, his or her self-concept moves ﬁom that of a dependent personality toward one
of a self—directing human being” (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baurngartner, 2007, p. 84). That
is, adults tend to be self-directed because of their self-concept for their own lives and own
decisions (Knowles, 1990). According to Knowles, the pioneer of the andragogy theory,
SDL is a process in which “individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of
others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human
and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning
strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes” (Knowles, 1975, p. 18). Either in this most
common deﬁnition of SDL, or in other deﬁnitions of SDL or theoretical approaches
related to SDL existing in the literature (such as, Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991; Candy,

1991; Fisher, King, & Tague, 2001; Garrison, 1997; Oddi, 1986; Song & Hill, 2007;

Tough, 1971), we encounter two important dimensions: self-directed learning as a

process or learning method, and self-direction as a personal attribute of learners.2

According to the ﬁrst dimension, SDL is a process in which learners can control
their own learning (Knowles, 1975). Based on its features, it can be said that online
learning is one of the main, most powerful, and important SDL tools and processes
(Gray, 1999; Ibrahim & Silong, 2000; McVay, 2000; O'Shea, 2003; Song & Hill, 2007).
The other dimension mentioned by theoretical approaches and literature related to self-
directed learning is self-direction as a personal attribute of learners. The main assumption
related to this dimension is that “learning in adulthood means becoming more self-
directed and autonomous” (Merriam et al., 2007).

One of the theoretical models combining these two dimensions is Brockett &
Hiemstra’s (1991) Personal Responsibility Orientation (PRO) model. The PRO model,
comprised of ﬁve concepts, presents a theoretical framework to understand self-direction
in adult learning. The ﬁrst concept, personal responsibility, indicates that people assume
ownership of their actions and thoughts. “Within the context of learning, it is the ability
and/or willingness of individuals to take control of their own learning that determines
their potential for self-direction” (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991, p. 26). The second
concept, self-directed learning, refers to an instructional method or learning process in
which learning activities are planned, implemented, and learning is evaluated (ibid.). This
concept is related to factors which are external to an individual learner. The third
concept, self-direction, refers to the internal personal attributes and characteristics of

adult learners. The fourth concept, self-direction in learning, refers to the vital link

 

2
Recent theoretical approaches have also added learning context as the third dimension of self-directed
learning (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991; Candy, 1991; Song & Hill, 2007).

between self-directed learning and self-direction. In addition, as the ﬁfth concept,
Brockett & Hiemstra (1991) also talk about possible effect of the social context in which
learning takes place, such as universities, occupational training settings, museums,
libraries, and web environments.

The PRO model views both internal and external factors of self-direction as a
continuum and proposes tha “. . .optimal conditions for learning result when there is a
balance, or congruence, between the leamer’s level of self-direction and the extent to
which opportunity for self-directed learning is possible in a given situation” (Brockett &
Hiemstra, 1991, p. 30). According to this model the balance between internal
characteristics of the learner and external characteristics of the learning-teaching
transaction should be in harmony; otherwise, difﬁculties and ﬁ'ustration arise (Brockett &
Hiemstra, 1991). That is, the PRO model indicates that there is a link between effective
learning or success and being self-directed in self-directed learning contexts. Some
empirical studies also support this claim (e.g., Garver, 1996; Haggerty, 2000; Harriman,
1990; Morris, 1995; Stewart, 2007). Because online learning is seen as a SDL process,
this claim can be accepted for online learning environment. That is, it can be said that
there is a relationship between adults’ success or learning and their self-directedness in
online learning environments.

However, it may be reductionist to say that we can predict outcomes of online
learning just through the self-directedness level of participants. Literature also indicates
that there may be some other concepts and variables related to effective learning and
success in SDL and online learning environments. One of these is context referring to a

variety of settings in which learning occur and including both institutional and the global

contexts which participants experience during the learning process (Brockett & Hiemstra,
1991). Whereas institutional context refers to settings from formal education and training

institutes to informal institutes, the global context refers to culture in which learning takes
place (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991).3 Song & Hill (2007) reduce explanation of the

context to the learning setting.4 However, in occupational learning settings in which non-
traditional adult learners are trained, we may also think about work conditions (e. g., work
load, shifts, supervisory or departmental support, etc.) (Bartlett, 1999), and social
structure, such as family structure (e. g. marital status, children, etc.) 'or socioeconomic
status (Bartlett, 1999; O'Shea, 2003) as learning context that the learners experience.
Moreover, accessibility to internet or lack of computer for internet access in the learning
environment can also be assessed within the concept of context.

Additional factors that may have effects on outcomes of an online learning are
personal and demographic attributes of the learners. Personal attributes include computer
skills, previous experiences in online learning, previous experience in the topic, and
educational level. In occupational learning settings, they also include rank and
experience in job (service year). In terms of demographic characteristics literature
generally focuses on age, sex, ethnicity or race, and their relationship with success in
online learning environments (Bartlett, 1999; Conti, 2009; Durr, Guglielmino, &
Guglielmino, 1996; Galusha, 1997; Gray, 1999; Ibrahim & Silong. 2000: Kolcdy, 2003;

O'Shea, 2003; Pachnowski & Jurczyk. 2000; Song & Hill. 2007).

 

3 . .
Whereas the examples for the formal learning settings are colleges, universities, occupational training

settings, examples of the informal institutes are museums, libraries, web environment, etc. (Brockett &
Hiemstra, 1991).

According to Song & Hill (2007), the context is comprised of design (resources, structure of learning
setting, and nature of tasks) and support (instructor feedback and peer collaboration).

To sum up, it seems that one of the most important predictors of outcomes of
online learning or online training is the degree of participants’ self-directedness or self-
direction in learning. The theoretical ﬁamework used in this study also depends on the
theoretical approaches and literature related to SDL mentioned above. There are eight
theoretical assumptions guiding this dissertation study.

1- Adults are self-directed in learning environment (Knowles, 1990).

2- Self-directedness (or self-direction) is the personal characteristic of the learner

(Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991; Candy, 1991; L. M. Guglielmino, 1977; Oddi,
1986).

3- Self-directed learning is a process (Knowles, 197 5).

4- Although adults are self-directed, their level of self-directedness varies. That
is, some people might be more or less self-directed than others (Brockett &
Hiemstra, 1991; Grow, 1991; L. M. Guglielmino, 1977; Oddi, 1986).

5- “. . .optimal conditions for learning result when there is a balance, or
congruence, between the learner’s level of self-direction and the extent to
which opportunity for self-directed learning is possible in a given situation”
(Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991, p. 30).

6- Online learning is a SDL process (Gray, 1999; McVay, 2000; Song & Hill,
2007).

7- Because online learning is a SDL, there is a link between successful learning

and self~directedness of a learner in an online learning environment.

10

training for this study. This logic model is based on the PRO model, as well as previous
literature related to online learning and police training. In this model, there are three types
of variable that predict the outcomes of online police training: self-directedness level,
variables related to personal attributes and demographic characteristics of the ofﬁcers and

variables related to the context. Figure 1 demonstrates the logic model of this study.

8-

Finally, there is a logic model developed to predict the outcomes of the online

determined by other personal attributes and demographic characteristics of the

learner and the context in which learning takes place.

ﬁlm; The Logic Model for Online COP 3151c Training Program

Personal Attributes and
Demographic Characteristics

Context

 

 

'Computer Knowledge
°Education Level

°Rank

°Pre-Exp. in Online Lear.
-Pre-Exp. in COP Train.
°Age

°Gender

 

 

 

 

Self-Directedness

 

 

 

 

 

°Internet Accessibility
°Current Unit

Department Size

 

 

ll

OUTCOME

Success in online learning or outcomes of an online learning can also be

 

 

°Gain (Change in
Attitudes toward
COP)

°Perceived Learning

'Satisfaction

 

 

1.3.2. Online Training and Oﬂz‘cers ’Attitudes toward COP:

As emphasized, the main purpose of this study is to examine the relationship
between self-directedness of ofﬁcers and outcomes of the online COP training program
(learning, satisfaction, and change in attitudes of ofﬁcers toward COP) and to understand
the predictors of these outcomes in an online training program. However, this study also
provides opportunity to understand if there is any change in attitudes of ofﬁcers toward
COP at the end of the online training program.

As Lurigio and Skogan (1994, p. 315) mention, like other police innovations, “the
success of community policing depends on the police ofﬁcers who are responsible for
implementing the programs” (see also Lord & Friday, 2008, p. 220). These scholars also
claim that in order for successﬁrl implementation of community policing, “oﬁ‘icers ’
attitudes, perceptions, and behaviors must be substantially changed before community
policing can be put into practice” (p. 315).

Adams and his colleagues (2002, p. 404) suggest that “two organizational features
affect attitudes about COP: proper training in community policing. . .and a participatory
management style”. According to them, training and feedback promote a positive view of
COP. For example, the studies of Skogan and Hartnett (1997) and Skogan, Hartnett,
DuBois et al. (1999) show that “street ofﬁcers in Chicago who feel well trained in COP
hold much more positive attitudes about their jobs than officers who do not feel well
trained; they are also more optimistic about the impact of COP on crime if they feel a part
of the decision-making process” (as cited in Adams et al., 2002, p. 404). That is, it can be

said that “ofﬁcers who felt well trained in COP and later problem solving were more

12

positive about COP in general and the impact that it had on crime” (Lord & Friday, 2008,
p.222)

Similar issues are also discussed by Rosenbaum & Wilkinson (2004). These
authors focus on theories of change assuming that “the engineered changes in police
attitudes, perceptions, and behaviors are important mechanisms through which police
organizations will be able to Operate more effectively, efﬁciently, and equitably.” (p. 80).
To support these changes, police organizations need some initiatives for training,
socializing, rewarding, and deploying ofﬁcers and they expect these initiatives to make
sizable and sustained differences in ofﬁcers’ attitudes and behaviors related to COP;
(Rosenbaum & Wilkinson, 2004). These scholars also claim that “organizational reform
[such as the restructuring of the departments and tasks, and community policing training],
if successful, should eventually produce changes in ofﬁcers’ perceptions of their
relationship with the community, their deﬁnition of police and community roles, and their
attitudes about community policing” (parenthesis was added, Rosenbaum & Wilkinson,
2004, p. 94).

If this claim is correct, it can be expected that training should produce changes in
ofﬁcers’ perceptions of their relationship with the community, their deﬁnition of police
and community roles, and their attitude about community policing. This expectation is
also supported by Haarr (2001) who emphasizes that if the “training program was
effective, one would expect police oﬁ‘icers to have more positive attitudes toward
community policing, problem-solving policing, and police-public relations” when they

ﬁnish the training program compared to when they enter the training program (italics

l3

were added, p. 412).5 Thus, this study also helps us to ﬁgure out if there was any gain in

terms of change in ofﬁcer’s attitudes with respect to COP at the end of the online COP

training program.

1.4. ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY

This dissertation is comprised of six chapters. In the ﬁrst chapter, an introduction
to the research, statement of the problem, purpose of the study and importance of the
study are presented. Moreover, an initial discussion of the theoretical ﬁamework of this
study can also be found in this chapter.

The second chapter is comprised of a literature review. This chapter includes ﬁve
sections. The ﬁrst section reviews Community Oriented Policing (COP), especially the
training side of COP. The second section focuses on training, particularly police training.
The next section reviews training technologies; in particular, online distance learning.
Because the police training involves adult training, the fourth area reviewed is adult
learning. In addition to these four main ﬁelds, the ﬁfth and last section of this chapter is a
literature review of self-directed learning.

The third chapter of this study focuses on the context of this research, the Turkish
National Police (TNP). This chapter presents a history of the TNP, its structure, the
training of ofﬁcers, use of training technologies and online distance training, community
oriented policing, and the Online Community Policing Basic Training Program.

In the fourth chapter, the research question and hypotheses of this research are

presented. Then the research design, sampling design, instrumentation, and data

 

5 .
Although this expectation of Haarr was police academy training, I re-modiﬁed it for in-service trainrng.

14

collection process are examined. This chapter also presents the conceptualization and
operationalization of the variables.

The ﬁfth chapter focuses on analyses of this study. Descriptive statistics, bivariate
analyses, and multivariate OLS regression analyses are provided in this chapter. In
addition, major research ﬁndings are reported.

In the ﬁnal chapter, the results of the study are discussed based on the theoretical
framework of the study and previous literature and research. Moreover, limitations of the

study, implications of the results, and recommendations for future research are presented.

15

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. COMMUNITY ORIENTED POLICING

There have been long discussions indicating that in order to control crime, the
value of classic policing methods in controlling crime are very limited and that the police
function is broader than just crime control (Goldstein, 1987). Others have criticized the
police for having lost their connection to the community (T roj anowicz, 1971) and some
have advocated that the police adopt a problem solving orientation (Eck, 2006; Goldstein,
1979). As a result of this and similar discussions, community oriented policing or
community policing (COP) has emerged as the most important policing innovation in the
past quarter century (Skogan & Roth, 2004).

The origins of COP can be traced to the beginning of 1970s when scholars and
practitioners asked what the proper role of police in a democratic society was (I. Zhao,
Lovrich, & Thurman, 1999). In the early 1980s, the idea of community policing emerged
as the dominant direction in policing (Haberfeld, Walancik, & Uydess, 2002), as
successful programs (such as foot patrol in Flint, Michigan; the fear of crime reduction
efforts in Houston, Texas; and problem-oriented policing in Newport News, Virginia)
served as catalysts for change in police practice (J. Zhao et al., 1999). By the 19903, this
new perspective had become the dominant strategy of policing (Rosenberg, Sigler, &
Lewis, 2008). In the 19905, policing encountered a number of exciting and complex

changes and community policing was the most important change driving other changes

16

(Birzer & Nolan, 2002). COP in the US. was supported by the Clinton administration,6
many police departments started to apply COP practices, and a number of scientiﬁc
studies and researches were conducted (J. Zhao et al., 1999). Prominent police scholars
such as Eck & Rosenbaum (2000) stated that COP has “become the new orthodoxy for
cops” (as cited in Wilson, 2006, p. 7). According to the US. Department of Justice, by
1999 some form of COP was practiced by approximately 70 percent of all local agencies
(as cited in Meesig, 2006). In terms of 2000s, especially after the 9/11 terrorist attacks
against World Trade Center and Pentagon in 2001 , the very foundations of the American
policing industry was shaken and it appeared that the policing interests were directed to
Homeland Security more than COP (Maguire & Wells, 2009). According to some, in this
term “community policing had lost relevance, but for others the more toward community
policing had become even more irnportan ” (Maguire & Wells, 2009, p. 173). It should be
indicated that since beginning of the 20003, community policing principles have became
more popular in other countries (such as Turkey).

2.1.1. Deﬁnition of Community Policing

Although it is a very popular policing innovation, there has been a lot of debate on
the deﬁnition of COP (Chappell, 2009; Dantzker et al., 1995; Rosenberg et al., 2008).
Whereas some base their deﬁnition on a single police tactic or program, others see COP
as “a collection of strategies that share a common philosophy or set of principles about
the desired role of police in society” (Rosenbaum & Lurigio, 1994, p. 302). Most

researchers, practitioners, and agencies tend to include similar components such as

 

6
In 1994, Congress passed the Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act and proceeded to spend roughly

$9 billion dollars over the next six years to support local law enforcement agencies (Rosenbaum &
Willdnson, 2004, p. 79)

17

community involvement, problem solving, and decentralization (Adams et al., 2002;
Chappell, 2009; Skogan, 2006). Some others include quality of life, reduction in fear of
crime, and crime prevention (Skogan, 2006; Skogan & Roth, 2004). According to
Rosenbaum and Lurigio (1994, p. 302), “academics and practitioners alike will continue
to struggle with the deﬁnition of community policing.”

Basically, COP can be deﬁned as a fundamental metamorphosis from traditional
reactive policing to proactive policing including a more comprehensive philosophy of
crime prevention (Meesig, 2006). In order to identify and solve community problems,
COP requires the development of partnerships between police and citizens and the
coproduction of order by them (McGarrell, Socorro, & Gutierrez, 2003). The most
common used deﬁnition of COP is this:

Community policing is a new philosophy of policing, based on the concept

that police ofﬁcers and private citizens working together in creative ways

can help solve contemporary community problems related to crime, fear of

crime, social and physical disorder, and neighborhood decay. The

philosophy is predicted on the belief that achieving these goals requires

that police departments develop new relationships with law-abiding people

in the community, allowing them a greater voice in setting local police

priorities and involving them in efforts to improve the overall quality of

life in their neighborhoods. It shifts the focus of police work ﬁom

handling random calls to solving community problems (Trojanowicz &

Bucqueroux, 1990, p. 5).

18

There is a common agreement in the literature indicating that COP is a philosophy
(Chappell, 2009; Cheurprakobkit, 2002; Goldstein, 1987; Rosenberg et al., 2008;
Trojanowicz & Bucqueroux, 1990; D. Weisburd, Shalev, & Amir, 2002) rather than a
temporary program. Instead, COP refers to a philosophical position identifying the role
and functions of the police (D. Weisburd et al., 2002) whereby the values and beliefs
underlying COP are absorbed by the police departments and their mangers and ofﬁcers
efﬁciently, and the requirements of these values and beliefs are applied permanently in a
speciﬁc neighborhood (Goldstein, 1987).

In an early approach to COP, Goldstein (1987) mentions some common
characteristics of it. First, police are easily accessible, visible, and give importance to
relationships with citizens. Second, police aim to prevent crime through educating
citizens on avoiding victimization and on reporting suspicious situations. Third,
community organizations are seen as important; it is believed that these organizations
increase cohesion in the community and thereby reduce fear of crime and support police
to deal with problems of the community. Fourth, police are expected to identify and seek
solutions for recurring problems. Fifth, the police ofﬁcers are given more autonomy to
work with the community and solve the problems. Sixth, there is continuity in COP; that
is, ofﬁcers are assigned to an area permanently and they spent more time for community
outreach.

Similarly, Skogan & Roth (2004) focus on decentralization, community
engagement, and problem solving as the general characteristics of COP. Decentralization
provides opportunity to ofﬁcers to work in speciﬁc neighborhoods. This is intended to

support relationships between ofﬁcers and residents of the neighborhood, to promote

19

COP projects, and to facilitate localized solutions for problems of the community.
Community engagement means involving citizens in public safety activities.
“Community policing encourages agencies to develop partnership with community
groups to facilitate ‘listening’ to the community and constructive information sharing”
(ibid., 2004, p. xxiv). The third characteristic of COP is problem solving. This requires
identiﬁcation and prioritization of neighborhood problems by both police and public, and
involves establishing relationships with other public and private sectors.

2.1.2. COP and Organizational Changes

COP requires fundamental and strategic changes in all aspects of policing
(Palmiotto et al., 2000). It calls for change in the basic role of police officers including
daily routine, relationships, skills and abilities, recruitment, training, and retention (Haarr,
2001). Among the most important changes are the empowerment of community
partnerships and problem solving activities (Cheurprakobkit, 2002). In. addition COP also
requires organizational changes. Chappell (2009, pp. 7-8) indicates that COP requires
“different structures (decentralization, ﬂattening of the layers of hierarchy, less
specialization, teamwork, and hiring civilian employees), changes in management
(including coaching, mentoring, empowerment of line officers, and selective discipline),
and the collection and utilization of more information (including the use of community
surveys, performance appraisals, program evaluations, information systems, crime
analysis, and geographic information systems)” Because most of these changes are
beyond traditional roles and perspectives of ofﬁcers, there are ﬁ'equently battles for the

hearts and minds of police officers during the process of Shifting from traditional policing

20

to COP (Lurigio & Skogan, 1994). In this situation, the attitudes of ofﬁcers toward COP
are important.

2.1.3. Attitudes of Ofﬁcers toward COP

AS Lurigio & Skogan (1994, p. 315) state, the “success of community policing
depends on the police ofﬁcers who are responsible for implementing the programs. In
essence, their attitudes, perceptions, and behaviors must be substantially changed before
community policing can be put into practice.” Ofﬁcers’ attitudes toward COP refer to the
view of COP, its perceived success, their understanding it, and their acceptance
(Chappell, 2009; Lurigio & Skogan, 1994). Some research also indicates that there is a
link between ofﬁcer attitudes toward community policing and their behaviors related to
this phenomena (Lurigio & Skogan, 1994; Mastrofski, Worden, & Snipes, 1995). Some
others emphasize that one of the important obstacles of community policing is the lack of
understanding and absorbing of COP by the street level ofﬁcers (as cited in J. Zhao et al.,
1995). Therefore, Lurigio and Skogan (1994) suggest that attitudes of ofﬁcers toward
COP should be examined before implementing COP programs, and these programs
should be presented in a way in which police ofﬁcers will likely accept it. Finally,
“organizational change in general must have personnel investrnen ”(Lord & Friday,
2008, p. 220), and departments must take in to account personnel factors and their
attitudes toward COP when they want to apply COP successfully.

2.1.4. Training and COP

Some scholars indicate that behavioral changes of officers depend on support
from organizational changes, such as new training programs consistent with COP

(Goldstein, 1987; Palmiotto et al., 2000; Rosenbaum & Wilkinson, 2004). It is widely

21

believed that ofﬁcers who are highly educated and highly trained can meet the most
important requirements of contemporary police innovations and changes (J. Zhao et al.,
1995). Discussing the importance of training and education in police organizations, some
emphasizes that “highly educated ofﬁcers and better trained staff do not per se guarantee
better cooperation and communication, but training and education is a sine qua non factor
on the way to improving the quality of police work” (as cited in Feltes, 2002, p. 55).
Moreover, some studies show that comparing those ofﬁcers who are not trained well in
COP, ofﬁcers who are trained well have more positive attitudes toward COP (Adams et
al., 2002).

Because COP requires movement from reactive policing to proactive and coactive
policing, and COP ofﬁcers are expected to use their discretion effectively, it is believed
that the use of discretion and decision making will heavily depend on training (Gutierrez
& Thurman, 2003). COP also requires police ofﬁcers to have some skills and abilities
such as the ability to communicate with citizens, giving importance to the ideas of the
public, listening to their concerns, being able to establish partnership with citizens and
other public private organizations, and to be able to coordinate various crime prevention
programs. All of these skills require training, and training for COP will be much more
complex than training for traditional policing (Chappell, 2007). According to Zhao et a1.
(1999), community policing training programs should move police offrcers’ values and
attitudes away ﬁ'om traditional bureaucratic model toward the new model of COP.

Finally, it is seen that training is very important in effective implementation of
COP, and “in the absence of a comprehensive training program, community policing

ofﬁcers will invariably revert to traditional policing approaches and old work habits when

22

they are performing their jobs” (Skogan et al., 1994; as cited in Dantzker et al., 1995, p.

46).7

One of the theoretical approaches guiding COP training is the “local theory of
change” offered by Rosenbaum & Wilkinson (2004, p. 81; see also Rosenbaum et al.,
1994). This theory focusing on organizational changes required by community policing
and naturally emerging during the community policing process assumes that “lasting
changes in ofﬁcers’ attitudes and behaviors are more likely in organizational
environments that encourage and support such changes” (Rosenbaum & Wilkinson, 2004,
p. 81). This support can be possible through a participatory management style introducing
a set of changes including new training programs (Rosenbaum et al., 1994). Finally, the
proposition of this theory is that “changes in organizational structure (e. g., creation of
special units), management style, and training programs, beyond other factors, will
enlarge and enrich the line ofﬁcers’ job, as well as create a supportive work environment.
This new environment will, in turn, yield respect to community policing and problem
solving” (Rosenbaum & Wilkinson, p. 82). AS it is seen, this theoretical approach
strongly claims that there is a relationship between community policing training and
change in ofﬁcers’ attitudes toward community policing.

In their longitudinal study, based on this theory, Rosenbaum & Wilkinson (2004)
tested the hypothesis indicating that “organizational changes and training programs can
enrich and enlarge the ofﬁcers’ job, improve job satisfaction, strengthen problem-solving
Skills, and instill a variety of positive attitudes and behaviors relevant to establishing a

closer working relationship with the community” (ibid., p. 98). Although their results

 

7
Skogan, W.G., Hartnett, S.M., DubBois J. et al., (1994). Interim report: Community policing in Chicago,
Year One. Evanston:Center for Urban Affairs and Policy Research, Northwestern University

23

showed that there were some noteworthy and stable changes among ofﬁcers, some of the
important changes were lost with the following passage of time (Rosenbaum &
Wilkinson, 2004).

There are some discussions focusing on training and the implementation of COP.
Some argue that there are training related obstacles to COP. One of these is the
curriculum of police academies. Although Bureau of Justice Statistics (2004) Show that
79 percent of police academies train new ofﬁcers in community policing, it is well known
that their curricula generally includes only one course depending on the philosophy of
community policing (as cited in Chappell, 2007). In addition to the limits of academy
training, Hawkins & Weisheit’s (2003, p. 22) study shows that most ﬁ'equently cited
obstacles to COP training by the small and rural police agencies are “ﬁ'eeing up officers’
time (76%), cost of training (70%), relevance of training content to rural and small-town
areas (48%),and distance to training (47%).” It is clear that time, distance, and cost are
obstacles not only for small and rural area police departments’ training needs, but also for
large police departments.

Others have argued that COP training should be designed, offered, and evaluated
differently (Birzer & Tannehill, 2001; Chappell, 2007; Cheurprakobkit, 2002; Dantzker
et al., 1995). They say that COP training should be different ﬁ'om traditional militaristic
methods which tend to be rigid and try to teach procedures, law, and policies strictly
(Birzer & Tannehill, 2001; Cheurprakobkit, 2002). Not only line level ofﬁcers but also
managers and supervisors should participate in training programs. This training should
focus on speciﬁc community needs, innovative and proactive thinking given that COP

requires these skills (Cheurprakobkit, 2002). Since COP requires the ofﬁcers to have

24

multi-functions and to be more citizen-oriented, and since police ofﬁcers are naturally
adult learner, COP training should depend on learner-centered adult education
approaches instead of teacher-centered pedagogy (Birzer & Tannehill, 2001). Finally, “if
the intent of community policing training is to produce fundamental changes in policing,
then training materials and approaches must explicitly reﬂect and support those changes”
(Dantzker et al., 1995, p. 50).

2.1.5. Research on Training and COP

In terms of research, it can be said that there are only a few studies directly
focused on the relationship between training and its effect on COP process, especially on
change in behaviors or attitudes of ofﬁcers toward COP (Cheurprakobkit, 2002; Dantzker
et al., 1995; Haarr, 2001; Rosenbaum et al., 1994; J. Zhao et al., 1999; J. Zhao et al.,
1995). Rosenbaum and associates (1994) examined changes in police ofﬁcers’ behaviors
and perceptions over a two year period of community policing activities in which they
were exposed to new COP training programs, organizational changes, and problem
solving related activities in Joliet, Illinois. They found positive changes in knowledge and
attitudes of ofﬁcers toward COP though they found few changes in ofﬁcers’ job
satisfaction (Rosenbaum et al., 1994). In 1995, Dantzker and his colleagues evaluated the
training for Chicago’s Alternative Policing Strategy (CAPS) in order to understand how
police ofﬁcers were prepared for community policing. The primary focus was on training
and methodologies used in the training division of Chicago police department. They
observed two types of training: orientation and skills building. Their results showed that

trainers were generally enthusiastic and knowledgeable. They also made some

25

recommendations (I mentioned above) on how to apply training for COP (Dantzker et al.,
1995).

In another study conducted in 1995, Zhao, Thurman & Lovrich examined
attitudes of police departments across the country toward community policing training
and education and they also examined obstacles to community policing implementation.
In terms of training, their results revealed that training is seen as a facilitator for
implementation of community policing by the departments. They also found that “the
higher a police agency’s interest in training and education, the greater the number of COP
programs they implement” (J. Zhao et al., 1995, p. 20). These authors strongly
emphasized that for successful implementation of community oriented policing
innovations, training of ofﬁcers was vital. In a similar study in 1999, these authors
showed that interest in community policing activities signiﬁcantly increased and
therefore, departments’ needs for community policing training had also intensiﬁed.

One of the few studies that examined the direct effect of training on attitudes of
police ofﬁcers toward community oriented policing is Haarr (2001). Haarr examined the
effect of basic training, ﬁeld training, and work environment on police recruits’ behaviors
and attitudes related to community oriented policing, problems solving policing, and
relationships between police and the public. She used panel design to survey 446 recruits
from 14 basic-training academy classes at the Phoenix Regional Police Training
Academy. In terms of theory, she followed Mastrofski and Ritti (1996) who found that
“even intense and high quality training may lose its force... once the ofﬁcers are exposed
to the powerﬁrl effects of everyday work and the occupational culture of their more

experienced colleagues” (Mastrofski & Ritti, 1996, p. 296). Similarly, Haarr (2001)

26

found that although the academy had a positive effect on police recruits’ attitudes related
to COP and problem solving, this positive effect disappeared after they were assigned
their police agencies in which they are exposed to the organizational culture and work
environment.

Finally, Cheurprakobkit (2002) also examined whether ofﬁcers’ acceptance of
community policing implementation was affected by community policing training. Their
results showed that ofﬁcers’ attitudes toward accepting community policing programs
were affected by training; “compared to those who did not receive training, officers who
attended the training strongly and signiﬁcantly agree to adopt and practice COP”

(Cheurprakobkit, 2002, p. 720).

2.2. TRAINING AND POLICE TRAINING

2.2.1. What is training?

Training is “a planned and systematic effort to modify or develop knowledge!
skill/ attitude through learning experience, to achieve effective performance in an activity
or range of activities” (Buckley & Caple, 2004, p. 5). This deﬁnition is general and
encompasses all kind of training activities. However, the focus in this study is training
related to the job or work environment. Through this perspective, training can be deﬁned
as “any formal and informal activity that contributes to an improvement in an employee’s
knowledge, skill, and attitude levels” (Lucas, 1994, p. 3). That is, in order for them to
achieve or perform tasks related to their work adequately, training enables employees to

acquire abilities (Buckley & Caple, 2004).

27

Lucas (1994) indicates that understanding the meaning of training is not easy;
therefore, when we deﬁne it, we Should look at what the training is not. According to
him, training is not a remedy for all performance problems; that is, even the best training
method may not change some employees who are unwilling or incapable to do a task or
job. Training is not a means for an employee to perfect task performance; rather
employees perfect their techniques on the job through experience knowledge or skills.
Training is not a way of compensating for poor supervision. Last, training is not easy;
that is, training programs should be viewed comprehensively and well-planned (Lucas,
1994)

One of the critical questions that can help to understand the meaning of training is
“is training same with education?” Sometimes education and training are used
interchangeably. However, this situation causes concept confusion. That is, it should be
known that education and training are two different concepts (Buckley & Caple, 2004;
Hackett, 1997; Lucas, 1994; McKenzie, 2002). Education is “a process and a series of
activities which aim at enabling an individual to assimilate and develop knowledge,
skills, values and understanding that are not simply related to a narrow ﬁeld of activity,
but allow a broad range of problems to be deﬁned, analyzed and solved” (Buckley &
Caple, 2004, p. 6). Basically, the aim in education is to open minds of individuals, and
the aim in training is to support speciﬁc tasks done by individuals (Hackett, 1997).
Training is related to Skills and attitudes; education is related to broad knowledge and
understanding (McKenzie, 2002). In the training process, we provide information and
rules on procedures; however, in education process, we contextualize knowledge to

provide the learners with a broad understanding of the “why(s)” (McKenzie, 2002).

28

 

Finally, training is more job or work oriented; education is more individual-oriented
(Buckley & Caple, 2004).

2.2.2. Importance of Training

Especially in the modern era, due to the technological, sociological, political
changes and innovations, the importance of training has been understood by most
organizations. To cope with new technological challenges, to increase quality and
productivity of their products, to continue their power, and even to subsist, many
organizations focus on training or re-training of their personnel (Gladstone & Ozaki,
1991). Those organizations also demand their workers to be loaded with the skills that
can help to reach their targets and to struggle with marketing or competitive challenges
(Mastrofski & Ritti, 1996). In addition to technological innovations and marketing
competitive, sociological trends, political reforms, and changes in organizational
perspectives also force the organizations to train and retrain their personnel. For example,
new laws and regulations require that organizations provide training about these issues to
their personnel.

2.2.3. Typologies of Training

Because the interest of this study is police training, it is logical to focus on job
training. O’Leary and his colleagues (2004) describe ﬁve types of job training. These
are: Occupational training, remedial training, classroom soft skills training,
postemployment training, and youth training programs (O'Leary, Straits, Wandner, &
Research, 2004). This study is mostly relevant to occupational training and also

postemployment training.

29

Occupational training: This type of training includes the Short term occupational
skill training which is important to increase job readiness. If it is provided in group
settings, it is called classroom or institutional training. Often, this involves on-the-job
training (OJT) provided in an experiential workplace context. The most basic example of
this training is learning through watching someone in the work environment.

Postemployment training: Postemployment training supports continued
employment and advancement in a speciﬁc occupational ﬁeld or speciﬁc job. This
training could combine classroom, related activities, and laboratory. Police in-service
training can be seen as postemployment training.

2.2.4. Training in Policing

Police organizations generally give more importance to training than education
(O'Rawe, 2005). Police training is a process in which ofﬁcers gain the skills required to
be able to achieve the tasks and goals of police duties (Kratcoski, 2004). In democratic
societies, the goal of police training is generally “the capacity to make situational
judgments which are in accord with democratic societal and legal norms and
expectations” (Marenin, 2004, p. 108). If this kind of training cannot be done in
democratic police organizations, organizational paralysis, ineffectiveness, misuse of
authority and undemocratic policing will occur (Marenin, 2004). Moreover, if it is needed
for efﬁcient and effective provision of domestic disputes, corruption/riot control, use of
force, drug enforcement, and COP, or if it is needed to improve the quality of police
work, then training is the essential tool (F eltes, 2002; Mastrofski & Ritti, 1996).

Efficiency of police training is also important. Peace (2005) says three highlighted

areas in order for effective police training. First, training of police should meet the needs

30

of a twenty-ﬁrst century police ofﬁcer. Second, training delivery should be consistent,
and whether the training is meeting its aims Should be evaluated. Third, training should
be related to ofﬁcer’s duty (Peace, 2005). The most common critique is that the topics
used in traditional police training curricula of the US. police only constitute 10 percent
of police performance that ofﬁcers spend on duty (Peace, 2005). That is, the traditional
police training is not much more related to what the police do in the real world.

As a result of the changes in society, the nature of police work also changed in the
21St century, and this changing has a strong effect on police education and training
(Kratcoski, 2004). This changing caused the need for improved and more police training.
Arguably, the most important change in policing in the 215‘t century is the “Community
Oriented Policing” approach. AS noted earlier, the move toward COP requires a vast
amount of contact between the ofﬁcers and community, and forces the police
organization to train their personnel on topics such as community policing philosophy,
problem solving, orientation to service, integrity, leadership, communication, decision
making, interpersonal skills, cultural awareness, coordination with other municipal
agencies, etc. (Birzer, 1999; Bradford & Pynes, 1999; Chappell, 2007 ; Marenin, 2004).

Marenin (2004) suggests that contemporary training of police ofﬁcers must be
holistic, realistic, integrated, and contextuated. Holistic training refers to a learning cycle
starting with a basic approach (including basic goals, roles and training philosophies),
followed by formal instruction, accepted by ofﬁcers, turning in to actions, and followed
by evaluations of performance. Realistic indicates that training needs to be attuned to the
realities and practicalities of police work. That is, it must focus on what the police

ofﬁcers are actually doing in their daily duties (Marenin, 2004). Thus, it is important to

31

analyze of workloads and daily routines before implementing realistic training.
Integrated indicates that training needs “to stress general and abstract notions of
democratic policing—or changing world requirements—and be oriented to the practical
matter and manner of police work simultaneously” (italics are added, Marenin, 2004, p.
114). Finally, contextuated points out that all issues related to policing occur within a
large social and international context. Therefore, most of what the police ofﬁcers learn
ﬁ‘om training also comes from this large context and role of the officers in this context.

2.2.5. Typologies of Police Training

Generally there are two kinds of training for police ofﬁcers: pre-service and in-

service trainings (McCoy, 2006). Some countries (such as the US.) also offer ﬁeld

training. In addition, informal learning of police ofﬁcers can be talked about.8

2.2.5.1. Pre-Service Training

In general, pre-service training can be deﬁned as police education and training
“followed by a several-month program of intensive physical conditioning, ﬁrearms use,
study of departmental regulations and procedures and of the law, crises intervention
techniques, and other topics” (Peterson, 1997, p. 19). In the US, this kind of training is
called formal police academy training (Marenin, 2004). In some studies, especially
related to community colleges, pre-service refers to a training process before the police
academy (Etter, 1998). However, in this study, pre-service training includes all trainings
prior to initial service.

The main pro-service training, police academy training, is responsible for

delivering basic police ofﬁcer training (Haarr, 2001). Academy training generally

 

8 .
This literature review part generally focuses on police training issues in the US. I will present how pol1ce
trained in Turkey context in chapter 111.

32

consists of military boot camp and preparation of academy students for the common
skills of policing (Chappell, 2007). Some of these common Skills are high-risk driving,
using ﬁrearms, and the mechanic of arrest. Academy training is the basic training of the
police.

2.2.5.2. Field Training

After the academy training, the rookies enter the police agencies where they will

I"

 

be working and go through another training program called Field Training (Chappell,
2007). Field training can be deﬁned as a process in which the new police recruits receive
formalized and on-the-job training ﬁ'om ﬁeld training ofﬁcers (FTOS) who are senior
personnel selected and trained specially (Chappell, 2007; Sun, 2003). In the ﬁeld training
process, new-graduated-police ofﬁcers learn to apply the skills and knowledge that they
learned in the police academy. This can be accepted as supplementing academy training.
Field training provides the opportunity to the new recruits to learn appropriate attitudes
toward police roles and tasks and they become permanent members of the police force
through meeting all the requirements (Sun, 2003). Field training depends on three
underlying assumptions (Sun, 2003): l) Policing techniques cannot be learned
exclusively in a classroom, 2) Knowledge and skills necessary to survive can be learned
from experienced and skilled police oﬂicers, and 3) Learning can occur indirectly
through imitation and reinforcement.

2.2.5.3. In-Service Training

In-service training can be deﬁned as training and professional development of

staff of an organization which is often sponsored by the employer and usually provided

33

during normal working hours.9 Clarke (2001) says that “In-service training within social
service agencies is recognized as a key means through which staff are provided with the
necessary knowledge and skills to improve overall agency performance and achieve the
objectives of social policy” (p. 757). From an organizational and management viewpoint,
the goal of in-service training is to increase efﬁciency, effectiveness; and work
motivation (Rainey, 2003). Although we may not observe immediate skill development at
the end of the in-service training programs, they might contribute to increasing
performance levels (Bayley & Bittner, 1984).

2.2.5.4. Informal Learning of Police

This is not one of the main typologies of police training. However, police ofﬁcers
are generally exposed to informal learning throughout their careers. “Informal learning is
a continuous and complex process for police ofﬁcers and occurs in very diverse settings”
(Birzer & Nolan, 2002, p. 245). AS noted above, police ofﬁcers face different kinds of
situations requiring assessing community needs, identifying problems, identifying
solutions, and implementing the solutions alternatives. It is clear that most of these skills
are not learned in ofﬁcial training programs and different situations may require different
skills. Therefore, many of these skills are learned informally when ofﬁcers are working
(Birzer & Nolan, 2002). Some studies indicate that informal learning in the work
environment of police may result in learning of sub-cultural attitudes and values of the
police (Ford, 2003). However, these sub-cultural attitudes may not be acceptable and can

result in unintended police behaviors such as violation of human rights and corruption

 

ht_tp://www.verongatafe.qld.govau/tools/glossary/glossarv i.shtml

34

2.3. TRAINING TECHNOLOGIES AND ONLINE LEARNING

2.3.1. Training Technologies

Like the other ﬁelds, training is also inﬂuenced by technology. Some
technological innovations such as microphone, speaker, projector, overhead projector, ,
computer, software (e. g. Power Point), video player, CD/DVD player, television, radio,
some video-conferencing systems, other media technologies, printed resources, internet,
network systems, satellite have great potential for teaching, training, and learning (Bates,
2005; Galusha, 1997).

For example, the most common approach to training is the stand-up presentation
or lecture that is used to transfer information from instructor to the students. Through
effective and appropriate presentation techniques, the stand-up presentation or lecture can
achieve this purpose effectively (Sullivan & McIntosh, 1996). Today, most instructors
use overhead projectors and Power Point presentations. When they present to large
groups, they can use microphones and speakers. When necessary, satellite, internet or
video conferencing can also be used with the lecture. All of these technological
innovations used in lecture are intended to facilitate the acquisition and learning process.

Moreover, advances in telecommunications technology have also provided the
opportunity for personal and group education, and learning in distance education and
training (Galusha, 1997). Therefore, one of the popular learning models of modern era is
distance learning. Distance learning is deﬁned as instruction received by learners who
are in a different physical location than the instructor (Caffarella, 2002; Fact-Sheet,
2003). That is, the distinctive characteristic of distance courses is that teacher and student

are geographically dispersed and there is a technologically based delivery system

35

(Murphy et al., 2007; Nelson, 1998). Furthermore, students’ set their own pace of study is
another key feature of distance learning programs (McKenzie, 2002). In the distance
learning process, satellite, videotape, web-based video streaming, video conference, cable
television, telephone conference calling, interactive television broadcasting, printed
resources, or other technologies can be used (Galusha, 1997; Killion, 2000; Nelson,

1998). I

The most important technique used in distance learning process is computer-based

A

A

1......

e-learning or online learning (M. Allen et al., 2004; Murphy et al., 2007). For
approximately 20 years, the rapid and signiﬁcant growth of the internet and its World
Wide Web (WWW) system has been providing incredible opportunities for learning.
During this time, internet and intranet resources have received important attention in the
corporate environment and among trainers (Trombley & Lee, 2002). As a result of this
interest, online learning is becoming a favored training option in industry, government,
and higher education (Sitzrnann et al., 2006).

2.3.2. Online Learning (Fl-Learning)

2.3.2.1. Deﬁnition of Online Learning

One of the obstacles to understand and analyze the online learning (e-learning) is
that there is no standardized deﬁnition of it. That is, although online learning or e-
leaming is frequently used as a term in the literature, there are various deﬁnitions about
what speciﬁcally constitutes e-learning. In some studies e-learning is deﬁned as “learning
that is delivered, enabled or mediated by electronic technology, for the explicit pmpose
of training in organizations” (Thombory, 2003, p. 1). In other studies the phrase

“electronic technology” is clariﬁed. For example, National Governors Association

36

Commission on Technology and Adult learning and the American Society for Training &
Development (ASTD) deﬁnes e-learning as “instructional content or learning experiences
delivered or enabled by electronic technology” (as cited in Trombley & Lee, 2002, pp.
137-138). The internet and intranet are listed as the main electronic technologies through
which learning is delivered. However, they also list CD-ROM and satellite-transmitted

° video as electronic technology delivering the learning. On the other hand, Hartley’s
(2001) e-learning deﬁnition includes internet, intranets, and other electronic networks by
which learning is enabled (as cited in Vries, 2005).

Vries (2005) indicates that e-learning is used worldwide in order to refer the use
of internet technologies for teaching and learning. He also presents some alternative
terms, such as tele-learning, tele-education, distance learning, web-based learning, and
online learning. He says that all of these terms refer to the use of network technology to
deliver education and training ﬁom one way to another (V ries, 2005). In this current
study, e-learning and online learning is used interchangeably to refer to learning that is
delivered and enabled through internet or networked computer systems.

2.3.2.2. Types of Online Learning

Thombory (2003) describes three types of online learning: a) web-based training,
b) supported online learning, and c) informal e-learning. Both web-based training and
supported online learning are formal learning. In web-based training, interaction with
tutor is minimized and there is no collaboration with other learners. This type of online
learning includes individual learning, it generally focuses on content and it is delivery-
driven. Supported online learning focuses on learner more than content, and it is activity-

driven instead of delivery-driven. In supported online learning, importance is given to

37

small-group learning, there is signiﬁcant interaction with instructor, and there is
considerable interaction with other learners. The opposite of these two types of online
learning, informal e-Iearning, is generally practice-driven and organizational learning. It
falls under the concept of life-long learning (LLL) and professional development. In this
type of learning, the focus is on group, participants act as learners and tutors, and there is
multi-way interactions among participants (Thombory, 2003)

2.3.2.3. Online Learning Methods

Synchronous, asynchronous, and blended are the primary methods used within
online learning processes (Trombley & Lee, 2002; Waggoner & Christenberry, 1997;
Welsh, Wanberg, Brown, & Simmering, 2003). In synchronous online learning method,
both the instructor and the learners are all online concurrently, and there is an interaction
among them on real time basis. For example, audio and video conferencing, chat-rooms,
and instant messaging are synchronous online learning methods. On the other hand, it can
be said that most of the online learning is asynchronous in nature (Welsh et al., 2003).
Asynchronous online learning does not require any participant interaction and it is done
in a totally self-paced learning environment. However, there can be still non-real-time
interaction. For example, bulletin boards, discussion groups, and email are non-real-time
interaction methods. Online learning can be also presented in different combinations of
synchronous and asynchronous methods known as blended learning (e. g. hybrid courses)
(Trombley & Lee, 2002; Welsh et al., 2003).

2.3.2.4. Learner & Role of Instructor in Online Learning

Because of the main characteristics of online learning, learners of online learning

classes are generally different ﬁ'om traditional students. Therefore, they can be called

38

non-traditional students (Summers, Alexander, & Whittaker, 2005). Non-traditional
students are less able to take face-to-face courses than traditional students due to jobs,
family obligations, age, health problems, etc. These students are generally seeking time
and place convenience in learning and they want to control their learning pace and
process; therefore, they prefer online learning. ._ 1.1

On the other side, instructors of online learning classes are unique due to their
role in online learning environment. In their studies, Heuer & King (2004) examine the
perceptions of 324 educators/participants, who attended the online Anytime Anywhere
Learning Professional Development School (AALPDS). The results reveal that the roles
of online instructors are multidimensional, active and evolving during an online course.
Participations of this research expected that the instructor of online learning classes to act
as l) a planner, 2) a role model, 3) a coach, 4) a facilitator, and 5) a communicator (Heuer
& King, 2004).

2.3.3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Online Learning

2.3.3.1. Advantages

It is clear that learners of online courses can be offered high independence, greater
productivity, and new experiences (King, 1998). Advocates of online learning point to
ﬁve advantages: convenience, ﬂexibility, accessibility, worldwide training, and cost
advantage (Killion, 2000; Murphy et al., 2007; Sitzmann et al., 2006; Thombory, 2003;
Trombley & Lee, 2002).

Convenience generally includes time and place convenience. That is, learners can
join online learning classes when ever and where ever they want (Trombley & Lee,

2002). Moreover, learners no longer have to attend a lecture only for one Speciﬁc time;

39

they can review a lecture several times in online environment (Napier, 2005). In addition
to learners, instructors also have some convenience due to online learning. For example,
online learning increases instructors’ ability to track learner activities and mastery of
material through online exams, quizzes, learner proﬁle, etc (Welsh et al., 2003).

In terms of ﬂexibility, through online learning, ﬂexible programs can be provided
and offered to the learners with different learning levels or with different individual needs
(Thombory, 2003). Online learning is also accessible; it provides learners easy access to
other resources, materials, and subject experts (Thombory, 2003; Trombley & Lee,
2002). Because of reduced-cost and high-rate of data transmission ability of computer
and internet technologies, it has also become more accessible to a wider population
(Murphy et al., 2007). In terms of its worldwide training advantage, online learning is
especially important for big public and private organizations which have a lot of sub-
units and personnel working in different parts of the country and world. These kinds of
organizations have a strong need to deliver consistent training across multiple locations
and to many people quickly (Welsh et al., 2003). Since there is not any limitation in
terms of instructor and classroom capacity, more people can be trained simultaneously
and in less time through online learning.

The other potential advantage of online learning is cost. Actually, initial
development of an online learning class is generally more expensive than the
classroom training (Thomas, Carswell, Price, & Petre, 1998; Welsh et al., 2003).
However, after the development of the online learning class, it is cheaper than
classic classroom learning if courses are repeated several time, if a lot of learners

attend the courses, if learners work or live in different places (Welsh et al., 2003).

40

2.3.3.1. Disadvantages

The ﬁrst mentioned disadvantage of the online learning is lack of interaction.
Direct interaction between student and teacher observed generally in face-to-face classes
is very beneﬁcial and important in a learning environment (Brown & Liedholm, 2002).
However, especially for asynchronous online classes, interaction with peers and
instructor may be low. Some believe that lack of interaction decreases the attractiveness
of online learning (as cited in Welsh et al., 2003).

In addition, readiness for online learning such as lack of computer and internet
knowledge and skills (at least basic level) (Galusha, 1997), security problems relevant to
the internet (T rombley & Lee, 2002), hidden costs including the expense of inﬁ'astructure
and routine maintenance (Killion, 2000), limit to accessibility to a particular
technological platform, computer, or internet (Creedy et al., 2007 ; Murphy et al., 2007),
and lack of support and services providing tutors, academic planners/ schedulers, and
technical assistance (Galusha, 1997) are also seen as the main disadvantages of the online
learning.

2.3.4. Effectiveness of Online Learning

Studies focusing on effectiveness of online learning found mixed results. Brown
and Liedholrn (2002) examined performance of students in three different modes of
instruction (face-to-face, hybrid, and online) in Principles of Microeconomics courses at
Michigan State University. Their results showed that there was no signiﬁcant difference
in predicted scores of the students across these three modes of interaction when
measuring basic level understanding of students. However, in the exams requiring the

deepest understanding, their results showed that the scores of students in face-to-face

41

class were Signiﬁcantly better than the scores of students in online class (Brown &
Liedholm, 2002).

In a meta-analytical study on distance education including online learning, Zhao
et al. (2005) attempted to identify factors affecting the effectiveness of this kind of
learning. After the examination of 51 scientiﬁc studies on this issue, their results
suggested that there was no signiﬁcant difference between distance learning and face-to-
face learning in terms of effectiveness on learning.

In another meta-analytical study, Sitzrnann et al. (2006) focused on effectiveness
of Web-based instruction (WBI) relative to classroom instruction (CI) for teaching
declarative and procedural knowledge. Whereas they deﬁned declarative knowledge as
“trainees’ memory of the facts and principles taught in training and the relationship
among knowledge elements”, they deﬁned procedural knowledge as “information about
how to perform a task or action” (Sitzmann et al., 2006, p. 627). Examining 96 studies
(including published, unpublished, and dissertations), Sitzmann et al (2006) found that
web-based instruction was 6 percent more effective than classroom instruction for
teaching declarative knowledge. However, their results did not show any signiﬁcant
difference between WBI and CI in terms of effectiveness for teaching procedural
knowledge. Moreover, Sitzrnann et al (2006) found that when the same instructional
methods (such as lecture, reading textbooks, assignments, group discussion, etc.) were
used to deliver training, effectiveness of WBI on learning declarative knowledge
disappeared. More speciﬁcally, students learned the same amount of declarative
knowledge ﬁ'om WBI and CI. As a result, they suggested that “instructional methods

rather than delivery media determine learning outcomes” (ibid., p. 654).

42

Finally, Creedy and her colleagues examined undergraduate nursing students’
perceptions of learning environment enhanced by web, their computer knowledge, skills,
and use of technology, and how their satisfaction were affected by these factors (Creedy
et al., 2007). Their results revealed that students had positive and signiﬁcant satisfaction
of web-enhanced learning environment. However, these perceptions are affected in part
by students’ computer literacy Skills and use of technology (Creedy et al., 2007).

2.3.5. Use of Training Technologies and Online Learning in Police Training

Although there are many studies focusing on training technologies and online
learning in general, there are few studies related to online training of the police.

2.3.5. 1. Training Technologies Used In Police Training

Police training has also been inﬂuence by technological innovations. For example,
due to low cost and higher availability of microcomputer technology, different kinds of
virtual reality driving simulators (VRDSS) have been developed (Olsen, 1995). This
technology can be used in different areas of the police training such as driver training,
and emergency vehicle operations.

The other technological innovation used in police training is a scenario-based
training model utilizing cost-effective, dialogue-driven, interactive video technology
(T ootell, Graham, & Baiguerra, 2003). Through realistic simulations of scenarios,
multimedia scenario-based training provides opportunities to the students “to develop
time-critical decision making skills and improve judgment in a virtual environment”
(Tootell et al., 2003, p. 1).

Videoconferencing is another technological innovation used in police training

(especially in distance training of the police). For example, by using a videoconferencing

43

system, the police detectives and the forensic experts can produce a live, two-way
training session in which they focus on a real criminal events though they are far away
ﬁ'om each other (Waggoner & Christenberry, 1997).

An additional technological innovation is the Law Enforcement Training Network
(LETN) which provides opportunities to its subscribers to provide a variety of training I.
and educational programs related to law enforcement topics. Another initiative is the I
Online Police Academy (OPA) organized by Millersville University of Pennsylvania.
OPA eliminates the limited number of qualiﬁed instructors and links trainees and
instructors from all over the world. Furthermore, the FBI provides Law Enforcement
Satellite Training Network (F BITN) using satellite technology to present teleconferences
on different kinds of criminal justice topics, and Law Enforcement Online (LEO), which
provides ﬁ'ee opportunities to law enforcement ofﬁcers to conduct research, take course
online, and communicate with peers (Waggoner & Christenberry, 1997)

2.3.5.2. Online Learning for Police Training

Like the other organizations, interest of police organizations in online training has
been also increasing. The reason for this increasing interest is similar to the reasons of the
other types of organizations. As discussed earlier, these include:

1- Online training may be considered a more cost-effective training method when
compared with traditional face-to-face training (J ang, 2005; see also McKenzie,
2002)

2- Online training programs may allow the police to meet changing topics and

expectations (Napier, 2005).

44

3- Online training programs can allow police to address the challenges of rotating
shifts and the time demands of command staff (McKenzie, 2002; Napier, 2005).

4- Because of work load, limited time for training, long distance of training centers,
limited classrooms in training environment, all personnel cannot attend continuous
and systematic training programs. However, in an online training environment,
there is no class or time limitation; ofﬁcers can attend where and when they want.
Therefore, online training programs can reach a wider range of ofﬁcers (J ang,
2005).

2.3.5.3. Some Studies Related to Online Police Training and Eﬂectiveness of It

As mentioned before, there are few published scientiﬁc studies focusing on online
learning and implication of it in police training. Therefore, it can be said that in terms of
scientiﬁc research this area is unexplored. Here three of the exceptional studies related to
online police training are presented.

In 2005, Jang attempted to provide information about the current status of in-
service training in Texas law enforcement agencies and to review law enforcement
agencies’ perception about distance learning methods including online learning. Forty
municipal departments, six Sheriff’s ofﬁces, and the Texas Department of Public Safety
participated in this study. 10 A survey instrument including questions related to in-service
training policies in general, cost issues, training priorities and perceptions of the
participants about distance learning methods for in-service training was used. The results
showed that 87 percent of the agencies did not have any plan to organize distance

learning; 94 percent of respondents indicated that if same program was offered through

 

10
There was no any clear explanation about selection process of the sample.

45

distance or online learning method as well as traditional method, the ofﬁcers of their
agencies would prefer traditional training methods. In terms of perception of the
effectiveness of online training, unlike studies of the effectiveness of online learning in
different disciplines, 68 percent of the respondents emphasized that online in-service
training was inferior to traditional face-to-face training (However, the author did not
discuss why majority of the respondents did not believe in effectiveness of the online
learning). Only 28 percent indicated that online learning as effective as its traditional
face-to-face counterpart, and even among these the perceptions of online learning were
still negative. To sum up, J ang (2005) showed that the perception of in-service training
through online learning perspectives remained negative, and traditional training methods
were strongly preferred. However, this study was an exploratory study with a small
sample size.

The other major research was conducted by Schmeeckle (2003) and consisted of
two studies. The general goal the researcher was to provide a large evaluation of online
training in a speciﬁc context other than nonacademic population. The aim of the ﬁrst
study was to evaluate the efﬁciencies and effectiveness of online training compared to
traditional classroom training with Jail Management trainees in the Nebraska Law
Enforcement Training Center. This study was conducted through an experimental design
in which participants were assigned to either online or face-to-face training randomly. In
order to measure efﬁciencies, the researcher used time and cost calculations of both
training programs. In order to measure instructional effectiveness, learning, motivation,
and attitudes of the participants were used. The results of this study showed that there

was no difference between online and traditional learning in terms of effectiveness;

46

 

online learning was as effective as traditional learning. This study also showed that online
learning was more efﬁcient than traditional learning (Schmeeckle, 2003).

In the second study, Schmeeckle experimentally tested certain elements of the
online training—especially the type of media employed. The online training groups were
divided into three groups: text only, audio with text, and video with the text. In contrast
to theory indicating that multiple video enhances learning, motivation, and attitudes of
students in learning environment, the results of the second study showed that there were
no differences in participants test scores if they received training with text only, video
with the text, and audio with the text (Schmeeckle, 2003).

Finally, Peyne (2002) attempted to evaluate web-based training as an alternative
to the traditional training. Speciﬁcally, the purpose of the study was to understand
whether there is any difference between these two methods in terms of cognitive gain
(learning). Peyne focused on a hate crime identiﬁcation and scoring course organized by
the FBI’S Uniform Crime Reporting Program. This course was taught through two
different methods of delivery, online and face-to-face. Participants were both civilian and
sworn law enforcement personnel. The researcher used a pretest posttest control group
design. The results revealed that there was no signiﬁcant difference between online and
traditional training in terms of participants’ cognitive gains. Moreover, students were
equally satisﬁed with both instruction methods (Pyne, 2002).

In sum, although Jang’s study revealed that police organizations had negative
perceptions of online in-service training programs and traditional training methods were

strongly preferred, Schmeeckle (2003) and Peyne (2002) showed that there was no

47

difference between online and traditional learning in terms of effectiveness on ofﬁcers’

learning and supported the use of online learning in law enforcement training.

2.4. ADULT LEARNING

2.4.1. Adult Learners

It is clear that police ofﬁcers are adult learners. Some important characteristics or
attributes of the adults are self-directedness (autonomous and independent), having
experience (rich learning source), awareness of what they should do something and why,
having different motivations (such as making more money, getting promotion, self-
development, etc.), being problem-centered (their orientation is centered on their daily
problems), and in terms of learning, voluntary participation (Kerka, 2002; Knowles,
1990; Merriam et al., 2007). All of these characteristics are important in the process of
helping adults learn. These characteristics of adults also Show to what extent the adult
learners are different than learners who are children or youth. For example, during the
learning process, children are dependent upon the teacher (or parents) (Knowles, 1990);
thus, their learning process is teacher centered. They have limited experiences. Because
of this, children do not have opportunity to combine new learning materials with the
previous experiences in order to improve learning ability. Children are also ready to learn
based on age level, their orientation to learn focus on a subject matter, and through
external rewards and punishments, they are motivated to learning (Kerka, 2002).
Consequently, it can be said that the major differences between adults and children are
that adults have rich experiences enhancing their learning process; they are self directed

(that is, their learning process is learner-centered); their motivations are not only external

48

but also internal (Knowles, 1990), and they have capacity of critical thinking that
facilitate transforrnative learning of adults (V aske, 2001, as cited in Kerka, 2002).

2.4.2. Theories and Models on How Adults Learn

Learning can be deﬁned as a change in an individual as a result of interaction with
that individual and his/her environment; the individual acquires habits, knowledge, and
attitudes, and he/she can ﬁll his needs and feel his/her self capable of dealing adequately
with his environment (Burton, 1963, as cited in Knowles, 1990).

There are many learning theories related to adults. Some of the most popular adult
learning theories and models include andragogy theory, self-directed learning theory,
transforrnative learning theory, and experiential learning models. Because theoretical
approach of this study is mostly grounded in self-directed learning, self-directed learning
approaches will be examined separately and comprehensively.

2. 4.2. 1. Andragogy

Andragogy is a term used for theory of adult learning in order to differentiate it
from the pedagogy, theory of youth learning (Knowles, 1990). Although this term had
been used in European literature to refer the adult learning, as a concept, andragogy was
ﬁrst introduced into the American literature with Knowles’ article “Androgogy, not
Pedgogy” in 1968. Depending on this term, Knowles formulated an‘adult learning theory
(Knowles, 1990; see also Rachal, 2002). Andragogy theory focuses on factors that
inﬂuence or shape the nature of the adult learning process. These factors include being
autonomous, independent, and self-directed; prior experiences; being ready to learn;

being problem-centered, intrinsically motivated and volunteering (Kerka, 2002). Based

49

 

on these attributes, Knowles (1980, 1984) advances six assumptions of the adult learning

theory:

1-

AS a person matures, his or her self-concept moves from that of a
dependent personality toward one of a self-directing human being.

An adult accumulates a growing reservoir of experience, which is a rich
resource for learning.

The readiness of an adult to learn is closely related to the develOpmental
tasks of his or her social role.

There is a change in time perspective as people mature-ﬁom future
application of knowledge to immediacy of application. Thus, an adult is
more problem centered than subj ect-centered in learning.

The most potent motivations are internal rather than external.

Adults need to know why they need to learn something. (as cited in
Merriam et al., 2007, p. 84)

What we understand ﬁ'om these assumptions is that because adults are aware of

what they need to know and why, they can direct their learning process; that is, adult

learning process is self-directed and experiential. In addition, experiences of adults make

them ready to learn; adults become ready to learn how they can deal with the real-life

events. For example, in high school, student do not ready to learn how they can earn

money, how to establish marital relationship, but aﬁer graduation they most probably

become ready. Moreover, in terms of orientation, it can be said that adults try to learn

what can help them to solve their problems or to do their tasks. Finally, adult learners

50

commonly have internal motivators such as quality of life, self-esteem, and j ob-
satisfaction (Knowles, 1990).

The problem is that, although this theory has been most popular and primary
model for adult learning for approximately 40 years, in terms of testing the validity of its
assumptions or usefulness in predicting behavior of adult learners, little empirical study
has been conducted (Merriam et al., 2007). Rachal (2002) examined eighteen studies
related to andragogy conducted from 1984 to 2001. This paper showed that most of these
studies had tried to evaluate the effectiveness of andragogy comparing it with pedagogy.
In terms of satisfaction, achievement, and attendance, the results of these studies were
mixed (Rachal, 2002).

2. 4.2. 2. Experiential Learning

As Lindeman (1926) said, "experience is the adult learners living textbook" (as
cited in S. Brookﬁeld, 1995). According to Dirkx and Lavin (1991) “learning takes place
within the crucible of our life experiences and cannot be separated from them” (p. 7).
This learning is done in a variety of ways. Merriam at al. (2007) depict these ways:
people learn “as the result of a direct embodied experience that engaged them mentally,
physically, emotionally in the moment. . .leam(ing) ﬁom a simulated experiences or
reliving a past experience. . .people may make sense of their experience through
collaboration with others in a community” (p. 159). Because people face new
experiences every time, naturally previous experiences contribute to understanding and
learning of new experiences; therefore, learning is grounded in experience and it is a
continuous process (Kolb, 1984). Although there are various theoretical perspectives, the

central issue in these theories is that “learning ﬁ'om experience involves adults’

51

connecting what they have learned ﬁom current experiences those in the past as well to
possible future situations” (Merriam et al., 2007, p. 185).

Kolb & Fry (1975) argue that learning occurs in a cycle. This cycle includes four
different abilities or steps, and learning can begin at any of these steps. This cycle
includes concreting of experience after or during the learning process of a topic, making
reﬂective observation on this experience under the light of new knowledge, abstracting
the concepts come out ﬁ'om the experiences, and trying to apply or think to apply how
these concepts can be implemented in a new situation (as cited in M. K. Smith, 1996).

2. 4. 2. 3. T ransformative Learning Theory

“Transformative learning occurs when individuals change their ﬂames of
reference by critically reﬂecting on their assumptions and beliefs and consciously making
and implementing plans that bring about new ways of deﬁning their worlds” (Imel, 1998,
p. 1). Transformative learning theory was ﬁrst introduced by Jack Mezirow in 1978
(Irnel, 1998). Mezirow’s Transformative learning process consists of four main
components: experience, critical reﬂection, reﬂective discourse, and action. This theory is
also grounded in theory of social knowledge and the related notion of emancipatory
learning. Emancipatory learning includes self-reﬂection. The emancipator approach
emphasizes that transforrnative learning is a self-directed learning process. Cranton
(1996) supports this idea when she discusses professional development as transfonnative
learning. She says “becoming self-directed learners of our practice can involve
reconsidering and perhaps changing our beliefs and assumptions about education: in

other words it can be transforrnative learning” (Cronton, 1996, p. l 10).

52

r 4- .... ‘

Experience is also most important in transforrnative learning. As human beings
and adults, we have a lot of experiences and meaning perspectives formed through these
experiences that shape our perceptions of ourselves, others, and our Surroundings. And,
these past experiences shape the way in which we assimilates new experiences (Cronton,
1996). However, to achieve transfonnative learning, having the experience is not enough;
we should make reﬂection on these experiences and our meaning perspectives. This is
critical reﬂection in transforrnative learning. That is, “the learner must critically self-
exarnine the assumptions and beliefs that have structured how the experience has been
interpreted” (Merriam et al., 2007, p. 134). However, not all reﬂections leads to
transforrnative learning; according to the result of critical reﬂection, our perspective on
practice can be changed or we conﬁrm current practice (Cronton, 1996). It is seen that
SDL, learning ﬁom experience and reﬂection (critical reﬂection) are also important in
our understanding of learning as transformative.

In addition, transformative learning includes two more elements, reﬂective
discourse and action. Discourse can be deﬁned as a conscientious effort in order to ﬁnd
agreement to build a new perception or understanding (Merriam et al., 2007). “Discourse
can occur in one-to-one relationships, in groups, and in formal educational settings” (ibid.
, p. 134). The last component of transforrnative learning is action which may include
immediate action, delayed action, or reasoned reafﬁrrnation of an existing pattern of
action. The range of action is very broad in transforrnative learning; it is ﬁom making
decision about something to engaging in radical political protest (Merriam et al., 2007).

To sum up, it is seen that that the emphasis on andragogy, experiential and

transforrnative learning all relate to the overall theme of self-directed learning.

53

2.5. SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING

In the adult education ﬁeld, self-directed learning (SDL) has been accepted as a
very important area of study (Beswick, Chuprina, Canipe, & Cox, 2002). Since Allen
Tough’s book called “The Adult ’s Learning Project” published in 1971 and Knowles’
works in 1971 and 1975, SDL has drawn attention of researchers and writers not only
from the ﬁeld of adult education but also ﬁ'om outside of the ﬁeld (Merriam et al., 2007;
O'Shea, 2003). Even today, many education and training sectors (e. g. public schools,
colleges, universities) indicate that one of their primary goals is to make their students or
trainees self-directed lifelong learners (Merriam et al., 2007). Since early studies of SDL,
researchers have attempted to establish conceptual models, to identify personal attributes
and characteristics of self-directed learners, to deﬁne goals of SDL, and to determine how
the SDL process should be (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991; Candy, 1991; Garrison, 1997;
Grow, 1991; L. M. Guglielmino, 1977; Knowles, 1975; Oddi, 1986). Although it ﬁrst
occurred as an assumption used to deﬁne one characteristic of adult learners, SDL is now
a distinct area of scholarship.

2.5.1. Deﬁnition of Self-directed Learning

Although SDL has long been used as a term, there is no single deﬁnition of it.
Even some indicate that if we try to capture the essence of SDL in a single deﬁnition, this
may be a misconception (Kerka, 1999). It can be said that the concept of SDL can be
seen in different deﬁnitions and in different formats in adult learning literature.

The ﬁrst comprehensive deﬁnition of the SDL is Tough’s (1971) deﬁnition.
According to Tough, SDL is a form of study called as self-planned learning (Tough,

1971). Tough deﬁnes self-planned learning as a project in which “the learner himself is

54

responsible for most of these day-to-day decisions and arrangements, especially the
decisions about what and how to learn in each episode” (pp. 93-94).

It can be said that in the literature, the most common deﬁnition of SDL is
Malcolm Knowles’ deﬁnition. Although he showed self-directedness of adult as one
assumption of his andragogy theory, Knowles also examined self-directed learning

separately in his book “Self-Directed Learning” in 1975. According to Knowles, self-

directed learning is a process in which “individuals take the initiative, with or without the
help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying
human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate
learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes” (Knowles, 1975, p. 18). In his
theoretical approach, Knowles shows teacher-directed learning as opposite of SDL.

Some scholars have critical approaches to the previous deﬁnition of SDL (S.
Brookﬁeld, 1985; Mezirow, 1985). According to Brookﬁeld (1985), SDL had become the
goal and method of adult education because of a number of doubtful propositions (e. g.,
adults are self-directed, and continuing education should be concerned with developing
adults’ powers of self-direction etc.). But, he didn’t reject the importance of SDL in the
adult learning process. Brookﬁeld deﬁnes SDL as a cognitive process in which reﬂection
and action has importance; through these reﬂection and action, an individual can learn the
way of changing his/her perspectives, changing his paradigms, and replacing his way of
how to interpret the world (S. Brookﬁeld, 1986). Like Brookﬁeld, Mezirow also has
critical approach to previous deﬁnition of the SDL. According to him, SDL is not only
application of some techniques but also adults’ capacity and capability for critical self

reﬂection and for shifting their lives (Mezirow, 1985).

55

In their deﬁnition, Brockett & Hiemstra (1991, p. 24) indicates that SDL is
comprised of two distinct dimensions: the process in which “a learner assumes primary
responsibility for planning, implementing, and evaluating the learning process”, and
personality aspect (that is, learner self-direction) which “centers on a learner’s desire or
preference for assuming responsibility for learning”. That is, these authors indicate that
characteristics of the instruction of learning environment and individual characteristics of
the learner constitute SDL (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991, p. 24). Finally, Candy (1991)
points out that SDL includes both dimensions of product and process. In his deﬁnition,
there are four elements: personal autonomy, self-management, learner control, and
autodidaxy. Personal autonomy refers to SDL as a personal attribute; Self-management
refers to the willingness and capacity to conduct one’s own education; learner control
refers to self-direction as a mode of organizing instruction in formal settings; and
autodidaxy refers to non-institutional pursuit of learning opportunities in the natural
social settings (Candy, 1991).

2.5.2. Theoretical Orientation of Self-Directed Learning

The existing theoretical endeavors and models of SDL depends on four theoretical
orientations (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991; Candy, 1991; Owen, 2002): humanism,
behaviorisrn, constructivism, and critical perspectives.

Most of the adult learning theories, such as andragogy, transforrnative learning,
and self-directed learning theories depends on humanistic orientation (Merriam et al.,
2007). In humanist orientation, learning is considered ﬁom “ the perspective of the
human potential for growth” (Merriam et al., 2007 , p. 281). Assumptions underlying

humanistic orientation can be summarized as follows (Elias & Merriam, 1980; as cited in

56

Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991, pp. 124—125): “1- Human nature is inherently good; 2-
individuals are ﬁ'ee and autonomous. . .; 3- each person is a unique individual with
unlimited potential for growth and development; 4- self-concept. . .is an important
inﬂuence on growth and development; 5- individuals possess an urge toward self-
actualization, the highest level of personal growth; 6- personality deﬁned realities play an
especially important role in humanistic thought; and 7- individuals possess a sense of
responsibility to themselves and others.”

The second orientation that has an effect on the SDL ﬁeld is behaviorism
(Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991; Owen, 2002). There are three basic assumptions of
behaviorist orientation related to the process of learning: 1- behavioral change make

obvious learning, 2- environmental elements determine learning, and 3- in explanation of

learning process contiguity and reinforcement11 are central (Merriam et al., 2007).

According to Brockett & Hiemstra (1991) two practices rooted in behaviorism are

valuable to SDL: learning contracts and the systematic instructional planning process. 12
The third orientation underlying self-directed learning is constructivism. The basic
assumption of constructivism is that “learning is a process of constructing meaning; it is
how people make sense of their experience” (Merriam et al., 2007, p. 291). The central
issue in constructivism is the idea assuming that individuals are self-constructing, and

through the implementation of their personal worldview, they can reconstruct their

 

l
1 Contiguity refers “how close in time two events must be for a bond to be formed” and reinforcement
refers “any means of increasing the likelihood that an event will be repeat ” (Merriam, Caﬂ'arella, &

Bzaumgartner, 2007, p. 278)
Learning contracts is deﬁned as a written plan. In this plan, what a person will learn as a result of some

identiﬁed learning activities is described. Shortly, “learning contracts make it possible to individualize the
teaching-learning process” (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991, p. 223), and it helps to facilitate and promote self-
directed learning. On the other Side, systematic instructional planning or design process refer to planning of
instructional process previously, this systematic plan is generally comprised of four main phases“ initiating,
planning, managing, and evaluating (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991, p. 106).

57

circumstances (Candy, 1991). Constructivism is compatible with the notion of SDL
because “it emphasizes the combined characteristics of active inquiry, independence, and
individuality in a learning task” (Candy, 1991, p. 278).

The last orientation is critical approach. According to those who are advocates of
this orientation, SDL should be seen in the ﬁeld of emancipatory adult education, and the
aim of SDL is to increase individual’s consciousness and critical awareness (S.
Brookﬁeld, 1991; Hammond & Collins, 1991; Mezirow, 1985). Mezirow (1985)
mentions three interrelated ﬁmctions of adult learning: instrumental learning, dialogic
learning, and self-reﬂective learning. In the self-reﬂective learning deﬁnition, Mezirow
says that individuals reorganize the old meaning scheme or perspective and incorporate
new insights. He, then, calls this as perspective transformation in his theory of
transformative learning (Mezirow, 1991) . Brookﬁeld (1991) also focuses on critical self-
reﬂection. He mentions three interrelated phases constituting critical reﬂection:
identiﬁcation of assumptions of individuals’ thoughts and actions, comparison of
accuracy of these assumptions with their experiences of reality, and making these
assumptions more inclusive and integrative, reconstitution of them (S. Brookﬁeld, 1991).

2.5.3. Theoretical Approaches of SDL & the PRO Model

Depending on Merriam et al. (2007) and Merriam (2001), theoretical approaches
and models of SDL can be examined under three categories: according to their
perspective about goal of SDL, their focus on process and application of SDL, and their

focus on self-direction as a personal attribute of learners. It is necessary to mention that

one theoretical approach or model can be in more than one category. 13

 

1
3 The PRO model is examined in section 2.5.3.4.

58

2.5.3.1. Goal of Self-Directed Learning

There are three main goals of SDL mentioned in the literature: enhancing the
ability of adult learners so that they can be self-directed in their learning, fostering
transfonnational learning as central to self directed learning, and promoting emancipatory
learning (Merriam et al., 2007). According to the theoretical approaches based on
humanistic orientation, the goal of self-directed learning is to develop the learners’
capacity to be self-directed (Merriam, 2001). The assumption of the goal of enhancing
the ability of adult learners is that facilitator’s (trainer) responsibility is to help learners so

that they can learn themselves in their training programs and they can plan, achieve, and

evaluate their learning process (Merriam et al., 2007).14 Tough’s (1971) self-planned
learning approach, Knowles’ (1975) SDL approach, and Bockett & Hiemstra’s (1991)
PRO model see the goal of SDL as enhancing the self-direction ability of adult learners.
On the Contrary, theoretical approaches from critical orientation advocate that the
goal of self-directed learning is fostering transformational learning and promoting
emancipatory learning. Fostering transformational learning is related to critical self-
reﬂection which can lead important personal transformations (Mezirow, 1997). Critical
self-reﬂection can he basically deﬁned as reﬂection on previous or current experiences
and our meaning perspectives (Cronton, 1996). According to the theoretical approaches
under this category, transformational learning helps individuals to understand themselves,

and the critical reﬂection component of transformational learning is also the foundation

 

14
This is an appropriate assumption for training programs which are delivered online because of the nature

of the online learning environment. For example, generally in online training programs, participants do not
have to take a course in a speciﬁc time; they have to plan their learning process. Moreover, they are
generally alone; so, they should know how to learn themselves.

59

of promoting emancipatory learning and social action (Merriam et al., 2007), which is the
third goal of SDL.

2.5.3.2. Self-Directed Learning as a Process

Some theoretical approaches and models see the SDL as a process. Knowles’
(1975) deﬁnition of SDL mentioned above guides for those approaches. There are a
number of theoretical models produced by regarding the SDL as a process. These models
can be examined under three categories (Merriam et al., 2007): linear, interactive, and
instructional models.

Linear models: Linear models are early models and indicate that SDL is linear in >
nature. The assumption of the linear model proposed by Tough (1971) and Knowles
(1975) is that in order to reach their learning goals, adult learners move through a serious
of steps in a self-directed manner (as cited in Merriam et al., 2007). Tough’s model is
comprised of 13 preparatory steps for self-directed (or self-planned) learning. These are:
l- deciding detailed knowledge and skill, 2- deciding activities, materials, resources, and
equipment for learning, 3- deciding where to learn, 4- setting speciﬁc deadlines or
intermediate goals, 5- deciding when to learn, 6- deciding the pace, 7- estimating level or
progress, 8- detecting blocks and inefﬁciencies, 9- obtaining or reaching resources or
equipment, 10- preparing a room or other physical conditions, 11- obtaining money, 12-
ﬁnding time for the learning, and 13- increasingly motivation or dealing with
motivational blocks (Tough, 1971, pp. 116-117). Knowles’ (1975) model, on the other
side, is comprised of seven steps: 1- climate setting; 2- planning; 3- diagnosing needs for
learning; 4- setting goals; 5- designing a learning plan; 6- engaging in learning activities;

7- evaluating learning outcomes (Knowles, 1975, pp. 34-37 and 40-41).

60

Interactive models: Opposite of linear models, interactive models Show that SDL
process is not linear and well planned. The assumption of interactive models is that
episodes of self-directed learning are interacted with some factors, such as personal
characteristics of learners, opportunities found in learners’ environment, context of
learning, and cognitive process (Merriam et al., 2007). The PRO model examined later
can be given as an example for this type of models.

Instructional Models: This type of models represents “frameworks that instructors
in formal settings could use to integrate self-directed methods of learning into their
programs and activities” (Merriam et al., 2007, p. 117). One of the most popular
instructional models is Grow’s (1991) Staged Self-Directed Learning model (SSDL).
Proposition of SSDL is that “learners advance through stages of increasing self-direction
and that teachers can help or hinder that development. Good teaching matches the
leamer’s stage of self-direction and helps the learner advance toward greater self-
direction” (Grow, 1991, p. 125). The SSDL model outlines how instructors or trainers
can help learners to become more self-directed in their learning environment. In this
model there are four stages of learners: a) dependent learner, b) interested learner, c)
involved learner, and d) self-directed learner. For each stage, learners become more self-
directed than the previous stage. Grow also indicates that teaching strategies should be
individualize and matched the self-direction stage of learner. He also shows four different
teaching strategies matching learner’s self-direction stage: a) authority, expert, b)
salesperson, motivator, c) facilitator, d) delegator (Grow, 1991). As it is seen, this module

assumes that individuals do not enter a learning context with a same level of self-

61

directedness; their self-directedness may vary ﬁ'om dependent (the lowest level of self-
directedness) to self-directed learner (the highest level of selﬁdirectedness).

2.5.3.3. Self-Direction as a Personal Attribute of Learners

Some theoretical approaches accept self-direction as a personal attribute of
learners. The main assumption advocated by this group is that “learning in adulthood
means becoming more self-directed and autonomous” (Merriam et al., 2007, p. 120).
According to these approaches, self-direction is an individual trait of adult learners.
Especially in Knowles’ (1975, 1990) studies—in his andragogy theory and his self-
directed learning approach——and in Brockett and Hiemstra (1991), the importance of
taking into account self-direction as a personal attribute of learners is seen. In terms of
research, this issue has been studied by researchers through using some instruments
which assess readiness to SDL and the presence of SDL as a trait (L. M. Gugliehnino,
1977; Oddi, 1986).

2.5.3.4. PRO Model

As mentioned, the theoretical ﬁamework of this study is mostly based on the
Personal Responsibility Orientation (PRO) model. This model depends on humanistic
orientation of learning. It presents a theoretical ﬁarnework to understand SDL of adults.
According to this model SDL is comprised of two dimensions: 1- instructional method
process (which is called self-directed learning), and 2- personality characteristics of
individual (called learner self—direction). These authors designed this model “to recognize
both the differences and similarities between self-directed learning as an instructional
method and learner self-direction as a personality characteristic” (Brockett & Hiemstra,

1991, p. 26). The ﬁgure 2 shows the framework of PRO model.

62

Figure 2: The Personal ResponsibilityI Orientation (PRO) Model

 

 
  
  
    
  
 

   
      
   
 

 

PERSONAL
RESPONSIBILITY
Characteristics

of the Teaching- Characteristics of
Learning the Learner
Transaction

SELF -DIRECT ED LEARNER
LEARNING SELF-DIRECTION

SELF -DIRECTION
IN LEARNING

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

s
PA HIT}
CTORS WITHIN THE SOCIAL 0°

 

Source: Brockett and Hiemstra, 1991, p.25. Reprinted by permission of the authors.

The central concept of this model is personal responsibility. Through this
concept, the authors want to state that people assume ownership of their actions and
thoughts (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991). They emphasize that “within the context of
learning, it is the ability and/or willingness of individuals to take control of their own
leaming that determines their potential for self-direction” (ibid., p. 26). According to
Brockett & Hiemstra (1991), each person characteristically has some degree of personal
responsibility. The importance of personal responsibility for self-direction indicates that
the learning process primarily focus on individual instead of larger society. Through
getting responsibility of his/her actions and thoughts, an individual also assumes

responsibility for his/her actions’ consequences. Consequently, personal responsibility

63

concept of PRO model means that “learners have choices about the directions they pursue
as learners” (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991, p. 28).

The other concept of PRO model is self-directed learning. Basically, it can be
said that as a term, self-directed learning refers to an instructional method. That is, it is a
teaching and learning process in which learning activities are planned, implemented, and
learning is evaluated (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991). This concept depends on the process
orientation mentioned above and it focuses on a teaching and learning transaction. When
we look at this concept through the perspective of an individual’s self-direction, this
concept is related to factors which are external to an individual learner.

On the contrary, the third concept of the PRO model, learner self-direction, is
related to the personal orientation and personal characteristics of adult learners. Brockett
& Hiemstra call attention to importance of understanding characteristics of successful
self directed adult learners. Comparing adult learning and children learning (called
pedagogy), Knowles (1990) points out that whereas dependent personality characterizes
learners’ self concept in pedagogy, self-direction characterizes the self-concept of adult
learners in adult learning process. It is clear that this refers to personal characteristics of
adult learner, or, as Brockett & Hiemstra (1991) call, this refers to factors internal to the
individual (e. g. level of self-directedness of the learners). Therefore, in PRO model,
learner self-direction “refers to characteristics of an individual that predispose on toward
taking primary responsibility for personal learning endeavors” (Brockett & Hiemstra,
1991,p.29)

The fourth concept of the PRC model is self-direction in learning. According to

the pioneers of this model, self-direction is the vital link between self-directed learning

64

and learner self—direction. They point out that “self-direction in learning is term that we
use as an umbrella concept to recognize both external factors that facilitate the learner
taking primary responsibility for planning, implementing, and evaluating learning, and
internal factors or personality characteristics that predispose one toward accepting
responsibility for one’s thoughts and actions as a learner” (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991, p.
29).

Whereas the PRO model shows distinctions between internal (learner self-
direction) and external factors (self—directed learning), it also shows strong connection
between these two factors. To understand the success of self-direction in a given learning
context, this connection is vital (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991). The PRO model Views both
internal and external factors of self-direction as a continuum. Therefore, “a given learning
situation will ﬁt somewhere within a range relative to opportunity for self-directed
learning and, similarly, an individual’s level of self-directedness will fall somewhere
within a range of possible levels” (ibid., p. 30). Having said that, theoretical proposition
of the PRO model is suggested by Brockett & Hiemstra (1991, p. 30):

“. . .optimal conditions for learning result when there is a balance, or

congruence, between the learner’s level of self-direction and the extent to

which opportunity for self-directed learning is possible in a given

situation. If, for example, one is predisposed toward a high level of self-

directedness and is engaged in a learning experience where self-direction

is actively. facilitated, chances for success are high. Similarly, the learner

who is not as in self-directedness is likely to ﬁnd comfort and, in all

likelihood, a greater chance of success in a situation where the instructor

65

assumes a more directive role. In both instances, the chances for success

are relatively high, since the leamer’s expectations are congruent with the

conditions of the learning situation.”

According to this model the balance between internal characteristics of the learner
and external characteristics of the learning-teaching transaction should be in harmony,
otherwise, difﬁculties and ﬁ'ustration arise. This may also affect success in the learning
process (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991).

The last concept of the PRO model is the social context. Social context can be
deﬁned as a context in which learning takes place. Context refers to a variety of settings
in which learning exists, and it is examined under two headings: institutional context and
the global context (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991). Whereas institutional context may
include settings from formal education and training institutes (e.g., college, universities,
occupational training settings, etc.) to informal institutes (e.g., museums, libraries, web
environment, etc.), the global context refers to culture in which learning takes place
(Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991).

In the literature, there are few studies focusing on the PRO model. Flannery
(1993) reviewed Brockett & Hiemstra’s (1991) study and said that although that study
contributed to the ﬁeld of education and adult learning area, larger inﬂuences of the
society on learning was effectively ignored by the authors. She also added that
sociological and cultural issues were not signiﬁcantly resolved in that study (Flannery,
1993). Similar criticism was also done by Song & Hill (2007). They said that the
deﬁnition of context of PRO model was a little bit limited in today’s educational climate.

They indicated that different physical institutions (such as community colleges, libraries,

66

and museums) had been deﬁned as social context in PRO model, however, “in today’s
educational Situation, where virtual learning continues to experience exponential growth,
a focus only on face-to-face settings is rather limited” (Song & Hill, 2007, p. 29). But, it
can be said that their critic is not much more correct. When we look at PRO model,
Brockett & Hiemstra identify social context as any context in which learning takes place.
They also say that “the social context provides the arena in which the activity of self-
direction is played out” (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991, p. 33). It is understood that the
context concept of PRO model refers to a variety of setting from formal education and
training institutes to informal institutes, and it refers not only face-to-face settings but
also every setting in which learning takes place. Therefore, saying that the concept
deﬁnition of PRO model focuses only on face-to-face settings may be misleading. The
other criticism of the PRO model is that the psychological dimension of learning is not
taken into account efficiently (F ogerson, 2005).

2.5.4. Critics on SDL studies and theoretical approaches

Many of the criticisms encountered in the literature are generally on the early
theoretical approaches and study of the SDL. The ﬁrst of these criticisms is that there is
lack of common deﬁnitions of SDL or there is misconception of it (Bartlett, 1999; Kerka,
1999). According to this criticism, because of this lack of a common and comprehensive
deﬁnition, a well respected theory and theoretical base study has not emerged in the adult
learning ﬁeld (Bartlett, 1999).

The other criticism is about traditional SDL approaches that see SDL as a process
of self-instruction in which scholars just focus on learners’ capability to execute the steps

of the learning. This criticism indicates that all of the learning process cannot be

67

explained only by process of instruction; instead, “the personality characteristics of
individuals whose learning behavior is characterized by initiative and persistence in
learning over time through a variety of learning modes, such as the modes of inquiry,
instruction, and performance” should be taken into account (Oddi, 1986, p. 98).

Some other criticisms against the SDL approaches are raised by authors who are
advocates of critical orientation of adult learning (e.g., S. Brookﬁeld, 1985, 1993; Candy,
1991; Hammond & Collins, 1991). According to them, in SDL research and studies,
social construction and context in which learning takes place, cultural contingency, and
political context have been mostly ignored. Related to this issue, Brookﬁeld (1993, p.
228) emphasizes that “the predominance of the concept of self-directed learning
illustrates the tendency of humanistic adult educators to collapse all political questions
into a narrowly reductionist technical rationality.” In terms of social context, calling
attention to the criticisms about this issue, Brockett & Hiemstra (1991) says that although -
the central point of the idea of SDL is the individual learner, self-directed learning
activities “cannot be divorced from the social context in which they occur” (p. 32).
Finally, there are also some criticisms about research on self-directed learning. These
criticisms focus on “. . .overuse of educated, middle-class Caucasian populations,
and ...overuse of quantitative research methodologies” (Owen, 2002, p. 34;see also
Brookﬁeld, 1995)

Because most of these criticisms were made in 19803 and at the beginning of
19903, today some of them are not valid. For example, opposite of the criticisms, today
SDL related research and theoretical approaches accept importance of personal

characteristics in SDL learning environment and effect of learning context (Brockett &

68

Hiemstra, 1991; Merriam et al., 2007). However, still there is a lack of theory driven
research, cultural contingency and political context are widely ignored, and generally
studies are conducted in university, college or education settings through quantitative
research methods.

2.5.4. Measurement of Self-Directedness

Most of the theoretical approaches and models of SDL talk about self-direction of
adult learners or their ability to being self-directed (e. g., Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991; S.
Brookﬁeld, 1985, 1986; Garrison, 1997; Knowles, 1975, 1990; Long & Agyekum, 1983;
Merriam et al., 2007 ; Mezirow, 1985, 1991; O'Shea, 2003; Owen, 2002). Although it is
generally accepted that self-direction is very important in learning process, and educators
are encouraged to take into account adult learners’ self-directedness when they plan their
learning programs, there is a challenging “to distinguish between those adults who
possess the characteristics often believed to be associated with self-direction in learning
and those adults who fail to reveal such attributes” (Long & Agyekum, 1983, p. 77).
There are two instruments widely used in empirical studies to assess the self-directedness
of adults: Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS) and the Oddi Continuing
Learning Inventory (OCLI).

SDLRS, which is a 58-item likert scale, was developed by Lucy Gugliehnino in
1977.- She developed this scale to measure learners’ readiness for SDL. In order to
construct the scale, Gugliehnino used a 3-round Delphi Technique. Then, she applied the
instrument on a sample with 307 people. She reported reliability of the instrument as .87
(Cronbach’s alpha). Range of SDLRS score is between 58 and 290; whereas 290 refer to

highest level of readiness, 58 refers to the lowest level of readiness for self-directed

69

learning. Finally, although SDLRS is the most ﬁ'equently used instrument in quantitative
researches, some studies indicate that there remains too many questions related to validity
of the scale (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991) and it needs more validation (Long &
Agyekum, 1983). Some other studies also cast doubt on validity and reliability of SDLRS
and indicate their concern about cost of this instrument as well (Candy, 1991; Fisher et
al., 2001; O'Shea, 2003).15

The other instrument widely used in SDL related research is OCLI, which is a 24-

item instrument. It can be seen as an alternative measure of self-direction in learning

(Fitzgerald, 2003). It was developed by Lorys F. Oddi, who was a nurse educator and was

particularly interested in continuing professional education in 1986 (Oddi, 1986).16 OCLI
helps researchers to assess aspects of self-directedness as a personality trait (Merriam et
al., 2007). After identifying the personality characteristics of self-directed continuing
learners, to be able to identify such learners, ODDI developed this instrument, and
conducted an empirical study to validate it (Oddi, 1986). She applied this instrument to a
sample of 271 graduate students to measure their self-directedness as a personal trait. Her
results showed that internal consistency of the instrument was .87 and its test-retest
reliability was .89. She also checked the estimated construct validity of the instrument
through correlations of scores with measures of self-conﬁdence, adult intelligence,
educational participation, afﬁliation, and endurance. She concluded that OCLI instrument

was a valid tool for identifying self-directed continuing learners. Total scores of OCLI

 

15
This instrument is costly because it takes long time to complete and the researchers have to pay money

for each subject in their sample to the pioneer of this instrument.

Actually, this instrument was developed in a dissertation study of Lorys Oddi in 1984, it was published
in 1986.

70

range from 24 (least characteristics of self-directed continuing learners) to 168 (most
characteristics) (Chou & Chen, 2008; Harvey, Rothman, & Frecker, 2006).

OCLI includes three domains established by Oddi (1986) through literature
review and then factor analysis: 1) Proactive Drive vs. Reactive Drive (PD/RD) referring
to capability to start and continue in learning without any external reinforcement, and
corresponding to internal learning characteristics (e. g. motivation, self-esteem,
conﬁdence, engagement, autonomy, and persistence); 2) Cognitive Openness vs.
Dcfensiveness (CO/D) referring to openness to change which is an essential attribute of
the SDL (e.g., curiosity, openness to new idea and activities, ability to adapt to change,
and willingness to take risks); 3) Commitment to Learning versus Apathy or Aversion to
Learning (CL/AAL) “include[ing] the expression of positive attitudes toward engaging in
learning activities of varying sorts and a preference for more thought-provoking leisure
pmsuits” (Oddi, 1986, p. 99).

Literature showed that the ability of self-direction or self-directed continuing
learning measured by the ODDI’S instrument had relationship with such variables as:
problem based learning, gender, age, mode of continuous learning, perception of
professional autonomy, level of education, self-efﬁcacy, self concept, self-care, self-
learning, personal responsibility, readiness for self-directed learning, learning climate,
learning activity, job performance, on-the-job learning, participation in educational
activities, grades, personality, and intellectual development (as cited in Owen, 2002). In
addition, Landers (1989) indicated that SDLRS and OCLI are very similar; this claim
was also supported by Harvey and his colleagues in 2003; they found that SDLRS and

OCLI had correlation of .713 (Harvey, Rothman, & Frecker, 2003).

71

Finally, in addition to the Oddi’s study in 1986, validity and reliability of the
OCLI instrument was tested and approved by the later studies. In terms of reliability, Six
(1987) found Cronbach coefﬁcient alphas of .77, Landers (1989) also found .77, and
recently, Barlett (1999) found overall reliability of .756. In terms of validity, in 1990,
while study of Oddi and her colleagues showed a reliability of .90, they also supported
construct validity of the instrument (Oddi, Ellis, & Roberson, 1990; see also Harvey et
al., 2003 for reliability and validity of OCLI).

2.5.5. Self-directed Learning and Online Distance Learning

As mentioned, through offering high independency, greater productivity, and new
experiences online learning provides opportunity to the learners to control their learning
process (King, 1998). On the other side, SDL is generally deﬁned as a process in which
learners have autonomy and independency, they take the initiative of learning, and they
are responsible for their learning (Knowles, 1975, p. 18; see also Brockett & Hiemstra,
1991; and Candy 1991). The process approach of SDL is completely consistent with
description and deﬁnition of the online learning because online learning gives the control
of the learning mostly to the learners (Song & Hill, 2007, p. 30). Therefore, some of the
scholars deﬁne internet as one of the most powerful and important SDL tools and online
learning as an important SDL process (Gray, 1999; Irnel, 2003; Kerka, 1999).

Although the relationship between SDL and online learning is clear, there are
only a few studies focusing on online learning and SDL together (e.g., Corbeil, 2003;
Doherty, 2000; Ibrath & Silong, 2000; Johnson, 2005; Pachnowski & Jurczyk, 2000).
In terms of theory, it is difficult to say that there is a comprehensive theoretical approach

that explains self-directed learning and online learning together. However, early

72

theoretical approaches and models looking at self-directed learning as a process and as a
personal attribute (e.g., PRO model) can help to understand online leaming process,
environment, and outcome of it.

2.5.6. Research on Self-directed Learning

Here, some selected studies are examined under two categories: general research
related to SDL, and research related to both online/distance learning and SDL. This
review will be done through a chronological order.

2.5.6.1. General research related to self-directed learning

In one of the early studies on SDL, Savoie (1979) investigated predictors of
success in continuing nursing education courses. The feature of these courses was that at
least two of the three teaching learning process require participants to be self-directed.
Her sample was comprised of 152 nurses who enrolled one of those continuing education
courses. As predictor variables, Savoie used the personal, educational, and employment
characteristics of her sample, their motivation, their prior experience in any SDL
environment, and their SDL readiness level. While she measured success through grade
of each participant, she measured degree of self-directed learning readiness by SDLRS.
Her results showed that there is a positive signiﬁcant relationship between readiness to
SDL and course grades. She also found relationship between employment status of the
participants and their course grades in favor of those who were employee in nursing at
the time of the research.

Harriman (1990) aimed to determine the level of readiness of community college
telecourse program for self-directed learning and to understand its relationship with

course achievement, completion and other variables (such as, age, gender, marital status,

73

farme status, education, occupational level, enrollment status). To measure readiness
level for SDL, the author applied SDLRS to a sample of 170 students of community
college telecourse program. His results showed that success in this telecourse program
was related to SDLR of the students. Moreover, success was also related to students’ age,
education level, and farmly status. Age was also related to SDLR. In terms of gender, the
study Showed that whereas successful males had higher SDLRS score comparing the
unsuccessful males, there was no signiﬁcant differences between unsuccessful and
successful females (Haniman, 1990).

In 1994, Dieber conducted a research to ﬁgure out if a problem-based learning
(PBL) experience in medical college has any inﬂuence on SDL characteristics of medical
students. Sample frame of this study was comprised of 216 medical students selected
through a non-random purposive sampling; 115 of them were in their ﬁrst year of study,
and 101 of them were in their fourth year of study during the 1993 and 1994 academic
year at Wake Forest University. However, response rate was 37.5% (N =81) suggesting a
risk of lower accuracy of results. In order to measure level of self-directedness, Dieber
(1994) utilized OCLI. Her ﬁndings revealed that problem based learning signiﬁcantly
increase the level of SDL of the students. She also examined the relationship between
level self-directed continuing learning ability and gender, year of study in medical school,
parental educational levels and age. According to her ﬁndings gender was related to self-
directedness; females had signiﬁcant higher self-directedness level then males.

In 1995, Morris examined the relationship between academic achievement and
readiness for SDL among nontraditional graduate students of business institute. This

study also targeted to ﬁgure out the relationship between SDLR and participants’

74

postsecondary education experience, time since enrollment in the master program,
gender, ethnicity, and age. Sample of this study was comprised of 157 randomly selected
students. Academic achievement was measured by Graduate Management Admission
Test (GMAT) scores, and readiness for SDL was measured by SDLRS. Results showed
that there was a positive relationship between SDLR and academic achievement, and
overall graduate grades were also positively associated with SDLRS scores. There were

also association with age and sex of participants and their SDLRS scores; whereas

women’s score was higher than men, the elders have higher SDLRS scores tool7 (Morris,
1 995).

Durr and his colleagues (1996) examined the relationship between various
characteristics of adults and their readiness for SDL. Especially, they were interested in
relationship of various occupational types with SDLR. This study was conducted with
employees of Motorola, and to measure readiness for SDL, the SDLRS was used. The
sample of this research was comprised of 607 managers and non-managers selected
through a combination of cluster sampling and random sampling. Researchers identiﬁed
nine occupational categories (Manufacturing, clerical, engineer, sales, support
professional, manufacturing manager, support manager, engineering manager, and sales
manager), and their results showed that in terms of level of readiness for SDL, there were
signiﬁcant differences among the mean SDLRS of those occupational categories. In
addition, this study showed that SDLRS score of managers were signiﬁcantly higher than

non-mangers’ (Durr et al., 1996).

 

17
That is ﬁndings of this study demonstrated a positive relationship between SDLRS scores and age.

75

In 1996, Garver investigated relationship between individuals’ self-directedness
level and their performance in their work environments. In terms of work environments,
this study used ﬁve police departments in Dauphin County of Pennsylvania. The sample
of the study included 105 non-supervisory patrol ofﬁcers drawn purposively ﬁ'om those
police departments. The self-directedness level of the officers were determined by three

instruments; SDLRS, OCLI, and Jude-York’s Learning Activities Survey. Jude-York’s
Learning Climate Survey18 was also used to determine ofﬁcers learning climate”.
Results revealed that there were signiﬁcant positive relationships between performance of
police ofﬁcers in their work environment20 and their level of self-directedness. But, this
research could not ﬁnd relationship between learning climate and SDL (Garver, 1996).
Kell and Van Deursen (2000) conducted a longitudinal research to evaluate the
inﬂuence of a physiotherapy degree program on students’ learning proﬁle21 and their
readiness for SDL. They also aimed to examine if students’ maturation had an effect on
SDL. SDLRS, Learning Preference Inventory (LPI),22 and a demographic survey were

applied to the sample of the study. Sample of this study comprised of 43-student cohort

 

18 .
This survey “measures support given to employees for growth and development such as ﬁnancral

reimbursement, acknowledgment on performance evaluations, time away from work, recognition, rewards
gd coaching ﬁ'om their supervisors” (Garver, 1996, p. 64).

The learning climate refers to “the climate within an organization which supports, hiders, or neutralizes
learning eﬁ‘orts by value structures, formal or informal goal structures, norms, roles, power/authority

hierarchies, sanctions and rewards” (Garver, 1996, p. 13)

20
Performance of the police officers was “measured by their scores on a performance assessment

completed by a combination of management level supervisors and immediate supervisors collectively
referred to as the ‘Team.’ Each team reviewed the performance of all responding members from their
rz'eispective police departments” (Garver, 1996, p. 71)

Learning proﬁle refers to learning preference. In this study six dimensions of the learning preference
were identiﬁed and measured: Abstract learner, Concrete learner, student structured, teacher structured,
individual learner, interpersonal learner.

LPI is a self-report instrument comprised of 6 scales measuring six learning preference mentioned

above. Each scale includes 15 items ranked from 1 to 6 and yields a score from 15 to 90. For each scale, a
higher score indicated greater consistency with that learning preference.

76

on the 1994 BSc Physiotherapy degree course at the Physiotherapy Education department
in Cardiff, UK. The questionnaire package was applied ﬁve times during the three-year
course, and one time six week aﬁer the completion of the course. Results of the study

showed that mature students were more ready than school-leavers, and this continued

throughout the three years and 6 months.23

In 2000, Haggerty conducted a research to understand whether teaching adults

self-directed learning24 and make them to participate SDL activities can increase SDL
abilities of adults and affect their preference for learning through self-direction
(Haggerty, 2000). She also wanted to test one of the assumptions of andragogy theory:
adult learners are self directed. A pretest-posttest design was applied to the sample of 43
southern Louisiana community college students selected through a convenience sampling
and who enrolled in the same biology lab course. In order to measure initial and later
preferences for self-directed learning, the Inventory of Learning Styles for Higher
Education was implemented. At the end of the research, Haggerty could not ﬁnd any
signiﬁcant difference between pre and posttest results; that is, students tented to show
preference for teacher directed learning style in both tests.25 However, whereas 6 percent
of the subjects preferred SDL style initially, 33 percent of the subjects preferred SDL at
the posttest. Her results also showed that there was a positive relationship between self-

directed learning and academic achievement. This study revealed that majority of the

 

23
In this study the cohort was divided into two groups according to age of the participants: students under
21 years old constituted the school-leavers group, students over 21 constituted the mature group.

24 In the literature, it is indicated that self-directedness can be learned and taught (Brockett & Hiemstra,
1991; Grow, 1991). To facilitate and teach SDL, there are a number of recommendations (we also discuss
some of them in the implication part of this dissertation). In Haggerty’s (2000) study, similar methods were
also used to teach SDL to the participants.

2
5 It is clear that pretest posttest research design suffer from a number of validity threats explained in the
methodology part of this dissertation.

77

adult learners prefer to be teacher-directed; this ﬁnding did not support the andragogical
assumption (Haggerty, 2000, p. 108).

In a recent study, Stewart (2007 ) examined the relationship between international
students’ readiness for self-directed learning and their learning outcomes. He proposed
that “international students who have higher readiness for SDL gain greater learning
outcomes from project based learning (PBL) approaches” (p. 453). To achieve this
research, Stewart conducted a survey to a sample of 26 students completing an
engineering management course. His results showed that in achieving learning outcomes
from PBL, readiness for SDL was a key enabler.

To sum up, most of the studies examined above focused on the relationship
between readiness to SDL or self-directedness of the learners and their achievement or
success in the learning environments. Their results generally showed that there was a
positive relationship between self-directedness and success (Haggerty, 2000; Harriman,
1990; Morris, 1995; Savoie, 1979; Stewart, 2007). Some studies also sought to
understand the predictors of self-directedness; according to their ﬁndings, teaching SDL,
some types of teaching-learning methods (e.g., PBL), occupational categories, age, and
gender are some of those predictors (Dieber, 1994; Durr et al., 1996; Haggerty, 2000).

2.5.6.2. Researches related to both online and self-directed learning

There are a few studies focusing on the relationship between self-directed
learning and online learning. In 2000, Pachnowski & Jurczyk attempted to identify
student related factors that were indicators of success in online distance learning courses.
To achieve this, the researchers sent a survey accompanied by SDLRS to all students

(approximately 100) registered for web-based distance course in a large, Mid-Western

78

University. The limitation of this research is that only 17 students returned the completed
instruments and researchers got data on 39 web-based students. To measure success,
students’ ﬁnal course grades were used. According to results of this study, self-
directedness is not a good indictor or success in online learning environment. Technical
skills, students’ habits, and attitudes are, on the other hand, seemed related to success in
online learning environment (Pachnowski & Jurczyk, 2000).

In another online learning and SDL related study, Ibrahim & Silong (2000)
examined the barriers of participation to SDL activities through a qualitative research
method. This research was conducted in the environment of the ﬁrst virtual university of
Malaysia, Universiti Tun Abdul Razak (UN ITAR), which provided SDL environment for

non-traditional adult students. The qualitative data of this study was collected through a

purposive sampling and semi-structured interviews.26 Results of this study revealed that
“students faced several barriers to being self-directed in carrying out their learning in a
virtual environment” (p. 9): institutional, dispositional, and situational barriers.
Institutional barriers erected by institution itself, such as technological problems in the
virtual learning environment, problems related to delivery of lectures, unattractive
courseware, lack of computer at the learning centers, and inefﬁcient student support
services. Dispositional barriers refer to individuals’ attitude about learning and their
perceptions as learners. In this study researchers identiﬁed age (being old) and

inhabitation as dispositional barriers in self-directed virtual environment. Situational

 

26

It should be noted that qualitative studies suffer ﬁom generalizability of the results. That is, one of the
most important weaknesses of qualitative research is that it allows no or limited generalization to the
population (Boxill, Chambers, & Wint, 1997).

79

barriers are related to learners’ situation in life at a given time. This study showed two
important situational barriers: lack of ﬁnance and work commitment of the students.

In 2000, Doherty attempted to answer this question: “whether a student’s
readiness to be a self-directed learner is a predictor of student success in an online
community college curriculum”. To measure readiness for self-directed learning, the
author sent SDLRS to 258 of the community college students enrolled in one or more
online courses in the state of Washington in 1999 and who wanted to participate in this

study. Because of this, sampling strategy was convenience sampling. Response rate was

147 (% 57).27 Success of the students was measured by course completion, GPA, and
student’s satisfaction. The results of this study failed to Show any signiﬁcant relationship
between readiness for SDL and academic performance (Doherty, 2000).

In 2003, Corbeil conducted a research to observe and explain the relationship
between online learning, readiness for SDL, and success of students and their satisfaction
(Corbeil, 2003). Oddi Continuing Learning Inventory (OCLI) was used to measure
students’ readiness for online learning, and success was measured by ﬁnal grade. The
survey instrument was sent to all graduate students (n=l 91) who enrolled in one of six
online courses offered by Master of Education in Educational Technology degree
program at the University of Texas and Texas Southmost College. However, response
rate was 98 (51%). Results showed that although there were positive signiﬁcant
relationships between readiness to self-directed learning and both student satisfaction and

success in bivariate analysis (correlation), these relationships disappeared in multiple

 

27
However, this study had cautious generalizability to all community college students enrolling online

courses because of non-random convenience sampling.

80

regression analysis holding constant only online technologies self-efﬁcacy and locus of

control.28

Finally, Johnson (2005) was interested in factors affecting completion of distance
learning courses offered by south Florida community college for seven-year period from
1997 to 2004. In those courses, in addition to internet, telecourse, and live interactive
television were used as distance learning methods. Analysis of this research was done
through using both pre-existing data and newly collected data. For newly collected data, a
total of 522 surveys were mailed randomly selected students in 2004. However, response
rate was 114 (22%) which included 4 telecourse, 25 live interactive television, and 85
internet student. Students’ readiness for self-directed learning was measure by SDLRS.
Pro-existing data included information related to gender, ethnicity, age, degree—seeking
status and completion of the program. Analysis of pre-existing data showed that there
were signiﬁcant positive relationship between completion of the program and both age
and degree-seeking status. On the other side, analysis of newly collected data failed to
Show relationship between readiness for SDL and completion of the program (Johnson,
2005).

To sum up, some studies focusing on the relationship between self-directedness of
learners and their success in learning environments showed that there was a positive
relationship between these two concepts (Haggerty, 2000; Harriman, 1990; Morris, 1995;
Savoie, 1979; Stewart, 2007); however, the limited number of studies focusing on the

relationship between self-directedness of learners and their success in online learning

 

28
Whereas online technologies self-efﬁcacy refers to people’s self-efficacy beliefs about communication

technologies (e.g., e-mail, internet, and computer), locus of control is a construct referring to individuals’
beliefs about their control over life events (Corbeil, 2003).

81

environments as self—directed learning environments failed to show any relationship

(Corbeil, 2003; Doherty, 2000; Pachnowski & Jurczyk, 2000).

82

CHAPTER 3

THE CONTEXT OF THE STUDY: TURKISH NATIONAL POLICE

3.1. HISTORY AND STRUCTURE OF TURKISH NATIONAL POLICE

The Turkish National Police (TNP) has more than a ISO-year history. For the ﬁrst
time, an organization named “Police” emerged as an independent security organization in
Istanbul on April 10th, 1845 (Cufali, 2007; Yaman, 1983). Today, this date is the accepted
foundation anniversary of TNP and celebrated each year. Since this date, this security
organization had developed consistently until 1907 as part of the Ottoman Empire (Aksu,

2008). In 1909, modeling the French and German police organizations, a General

Directorate of Security, under “Zaptiye Nezareti”29, was established (Gokcegoz, 1998).
During the ﬁrst years of the Turkish Republic, this structure of the police was protected.
In 1930, the structure of the security organization was reorganized. In 1933, there were
directorates of security in 30 cities of Turkey. Additionally, it should be noted that there
were 13 women police ofﬁcers working around the country in this period (Cufali, 2007).
The ﬁrst legislation related to duty and responsibility of Turkish police was passed in
1934, and a law related to security organization based upon European police
organizations, was enacted in 1937 (ibid.). Today’s Turkish police organization depends
on this law.

According to this law, there would be a chief of police managing security
activities in each city of Turkey and there would be a major who was responsible for the
police department in each town of Turkey. This law also required rejuvenation of the

police and centralization of the organization. Therefore, recruitment of officers older than

 

29
This term was previous name of the Ministry Interior.

83

 

age 30 was banned. By 1950 the establishment of police organization in each city and
town had been completed (Cufali, 2007). During the time period, because of sociological,
economical and political changes and requirements, TNP was restructured and developed
several times, and “because of the highly centralized management style of the new
Turkish Republic, new police force has gradually turned into a highly centralized
paramilitary police force and centralizations” (Sullivan, 2005; as cited in Boke, 2007 , p.
12)

Today, there are three different organizations that are responsible for general
security of the country, the Turkish National Police (or as it is called General Directorate
of Security), Gendarmerie and Coastal Security (Boke, 2007; Goktepe, 2008). The duty
areas of Coastal Security are only the borders in coastal areas and coastal waters.
Gendarmerie, on the other hand, is responsible for the security of the rural parts of the
country in which there is no municipal organization and nor police organization. The duty
areas of Gendarmerie constitutes less than 10% of the population of the country (Boke,
2007). The Turkish National Police is responsible for the security of all cities and towns
of Turkey in which there is any municipal structure. This duty area constitutes
approximately 90% of the population of the country.

The organizational structure of the Turkish National Police was identiﬁed by the
Law of the Security Organization enacted in 1937.30 According to this legislation,
maintaining order and security in the country is the responsibility of the TNP. There is a
General Director of Security who is the responsible for all personnel, money, technical

support, and operations of the police departments across the country (Goktepe, 2008).

0
http://www.kom.gov.tr.’dosvalarl'Mevzuat/320 1 .pdf

84

The General Directory of Security (GDS) operates under the Ministry of lntemal Affairs.

The structure of the General Directory of Security is comprised of three types of sub-

organizations. These are central organizations, provincial organizations, and abroad

organizations.

The duties of central organizations are:

controlling assignment process of the all personnel of TNP;

providing plans and projects in order to struggle with crime and following
implementations of these plans and projects;

following activities and operations of units under the provincial organizations
and recording them; providing training programs;

in order to struggle with crime and criminals within and outside the country,
participating in cooperative activities conducted by national and international
organizations, and ensuring implications of the decisions and strategies
identiﬁed by that associations;

signing international agreements related to its duty area and ensuring
implementation of these agreements;

and controlling and following some security related activities and innovations

expected by European Union (Goktepe, 2008).

There are 25 departments under the central organization of TNP. The General

Director is the head of all of these departments and each department is commanded by a

1"t degree police chief.

Provincial organizations are comprised of 81 Directorates of Provincial Police or

City Police departments, 751 Police Directorates of Towns afﬁliated with Provinces, 22

85

Border Gates Police Directorates, 18 Free-zone Police stations, and 834 police stations in
81 cities (OSCE, 2009). As it is seen, each city has its own police department directed by
a 1St degree police chief. City police departments are afﬁliated with the city governors.
City police departments are responsible for protecting public order and security in their
city. The structures of city police departments are similar to the structure of the central
organization (Goktepe, 2008). That is, departments of the central organization are
represented by units in city police departments. Each of these units is controlled and
commanded by a 3”1 or 4th degree chief of police.

There are approximately 207,000 police ofﬁcers working in the TNP. There are
also approximately 11,000 civilian personnel working for different duties in the TNP.
The police ranks of the TNP range from line ofﬁcers to 1St degree chief of police. Table 1

presents data on the population of the TNP according to gender and rank of the officers in

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

September, 2009.
Table 1:31 Population of the TNP According to the Rank and Gender of the Personnel
Rank Female Male Total
P Degree Chief of Police 43 1,067 1,110
2'” Degree Chief of Police 21 836 857
FDegree Chief of Police 6 896 902
TFDegree ChiefofPolice 12 2,011 2,023
Major 105 2,991 3,096
Captain 142 1,282 1,424
Lieutenant 133 2,488 2,621
Sergeant 174 3,085 3,259
Line Ofﬁcer 10,697 180,674 191,371
Total 11,333 195,330 206,663
Civil Personnel 2,720 8,721 1 1,441
General Total 14,053 204,051 218,104

 

 

 

31
This table was provided depending on the records of General Directorate of Security Department of
Personnel.

86

3.2. TRAINING OF TURKISH NATIONAL POLICE

The value of training is well known by the TNP. Especially after the foundation
of the Turkish Republic, training of police has gained importance. At the end of the
19203 and beginning of the 19303, in order for training of police some experts were
invited ﬁ'om some European countries (especially from Germany and Austria).
Additionally, some Turkish police ofﬁcers were sent to those countries for training
(Cufali, 2007). In the 19203, three police schools were opened in Istanbul, Konya, and
Trabzon; however, due to economic problems, the Konya and Trabzon police schools
were closed in 1931. In 1937, copying the Lozan Police Institute and the Vienna police, a
police institute was founded. Later, this institute was changed into a four-year police
academy. In addition to the police institute, after the 19503 police schools were founded
in some cities of Turkey. Speciﬁcally, since the 19803, the training of both new recruits
and veteran ofﬁcers has increased its importance because of developing technologies,
changing world, increasing crime, and terrorism. Today, the training system of the
Turkish National Police is comprised of two main parts: pre-service training and in-
service training. Both types of training are under the effect of centralized structure of
TNP.

3.2.1. Pre-service Training in the TNP

This type of training can be deﬁned as the training of ofﬁcers before the job.
There are three major pre-service training programs in the TNP. These are Police High
School, Police Academy, and Police Schools.

The Police High School was ﬁrst founded in 1938. Today there are two police

high schools in Turkey, the Ankara and Bursa police high schools. The aim of police high

87

schools is to prepare cadets for the police academy. Police high schools are a four-year
boarding school and all students have to be in uniform (Gurcan, 2005). The curriculum is
mostly dominated by lessons related to science, literature and mathematics. In addition,
there are also lessons related to police occupation and discipline (Gokcegoz, 1998). The
educational expenses of all students in police high schools are covered by the Turkish

National Police. Since 193 8, a total of 9255 students have graduated from police high

schools.32

The Police Academy was ﬁrst founded as a one-year police institute in 193 7. In
1962, it was changed into a three-year police institute, and in 1980, it was changed into a
four-year faculty. Today, this four-year faculty is also called the Faculty of Security
Sciences (Gurcan, 2005). The aim of the Police Academy Faculty and Security Sciences
(PAF SS) is to train the supervisors of the Turkish National Police. The students of
PAP SS are mostly comprised of graduates of the police high schools; however, each year
a small numbers of students ﬁ'om other public and private high schools enter the police
academy after passing the entrance exam. In addition, PAF SS also accepts international
students from different countries. As of 2009, there are international students ﬁom 13
different countries (Albania, Azerbaijan, Bosnia Herzegovina, Georgia, Palestine,
Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, Mongolia, Moldavia, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan,

Macedonian, Republic of Belarus, and Jordan) trained by Police Academy Faculty and

Security Sciences.33 Cadets of this school are exposed to high level of law education and

also occupational training. Once Turkish students graduate from the Police Academy

 

32
http://www.polislik.net/ index. php?Itemid=25 1 &id=872&option=com content&task=view

33
http://www.pa.edu.tr/index.php?pid=83

88

Faculty and Security Sciences, they are assigned as sergeants to different units of the
TNP, and international students go back their countries after graduation.
Police schools (PS) were ﬁrst established in 1945. These schools offer a two-year

higher education for their students and are similar to junior colleges in the US. There are

22 police schools across Turkey.34 The aim of these schools is to train the line ofﬁcers of
the Turkish National Police. Like the Police High Schools and Police Academy, police
schools are also boarding schools and all student expenses are covered by the TNP.
Recently, some Police Vocational Training Centers (PVTCs) have been opened. These
training centers have the same goal as the police schools, but their cadets have to have
bachelor degree ﬁ'om any university and they are trained just for 6 months. Each year
approximately 10,000 police ofﬁcers graduate from police schools and PVTC. Table 2
presents number of the ofﬁcers graduating from police schools (PS) and PVTC between

2005 and 2009.

Table 2: 35 The Number of the Officers Graduating from Police Schools (PS) and
PVTC between 2005 and 2009

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
PS PVTC PS PVTC PS PVTC PS PVTC PS PVTC

6,213 1,848 6,367 5,202 6,938 4,324 6,343 4,120 6,407 4,195
8,061 1 1,569 1 1,262 10,463 10,602

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

3.2.2. In-service Training in TNP

In the TNP, in-service training is recognized as a very important element that is
done to improve the productivity of ofﬁcers, to increase ability and information of
officers, and to make ofﬁcers ready for any new situations and duties. As it is mentioned

previously, because of increasing, shifting, developing crime, criminals, and terror

 

34
http://www.egm.gov.tr/birim.egkur.asp

3
5 This table was provided depending on the records of General Directorate of Security Department of
Personnel.

89

activities, training of the police has become more important. To train its personnel, the
Turkish National Police organized many in-service training programs. All expenses of in-
service training programs offered to ofﬁcers around the country are covered by the
Turkish National Police. Most of the in-service training activities in the Turkish National
Police are planned and coordinated by a department under the central organization of the
TNP, the General Directorate of Security Department of Training (Gokcegoz, 1998;
Gurcan, 2005). In addition, some training activities may be also coordinated by
provincial organizations.

Depending on training needs and training policies of the Turkish National Police,
the General Directorate of Security Department of Training is responsible for planning
and coordinating training programs and following their implementation (Gurcan, 2005).

In-service training activities planned and coordinated by the Department of Training are

presented in Table 3:36

Table 3: Types of In-service Training Pro arns Applied in the TNP
Main Features and Aim of the
Types of Train'ggActivities Program

 

 

These training programs are generally
Basic Training designed to train new recruits on general
policing issues after their graduation.

 

Training of ranked ofﬁcers (especially
middle class managers) required by the
Turkish National Police is the
responsibility of the Police Academy.
However, sometimes these requirements
increase, and some ofﬁcers are selected
and assigned as ranked ofﬁcers after the
Middle Class Chief Training Course.

Middle Class Chief Training Course

 

 

 

 

 

6
3 This table was provided depending on Gokcegoz (1998), Gurcan (2005) and records of General

Directorate of Security Department of Training.

90

Table 3: (continued)

 

Main Features and Aim of the
Types of Training Activities Program

 

These training programs are applied to
personnel who are studying in a
department and with a branch, or
personnel expected to be assigned into a
speciﬁc branch. The aim of this program
is to improve the ability of ofﬁcers in a
speciﬁc branch. These types of courses
generally include these topics:
Community Oriented Policing, VIP,
escort, Interpol, PC, photography,
administration, ﬁngerprint, passport,
intelligence, archives, and statistic.

Professional Expertise Course

 

This type of training is provided by
Practical Training commanders to their personnel when
they are working.

 

Theaimofthistypeoftrainingisto

Shooting Trarnrng increase the shooting abilities of ofﬁcers.

 

In order to learn innovations applied by
other countries or to learn different
countries' police training systems, some
personnel are selected and assigned
abroad. These trainings include Short
time courses, master and PhD programs.

Training in Abroad

 

To learn the information emerging in
different countries, and to serve the
tourist, foreign language courses are
organized.

Foreign Language Courses

 

TNP every time needs trainers to train its
Training the Trainer personnel; Therefore, this courses aim to
train the trainers of the TNP.

 

This type of training is organized to train
personnel for some operational duties
such as hostage rescue, terror and
narcotic operations.

Operational Training

 

 

 

 

In addition to the General Directorate of Security Department of Training, some
other departments under General Directorate also have training units for their personnel

across the country. These departments also offer training programs through cooperation

91

with the Department of Training. One of these training units is the SASEM (Crime

Search and Investigation Training Unit). This training unit is under the General

Directorate of Security Department of Public Order. Some of the training programs

offered by this training unit are}7

Community Oriented Policing basic and following training programs
Crime Scene Investigation courses

Human Trafﬁcking and Sexual Crime Training

Crime Victimization training program

Motorized police basic training program

Police defense tactics training program

Child Policing Training program

Auto theft training pro gram

Struggling with violence against women

The other unit offered by a central department other than the Department of

Training is the TADOC (Turkish International Academy against Drugs and Organized

Crime). This training unit is working under the General Directorate of Security

Department of Anti Smuggling and Organized Crime. This unit offers training programs

related to struggling With Drugs and Organized crime not only for personnel working in

units related to this issue in Turkey, but also for the police ﬁom other countries.38 The

last unit is the Police Training Center for Trafﬁc. In this training center, ofﬁcers who are

 

Mind/wwwasayispol.tr/sasemdefaultasp

h_ttp://www.tadoc.govtr/turkce/indexhtm

92

assigned to trafﬁc units are trained. This unit depends on the Department of Trafﬁc

Training and Research.

3.3. USE OF TRAINING TECHNOLOGIES AND ONLINE LEARNING IN THE
TNP

As mentioned before, all technological innovations that can be used in training
and dming the delivery process of training can be seen as training technologies. For
example, microphone, speaker, projector, overhead projector, computer, software (e. g.
Power Point), video player, CD/DVD player, television, radio, some video-conferencing
systems, other media technologies, printed resources, internet, network systems, satellite,
etc. have the greatest potential for teaching, training, and learning (Bates, 2005; Galusha,
1997), and they can be used in training and development training process effectively.
Therefore, all of these technological innovations can be accepted as training technologies.

The Turkish National Police have long been using a number of these training
technologies. For example, during the traditional face-to-face training processes, it is
commonly seen that trainers of the TNP beneﬁts ﬁ'om projectors, CD/DVD players,
video players, computers, some software etc. to facilitate the learning of their trainees.
Moreover, especially since the end of the 19903 the TNP has been interested in internet
and network systems to train its personnel and establish secure communication among
them.

In 2000, TNP initiated the PolNet project. PolNet can be deﬁned as a secure
network system that provides the Opportunity for police departments and their personnel

to communicate, to share information fast and securely throughout the country. It is

93

similar to the LEO (Law Enforcement Online) in the US.39 PolNet is connected with all
the police departments and the headquarters in the country. Although it is not commonly
used for training purposes, it is used for on-job training activities within the TNP.

The other initiative for police training through the use of internet/network
technologies was conducted by the Intelligence Department (ID) of the TNP in 2000.
Actually each year, the Intelligence department organizes a Basic Intelligence course for
its new and veteran personnel. The aim of the Basic Intelligence Course is to train the
members of ID with new information about terror organizations, intelligence techniques,
and new policies related to the ways of collecting information. This course is organized
in Ankara, the capital city of Turkey, and all attendees of the course have to come there.
During the course, transportation, accommodation costs, meals, and daily wages of the
attendance are paid by the ID. In 2000, to facilitate the presentation of this training
program and shorten its time, the ID initiated an online training program through its
secure network system. However, this training program was cancelled because it was
believed ineffective.

One of the most important initiatives, in terms of use of internet/network

technologies in police training in Turkey, is Akilli Sinif (Smart Class) project.40 In 2004,
the General Directorate of Security Training Department started activities related to
distance training of police through online learning. The ﬁrst step of these activities was
signing a three-year cooperation agreement with the Middle East Technical University

(METU) in 2005. At the same year, a smart class was opened. The ﬁrst online training

 

http:// www.1eo.20v/

4O
ht_tp://www.egm.gov.tr/egitirm’index-7html

94

through smart class was started with the two-week training program for the ranked
ofﬁcers promoted ﬁom captain to major rank in 2006.

The Smart Class is a training system offering online distance training through the
help of the internet, computer and some other training technologies. It is in Ankara and
the General Directorate of Security Training Department is responsible for it and its
activities. In terms of traditional training, 20 trainees can be trained in the smart class.
The smart class provides an opportunity both for synchronous and asynchronous online
learning. That is, whereas trainees follow the lessons simultaneously, they can also
follow it whenever they want because video and voice records of lessons are published on
the website of the smart class. In addition, trainees can ﬁnd other online resources
provided by instructors to facilitate and increase learning levels in the website of the
smart class.

In the smart class, there is one video conference device which provides an
opportunity to establish video connections with other distant places, classes, and people.
The lessons are presented on the website, http://egitim.egm.gov.tr/ . Each participant can
enter the portal through a user name and a passport. While the distance participants are
watching the lessons, they can also ask questions through e-mail. Recorded lessons and
other resources related to lessons are published on this website and participants who
missed the lessons or want to watch them again can watch them and read or use the
materials. Participants can also ﬁnd some helpful links and materials to facilitate their
learning in this website if they are provided by the instructors. The training programs
offered by the smart class are:

- Management Training for High and Middle Level Ranked Ofﬁcers

95

- Basic Training Program for the Juvenile Police

- Basic Training Program for Motorized Policing

- Community Oriented Policing Basic Training Program

- Investigation Course for White Color Crimes

- Interview and Taking Statement Course

The smart class provides great ﬂexibility for the trainees to learn training
materials whenever and wherever they want. In addition, the smart class also provides
cost advantages for the Turkish National Police. According to the General Directorate of
Security Department of Training, ﬁom 2006 to 2009, 22,916 ofﬁcers were trained online
via smart class. The TNP invested 1,156,000 TL ($770,667) for the smart class project.

When food, accommodation, and travel cost of each ofﬁcers’ is taken into account, this

project provided 7,780,000 TL. (8 5,186,667) cost advantages for the TNP. 41

3.4. COMMUNITY ORIENTED POLICING IN THE TURKISH NATIONAL
POLICE
In Turkey, because of economical, social, and other reasons, crime rates have

increased signiﬁcantly. In addition, domestic immigration, increasing population,
heterogeneity, and change in shape of crime from individuality to organized have made
struggling with crime difﬁcult through traditional policing perspectives (Aksu, 2008).
This process has forced the police to ﬁnd new ways to struggle with crime and criminal
activities. The necessity of change in policing approaches was stated clearly in a circular

published in 2003 with these words:

41
$1 is equal to approximately 1.5 TL.

96

“It is not possible to solve the crime and all matters related crime in the

traditional policing approach. It is necessary in investigating economical,

social, psychological and biological reasons of crime, proposing some

solutions and reducing opportunities of crime. To realize these in

administration of police preventive, multi institutional, victim focused and

analytical approach must be set up” (as cited in Kabukcu, 2006, p. 72).

The other reason making necessary changes in policing is the European Union
(EU). Turkey has made signiﬁcant efforts to be able to join the EU for approximately 30
years. On 10-11 December, 1999, in the Helsinki Meeting in which presidents of the EU
countries attended, Turkey was accepted as a candidate country for EU (Aksu, 2008).
After this time, Turkey entered a new process in which it started to restructure itself in all
areas of social, economical, and political life. As one of the most important public
organizations of Turkey, the police also entered this restructuring process. In this process,
police development was accepted as a key target; training, personnel, and operation of the
police was revised, a number of projects in different policing areas were planned and
have been started to be implemented (Aksu, 2008; Gokkaya & Dogan, 2007). One of
these projects is the “Twining Project”, which has been coordinated cooperatively by
General Directorate of Security of Turkey and Spain since the beginning of 2005 in order
to empower responsibility, productivity, and efﬁciency. Although it was ﬁrst mentioned
and recommended ofﬁcially by the circular (mentioned above) in 2003, within this
project, Community Oriented Policing was accepted as one of the basic changes to be
able to struggle with increasing and changing crime and to be able to become an EU

country (Gokkaya & Dogan, 2007).

97

In 2006, with a circular, a pilot project for COP was started in 10 cities and 20
police satiations in Turkey (Aksu, 2008; Gokkaya & Dogan, 2007; Kabukcu, 2006; TNP,
2009). During this pilot project, experts from the European Union examined the
implementation of COP in Turkey and identiﬁed deﬁciencies. Two hundred personnel
working in the Turkish National Police were trained on COP by foreign experts. In 2007,
implementation of COP was also started in 15 additional cities. In 2008, the number of
cities with COP units and applying COP increased to 51. Finally, in April, 2009, COP
was also started in the remaining 30 cities (TNP, 2009).

Today, COP is applied in 81 cities of Turkey, and approximately 2,200 personnel
are working in COP units (TNP, 2009). Implementation of the COP across the country is
coordinated and controlled by the General Directorate of Security Department of Public
Order. There is a committee comprised of 11 members to follow and assess the
implementation of COP. There is also a central unit which is under the Department of
Public Order and responsible for the implementation of COP, identifying problems,
producing solutions for the problems, developing services and establishing coordination
with municipal COP units. In each city, there is a COP unit which is directed by a major.
This unit depends on a Deputy Chief of Police who is responsible for maintaining public
order in the city. Ofﬁcers working in COP units are assigned by City Directorate of
Security and they are trained by the General Directorate of Security Department of
Training. These ofﬁcers also wear a special uniform.

Implementation of COP in Turkey is very similar to implementation of it in the
US. and some EU countries. Some main activities related to implementation of COP in

Turkey are analyzing crime and assigning foot patrol in neighborhoods, organizing peace

98

meetings with residents of the neighborhoods, identifying security rules in

neighborhoods, visiting residents in neighborhoods, organizing programs for schools and

students, conducting meetings with different job sectors, providing brochure and leaﬂets

to inform citizens, applying surveys to citizens, strengthening the relationship between

police and citizens, etc. (Kabukcu, 2006). The general principles of implementation COP

in Turkey are (Gokkaya & Dogan, 2007; TNP, 2009):

Being in the community and being open to communication with the citizens
Providing active participation of the community into security services and
crime prevention activities

Diffusion of principles of COP into all areas of policing services

Policing services should be directed and reorganized according to local needs
and expectations of the community.

Attempting to decrease fear of crime and insecurity in the community.

Some principles supporting implementation of COP in Turkey are (Gokkaya &

Dogan, 2007; TNP, 2009):

Establishing mechanisms facilitating communication and relationship between
the police and the community

Comprehensive approaches to solving community problems

Establishing a dialog with people under risk; building up relationship with
older people, women, children, addicts, tourists, etc.

Development of COP units in terms of technology, information systems, and

personnel.

99

In addition to these general and supportive principles, to facilitate and strengthen
the implementation of COP, cooperation with citizens and some public/private sectors is
necessary. In Turkey, COP units attempt to establish relationships and coordination with
the other units of city police, police centers, public sectors, municipal organizations,
education and training sectors (pre-schools, elementary schools, high schools,
universities, etc.), health and social service sectors, private security organizations, non-
governmental organizations, representatives of neighborhoods, streets, or apartments,

families, etc. (Gokkaya & Dogan, 2007; TNP, 2009).

3.5. THE ONLINE COP BASIC TRAINING PROGRAM

As mentioned above, the implementation of COP in Turkey is under the control of
the General Directorate of Security Department of Public Order. This department is also
responsible for planning and applying the basic training program and in-service training
programs for the assigned or working personnel of the community policing units across
the country. According to the circular related to community oriented policing, there are
two main training programs for the personnel of COP units: Community Oriented
Policing Basic Training, and In—service Training. Whereas COP basic training is offered
to all the personnel assigned to COP units, in-service training programs are offered to the

personnel working in COP units to improve and refresh their information and knowledge

related to cor.42
The COP Basic Training Program, which is the focus area of this study, is

planned, organized and applied cooperatively by the General Directorate of Security

 

Elm/wwwasayispol.tr/tdpegitim.asp

100

Department of Public Order and the General Directorate of Security Department of
Training. This training program is organized as a 60-hour course.

The aim of this program was to train ofﬁcers on understanding a comprehensive
deﬁnition of community policing, to give or improve skill and knowledge of ofﬁcers for
incorporating principles of community oriented policing into their job, to enhance
understanding of the importance of police-citizen collaboration in preventing crime in the
community and the importance of police-citizen relationship, and to train the application
of COP in their duty areas and how to solve problems they encounter during their work
collaboratively with citizens and other public-private sectors. In brief, this training
program aims to move values and attitudes of ofﬁcers away from traditional policing and
to apply the new policing model of community oriented policing.

Since 2006, the COP Basic Training program has been conducted four times and
all of them were offered online. The fourth online COP Basic Training program is the
interest of this study. It was conducted between May 25 and June 5, 2009. Table 4
presents the COP Basic Training programs conducted so far and the number of their
participants.

Table 4: COP Basic Training Programs and Their Participants43

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Year Term Number of Participants
2007 1st Term 520
2008 2“(1 Term 440
2009 (February 16-27) 3rd Term 647
2009 (May 25-June 5) 4‘“ Term 1406
Total 3013

 

For the fourth online basic training program, 1406 ofﬁcers participated. The list of

the number of participants of this training program according to their cities is presented in

 

4
3 This table was produced depending on the records of General Directorate of Security Department of

Public Order.

101

Appendix A. These officers were selected by their City Directorate of Security and they

were either assigned to the COP units or expected to be assigned. Approximately two

months before the training program the General Directorate of Security Department of

Public Order sent an official letter to all city police departments of the country to inform

them of the program and asked each of them to provide a list of the ofﬁcers who they

wanted to send to this course. When selecting the ofﬁcers who will participate to the COP

basic training program, these prerequisites are taken into account:

Ofﬁcers should have at least 12-month experience in the Turkish National Police.
They should not have any negative record for last three years.

They should have driver license.

They should be eager to work in COP units.

They should have ability to understand and explain.

They should have ability to make judgments between different events.

They should have ability to establish relationships, to communicate, to use their
body language, and to empathize.

Table 5 presents the demographic characteristics of the officers who participated

to the 4th term online COP basic training program.

Table 5: Demographic Characteristics of Participants of the 4th Term Online COP

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Basic Training Program
Rank Line Sergeant Lieutenant Captain Major Total
ofﬁcer
1217 82 64 30 13 1406
Gender Male Female Total
1319 87 1406

 

 

 

 

 

This program was presented as an online in-service training program. This

program offered a synchronous training for the officers. For each day, there were 6-hour

102

lessons. Although participants were expected to follow the lessons simultaneously, they
did not have to do so. Because all lessons were recorded as video and published, all
PowerPoint and other presentations were uploaded to the website, and there was also
some other resources related to lessons on the website, those who could not follow the
lessons synchronously because of their work or personal issues or those who wanted to
repeat the lessons could watch the lessons or read the materials asynchronously whenever
and wherever they wanted. This feature of the course also provided opportunity to review
what they learned during the training program after the course ended.

During the program, participants were expected to follow the lessons through
their work computer (or home computer, etc.). The city police departments had to provide
computers connected to the internet during the lesson hours for the ofﬁcers who did not
access to the internet. In order to follow the lessons, ofﬁcers should have entered a user
name and password. When they wanted to ask questions, they could ask through e-mail
during the lessons or after the lessons. The success of the participants was assessed
through a pass/fail grade scale based on an exam at the end of the course, and all the
participants passed.

The lessons of the COP Basic Training program were provided both by ranked
police ofﬁcers who were experts on COP and who had academic or professional training
on COP, and by academician from Universities. Details on the lessons are provided in

Appendix B.

103

CHAPTER 4
METHODOLOGY
4.1. RESEARCH QUESTION AND HYPOTHESES

This chapter presents the study methodology including the research question,
hypotheses, design, data and variables, and validity and reliability. Because the main
interest here is the relationship between self-directed learning and outcomes of an online
police training program, one research question focusing on this issue guides this study.

4.1.1. The Research Question

Is there any relationship between the ofﬁcers’ selfodirectedness and the
outcomes (perceived learning level, satisfaction, and gain or attitude change toward
COP) of the online COP training program?

Literature claims that success or degree of self-directed learning depends on
learners’ readiness for self-directed learning or degree of their self-directedness (Durr et
al., 1996; Fisher et al., 2001; Grow, 1991; O'Shea, 2003; Oddi, 1986). In their theoretical
PRO model, Brockett & Hiemstra (1991, p. 30) propose that there is a link between
outcomes of a learning program or success and being self-directed in the self-directed
learning environment. According to this model, there should be balance and harmony
between learners’ self-direction and self-directed learning environment. That is, if there is
not any balance and harmony between self—directedness level of learner and the learning
process, difﬁculties and ﬁ'ustration arise and success in the learning process will be
affected negatively (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991). Because the online learning is a self-
directed learning process (Gray, 1999; Ibrahim & Silong, 2000; McVay, 2000; Song &

Hill, 2007), the theoretical proposition of the PRO model and the claims of the literature

104

can also be accepted for the online learning environments. Some studies also support the
positive relationship between self-directedness and outcomes (e. g. success) of online
learning environments (Abdullah, Koren, Muniapan, Parasurarnan, & Rathakrishnan,
2008; Corbeil, 2003; P. Gugliehnino & Gugliehnino, 2003; McVay, 2000).
Consequently, the hypotheses for this research question are:

Hl: There is a positive relationship between self-directedness level of police
oﬂ‘icers and their learning level in the online training program.

H2: There is a positive relationship between self-directedness level of police
oﬁ‘icers and their satisfaction with the online training program.

H3: There is a positive relationship between selﬁdirectedness level of police
oﬁ‘icers and their gain (changes in their attitudes toward community oriented policing)
aﬁer the online training program.

Because based on previous research the changes in attitudes of police ofﬁcers
toward community oriented policing is measured through six variables in this study, there
are also 6 sub-hypotheses under the third hypothesis:

H3a: There is a positive relationship between self-directedness level of police
oﬁ‘icers and changes in their support to non-traditional policing after the online training
program.

H3b: There is a W relationship between self-directedness level of police
ofﬁcers and changes in their support to traditional policing aﬁer the online training
program.

H3c: There is a positive relationship between self-directedness level of police

oﬁ‘icers and changes in their orientation to COP after the online training program.

105

H3d: There is a positive relationship between selﬁdirectedness level of police
oﬁ‘icers and changes in their support to COP after the online training program.

H3e: There is a positive relationship between self-directedness level of police
ofﬁcers and changes in their perception about police-public relations after the online
training program.

H3 f: There is a positive relationship between self-directedness level of police
oﬂicers and changes in their perceived problem solving capability after the online

training program.

4.2. DATA

As mentioned above, the main interest of this study is to examine the predictors of
outcomes of the online COP training program and to understand the relationship between
self-directedness of ofﬁcers and these outcomes. Because the aim of this training
program is to move the attitudes and behaviors of the ofﬁcers from traditional policing to
non-traditional COP policing, one of the expected important outcomes of this training
program is the change in ofﬁcers’ attitudes toward COP at the end of the program. To be
able to measure if there was any change in attitudes of ofﬁcers, the evaluation research
principles were followed during the data collection process. The evaluation refers to a
research study in which the effectiveness of a policy, program, or way of doing
something is assessed (Kraska & Neuman, 2008). The primary task in evaluation research
is “to identify whether a particular intervention has an impact on speciﬁc outcomes”
(David Weisburd, 2000, p. 182). Basically, it can be said that “evaluation research is a

process of determining whether the intended result was produced” (Maxﬁeld & Babbie,

106

1998, p. 321). Like other research, an evaluation depends on design, sampling,
measurement, data collection procedures, and analysis (Maxﬁeld & Babbie, 1998).

4.2.1 Research Design

In terms of research design, it is clear that the true experimental design in which
units of analysis (subjects) are randomly assigned into at least one control (intervention
absent) and experimental group (intervention present) is seen as the most appropriate to
understand any effect of an intervention on outcomes (Singleton & Straits, 2005).
However, because there was no control group and random assignment opportunity for the
Online COP Basic Training program , the data of this study were collected through a
“pre-experimental design,” the one-group pretest-posttest design (Campbell & Stanley,
1966; Kraska & Neuman, 2008; Singleton & Straits, 2005). The one-group pretest-
posttest design, which is commonly used in educational research, includes observation
and measurement of one group as a pretest (OI), implication of a treatment as an
independent variable (X), and observation of the group again as a posttest (02). This
design does not include any control group or random assignment. The one- group pretest-
posttest design is illustrated in the diagram below (Campbell & Stanley, 1966; Singleton
& Straits, 2005).

01 x 02

To achieve this study through this pre-experimental design, a survey including

instruments measuring attitudes toward COP was delivered to all participants of the

training program before the training pro gram, and the same instrument was also delivered

to all participants at the end of the training program. The differences between posttest and

107

pretest will give us the change in the ofﬁcers’ attitudes toward COP at the end of the
training program.

Despite the one-group pretest posttest design is used widely, a number of possible
threats mentioned to its validity (Campbell & Stanley, 1966; Cook & Campbell, 1979).
Although the aim of this research design is to show the inﬂuence of an intervention on
outcomes (difference between 02 and 01), because of those threats to internal validity, in
this study, it is more appropriate to approach cautiously when talking the effect of the

online training program on changes in ofﬁcers’ attitudes toward COP at the end of the

training program.44

4.2.2. Sampling

Sampling can be deﬁned as a process in which we select observations, or in
general, in which we select some part of a population (Maxﬁeld & Babbie, 1998).
Because it is attempted to measure the outcomes of the online community policing
training program and to identify what predicts those outcomes in online learning

environment, this study is interested in all the TNP ofﬁcers who participated in the online

COP basic training program. Therefore, all the participants of the 4th term Online COP

Basic Training program were selected as the sample of this study. There were 1406

‘ participants of the training program working in 79 city police departments of Turkey. As
mentioned in chapter III, the participants were identiﬁed by their departments. Although
participants were not randomly assigned to that training program, some of their

demographic characteristics show similarities to the general population of the Turkish

 

44
A candid discussion about the threats to validity related to one-group pretest posttest design is presented
in the validity and reliability part of this chapter.

108

National Police.“ For example, whereas female ofﬁcers constitute approximately 5
percent of the population of TNP, 6 percent of the participants of the 4th online COP
training program were female. On the other hand, whereas 85 percent of the participants
were line ofﬁcers, in the general population of TNP the portion of line ofﬁcers is 92

percent.46 Table 6 shows the distributions of both the participants of the training program
and the population of the TNP according to their gender and rank.

Table 6: Comparison of Distribution of Participants of the Training Program and the
General Population of the TNP according to their gender and rank

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Participants of the Training General Population of TNP
Program
Male Female Total Male Female Total
Gender 1319 87 1406 195,330 11,333 206,663
94% 6% 100% 95% 5% 100%
Line Ranked Line Ranked
Rank Ofﬁcers Ofﬁcers Total Ofﬁcers Ofﬁcers Total
1217 189 1406 191,371 15,292 206,663
85% 13% 100% 92% 8% 100%

 

 

Finally, for the pretest of this research, the response rate was 1162 (83%). For the
posttest, the response rate was 1006 (72%). But, when we matched the data of the pretest

and posttest, the response rate including the ofﬁcers who responded to both pretest and

posttest was 884 (63%).47

 

4
5 It should be noted that there could be other important variables differentiating the general population of

TNP from the participants of the training program. However, because the TNP provided only gender and
rank variables for the population of TNP, I could compare them.

46 Although this table shows similarities between population and sample in terms of proportions, the one
sample t-test showed that whereas participants of the training program are not different from the general
population in terms of gender, they are different in terms of rank (t for gender=-l.09, and t for rank=-6.6).

47
It is seen that there is attrition when trying to match the data. However, aﬁer the attrition the group still

appears similar. For example, whereas percentage of female was 5.3 before attrition, it is 5.2 after attrition;
whereas percentage of supervisors was 11.1 before attrition, it is 11.3 after attrition. Moreover, whereas the
average age was 33.77 before attrition, it is 33.74 after attrition. The one sample t-test also support this

109

4.2.3. Instrumentation

The data used in this study were collected through a self-administered survey
method: web survey. The survey research method is generally accepted as a quantitative
data collection method (Kraska & Neuman, 2008; Neuman & Wiegand, 2000; Singleton
& Straits, 2005). According to Hagan (2006), “social surveys are means of data gathering
in which a segment of the population reports their attitudes and/or behavior” (p. 117). In
self-administered surveys, the questionnaire can be hand delivered, and the respondents
can ﬁll it out in a group or individually (Singleton & Straits, 2005). The basic ﬁrture of
self-administered questionnaires is that respondents complete these questionnaires
themselves (Maxﬁeld & Babbie, 1998). Today, there are three most commonly used self-
administered survey methods; mail surveys, e-mail surveys, and web surveys (Dillman,
2007). The other survey types are in-person interview surveys (face to face interview)
and telephone surveys (telephone interviewing) (Dillman, 2007; Maxﬁeld & Babbie,
1998; Singleton & Straits, 2005).

The participants of the online COP training program were located in 79 different
cities of Turkey. Because sending the questionnaire to them through mail or establishing
telephone or face-to-face interview was difﬁcult and costly, a self-administered web-
survey method in which the questionnaires were delivered through a Web address (URL)
was used (Dillman, 2007).

One of the important things in survey research is the survey questionnaire. The
survey questionnaire used during the data collection process of this study was comprised

of four parts; questions/instruments measuring attitudes toward COP, the instrument

 

similarities; the differences for any of these variables are not signiﬁcant (t for gender=-.272; t for rank=-
.293; t for age=-.145)

110

measuring self-directedness level of adults in learning environment (OCLI), the

instrument measuring leaming strategies (ATLAS),48 and general questions related to
both participants and their perceptions about the training program.

4.2.3.1. Instruments Measuring Attitudes of Oﬂicers toward COP

To measure attitudes of ofﬁcers toward COP, six multi-item scales were adopted
from the studies of Haarr (2001), Rosenbaum, Yeh, Wilkinson (1994), Lurigio and
Skogan (1994), and Adams et a1. (2002). Through these scales ofﬁcers’ support for both
community oriented policing and traditional policing, their orientation to COP, their
attitudes toward police-citizen relations, and their problem-solving capabilities were
measured both in the pretest and the posttest.49

4.2.3.2. The Oddi Continuing Learning Inventory (OCLI)

As mentioned previously, there are two instruments widely used to assess self-
directedness of adults in learning; Guglielmino’s Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale
(SDLRS) and Oddi’s Continuing Learning Inventory (OCLI) (Merriam et al., 2007). To
measure self-directedness level of the police ofﬁcers participating in the Online COP

Basic Training program, the OCLI instrument was used in the survey questionnaire
because, compared to the SDLRS, OCLI is free to administer,50 it took less time to

complete, and there was no signiﬁcant controversy in the literature concerning the

validity and reliability of this instrument.

 

48 . . . . . .
Because learning strategies of adults rs not mterest of thrs study the ATLAS instrument rs not explained

here.

49
These scales are examined comprehensively in the measurement of the variables part.

50
For the purpose of this research, a royalty-free copyright license for the use of the OCLI was granted by
Lorys F. Oddi.

111

The OCLI was developed to identify the self-directed continuing learners (Oddi,
1986), and it helps researchers to assess self-directedness of the adult learners as a
personality trait (Merriam et al., 2007). OCLI includes 24 items or statements (e.g., “I am
too old to learn anything new”) which are 7-point likert scales, and each of these
statements is scored on a scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Five of these
items (17, 20, 12, 24, and 21) are reverse coded (Harvey et al., 2006).

4.2.3.3. General Questions related to the Ofﬁcers and Their Perceptions of the
Online Training Program

The general questions of the survey instrument used for data collection were
comprised of 23 questions (1 7 close-ended and 6 open-ended questions). Through these
questions, the survey provided data on demographic characteristics of the ofﬁcers, their
personal attributes, the context that they were in or they experienced during the training
program, their perceived learning level in the program, their satisfaction with the
program, and their opinions about advantages and disadvantages of this online training
program. It should be indicated that the general questions, except the scales measuring
the perceived learning level and satisfaction of the ofﬁcers, was developed based on
Dillman’s (2007) “Tailored Design Method” and its principles related to constructing the
responded-ﬁiendly questionnaire.

Finally, this section also included two scales. One of these scales assessed the
perceived learning level of the ofﬁcers in the training program and had been adapted
from Priluck (2004). It contained 5 items (e.g., “I feel I learned a lot besides the normal

course material”) which were S-point likert scales, and each of these items was scored on

112

a scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly disagree).51 The other scale assessing the
satisfaction of the ofﬁcers with the training program was adapted from Schwartz &
Yonkers (1991), and it included 4 items (e.g., “1 overall satisﬁed with this training
program”) which were 5-point likert scales, and each of these items was scored on a scale
of 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly disagree).52

4.2.4. Data Collection Process

The Turkish context of this study also required several additional steps of the data
collection process. First of all, the data for this study were collected under the approval of
the MSU Institutional Review Board (IRB). After identifying the aim of this study and
research questions, a survey questionnaire including all the necessary scales and
questions was developed. Then, the questionnaire was translated into Turkish by the
author of this study. In order to check the accuracy of the translation, and assess whether
respondents comprehended the questions as it was intended, a cognitive interview was
conducted with 7 members of Turkish National Police (Biemer & Lyberg, 2003). Four of
them were graduate students in the U.S., two of them were ofﬁcers who graduated from
graduate programs in the U.S. and were working in TNP, and one of them was a graduate
from a graduate program in the U.S. and was working in a COP unit in Turkey. These
interviews were conducted using the “retrospective interview technique”(Biemer &
Lyberg, 2003); interviewees were ﬁrst asked to complete the questionnaire as if they
were real subjects of the research, then they were asked to compare the Turkish version

of it with the English version so that they could ﬁgure out whether they were translated

 

1
5 Although Priluck’s scale had 4 items, I added one item asking to what extent the officers agree or
disagree that the online training program increased their learning level on COP.

2
Though the original satisfaction scale had 3 items, one item was added (“This training program was a
waste of time”) because it was thought necessary by the author of this study.

113

correctly. The interviewees were asked whether they found anything problematic with the
questionnaire and especially with the general questions part and how they could be
adjusted. They were also asked to think about congruity of the questions to the Turkish
National Police context. After this cognitive interview, a few changes were made in the
questionnaire.

To be able to conduct this research in TNP, permission was sought ﬁ'om the
General Directorate of Security and consultation took place with the General Directorate

of Security Public Order Department about how to conduct it. Then, the data collection

process was done through a pretest-posttest design. Two questionnaires were provided.53
The ﬁrst questionnaire (for pretest) included scales related to attitudes to COP, the OCLI
instrument, and the ATLAS instrument. The second questionnaire included general
questions (related to personal characteristics of the ofﬁcers, their perceptions about the
training program, skills etc.) and the same scales related to attitudes to COP which were
asked in the ﬁrst questionnaire. As it is seen, only the instruments related to attitudes

toward COP were administered for both pretest and posttest. The questionnaires were
published in the “Survey Monkey” website.54 The General Directorate of Security also

put two links for the ﬁrst and the second questionnaires into their website.55 This
department also wrote an official letter to inform all participants about their
responsibilities when they would participate to the training program, and how they could
. enter and follow the lessons six days before the training program. This ofﬁcial letter also

included information related to the survey. It was indicated that this survey was not

 

53

The Questionnaires are presented in Appendix C.
54

www.3urvevmonkev.com

55
http://www.asavis.pol.tr/

114

organized by the TNP, but it was organized to measure success of the online training
program and its results would be very helpﬁrl to develop this program. The letter also
explained that participation to this survey was not mandatory. The Turkish version of the
consent form approved by IRB was also attached to that ofﬁcial letter and participants
asked to complete the ﬁrst survey by the noon of the ﬁrst day of the training program and
to complete the second survey after the training program within 15 days if they wanted to
participate in the surveys. Whereas the participants could not enter the ﬁrst survey after
the noon of the ﬁrst day of the training program, they also could not enter the second

survey before the end of the training program. In order to enter the surveys, participants

were asked to put the last ﬁve digits of their citizen ID number.56 The reason for
including the ﬁve last digits of the citizen ID numbers was to be able to match the pretest

and the posttest responses.

4.3. MEASUREMENT OF THE VARIABLES
As mentioned previously, relying on the PRO model, as well as previous literature
related to online learning and police training, a logic model was developed to 'predict the
outcomes of the online COP training program. In this model, there are three types of
predictor variables: self-directedness level, variables related to personal attributes and
demographic characteristics of the ofﬁcers and variables related to the context. Figure 3

demonstrates the logic model of this study. In this part, measurement of each variable of

this model is explained.

 

56
Citizen ID number is comprised of 11 digits.

115

ﬁgure 3: The Logic Model for Online COP B_asic Training Program

 

Computer Knowledge
°Education Level

°Rank

°Pre-Exp. in Online Lear.

°Pre-Exp. in COP Train.

j

Personal Attributes and
Demographic Characteristics

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

oAge
°Gender ‘ 'Gain (Change in
“1 Attitudes toward
3 COP)
Self-Directedness E (‘—
3 °Perceived Learning
0
-Internet Accessibility °Satisfaction
’52
9:3 °Current Unit
a
u
'Department Size

 

 

 

4.3.1. Dependent Variables

As emphasized, the-dependent variables of this study are outcomes of the online
COP training program. These are gain (change in attitudes of ofﬁcers toward COP at the
end of the training program), perceived learning level ofﬁcers, and their satisfaction with
the training program.

4.3.1.1 Gain (Change in oﬂicers’ attitudes toward COP):

The online COP training program aimed to move values and attitudes of ofﬁcers
away from traditional policing to the non-traditional policing model of community

oriented policing. Therefore, in this study, it is expected that if the online COP training

116

program was successful, there should be changes in the attitudes and behaviors of the
ofﬁcers in favor of COP (Rosenbaum & Wilkinson, 2004).

It is clear that to measure gain (change in attitudes) it was necessary to measure
attitudes toward COP before and after the training program. The pretest posttest design
provided opportunity to measure this concept. Drawing upon the research of Haarr
(2001), Rosenbaum, Yeh, Wilkinson (1994), Lurigio and Skogan (1994), and Adams et
al. (2002), 6 variables were used to measure attitudes of ofﬁcers toward COP before and
after the training program. Because the scales measuring six variables, which are
mentioned below, related to attitudes toward COP were applied both in the pretest and
posttest, the differences between the results of these two tests for each variable gave gain
or the change in the ofﬁcers’ attitudes toward COP at the end of the training program.
That is, there were six variables measuring gain and the score of each variable ranged
from —n to +n.

The variables used to measure attitudes of ofﬁcers are support for non-traditional
policing, support for traditional policing, orientation to COP, support for COP, perception
about police-public relations, and perceived problem solving capability.57

I -Support for Non-traditional Policing:

To measure ofﬁcers’ support for non-traditional COP policing activities, the scale

comprised of 7 items based on 4-point likert scales was used.58 This scale measured

 

7 As mentioned, scales measuring these variables were adapted ﬁ'om prior studies. Because these prior
research used additive indexes in order to measure attitudes toward COP (such as Haarr, 2001, and Adams
et al., 2002), and because the internal consistency (reliability) is high among all items for each scale (the
Cronbach’s coefﬁcient alpha > .70 for each scale), for this study additive indexes were used instead of
factor scores. Although the use of additive indexes can be seen limited because it assumes all items have
the same weight or importance and have the same distance between levels, it can provide opportunity to
compare results with previous research. In addition, comparison between factors scores and additive index
scores of same constructs showed that these two are highly correlated; that is, the correlation scores ranged
from .97 to .99.

117

ofﬁcers’ attitudes regarding how much of their departments’ resources should be
committed to non-traditional policing activities (or COP related activities) mentioned in
each item. Each of the items was scored on a scale of 1 (none) to 4 (large amount).These
items were:

- Patrolling on foot in neighborhoods

- Marketing police service to the public

- Explaining crime prevention techniques to citizens

- Handling special events

- Researching and solving problems

- Coordinating with other agencies to improve the quality of life in the city

- Working with citizen groups to resolve local problems
The reliability test showed that this scale was internally consistent (Cronbach’s alpha for
pretest=.73 and for posttest=.75). The total scores for this scale were expected to range
from 7 referring to the lowest level of support for non-traditional policing to 28 refening
to the highest level of support for non-traditional policing.

2- Support for Traditional Policing:

To measure ofﬁcers’ support for traditional policing activities, the scale

comprised of 7 items based on 4-point likert scales was used.59 This scale measured

ofﬁcers’ attitudes regarding how much of their departments’ resources should be

 

58

The original scale was based on 10 items but 3 items were removed because they are not suitable for
Turkey context. Those items are “Patrolling on bikes in neighborhoods”, “Understanding the problems of
minority groups”, “Getting to know juveniles”.

The original scale was based on 4 items, but 3 items mostly related to traditional policing especially in
Turkey context were added.

118

committed to traditional policing activities mentioned in each item. Each of the items is

scored on a scale of 1 (none) to 4 (large amount).These items were:

Assisting persons in emergencies
Helping settle family disputes
Responding to calls for service
Checking buildings and residences
Responding to crimes
Investigating criminal incidents

Trafﬁc enforcement

The reliability test showed that this scale was internally consistent (Cronbach’s alpha for

pretest=.72 and for posttest=.77). The total scores for this scale were expected to range

from 7 referring to the lowest level of support for traditional policing to 28 referring to

the highest level of support for traditional policing.60

3- Orientation to COP:

This variable refers to the ofﬁcers’ opinions about COP activities and their

effectiveness. The scale comprised of 9 items based on 5-point likert scales was used to

measure this variable. This scale assessed ofﬁcers’ opinions about COP related activities

through their agreement with each item. Each of the items was scored on a scale of 1

(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). These items were:

Police ofﬁcer should make ﬁ'equent informal contacts with the people in their
beat.

Police ofﬁcers should try to solve non-crime problems in their beat

 

60
Opposite of the other scales related to attitudes ofﬁcers toward COP, for this scale, it was expected a
negative change in ofﬁcers support for traditional policing at the end of the training program.

119

Crime in their beat is not the only problem that police ofﬁcers should be
concerned about

Police officers should work with citizens to try and solve problems in their beat
Assisting citizens can be as important as enforcing the law

Citizens know more about what goes on in their area than the ofﬁcers who patrol
there

The prevention of crime is the joint responsibility of the community and the
police

Lowering citizens’ fear of crime should be just as high a priority for the
department as cutting the crime rate

Without citizen cooperation, the majority of crimes would never be solved

The reliability test showed that this scale was internally consistent (Cronbach’s alpha for
pretest=.74 and for posttest=.81). The total scores were expected to range ﬁ'om 9
referring to the lowest level of orientation to COP to 45 referring to the highest level of

positive orientation to COP.

4- Support for COP:

This variable refers to the direct opinions of the ofﬁcers about COP, and it was

measured through a 7-item and 5-point likert type scale. This scale measured ofﬁcers’
support for COP according to their agreement with each of the items. Each of the items

was scored on a scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). These items were:

COP prevents street ofﬁcers from performing more important activities, such as

responding to emergency calls (R)61

 

61
(R) refers to reverse coded.

120

- COP makes it easier for street ofﬁcers to apprehend criminals

- COP takes good ofﬁcers and turns them into social workers (R)

- COP is just one more fad in policing and will soon be replaced by another fad (R)

- COP does not provide ofﬁcers with enough guidance for handling incidents (R)

- In most cases, referring a citizen to social services, health, or welfare agencies is a

waste of police ofﬁcers’ time (R)

- COP puts more decision-making authority in the hands of the street ofﬁcer
Five of these items were coded reverse. The reliability test showed that this scale was
internally consistent (Cronbach’s alpha for pretest=.62 and for posttest=.68). The total
scores were expected to range from 7 (the lowest support for COP) to 35 (the highest
support for COP).

5- Perception about police-public relations:

This variable refers to the ofﬁcers’ perceptions about the relationships between
police and citizens and citizens’ opinions of the police. The scale comprised of 5-point
likert type 7 items was used to measure this variable. This scale assessed ofﬁcers’
perceptions about police-public relations through their agreement with each of these
items:

- Most people do not respect the police (R)

- The relationship between the police and the people is very good

- Citizens do not understand the problems of the police (R)

- Most people have no idea of how difﬁcult a police ofﬁcer’s job is (R)

- Citizens will never trust police enough to work together effectively (R)

- The public shows a lot of respect for law enforcement ofﬁcers

121

- The public is more apt to obstruct law enforcement work than to cooperate (R)
Each of the items was scored on a scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
Five items of this scale were coded reverse. The reliability test showed that this scale was
internally consistent (Cronbach’s alpha for pretest=.76 and for posttest=.78). The total
scores were expected to range ﬁom 7 to 35. This means that as the total score increases,
the positive perception of the ofﬁcers about police-public relations also increases; the
score of 35 refers to the highest positive perception.

6- Perceived problem solving capability:

This variable refers to how the ofﬁcers see themselves qualiﬁed to identify and
solve the community problems that they encounter during their daily duties. The scale
including 5 items based on 4-point likert scales was used to measure this variable. This
scale assessed ofﬁcers’ perceived problem solving capability through asking how
qualiﬁed they felt to do each of these items:

- Identify community problems

- Use problem-solving techniques to analyze problems

- Develop solutions to community problems

- Evaluate solutions to see how well they work

- Work with beat residents to solve problems in the neighborhood
Each of the items was scored on a scale of 1 (very unqualiﬁed) to 4 (very qualiﬁed). The
reliability test showed that this scale was internally consistent (Cronbach’s alpha for
pretest=.88 and for posttest=.9l). The total scores were expected to range ﬁ'om 5 to 20.
This means that the ofﬁcers whose total score for this scale was 20 feel themselves very

qualiﬁed to identify and solve community problems.

122

4. 3. 1.2 Perceived learning level
This outcome variable refers to ofﬁcers’ perception of the extent that their
knowledge level related to COP was affected by the training program and how much they
learned from the online COP training program (Y. Zhao, Lei, Yan, Lai, & Tan, 2005). To
measure perceived learning level of the ofﬁcers a 5-item scale was used. This scale
assessed perceived learning level through offrcers’ agreement with these items:
- The training was effective in facilitating my learning
- I feel I learned a lot besides the normal course material
- My learning was hindered in this training program (R)
- I was able to focus on the learning task in this training program
- This training program increased my knowledge level on community oriented
policing
Each item was scored on a scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). One item
was reverse coded. The reliability test showed that this scale was internally consistent
(Cronbach’s alpha=.82). At the end of the analyses, the total scores were expected to
range from 5 to 25; whereas the score of 5 will refer to the lowest level of perceived
learning, the score of 25 will refer to the highest level of perceived learning.
4. 3. 1.3 Satisfaction
The last outcome of the online training program examined for this study is
satisfaction of the ofﬁcers. This variable represents to what extent the ofﬁcers were
satisﬁed with the online training program. In the literature, satisfaction has been
frequently used as an outcome variable predicting the success of a training program. For

example, Zhao and his colleagues examined 51 distance learning related studies

123

published from 1966 to 2002, and found that grades, quizzes, independent/standardized
tests, student satisfaction, instructor satisfaction, dropout rate, student evaluation of
leaming, student evaluation of course and external evaluation had been commonly used
to evaluate success of a training or learning program (Y. Zhao et al., 2005). Their results
also showed that student satisfaction was used as an outcome measure by 8 of those
studies. In another study, Schwartz and Yonkers (1991) focused on ofﬁcers’ satisfaction
with police in-service training. They emphasized that although measuring satisfaction is
only one part of an overall evaluation of an in-service training program, it is an important
component of any assessment of training success. Moreover, Creedy and his ﬁiends
examined Web-enhanced training program; speciﬁcally they focused on the relationship
between students’ computer skills, use of technology, ease of access and outcomes of the
study as measured by students’ satisfaction with the web-enhanced program (Creedy et
al., 2007). On the other side some studies found that there is a positive relationship
between satisfaction with a training program or some components of it and level of
learning (Fredericksen, Pickett, Pelz, Swan, & Shea, 2000). For example, Swan (2001)
found that student satisfaction with learning programs they were taking and their

perceived learning level in that programs were the most highly correlated variables (r=

.784). 62

The satisfaction of the ofﬁcers with the training program was measured by a 4-
item and 5-point likert type scale. This scale assessed the satisfaction of the ofﬁcers
through their agreement with these items:

- I overall satisﬁed with this training program

 

62
Any possible intervening effect of satisfaction between self-directedness and learning was also
considered and explained in the analysis part of this study.

124

- I desire to participate another distance online training program

- This training program provided highly imported knowledge for me

- This training program was a waste of time (R)
Each item was scored on a scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). One item
was reverse coded. The reliability test showed that this scale was internally consistent
(Cronbach’s alpha=.90). At the end of the analyses, the total scores were expected to

range from 4 (the lowest level of satisfaction) to 20 (the highest level of satisfaction).

43.2. Independent Variables ‘3

Although the logic model of this study categorizes the predictor variables under
three category (self-directedness level, variables related to personal attributes and
demographic characteristics of the ofﬁcers and variables related to the context), for the
aim of the analyses, they are categorized into two categories: independent and control
variables. The main independent variable of this study is level of self-directedness of the
officers. In addition to the self-directedness, several other independent variables were
selected based on prior research that found they were associated with online learning.
These are computer knowledge, internet accessibility, previous experience in online
learning, age, gender, and educational level. Some other variables that are related to
policing and learning context or COP training were examined as control variables. These
variables are, previous experience in COP training, rank, current assigned unit, and

department size.

 

63
All the instruments and the questions measuring the independent and the control variables (except OCLI

measuring self-directedness of the officers) were administered in the posttest.

125

4.3.2.1. Level of self-directedness:

This variable refers to a personality trait. That is, this variable shows to what
extent a person has characteristics of self-directed learners or to what extent he/she is
ready to learn in the SDL. To measure this variable, the 24-item Oddi Continuing
Learning Inventory (OCLI) was used. Each of the items of OCLI was scored on a scale of
l(strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Five of the items were reverse coded. At the
end of the analysis of this instrument, total scores were expected to range from 24 to 168;
whereas the score of 24 refers to the low level of self-directedness in learning or having
least characteristic of self-directed continuing learners, the score of 168 refers to the
highest level of self-directedness in learning or having the most characteristics of self-
directed continuing learners (Harvey et al., 2006). That is, as the score of the OCLI
increases, self-directedness of adult in learning also increases (Chou & Chen, 2008).
Moreover, like the previous research ﬁnding reliability of OCLI more than .70, in this
study reliability of this instrument was also high (Cronbach’s coefﬁcient alpha= .78).

4.3.2.2. Computer Knowledge

This variable refers to the level of capability or knowledge about computer
technologies and the internet. Prior literature indicates the importance of computer and
internet skills or knowledge for the outcomes (e. g. success) of online learning
environment (McVay, 2000; Wojciechowski & Palmer, 2005). Relying on the research
ﬁnding positive relationships between these two concepts (Creedy et al., 2007;
Pachnowski & Jurczyk, 2000), the expectation of this study is also to ﬁnd positive
relationship between ofﬁcers’ computer knowledge and the outcomes of the online COP

training program. To measure this variable, a 9-item instrument asking whether or not

126

participants know how to do different types of computer and internet tasks mentioned in
the each of the items (e. g., “I know how to use a standard word processor, such as
Microsoft word”) was used. Each of the items are scored on 1 (yes) or 0 (no) scale. The
sum of the “yes” answers gave us the level of the computer knowledge of the ofﬁcers.
Total scores were expected to range from 0 (no knowledge) to 9 (the highest level of
knowledge).

4.3.2.3. Internet accessibility

This variable refers to the extent that ofﬁcers access to the computer and internet
both in their work environment and in their home during the training program. In the
literature, it is emphasized that one of the most important barriers in ﬁ'ont of the
achievement, learning, and persistence in online learning environment is limited or lack
of internet or computer accessibility (Ibrahim & Silong, 2000), and it is claimed that there
is a positive relationship between accessibility and success and satisfaction of the
students in online learning environments (Creedy et al., 2007; Murphy et al., 2007;
Pachnowski & Jurczyk, 2000). To measure this variable in this study the question asking
policeofﬁcers to what extent they had opportunity to use internet during the training
program was used. Answers are broken into four categories ﬁ'om 1 (not at all) to 4 (very
great extent).

4.3.2.4. Previous aperience in online learning

This variable refers to whether the ofﬁcers had participated to any learning
program offered online before this online COP training program. According to literature,
those who have experience in any online training program or online learning previously

are more likely to be motivated to participate in another online learning program and they

127

will enjoy it because they are more familiar with the online learning process and they are
less likely to feel anxiety and uncertainty (Wu & Hiltz, 2004). Some research also
showed that there was a positive signiﬁcant relationship between the success in an online
course and the number of previous online courses taken by a student (W ojciechowski &
Palmer, 2005). To measure this variable, the question asking if the officers had
participated in any online learning program was used and the variable was coded as a
dummy variable: 0) No and 1) Yes.

4.3.2.5. Age

This variable refers to the actual age of each ofﬁcer during the training program.
Prior research suggests that there might be relationships between age of the participants
and their success in self-directed learning environments (e. g., online learning
environment) (Harriman, 1990; Morris, 1995; Pachnowski & Jurczyk, 2000). However,
there is disagreement in terms of the direction of this relationship (Harriman, 1990;
Ibrahim & Silong, 2000; Wojciechowski & Palmer, 2005). In this study this variable was
measured as a ratio-level continuous variable.

4.3.2. 6. Gender

Although the literature indicates that females are less conﬁdent with the use of the
computers (Wu & Hiltz, 2004), they are disadvantaged in the online learning
environment (Gunn, McSporran, Macleod, & French, 2003, p. 14), and the childcare
responsibilities lower their performance (Dutton et al., 2002), the researchers focusing on
the relationship between gender and achievement or success in online learning did not

ﬁnd any signiﬁcant relationship (Dutton etal., 2002; Wojciechowski & Palmer, 2005;

128

Wu & Hiltz, 2004). In this study, this variable will be coded as a dummy variable; 1)
male and 0) female.

4.3.2. 7. Educational Level

This variable refers to the highest educational degree that an ofﬁcer completed.
As opposed to the studies done in educational contexts (e. g. colleges), for the lifelong
education/learning or occupational training areas, this variable can be seen as important
to predict the outcomes of the online learning activities. For example, in his research
focusing on a distance telecourse program conducted by a community college, Harriman
(1990) found that there was a positive relationship between the education level of
participants and their achievement in that course. In the data, this variable is broken into
8 categories: 1) High school, 2) Police School (1 year or 9 months), 3) Police School (2
years), 4) Two-year University, 5) Police Academy (4 years), 6) Bachelor degree, 7)
Master, 8) PhD or more. Because the minimum education requirement for recruitment of
police officers is high school, it was assessed as one year police academy. For the
purpose of this study, these eight categories was reduced into three: 1) Police School (9
months or 1 year), 2- Two-year University (including both the two-year police school and

two-year University), and 3- F our-year University and above (including all the categories

ﬁ'om 5 to 8).64

 

Because, in Turkish context, 2-years police school and two-year university refers to same educational
level, and four year-police academy and bachelor degree also refers to same educational level, and the
number of ofﬁcers who have master or PhD degree was very small in the data, this variable was reduced
into three categories.

129

4.3.3. Control Variables

4. 3. 3. 1. Previous experience in COP training“

This variable refers to whether the ofﬁcers had participated in any COP training
program before this online COP training program. Like previous experience in online
learning, previous experience in COP training may also have effect on the success of the
ofﬁcers. For example, Dutton, Dutton, & Perry (2002) showed that previous experience
in computing and programming courses positively affected the success of the students in
a computer programming courses. This variable was coded as a dummy variable: 0) No
and 1) Yes.

4.3.3.2. Rank

In some type of occupational settings that have militaristic structure, there are
some unique distinctive variables related to their personnel. Two of these variables are
rank and service year. Although there is no study of online learning that has focused on

these two variables in the literature, these two variables should be controlled for

predicting outcomes in a police training program.66 Although ranks of the ofﬁcers were

coded into 5 categories in the data (line ofﬁcers, sergeant, lieutenant, captain, and major
and above), because the number of the ranked ofﬁcers was very small in the distribution
of this variable, the categories of ranked ofﬁcers were merged and this variable was put

into two categories for the purpose of this study: 1) Line ofﬁcers and 0) Supervisors.

4.3.3.3. Current assignment (or Current unit)

 

65
In those countries who have been applying COP for a long time, police ofﬁcers are exposed to COP

training in their pre-service training programs. However, because implementation of COP was started in
2006 in Turkey, the COP was put in to the curriculum of pre-service training programs just new. Therefore,
there is variation in this variable.

66
Because service year was highly correlated with age, it was removed from analysis (F90).

130

This variable refers to whether the units in which ofﬁcers worked during the
training program were responsible for applying perspectives of community oriented
policing. According to Mastrofski and Ritti (1996), the impact of police training is
affected by organizational level considerations. That is, “training has a signiﬁcant
positive effect in agencies that provide a supportive environment, but fails to have an
effect in agencies that are otherwise indifferent or hostile to the purposes the ofﬁcers are
trained for” (Feltes, 2002, p. 55). For the online COP basic training program, whereas
some participants were working in units responsible for applying COP, some participants
were working in other units but they were expected to be assigned to COP units.
Depending on Mastrofski and Ritti’s (1996) theoretical approach it can be predicted that
officers who were working in COP units were exposed to a more supportive environment
during the training program compared with the ofﬁcers who were working other
departments. Therefore, their success in the training program may also have been affected
positively. Although this variable has three categories in the data (yes, no, not sure), it is
clear that if an ofﬁcer does not know whether his/her unit is responsible for COP, this
means that it is not a COP related unit. Therefore, this variable was coded into a dummy
variable: 1) COP and 0) Non-COP.

4.3.3.4. Department size

Work commitment and work load are shown as barriers to successful online
learning (Ibrahim & Silong, 2000; Pachnowski & Jurczyk, 2000). Police related some
studies indicate that because their highly paramilitary and bureaucratic structures, social
distance between supervisors and line ofﬁcers, high level of organization and public

demands, ofﬁcers working in larger police departments experience higher stress than

131

ofﬁcers working smaller departments ( Brooks & Piquero, 1998; Morash, Haarr, &
Kwak, 2006). Moreover, after suggesting that level of police stress and stressors of

policing are explained by police departments, Morash and Haarr (1995) found that there

was a positive relationship between stress and workplace problems.67 There is no doubt
that whereas this negative feature of the larger police departments affects all the activities
of their ofﬁcers, it may also affect the training process in the online environment; that is,
the ofﬁcers working in larger police departments might experience problems to follow

the lessons online because of their workplace stress and problems compared to ofﬁcers
working in smaller agencies. Therefore, it can be expected that there might be a
relationship between success and gain of ofﬁcers in an online learning program and the
size of the department in which they work. To measure this variable the total number of
police officers working in each city police department in which each of the participants of
the online COP training program worked was used. This data was provided by the

Personal Department of the General Directorate of Security of Turkey.

4.4. VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
The validity and reliability related to this study can be examined through internal
and external validity, and measurement validity and reliability. In terms of internal
validity, although the one-group pretest posttest design is widely used in the social

science research and educational research, the literature mentions some possible threats to

 

67 Although there are some other claims indicating that despite there are more workloads in large police
departments, there are also more oﬂicers and it is easier to cover their shifts, thereby there may be less
stress for police officers in large police departments, for Turkish context we can accept the ﬁndings and
claim of previous research more appropriate. That is, although there are more ofﬁcers in larger police
departments of TNP, they are not enough to respond work expectation effectively. Therefore, as far as the
author of this study observed, people working in the big city police departments in Turkey are under stress
more than those working in small city departments.

132

internal validity of the research conducted through this design; such as, history,
maturation, testing, statistical regression, and instrumentation (Campbell & Stanley,

1966; Cook & Campbell, 1979). Regarding the selection process of ofﬁcers for this

training program,68 we can also talk about selection bias, though it is not mentioned as a
threat to internal validity of one-group pretest posttest design by the literature. Although
this study’s main goal is not related to effectiveness of online COP police training, it is
important to keep in mind short comings and limitations of the one-group pretest and
posttest design due to these validity threats when we talk about the gain scores associated
with the training’s effectiveness.

The history threat refers to some events other than the intervention that may occur
between pretest and posttest and may affect the outcome. This kind of threat is more
likely in experimental research lasting a long time (Maxﬁeld & Babbie, 1998). This is
minimized for the online COP training program because of the 10—day program format.
Additionally, the national sample makes it less likely that a signiﬁcant event would affect
the opinions of all ofﬁcers from 79 different cities. Although it seems that because of the
short time period of this study and national sampling, effect of history threat is low for
this study, we should still admit that because this study was not a laboratory study and it
was done in the ﬁeld, there may have been some outside inﬂuences effecting the gain at
the end of this program and this study could not provide enough opportunities to control
this external inﬂuences.

The testing threat indicates that because of being exposed to the pretest, subjects

may become aware of the goals of the study and they may change their performance in

 

68
The selection process is explained in Chapter 3.

133

the posttest (Maxﬁeld & Babbie, 1998; Singleton & Straits, 2005). To rule out this
threat, both in the consent form and during the training program, the aim of the research,
assurances about conﬁdentiality, and importance of being objective and realistic in
answering the questions in order to improve this kind of program were emphasized with
the goal of increasing their honesty during the survey process. However, it should be
admitted that this may have not been an effective solution for this threat and the short
time period (1 0-day format of the program) may have increased the effect of this threat.
Maturation referring to any psychological or physical changes in subjects
(respondents’ growmg older, stronger, wiser, more experienced, etc.) during the course of
the experiment may be seen less important for this study because of short time period
(Cook & Campbell, 1979). Statistical regression threat indicates that it will be wrong to
attribute change to an intervention (treatment) “when an effect might be due to
respondents’ being classiﬁed into experimental groups at. . .the pretest on the basis of
pretest scores or correlates of pretest scores” (Cook & Campbell, 1979, p. 52). Although
we cannot talk about any this kind of classiﬁcation for this study, we can talk about high
pretest scores of some respondents due to their speciﬁc characteristics, such as their high
self-directedness level.69 Here, we can also talk about selection threat because the
ofﬁcers may have been selected because of their some characteristics for this online COP
training program. It is clear that this may also affect internal validity of this study.
Finally, the instrumentation threat refers that changes in the obtained measurement may

be produced by the changes in the calibration of a measuring instrument or the changes in

 

69
This issue is discussed in chapter six, section 6.1.

134

the observers or scorers used between pretest and posttest. Because there was no this kind
of change, this threat is also seen not plausible for this study.

External validity refers to “the ability to generalize experimental ﬁndings to
events and settings outside the experiment itself’ (Kraska & Neuman, 2008, p. 258). In
the literature, two common threats to external validity of research conducted through the
pretest posttest design are mentioned; testing effects and selection bias (Campbell &
Stanley, 1966; Cook & Campbell, 1979). For this study, the selection bias might be seen
as a threat to the external validity because of the non-random selection of the participants
of the training program. However, as it is showed above, although the ofﬁcers who
participated to this training program were selected by their departments non-randomly,
their distribution demonstrates similarities to the general population of the TNP. On the
other hand, threat of testing effect to external validity indicates that the results obtained
from the pretested group may not represent the effect of the treatment on un-pretested
population (Campbell & Stanley, 1966; Hagan, 2006; Kraska & Neuman, 2008). Any
possible effect of this threat was also tried to be minimized through precautions
mentioned in the testing threat to internal validity. However, because of these threats,
caution will need to be exercised before generalizing to all TNP ofﬁcers.

An additional step to increase validity and reliability was reliance on instruments
and scales that have been used in prior research. First of all, the scales measuring
attitudes of the ofﬁcers’ toward COP were used by a number of previous researchers as
valid and reliable instruments (e. g., Adams etal., 2002; Haarr, 2001; Lurigio & Skogan,
1994; Rosenbaum et al., 1994). The construct validity of this scales were conﬁrmed by

Lurigio & Skogan (1994) and Rosenbaum et al. (1994). Haarr (2001) also supported the

135

validity and reliability of these instruments. The second instrument, OCLI, measuring the
level of self-directedness of the ofﬁcers in learning environment, was developed and
conﬁrmed as a valid and reliable tool for identifying self-directed learners by Oddi
(1986). Validity (especially construct validity) and reliability of this instrument were also
conﬁrmed and supported by later research and studies (Bartlett, 1999; Harvey et al., I
2003,2006; Landers, 1989;.Oddi et al., 1990; Six, 1987). Finally, the scales measuring 5 -

perceived learning level of the ofﬁcers and their satisfaction with the training program J

 

were also presented as reliable and valid scales in prior research (Priluck, 2004; Schwartz

& Yonkers, 1991; Sweeney & Ingram, 2001).

4.5. ANALYTIC STRATEGY

The data analysis process of this dissertation was done through quantitative data

analysis techniques. As analytic tools, SPSS and STATA software were utilized.70
During the analysis process, ﬁrst, reliability assessments of the instruments were applied
through looking their internal consistency (Cronbach’s Coefﬁcient Alpha). Then, general
description of the sample and variables were drawn by univariate (descriptive) analyses.
In terms of bivariate analyses, correlation (Pearson Correlation Coefﬁcient) and the
matched- groups (or the dependent samples) t-test were conducted. Whereas correlation
analyses helped to examine bivariate relationships between the variables and to determine
availability of any multicollinearity issues, the matched-grouped t-test helped to
understand if there was any signiﬁcant change in police ofﬁcers’ attitudes toward

community policing at the end of the training program. Finally, to test the hypotheses of

 

70
Especially during the testing OLS assumptions process STATA was used because SPSS did not provide
opportunity to test Homoscedasticity assumption statistically.

136

this study and to ﬁgure out the predictors of the outcome of the online COP training

program, the Ordinary Lest-Squares (OLS) regression analysis was applied as a

multivariate analysis method. The OLS regression analysis provided opportunity to

estimate the form of the relationship among each of the outcome variables and all of the

independent variables at once. More speciﬁcally, the OLS made possible to estimate the l

unique effect of each independent variable on each of the outcome variables controlling

 

for the effects of other independent variables (M. P. Allen, 1997).

137

CHAPTER 5
ANALYSES AND FINDINGS

In this chapter major research ﬁndings regarding prediction of outcomes of the
online COP training program are presented. First, the results of univariate analyses
(descriptive statistics) are presented. The descriptive statistics provide information about
general characteristics of the sample and the distributions of the both independent and
dependent variables. The bivariate analysis follows the descriptive statistics. Through this
analysis the bivariate relationships among all variables are examined. Finally, the results
of multivariate analyses obtained through Ordinary Least Square regression analysis
method are presented.

5.1. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

5.1.1. Descriptive Statistics for Independent and Control Variables

As mentioned, the main interest of this study is to examine the relationship
between level of self-directedness of the police ofﬁcers and the outcomes (learning,
satisfaction, and gain) of the online training program. Therefore, the main independent
variable is self-directedness level of the ofﬁcers. However, relying on the literature on
online learning and police training related studies, ten more variables also were added
into the logic model of this study. Moreover, because the data related to self-directedness
level of ofﬁcers were collected during the pretest, the sample size used for descriptive

analysis of this variable is different than the sample size used for the descriptive analysis

of the other independent and control variables.71

 

71
Whereas the sample size for the data related to level of self-directedness of the ofﬁcers is 1156, the

samples size for the data related to other independent and control variables is 1006.

138

Descriptive statistics presented in Table 7 demonstrate the general sample
characteristics through distribution of independent and control variables. As seen in this
table, the average self-directedness score of the ofﬁcers (the average OCLI score) is

132.01. This score indicates that in average, ofﬁcers are moderately self-directed in
learning.72 The total scores of the OCLI range ﬁom 54 to 167 . This indicates that self- ‘
"“1

directedness level of the ofﬁcers ranges from being moderately not self-directed to being

strongly-self directed. Looking at the relatively small standard deviation (SD=12.99), it

 

can be predicted that the distribution of the variable of level of self-directedness is

relatively homo genous.

Table 7: Descriptive Statistics for Independent and Control Variables (N=1006) a

 

Variable . Mean SD Min Max
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
Level of Self-Directedness (N=1 156) 132.01 12.99 54 167
Computer Knowledge 5.06 1.69 0 9
Accessibility 3.46 .69 1 4
Pre-exp. in Online Learning (Y es=1) .09 .29 O 1
Age 33.77 5.51 21 51
Gender (Male=1) .95 .224 0 1
Education Level 2.22 .67 1 3
CONTROL VARIABLES
Pre-exp in COP Training (Yes=1) .12 .33 O 1
Rank (Line Ofﬁcers=1) .89 .32 O 1
Assignment (cor=1) " .57 .49 o 1
Department Size 3826.20 6027.09 358 3296
9

a All variables (except Level of Self-Directedness) was collected during the posttest

‘

72
This interpretation was done relying on Barlett’s (1999) classiﬁcation of the total scores of the OCLI.

According to this study, the total scores of the OCLI can be interpreted as follows: 24-35 Strongly not self-
directed, 36-59 Moderately not self-directed, 60-83 Slightly not self-directed, 84-107 Lowly self-directed,
108-131 Slightly self-directed, 132-155 Moderately self-directed, and 156-168 Strongly self-directed.

139

Table 7 demonstrates that the average computer knowledge is 5.06. This indicates
that the average computer knowledge of the ofﬁcers is almost at the middle level. This
knowledge ranges ﬁ'om 0 (no knowledge) to 9 (the highest level of knowledge). The
small standard deviation (SD=1.69) indicates there is no considerable variation in terms
of heterogeneity across this variable. The internet accessibility ranges from 1 (not at all)
to 4 (very great extent), and the mean score for the internet accessibility is 3.46 indicating
that on average, the ofﬁcers had high internet accessibility during the online training
program. According to Table 7, in terms of previous experience in online learning, only 9
percent of the ofﬁcers had experience in online learning or training before the online
COP training program.

Ages of the ofﬁcers who participated in the online COP training program range
ﬁ'om 21 to 51, and the average age is 33.77. There is no signiﬁcant evidence for any high
heterogeneous variation in this variable (SD=5.51). As it is seen in the table, 95 percent
of the ofﬁcers participating in the training program were male. The education level of the
ofﬁcers ranges from 1 to 3 (1=One-year Police School, 2=Two-year Police School or
two-year University, 3=Four-year Police Academy, four-year University or above). As
indicated, approximately 65 percent of the ofﬁcers have an educational level less than
four-year University degree.

In terms of previous experience in COP training, Table 7 demonstrates that only
12 percent of the ofﬁcers had participated in any training program related to community
oriented policing before this online training. Looking at the rank of the participants, it is
seen that 89 percent of them are line ofﬁcers. During the training program, 57 percent

were working in units responsible for applying COP principles. Finally, in terms of

140

 

department size in which ofﬁcers were working during the training, the table shows that

it ranges from 358 ofﬁcers to 32,969 ofﬁcers. The average department size is 3826.2 with

standard deviation of 6027 .09. The large standard deviation indicates that there is a high

degree of heterogeneity or dispersion for this variable (R. Bachman & Paternoster, 2004).
5.1.2. Descriptive Statistics for Outcome Variables

As mentioned previously, this study is interested in three outcomes of the online

 

 

COP training program: gain (change in attitudes of ofﬁcers toward COP at the end of the
training program), perceived learning level of ofﬁcers and their satisfaction with the
training program. Based on previous research six variables were used to measure
attitudes of officers toward COP before and after the training program. These variables
are support for non-traditional policing (NTP), support for traditional policing (TP),
orientation to COP, support for COP, perception on police-public relations (PPR), and
perceived problem solving capability (PSC). Table 8 demonstrates descriptive statistics
of these variables in both the pretest and posttest. It also demonstrates signiﬁcance of

change ﬁom pretest to posttest for each variable according to the matched— groups (or the

dependent samples) t-test results.73

As displayed in Table 8, whereas the sample size was 1162 in the pretest, it was
981 in the posttest because the response rate decreased. In addition, the sample size used
in calculating the signiﬁcance of change was 860 because the matched-groups t-test took
into account the scores of officers responding both pretest and posttest. According to the
table, the average support for non-traditional policing before the training program was

23.70 with standard deviation 3.16. Although the support ranges ﬁom 7 to 28, the mean

 

73
Although the matched-groups t-test is a bivariate analysis, because it may be helpful to understand gain

related variables descriptively, its results are presented here.

141

score indicates that the average support of the ofﬁcers for non-traditional policing is high
(above the moderate support) before the training program. After the training program, the
average support increased to 24.23 and this change was signiﬁcant (t=4.76, p<.001). The

standard deviation also decreased to 2.98. Depending on standard deviation, it can be said

 

 

 

 

that this variable became more homogeneous compared with pretest values. I
Table 8: Attitudes toward COP before/after the Training Program and Signiﬁcance of Chang
Pretest (N=l 162) Posttest (N=981) Change 3
Variable Mean SD Min Max Mean SD Min Max t value J
Support for NTP 23.70 3.16 7 28 24.23 2.98 7 28 476*"
Support for TP 23.61 2.95 7 28 23.45 3.27 7 28 -l .64
Orientation to
COP 37.15 4.37 9 45 37.26 4.73 9 45 .98
Support for COP 25.36 3.81 7 35 26.24 3.92 14 35 786*"
Perception on
PPR 19.36 4.51 7 35 20.26 4.54 7 35 662*”
Perceived PSC 15.38 2.13 5 20 15.67 2.10 5 20 462*"

 

Note: NTP=Non—traditional Policing, TP=Traditional Policing, COP= Community Oriented Policing,
PPR=Police—public Relations, PSC=Problem Solving Capability

a The sample size of the matched data used during the calculation of t-test was 860
*** p<.001

The average support for traditional policing was 23.61. This indicates that the
average support of the ofﬁcers for traditional policing is also high before the training
program. Because the online COP training program aimed to move attitudes of police
ofﬁcers ﬁom traditional policing to non-traditional COP policing, opposite of the other
variables that we expected positive change at the end of the training program, we
expected a decline in support of ofﬁcers for traditional policing. Although the average
support for traditional policing decreased to 23.45 as it was expected, this change was not
statistically signiﬁcant (t=-1.64, p>.05). Similarly, signiﬁcant change was not observed in

orientation of the ofﬁcers to COP. This variable ranges from 9 to 45 with an average of

142

37.15 before the training program. This indicates that ofﬁcers’ orientation was above the
moderate level before the training program. Although, it seems there was a small increase
in this orientation at the end of the training program (mean=37.26), this change was not
statistically signiﬁcant (t=.98, p>.05).

The biggest. change was observed in direct support of ofﬁcers for community
oriented policing at the end of the online COP training program. Whereas the average
support for COP was 25.36 with standard deviation of 3.81 before the training program,
this average increased to 26.24 with standard deviation of 3.92 after the training program.
This change was statistically signiﬁcant (tr—7.86, p<001). Moreover, whereas this variable
ranged ﬁom 7 to 35 before the training program, it ranged ﬁom 14 to 35 after the training
program. In terms of ofﬁcers’ perception on police-public relations, the average
perception was 19.36 in the pretest. This value indicates that average of the ofﬁcers had
low level of positive perception on police-public relations before the training program. At
the end of the training program, the average perception signiﬁcantly increased to 20.26
(t=6.62, p<001); that is, ofﬁcers’ positive perception on police-public relations increased
and approached to moderate level. In both pretest and posttest, this variable ranged from
7 to 35 . Finally, the average perceived problem solving capability of 15 .38 indicates that
average of the ofﬁcers felt themselves qualiﬁed in terms of problem solving capability
before the training program. This perception slightly, though statistically signiﬁcantly,
increased to 15.67 at the end of the training (t=4.62, p<001).The standard deviation was
small for both pretest and posttest (SD=2.1), and this variable ranged from 5 to 20 in both

tests.

143

Having discussed the descriptive statistics of variables used to measure gain
(change in attitudes of the officers toward COP) at the end of the training program, we
can now discuss descriptive statistics of the outcome variables. Table 9 demonstrates the
eight outcome variables which are of interest in this study and their descriptive statistics.
Six of these variables are related to attitudinal changes of police ofﬁcers toward COP at
the end of the online COP training program. The other two variables measure ofﬁcers’
perceived learning level and satisfaction with the training program. As seen in the table,
the average change in support for nontraditional policing after the training program was
.54 and it ranged from -10 to 15 with standard deviation of 3.32. For the traditional
policing, as mentioned before, direction of the change was negative and its average was -
.19. The range for change in support for traditional policing is 27 (16-(-11)) with standard
deviation 3.37. That is, comparing the change in support for non-traditional policing, the
variable of change in support for traditional policing is more dispersed or distributed
heterogeneously.

Table 9: Descriptive Statistics for the Outcome Variables

 

 

Variable Mean SD Min Max
Gain/Change in Attitudes (N=860)a
Change in Support for NT P .54*** 3.32 -10 15
Change in Support for T P -.19 3.37 -1 1 16
Change in Orientation to COP .15 4.37 -15 21
Change in Support for COP 1.04*** 3.87 -l 1 18
Change in Perception on PPR .91 *** 4.02 - l 6 17
Change in Perceived PSC .32*** 2.05 -8 9
Perceived Learning Level (N=1006)b 19.24 3-24 5 25
Satisfaction (N = l 006)b 15.31 3 ~40 4 20

 

a Because changes were measured through getting differences between posttest and pretest, the
matched data was used and thereby, the sample size for changes related variables was 860.

b
Because the data related to these variables were collected in posttest, the sample size was 1006.

144

In terms of orientation to COP, the average change was .15 and it ranged from -15
to 21 with standard deviation 4.3 7. Looking at this larger standard deviation, it can be
predicted that this variable was distributed more hetero geneously than the other change
variables. As mentioned above the biggest change was observed in support of ofﬁcers for
COP; the average change in this variable was 1.04 with standard deviation of 3.87.

i -_
Finally, the average change in perception of the ofﬁcers on police-public relations was 91 l

 

with standard deviation of 4.02 and the average change in perceived problem solving J. .]
capability of the ofﬁcers was .32 with standard deviation 2.05. looking at the descriptive

statistics of these change variables, it can be said that although four of these changes are

signiﬁcant as demonstrated in Table 8, on an average the changes were small.

The other outcome variable is perceived learning level of the ofﬁcers. The
average perceived learning level of officers in the training program was 19.24 with a
standard deviation of 3.24 and it ranged from 5 to 25. This statistic indicates that on
average, ofﬁcers had a high level of perceived learning (more than moderate level). In
terms of satisfaction, the average satisfaction level was 15.31 with standard deviation of
3.40. This mean level indicates that on an average, officers were highly satisﬁed with the
online training program.

To sum up, it can be said that the descriptive statistics help us to take a general
picture of the sample of the study and the independent and dependent variables.
Moreover, it also gives an idea about the distribution of each variable (e. g. if it is normal
or not). In terms of normality, depending on central limit theorem indicating that “as our
sample size increases, the sampling distribution will begin to approximate normality no

matter what the shape of the population from which the samples have been drawn” (R.

145

Bachman & Paternoster, 2004, p. 238), some claims that “even if the distribution of the
variable in question is not normal and our sample size is large enough (e. g. 100 or more)
it is reasonable to use statistics that assume a normal distribution” (De Vaus, 2002, p. 79).
Although there is this kind of permission for large sample, I still preferred to check all of

the variables for normal distribution prior to bivariate and multivariate analyses so that I

could understand whether there was any serious violation of normality by any variable.74
Descriptive statistics revealed that there was a high degree of skewness for the variable of
department size (skewness=3.946, and kurtosis=l6.001). Therefore, in order to be able to
facilitate linear modeling through maximizing linear ﬁt, natural log transformation was
performed on this variable (Messner, 1989; Wilson, 2006). The mean value for logged
department size was 7.72 and it ranged from 5.88 to 10.40 with standard deviation of .92.
The logged department size was used in both bivariate and multivariate analyses.
5.2. BIVARIATE ANALYSIS

To test the hypotheses of this study at the bivariate level, to examine the
relationships between all variables, and to determine availability of any multicollinearity
issues, Pearson Correlations were examined. Table 10 shows the results of these analyses.
As demonstrated in the table, two of the three main hypotheses are supported by the
correlation analyses; H1 and H2. First, as expected in H1, there is a statistically
signiﬁcant positive relationship between level of self-directedness of ofﬁcers and their
perceived learning level in the online training program (r=.23, p<.01). This indicates that

as ofﬁcers’ self-directedness level increases, their perceived learning level also increases.

 

4
7 Normality checking was done according to the rule of thumb indicating that “values for skewness and

kurtosis of between -2 and +2 indicate a reasonably normal distribution” (L. F. Bachman, 2004, p. 74), and
histogram of each variable.

146

Second, there is also a signiﬁcant positive relationship between level of self-directedness
of ofﬁcers and their satisfaction with the online training program. That is, as ofﬁcers’
self-directedness level increases, their satisfaction with the online training program also
increases (r=.25, p<.01). However, six sub-hypotheses (113a, H3b, H30, H3d, H3e, and
H31) of the third main hypothesis related to the relationship between ofﬁcers’ self-
directedness level and their attitudinal change toward COP at the end of the online ‘
training program are not supported by the bivariate correlations.

Although bivariate correlation does not support any of these gain (change) related
hypotheses, there is a signiﬁcant relationship between self-directedness of ofﬁcers and
one of these gain variables (change in their perceived problem solving capability).
However, this relationship is opposite of the expectation (r=-.13, p<.01). That is, this
result indicates that there is a statistically signiﬁcant negative relationship between level
of self-directedness of the ofﬁcers and change in their perceived problem solving
capability at the end of the online COP training program.

However, it is clear that the bivariate correlation has validity related limitations.
That is, the association between two variables showed by bivariate correlation analysis
may be because of a third variable (extraneous variable) that explains both of them (R.
Bachman & Schutt, 2001; Maxﬁeld & Babbie, 1998). Therefore, this negative
relationship mentioned above may be a spurious relationship. In order to address this
problem, the following multivariate regression analysis is going to be applied to
understand the unique relationship between an independent and a dependent variable
controlling for other variables. At the end of the regression analysis this relationship

might be invalidated if it is spurious.

147

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149

In addition to the main independent variable of this study (level of self-
directedness), the correlation analysis (the correlation matrix) also shows relationships
between some of the independent/control variables and the outcome variables. First, as
seen, computer knowledge is positively associated with change in support for non-

traditional policing (r=.08, p<.05), change in support for COP (r=-10, p<.01), perceived

 

h-

leaming level (r=-13, p<.01), and satisfaction (r=11, p<.01). The second variable that has
an association with the outcomes of the online COP training program is internet
accessibility. This variable is positively correlated with change in orientation to COP
(r=.07, p<.05), change in support for COP (r=.10, p<.01), change in perceived problem
solving capability (r=.08, p<.05), perceived learning level (F.13, p<.01), and satisfaction
(r=.12, p<.01). The third variable, age, is only positively associated with change in
perceptions of ofﬁcers on police-public relations (r=.08, p<.05).

The other variable that is associated with some of the outcome variables is gender
of the ofﬁcers (l=male). Table 10 demonstrates that change in support for non-traditional
policing and change in support for traditional policing are more likely for female police
ofﬁcers at the end of the online training program (for both outcome variables I'=-.07,
p<.05). However, bivariate results also indicate that female police ofﬁcers are less likely
to be satisﬁed with the online training program compared with male ofﬁcers (r=.10,
p<.01). The other predictor variable that has signiﬁcant correlations with some of the
outcome variables is current assignment of the ofﬁcers (l=COP related units). As seen,
ofﬁcers working in COP related units are more likely to change their support for COP
and their perceived problem solving capability at the end of the training program (for

both outcome variables r=.11, p<.01). Those ofﬁcers working in COP related units are

150

also more likely to learn in the online COP training program (r=.18, p<.01) and they are
more likely to be satisﬁed with the program compared with ofﬁcers working in other
units (r=.l7, p<.01). The last variable having correlation with one of the outcome variable
is logged department size. There is a positive relationship between department size in
which officers are working and change in their perceived problem solving capability at
the end of the training program.

Before the multivariate analyses, it is also important to address the
multicollinearity issue. Multicollinearity is a serious statistical problem for multivariate
(or multiple) regression analysis. This problem exists “whenever an independent variable
is highly correlated with one or more of the other independent variables in a multiple
regression equation” (M. P. Allen, 1997, p. 176). Multicollinearity is a problem because
it undermines the signiﬁcance of the regression coefficient of an independent variable
through causing large standard error for that coefﬁcient and thereby making the
conﬁdence interval for the coefﬁcient very wide and making the t-statistic for the
signiﬁcance test very small (M. P. Allen, 1997; Berry & Feldman, 1990). Commonly
used test for inspection of multicollinearity is the bivariate correlation and its matrix.
Some indicate that multicollinearity is not a problem when the correlation coefﬁcient
does not exceed the cutoff value of .80 (Berry & F eldrnan, 1990). Some others indicate
that bivariate correlation of .70 or more is an indicator of collinearity (F idell &
Tabachnick, 2003). As demonstrated in Table 10, none of the independent and control
variables are highly correlated with any other. The biggest correlation coefficient is
between computer knowledge and internet accessibility (r=.45), but it is not big enough

to say that this correlation may cause any collinearity problem. However, it is clear that

151

 

inspection of the correlation matrix is limited and does not uncover a linear combination
of variables. Therefore, in addition to VIF (Variance Inﬂation Factors) and Tolerance,
multicollinearity diagnostics (especially collinearity index and variance proportions) that
measures linear dependency and that can help us to understand if there is linear

combination in data is examined in the following multivariate analysis section.

5.3. MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS

 

Based on the theoretical claim of the PRO model and the literature related to
online learning, in order to test the hypotheses of the study and to understand what
predicts the outcomes of the online COP training program, eight different models were

estimated and analyzed. Two of these models investigate the impact of the independent

and control variables75 on perceived leaming level of ofﬁcers in the training program and
their satisfaction with the online COP training program. The remaining six models
investigate the impact of the same independent and control variables on gain related
variables, such as change in support for non-traditional policing, change in support for
traditional policing, change in orientation to COP, change in support for COP, change in
perception on police-public relations, and change in perceive problem solving capability.
Moreover, in order to explore problems that compromise the regression analyses and to
determine whether certain assumptions appear reasonable, regression diagnostics were

applied for each model. Table 11 and Table 12 present the results of Ordinary Least

 

5
These variables are level of self-directedness, computer knowledge, accessibility, previous experience in
online learning, age, gender, education level, previous experience in COP training, rank, assignment (COP
related or not), and logged department size.

152

Squares (OLS) regression analyses for these eight models. Whereas Table 11 focuses on
perceived learning level and satisfaction, Table 12 focuses on gain related outcomes.

Table 11: Regression of Perceived Learning Level and Satisfaction on the Independent
Variables (N=872) a

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Model 1 Model 2

Perceived Learning Level Satisfaction
Variable B (13) B (B)
Constant 7.147 (---) 3,734 (2-)
Level of Self-Directedness .050 (.199)*** .058 (.221)***
Computer Knowledge .124 (.064) .113 (.057)
Accessibility .383 (.078)* .243 (.047)
Pre-Experience in Online Learning -.079 (-.007) .,3 34 (-929)
Age .015 (.026) .013 (.021)
Gender 1.086 (.075)* 1.519 (100)“
Education Level -.056 (-.011) -.069 (-,013)
Pre-Experience in COP Training -.201 (-.021) 2.090 (-_()()9)
Rank .623 (.061) .385 (.036)
Assignment .921 (.141)*** .915 (,1 33)***
Departrrrent Size (In) .141 (.041) -_()1() (3003)
R2 .099 .097
F 8595*" 8438*”
a In this table “B” refers to regression coefficient, and “[3” refers to standardized slope

coefficient.
*p<.05; “p<.01; "‘“p < .001
In the ﬁrst model, an OLS regression model was estimated by regressing
perceived learning level of the ofﬁcers on all independent and control variables. In terms
of diagnostics, ﬁrst, availability of any inﬂuential case(s) that is deﬁned as “any case that
signiﬁcantly alters the value of a regression coefﬁcient whenever it is deleted ﬁom an
analysis” (M. P. Allen, 1997, p. 171) was checked. Although there were a few statistical

methods for identifying inﬂuential cases (e. g. examining leverage known as hat values,

153

examining discrepancies known as studentized residuals, and examining DF FITS), for
this study Cook’s Distance that is known as Cook’s D and that is a multiplicative
function of both discrepancy and leverage of each case was examined (M. P. Allen, 1997;
Fox, 1991). Regarding the big sample size, the scatter plot of the dependent variable

(perceived learning level) against Cook’s D was examined closely to be able to identify

values of D,- that are substantially larger than the rest (Fox, 1991).76 Cook’s D values for

this model ranged ﬁom 0 to .05 and the scatter plot showed that three cases with Cook’s
D values bigger than .02 seemed different than the rest. However, because exclusion of
those cases did not change the results (or coefﬁcients) dramatically, they were retained in
the analysis.

Secondly, multicollinearity among the independent variables was checked (R.
Bachman & Paternoster, 2004). First, Tolerance and VIP values were exarrrined.77 For
both values were very close to 1 (whereas the VIP values ranged from 1.03 to 1.38, the
tolerance values ranged from .723 to .965). Therefore, it can be said that there were no

evidence for multicollinearity. Collinearity diagnostics also supported the absence of

multicollinearity.78 79

 

76
There are some suggestions about the value of Cook’s D; whereas some suggest that “values of D,- in

excess of 0.5 may need to be examined, and values of D,- in excess of 1.0 could well be problematic” (Berk,
2004, p. 160), some suggest cutoff points (such as 4/(n-k-1) or 4/n) for identifying problematic cases (Fox,

1991). However, examination of values of D,- substantially larger than the rest is generally advised (Allen,
1997; Fox, 1991).

7
“The strength of the linear relationships among the independent variables is measured by... the
tolerance” (Norusis, 2006, p. 533) which is formalize with l-Rz. The VIP is the reciprocal of the tolerance;

2
that is, l / (l-R ). To be able to decide absence of multicollinearity, the expectation is that both VIP and
Tolerance close to 1.0. As a rule of thumb, any VIF of 10 or more can be accepted as evidence of serious
multicollinearity (Cohen, Cohen, West, & Aiken, 2003).

As a rule of thumb, condition index greater than 30 refers to the fact that at least two variance
proportions for independent variables greater than .50 and thereby, refers multicollinearity (F idell &

154

 

The other assumptions of OLS regression were also checked. First of all, to able
to conduct linear regression we should assume that the relationship between the
dependent variable and independent variables is linear (Chen, Ender, Mitchell, & Wells,
2003). To determine violation of this assumption partial-regression plots (Chen et al.,
2003; Fox, 1991) were examined, but any substantive non-linearity was not observed.
The other assumption, assumption of independence, indicate that the errors related to one
observation are not correlated with any other observation’s errors (Chen et al., 2003); that
is, “value of one observation is in no way related to the value of another observation”
(Norusis, 2006, p. 509). The suggested test to understand if this assumption is violated is
the Durbin-Watson test (Chen et al., 2003; Norusis, 2006).80 Because the value of
Durbin-Watson test for the model 1 is 2.02 (that is, it is almost 2), we can say that the
errors associated with one observation were not correlated with the errors of any other
observation and the independency assumption was not violated. In terms of the normality
assumption indicating that “the error term is normally distributed” (Berry, 1993, p. 81), to
detect large departures from normality, a visual inspection of graphs of regression
residuals is suggested (Berry, 1993).81 For this study, the skewness and kurtosis,
histogram, and Q-Q plot of residuals were examined (Chen et al., 2003; Norusis, 2006).

For model 1, skewness and kurtosis of residuals were between -2 and +2 (skewness=-

 

Tabachnick, 2003). In this study, although the condition index was 62.560, none of the variables in the
ggllinearity index row had variance proportion greater than .50 (proportions range from 0 to .38).

Because same predictor variables were used for each model of this study, multicollinearity related
results were also same for the other models.

0 For Durbin-Watson test, the value ranges from 0 to 4 and if there is no correlation between residuals this
value should be 2. As a rule of thumb, if the Durbin-Watson value between 1.5 and 2.5, you should not
worry about violation of assumption of independence (N orusis, 2006).

81 For data with large sample size, statistical test for normality (e.g. Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-
Wilk) is not suggested because “if your sample size is large, the tests of normality may lead you to reject
the normality assumption bases on small departures that won’t affect the regression analysis” (Norusis,
2006, p. 503)

155

 

.956 kurtosis=1.593). Histogram and Q-Q plot were also normal. Based on these results,
the residual ﬁ'om this regression model appeared to conform to the assumption of
normality.

The last assumption tested was homoscedasticity indicating that the variance of
the residuals (error term) is constant for all values of the independent variable(s) (M. P.
Allen, 1997; Berry, 1993). Violation of this assumption is called “heteroscedasticity”.
“This assumption can be checked by visual examination of a plot of the standardized
residuals (the errors) by the regression standardized predicted value (by the predicted
values). . .When the plot of residuals appears to deviate substantially from normal, more
formal tests for heteroscedasticity should be performed” (italics were added, Osborne &
Waters, 2002, p. 4). Because it is suggested frequently (Fox, 1991; Osborne & Waters,

2002), for this study, ﬁrst, graphical method (scatter plot of standardized residuals vs. the

predicted values) was examined and then formal statistical tests were applied.82 For the

model 1, examination of the scatterplot did not show any substantial deviation from
normal or pattern evidence for heteroscedasticity. White’s test (X2=68.99, p=.58) and
Breusch-Pagan / Cook-Weisbert test also supported homoscedasticity of the residuals
(X2=1.29, p>X2=.26).

In terms of interpretation of the regression analysis, as demonstrated in Table 11,

10 percent of the variance in perceived learning level of ofﬁcers is signiﬁcantly explained

by the ﬁrst model (R2=.099, F=8.595, p<.001). This model supports the main hypothesis

1 regarding the effect of the self-directedness level of police ofﬁcers on their learning

 

2
8 Two tests applied to check heteroscedasticy in this study were White’s test (Cameron & Trivedi’s
decomposition of IM-test) and Breusch-Pagan test. For both tests, the null hypothesis was residuals were
homogenous. Small p-values (p<.05) led to reject the null hypothesis.

156

 

level in the online learning program. As expected there is a signiﬁcant positive
relationship between self-directedness level of ofﬁcers and their perceived learning level
in the online training program holding constant the other independent and control
variables in the model (B=.050, p<.001). This means that one unit increase in ofﬁcers’
self-directedness level leads to a .05 increase in their perceived learning level in the
online training program controlling for the other predictors in. the model. In addition to
the level of self-directedness, three other explanatory variables (accessibility, gender,
assignment) appear signiﬁcantly related with the perceived learning level of the ofﬁcers.
In terms of accessibility, there is a signiﬁcant positive relationship between internet
accessibility of the officers and their perceived learning level in the training program
(B=.3 83, p<.05). In other words, controlling the other variables in the model, one unit
increase in the extent of ofﬁcer’s internet accessibility leads to a .3 83 increase in
perceived learning level of the ofﬁcers. Table 11 shows that gender (M816:1) also
signiﬁcantly related with perceived learning level of the ofﬁcers (B=1.086, p<.05). This
would be interpreted as male police ofﬁcers’ perceived learning level was 1.086 more
than female police ofﬁcers’ perceived learning level in the online COP training program.
The last variable signiﬁcantly related with perceived learning level is assignment of the
police ofﬁcers during the training program (l=COP related unit, B=.921, p<001). As
demonstrated, police ofﬁcers working in the COP related units had .921 more perceived
learning levels than ofﬁcers working in the non-COP related units holding the other
variables constant in the model. Finally, relying on the results, the relative importance of
the explanatory variables can be also understood through comparing their respective beta

weights (or standardized slope coefficients) (R. Bachman & Paternoster, 2004). As

157

 

 

shown by Table 11, level of self-directedness has the largest standardized slope
coefficient (B=. l 99); that is, this variable has the strongest inﬂuence on the perceived
learning level of the ofﬁcers in the model. The second most important variable is
assignment of the ofﬁcers with beta weight of .141.

In the second model, an OLS regression model was estimated by regressing
satisfaction of the ofﬁcers with the online COP training program on all independent and
control variables. In terms of diagnostics, ﬁrst, availability of any inﬂuential case(s) was

detected through examination of Cook’s D values. There was no evidence that any case
had a dramatic effect on the regression coefﬁcients.83 In addition, any violation of

assumptions of linearity, independence,84 normality, 85 and homoscedasticity86 was not

observed. The second model signiﬁcantly explains approximately 10 percent of variance

in satisfaction of the ofﬁcers with the online COP training program (R2=.097, F=8.43 8,

p<.001). This model supports the main hypothesis 2 regarding a positive effect of self-

directedness level of police ofﬁcers on their satisfaction with the online training program.
As expected, Table 11 shows that there is a signiﬁcant positive relationship between self-
directedness level of ofﬁcers and their satisfaction holding constant the other independent

and control variables in the model (B=.058, p<.001). This means that one unit increase in

 

83

Five cases that have Cook’s D value seemed different than others (their Cook’s D values bigger
than .016, but smaller than .025) was observed. However, because removing these cases did not cause any
signiﬁcant change in any of the regression coefﬁcient, they were retained in the analysis.

The value of Durbin-Watson test was 1.85.

85
Values for skewness and kurtosis were acceptable (skewness=—.963 kurtosis=.924). Histogram and Q-Q
lot were also seen normal.

6 Examination of the scatterplot of standardized residuals by the predicted values did not show any
substantially deviation from normal or pattern evidence for heteroscedasticity. Although Breusch-Pagan/
Cook-Weisbert test rejected the null hypothesis of constant variance (X2=3.93, p=.047), White’s test
(Cameron & Trivedi’s decomposition of IM-test) (X2=59.45, p=.85) supported homoscedasticity of the
residuals.

158

‘ﬁ ‘3- [2.2.-.1 TL .
.-

 

ofﬁcers’ self-directedness level leads to a .06 increase in their satisfaction with the online
training program controlling for the other predictors in the model. In addition to the level
of self-directedness, two more explanatory variables (gender and assignment) appear
signiﬁcantly related with the satisfaction of the ofﬁcers. In terms of gender, as
demonstrated, male police officers’ satisfaction was 1.519 more than female police
ofﬁcers’ satisfaction with the online training program (B=1.519, p<.01). Moreover,
police ofﬁcers working in the COP related units had .915 more satisfaction than ofﬁcers
working in the non-COP related units holding the other variables constant in the model
(B=.915, p<.001). Finally, like the ﬁrst model, level of self-directedness has the largest
standardized slope coefficient (B=.221); that is, this variable has the strongest inﬂuence
on the satisfaction of the ofﬁcers with the training program in the model.

The remaining six models are related to gain scores of the ofﬁcers (or change in
attitudes of the officers toward COP) at the end of the online COP training program.
Table 12 below presents the results of Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression analyses
for these models. As seen in the table, none of the sub-hypotheses of the main hypothesis

3 (113a, H3b, H3e, H3d, H3e, H3 g) is supported by these six models.

159

 

 

 

 

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160

In terms of the model 3, this model cannot explain any signiﬁcant variance in the

dependent variable (change in support of ofﬁcers for non-traditional policing) (R2=.02,

F=l .531, p>.05).87 However, one variable (gender) in the model has a signiﬁcant

regression coefﬁcient. This indicates that gender has an effect on change in support for
non-traditional policing (B=-1 .088, p<.05). This would be interpreted as female police ‘
ofﬁcers had 1.09 more change in their support for non-traditional policing than male

police ofﬁcers at the end of the online training program.

 

Like the 3rd model, model 4 cannot explain any signiﬁcant variance in the
dependent variable (change in support of ofﬁcers for traditional policing) (R2=.016,

F=1.250, p>.05).88 However, similar to the third model, gender has a signiﬁcant
regression coefficient. The signiﬁcance of the regression coefﬁcient of gender indicates
that this variable has an effect on change in support for traditional policing (B=-l .247,
p<.05). This would be interpreted as female police ofﬁcers had 1.25 more change in their
support for traditional policing than male police ofﬁcers at the end of the online training
program. As seen in Table 12, for model 5, the OLS regression model is estimated by

regressing the dependent variable (change in orientation of officers to COP) on all

 

87
Assumptions of OLS regression were checked for the model 3 and any violation was not observed:

Speciﬁcally, for independence, Durban-Watson test was 1.877; for normality, skewness and kurtosis were
acceptable (skewne =-.066 kurtosis=.859) and histogram and Q-Q plot were also seen normal; for
homoscedasticity, the scatterplot of standardized residuals by the predicted values did not show any
substantially pattern evidence for heteroscedasticity, and Breusch-Pagan / Cook-Weisbert test also
supported homoscedasticity of the residuals (X2=1.02, p>X2=.31). In addition, observation of the Cook’s
D values did not show any inﬂuential case.

Assumptions of OLS regression were checked for the model 4 and any violation was not observed:
Speciﬁcally, for independence, Durban-Watson test was 1.923; for normality, skewness and kurtosis were
acceptable (skewness=-.202 kurtosis=l.689) and histogram and Q-Q plot were also seen normal; for
homoscedasticity, the scatterplot of standardized residuals by the predicted values did not show any
substantially pattern evidence for heteroscedasticity, and White’s test (X2=49.68, p=.98) and Breusch-
Pagan / Cook-Weisbert test also supported homoscedasticity of the residuals (X2=2.35, p>X2=.13). In
addition, observation of the Cook’s D values did not show any inﬂuential case.

161

independent and control variables. This model does not explain any signiﬁcant variance

in change in officers’ orientation to COP at the end of the training program (R2=.021,

F=1.661, p>.05).89 However, one of the independent variable (assignment) has
signiﬁcant effect on the dependent variable (B=.907, p<.01). That is, police officers
working in the COP related units had .975 more change in their orientation to COP than
ofﬁcers working in the non-COP related units at the end of the online training program
holding the other variables constant in the model.

In the sixth model, change in ofﬁcers’ direct support for COP at the end of the

training program was regressed on all independent and control variables of the study.90 In
contrast to the previous gain related models (model 3, 4, and 5), this model did

signiﬁcantly explain approximately ﬁve percent of variance in the dependent variable

(change in support for COP) (R2=.046, F =3.678, p<.001). This model shows that ﬁve

variables are signiﬁcantly related to the dependent variable (level of self-directedness,

computer knowledge, accessibility, age, and assignment). Opposite of expectation

 

89
In terms of model 5, any violation of assumptions of OLS was not observed: Speciﬁcally, for

independence, Durban-Watson test was 1.986; for normality, skewness and kurtosis were acceptable
(skewness=.027 kurtosis=1.599) and histogram and Q-Q plot were also seen normal; for homoscedasticity,
the scatterplot of standardized residuals by the predicted values did not show any substantially pattern
evidence for heteroscedasticity, and White’s test (X2=62.l8, p=.79) and Breusch-Pagan / Cook-Weisbert
test also supported homoscedasticity of the residuals (X2=l .60, p>X2=.21). In addition, observation of the
Cook’s D values did not show any inﬂuential case.

90 Observation of the Cook’s D values of the model 6 showed that one case with Cook’s D value appeared
different than others. Therefore, to understand its effect, this case was removed. Because removing this
case ccould cause chagne in coefficient of one variable (coefficient of access was not seem signiﬁcant
anymore), I went to the data and checked this case. However, there was no any strange issue to be able to
justify removing that case from the analysis. Therefore, it was retained in the analysis. Moreover,
assumptions of OLS regression were also checked for the model 6 and any violation was not observed:
Speciﬁcally, for independence, Durban-Watson test was 2.50; for normality, skewness and kurtosis were
acceptable (skewness=-.302 kurtosis=.920) and histogram and Q0 plot were also seen normal; for
homoscedasticity, the scatterplot of standardized residuals by the predicted values did not show any
substantially pattern evidence for heteroscedasticity and White’s test (X2=47.52, p=.99) and Breusch-
Pagan/ Cook-Weisbert test also supported homoscedasticity of the residuals (X2=2.35, p>X2=.13).

162

 

indicated in H3d, there is a negative relationship between level of self-directedness of the
ofﬁcers and change in their direct support for COP at the end of the training program
(B=-.023, p<.05). That is, one unit increase in the level of self-directedness of ofﬁcers led
to a .023 decrease in change in their support for COP at the end of the training program.
However, Table 12 demonstrates that the other four variables are positively related to this '
outcome. In terms of computer knowledge, as computer knowledge of the ofﬁcers
increased for one unit, change in their support for COP also increased by .24 holding the

other variables constant in the model (B=.235, p<.05). In terms of internet accessibility,

 

results shows that one unit increase in ofﬁcers’ internet accessibility during the training
program increased change in their support for COP by .506 at the end of the training
program (B=.506, p<.05). A similar result is also observed for age; that is, one year
increase in ofﬁcers’ age led to a .061 change in their support for COP controlling the
other variables (B=.061, p<.05). Finally, the variable that has the strongest effect on
change in officers’ support for COP is assignment (B=.106). As demonstrated in the table,
police ofﬁcers working in the COP related units had .837 more change in their orientation
to COP than ofﬁcers working in the non-COP related units at the end of the online
training program controlling the other variables in the model (B=.837, p<.01).

The other regression model, model 7, is focused on the dependent variable,

change in perception of officers on police-public relations.91 However, this model does

 

91
Assumptions of OLS regression were checked for the model 7 and any violation was not observed:

Speciﬁcally, for independence, Durban-Watson test was 1.985; for normality, skewness and kurtosis were
acceptable (skewness=-.067 kurtosis=l .048) and histogram and Q-Q plot were also seen normal; for
homoscedasticity, the scatterplot of standardized residuals by the predicted values did not show any
substantially pattern evidence for heteroscedasticity, and White’s test (Cameron & Trivedi’s decomposition
of IM-test) (X2=86.99, p=.11) and Breusch-Pagan / Cook-Weisbert test also supported homoscedasticity of
die residuals (X2=.01, p>X2=.90). In addition, observation of the Cook’s D values did not show any
inﬂuential case.

163

not explain any signiﬁcant variance on this dependent variable (R2=.020, F=l .585,

p>.05). In contrast, one variable of this model (age) has a signiﬁcant regression
coefﬁcient indicating that there is a positive relationship between ofﬁcers’ age and
change in their perception on police-public relations at the end of the training program
controlling the other variables in the model (B=.081, p<.01).

Finally, in the last model, model 8, the dependent variable (change in perceived
problem-solving capability) was regressed on all independent and control variables.92
This model signiﬁcantly explains approximately 6 percent of variance in change in

ofﬁcers’ perceived problem solving capability at the end of the training program

(R2=.056, F=4.499, p<.001). It has four variables with signiﬁcant regression coefﬁcients

(level of self-directedness, computer knowledge, accessibility, age, and assignment). Like
the sixth model, in this model, there is also a negative signiﬁcant relationship between
level of self-directedness and change in perceived problem-solving capability (B=-.026,
p<.001). This result is opposite of the expectation informed by H3f. According to this
result, it would be interpreted that one unit increase in ofﬁcers’ level of self-directedness
led to a .026 decrease in change in their perceived problem-solving capability at the end

of the training program. The other variable that is signiﬁcantly related to the outcome of

the 8th model is accessibility. This variable has a positive signiﬁcant association (B=.244,

p<.05) indicating that as officers internet accessibility increased during the training

 

92 For this ﬁnal model, any violation of OLS regression assumptions was not also observed: Speciﬁcally,
for independence, Durban-Watson test was 2.069; for normality, skewness and kurtosis were acceptable
(skewness=.121 kurtosis=l.7 32) and histogram and Q-Q plot were also seen normal; for homoscedasticity,
the scatterplot of standardized residuals by the predicted values did not show any substantially pattern
evidence for heteroscedasticity, and White’s test (Cameron & Trivedi’s decomposition of IM-test)
(X2=68.08, p=.6l) and Breusch-Pagan / Cook-Weisbert test also supported homoscedasticity of the
residuals (X2=1.89, p>X2=.l7). In addition, observation of the Cook’s D values did not show any
inﬂuential case.

164

 

program for one unit, change in their perceived problem solving capability also increased
by .244. Another signiﬁcant predictor is previous-experience in online learning (l=Yes
“having previous experience”). Surprisingly, opposite of the other 7 models, this variable
is only signiﬁcant in this model (B=-.585, p<.05) and its coefficient indicates that police
ofﬁcers who did not have any experience with online training previously had .585 more P
change in their perceived problem solving capability than ofﬁcers who had previous

experience in online learning controlling the other variables in the model. Finally,

 

assignment of the ofﬁcers is also signiﬁcant in this model (B=.456, p<.01). The
coefﬁcient for this variable shows that police ofﬁcers working in the COP related units
had .456 more change in their perceived problem—solving capability than ofﬁcers working
in the non-COP related units at the end of the online training program holding the other
variables constant in the model.

To sum up, the multivariate OLS regression analyses showed that two of the three
main hypotheses (H1 and H2) were supported in this study. That is, according to the
results, there are positive relationships between level of self-directedness of ofﬁcers and
their perceived learning level and their satisfaction with the online training program.
However, any of the gain related sub-hypotheses of H3 were not supported; the results
failed to show a positive relationship between self-directedness of ofﬁcers and change in
their attitudes toward COP. Moreover, according to the OLS regression analyses, some
other variables also appeared as signiﬁcant predictors of the outcomes of the online
training program (e. g., accessibility, gender, and assignment). Given these expected and
unexpected ﬁndings, further discussions of these results and their implications are

provided in the following chapter.

165

5.4. SUPPLEMENTARY ANALYSIS FOR POSSIBLE INTERVENING EFFECT
OF SATISFACTION BETWEEN SELF-DIRECTEDNESS LEVEL AND
LEARNING

After examination of the analysis and results, there may be a question about the
possible intervening effect of satisfaction. Therefore, to address this question, satisfaction
was considered as an intervening variable. As demonstrated in Table 13 below, perceived
learning level of ofﬁcers was regressed on two models.

Table 13: Examination of Intervening Effects of Satisfaction and Perceived Learning
Level (N=872)b

 

 

 

 

Model 1 Model 9 Model 2 Model 10

Perceived Perceived

Learning Learning

Lev—61 Lev—61 $311M! m

Variable 13 13 l3 13
Constant --- .2 .2 2-
Perceived Learning Level --- --- --- .741 ***
Satisfaction --- .739*** 2. 2-
Level of Self-Directedness ,1199*** .035 .2214" .073”
Computer Knowledge .064 .021 .057 .010
Accessibility .078* .043 .047 -.01 1
Emsme m 0mm -.007 .014 -.029 -.023
Age .026 .011 .021 .002
Gender .075* .001 .100" .044*
Education Level -.01 1 -.001 -.013 -.005
E’IZEifgmme m COP -.021 -.014 -.009 .007
Rank .061 .034 .036 -.009
Assignment .141*** .043 .133*** .029
Department Size (ln) .041 .043 -.003 -.033
R2 .099 .592 .097 .592
F 8.595*** 104.078*** 8.438*** 103_760*aa

 

1’ In this table “B” refers to standardized slope coefficient. *p<.05; "p<.01; "*p < .001

166

The ﬁrst model is model 1 that was discussed above and does not include
satisfaction. In the second model (model 9), satisfaction was added to the model. As seen,

whereas model one explains approximately 10 percent variance in perceived learning

level of ofﬁcers (R2=.O99, F =8.595, p<.001) and has four variables (including level of

self-directedness) with statistically signiﬁcant coefﬁcients, model 9 explains

approximately 60 percent of variance in perceived learning level (R2=.592, F=104.078,

p<.001).

However, after addition of the satisfaction into the model, the four variables that
have signiﬁcant coefficients in the model 1 no longer seem signiﬁcant; level of self-
directedness also does not have signiﬁcant coefﬁcient any more. This may be interpreted
that addition of satisfaction into the model removes the effect of level of self-directedness
on perceived learning level.

Here, we can assess whether satisfaction is an intervening variable and whether
self-directedness level has an indirect effect on perceived learning level over satisfaction
of the ofﬁcers because, as demonstrated in model 2, self-directedness level has a positive
signiﬁcant effect on satisfaction holding constant the other variables in the model
(B=.221, p<.001). Relying on the OLS regression results presented in Table 13, Figure 4

shows the path analysis of the relationship among these three variables controlling the

other variables.93

 

93
These path analyses were also conducted through SPSS AMOS, and same results were obtained.

167

 

Figure 4: Examination of possible intervening effect of satisfaction between
self-directedness and perceived learning levela

Satisfaction
.22*** .74***

 

 

 

.10

 

 

 

 

.59
Self-Directedness Perceived Learning

.04

a For this analysis, all independent and control variables of the study (other than the self-directedness

level) were controlled.
"*p<.001

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

As demonstrated in Figure 4, the direct effect of self-directedness on perceived
learning level was very small (very close to zero) when controlling for satisfaction and

the other variables. However, its indirect effect on perceived learning level through

satisfaction is .16 94 whereas its total effect is .20. This means that overall, self-
directedness has a moderate effect on perceived learning level, but most of this effect is
through satisfaction. This results support the idea of the intervening effect of satisfaction
between self-directedness and perceived learning.

However, there is a problem; we do not know the time order between satisfaction
and perceived learning level. That is, if satisfaction occurred before learning we can
accept its intervening inﬂuence. However, there is a possibility that the ofﬁcers were

satisﬁed with the training program because they felt they learned in it. In this situation we

 

94
The indirect effect was calculated through multiplication of beta of the direct effect of self-directedness
on satisfaction and beta of the direct effect of satisfaction on perceived learning level (.22*.74=.16)

168

can talk about the intervening effect of learning; that is, self-directedness increased
ofﬁcers’ perceived learning level, then high perception in learning made them satisﬁed

with the online training program.

 

Figure 5: Examination of possible intervening effect of perceived learning
level between self-directedness and satisfactiona

.10

Perceived Learning
.20m .74***

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

.59

 

 

Self-Directedness Satisfaction

.07"

a For this analysis, all independent and control variables of the study (other than the self-directedness

level) were controlled.
**p<.01 ***p<.001

 

 

 

 

 

 

As seen in Figure 5, whereas the direct effect of self-directedness on satisfaction
is .07, the indirect effect is .15 (that is .20*.74), and total effect is .22 (.15+.07). This also
means that overall, self-directedness has a moderate effect on satisfaction, but most of
this effect is thorough perceived learning level. This result also supports the idea of
intervening effect of learning between self-directedness and perceived learning.
However, because it is difﬁcult to discern the time order between satisfaction and
perceived learning, it is difficult to accept this idea too. Finally, it can be said that no
matter which variable came ﬁrst, they were both outcomes of the training program.
Therefore, for this study, any intervening effect of one of them on the other was not taken

into account.

169

 

CHAPTER 6
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
In this study, the main interest is the research question: “Is there any relationship
between police ofﬁcers’ self-directedness and the outcomes of the online COP training
program in which they participated?” To be able ﬁnd the answer for this research 1
question three main outcomes of the online COP training program (perceived learning

level of officers, their satisfaction with the training program and gain or change in their

 

attitudes toward COP at the end of the program) were identiﬁed and eight hypotheses
were suggested. This study examines whether there is any relationship between self-
directedness level of the police ofﬁcers and these outcomes of the online COP training
program. It also helps us to determine what other factors (other than self-directedness
level) predict outcomes of the online COP training program in Turkish National Police
context. In addition, this study also provides an opportunity to ﬁgure out if there was any
gain of ofﬁcers in terms of change in their attitudes toward COP at the end of the training
program, and to what extent they learned and were satisﬁed with the online training
program.

In this chapter the research question focusing on the relationship between self-
directedness and the outcomes of the online COP training program and predicting these
outcomes are discussed based on the results presented in the previous chapter and the
limited previous research related to this issue. Moreover, the conclusion and implication
of the results, limitations of the study, and recommendations for future research are

presented.

170

6.1. DISCUSSION

As mentioned above, two of the main hypotheses of this study (HI and H2) were
focusing on the relationship between self-directedness level of officers and two of the
main outcomes of the online COP training program (perceived learning level and
satisfaction). In the literature, there is a claim indicating that outcomes of a self-directed
learning process (e.g. success, degree of learning, etc.) depends on degree of self-
directedness of the learners or their readiness for self-directed learning (Durr et al., 1996;
Fisher et al., 2001; Grow, 1991; O'Shea, 2003; Oddi, 1986). The theoretical PRO model
guiding this research also proposes that there should be balance and harmony between
learners’ self-direction and self-directed learning environment. That is, if there is not any
balance and harmony between the self-directedness level of learner and the learning

process, difﬁculties and frustration arise and success in the learning process will be

affected negatively (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991).95 Similarly, some studies focusing on
the relationship between self-directedness and success in self-directed learning
environments showed that there was a positive relationship between these two concepts
(Haggerty, 2000; Harriman, 1990; Morris, 1995; Savoie, 1979; Stewart, 2007). However,
the scientiﬁc research focused on online learning as a self-directed learning environment
failed to show any signiﬁcant relationship between the self-directedness level of the

learners and their success (Corbeil, 2003; Doherty, 2000; Pachnowski & Jurczyk, 2000).

 

95 Explaining this situation, Brocket and Hiemstra (1991) indicates that individuals who enter a learning
environment with a high self-directedness level are more likely to become disenchanted and ﬁ'ustrated if
they are in a teacher-centered learning environment and if not given freedom. Similarly, individuals who
enter a learning environment with low level of self-directedness and who seeks high level of guidance and
direction are more likely to have similar feelings if they are in a self-directed learning environment (e.g.
online learning) and if an active leadership role of learners is emphasized by the facilitator.

171

 

In contrast to previous research on online learning and self-directedness, the

results of the ﬁrst two models of this study96 are consistent with previous research
focusing on the relationship between self-directedness and outcomes of self-directed
learning environment (e. g. learning, achievement, etc.) and ﬁnding a positive relationship
between these concepts. That is, both bivariate correlation analyses and multivariate OLS
regression analyses of this study showed that there is a signiﬁcant positive relationship
between the self-directedness level of the ofﬁcers and their perceived learning level in the
online COP training program and also their satisfaction with this online training program.
This means that as the self-directedness level of a police ofﬁcer increases, his/her
perceived learning level and satisfaction with the online COP training program also
increases. Results of these ﬁrst two models also support H1 and H2. In addition,
examination of the beta weights of the independent and control variables in the ﬁrst two
models reveals that self-directedness level of the police ofﬁcers is the most important
variable in terms of predicting perceived learning level and satisfaction in the online COP
training program. These results mentioned above also provide support for the PRO model
proposing a link between self-directedness and outcomes of self-directed learning
environment. Because the online learning is a self-directed learning process (Gray, 1999;
Ibrahim & Silong, 2000; McVay, 2000; Song & Hill, 2007), based on the PRO model, it
was already expected that there would be a positive relationship between self-
directedness and outcomes of the online COP training program, and this expectation is

supported by the ﬁrst two models.

 

96
Dependent variables of these two models are perceived learning level and satisfaction.

172

 

 

On the other hand, the results presented in the previous chapter did not support
the remaining gain related hypotheses (H3a, H3b, H3c, H3d, H3e, and H31). That is, none
of the remaining six models showed a signiﬁcant positive relationship between self-
directedness level of the ofﬁcers and the outcome variables related to change in attitudes
of ofﬁcers toward COP holding constant the other independent) and control variables in
the models at the end of the online COP training program. However, for two models
(model 6 and model 8), there is a signiﬁcant negative relationship between officers’ self-
directedness level and change in their direct support for COP and also change in their
perceived problem-solving capability, though this was opposite of the expectations
indicated in the hypotheses. Statistically, this means that as ofﬁcers’ self-directedness
level increases, change in their support for COP and change in their perceived problem-
solving capability decreases.

There are several possible explanations of why there is no relationship or there are
negative relationships between self-directedness level of the officers and their gain at the
end of the training program, despite the fact that this variable is positively related with
perceived learning and satisfaction. The clear and most satisfying explanation is related
to methodological issues. As discussed in the validity and reliability part of this study,
one of the important threats to internal validity for one- group pretest-posttest design is
statistical regression (Campbell & Stanley, 1966; Cook & Campbell, 1979). Speciﬁcally,
when respondents are classiﬁed into experimental groups at the pretest depending on
their pretest scores, the statistical regression threat occurs. That is, when this situation
happens, “high pretest scores will score relatively lower at the posttest and low pretest

scores will score higher” (Cook & Campbell, 1979, p. 52). Here, attribution of any

173

 

change or gain to an intervention or treatment could be in error because of the fact that
this might be statistical regression. Cook and Campbell (1979, p. 52) emphasize that
“statistical regression (1) operates to increase obtained pretest-posttest gain scores among
low pretest scores, since this group’s pretest scores are more likely to have been
depressed by error; (2) operates to decrease obtained change scores among persons with
high pretest scores, since their pretest scores are likely to have been inﬂated by error...”
Although there was not any of this kind of classiﬁcation during data collection of this
study, close examination of the relationship between self-directedness level and gain
scores show that a negative relationship (or no relationship) might be due to statistical
regression. Let’s explain this.

In the univariate analysis part, it is mentioned that the pretest-mean score of each
variable related to attitudes toward COP is high (above the average). When we examine
what predicts this pretest scores, as it is seen in Table 14, level of self-directedness is
signiﬁcantly and positively correlated with all of the attitudes related variables.

Table 14: Bivariate Correlations between Self-Directedness Level and Pre/Post Attitudes

 

 

 

toward COP
Pre- Pre- Pre- Pre Sir rt Pre- Pre-
Support Support Orientation for CIOPP) Perception Perceived
for NTP for TP to COP on PPR PSC
Level of S elf- .256" .213" .385" .349" .151 ** .532"
Directedness .245" .207" .327" .271M .114" .407W
Post- Post- Post- Post- Post- Post-
Support Support Orientation Support for Perception Perceived
for NTP for TP to COP COP on PPR PSC

 

Note: NTP=Non-traditional Policing, TP=Traditional Policing, COP= Community Oriented Policing,
PPR=Police-public Relations, PSC=Problem Solving Capability;
Entries are Pearson Correlation Coefficient; **p<.01 (2-tailed tests)

174

We can go through one case, the outcome variable of perceived problem-solving

capability, to understand how statistical regression causes this problem.97 The mean
value of this variable in pretest was high (mean=1 5.3 8); that is, the average of the ofﬁcers
felt themselves qualiﬁed in problem-solving before the training program. According to a
multivariate OLS regression analysis, the most important predictor of this variable at the
pretest is self-directedness level of the ofﬁcers; there was a signiﬁcant positive

relationship holding constant some other predictor variables (B=.09, [3=.518, p<.001,
R2=.28).98 This relationship also seen in bivariate correlation analysis above (r=-53). This

means that as self-directedness level of the ofﬁcers increase, their previous perception on
their problem solving capability also increase, and magnitude of this relationship is
almost strong. Here, we can also predict that the mean of this variable is high due to the
ofﬁcers who have high level of self-directedness. However, in the posttest, although the
mean score of this variable increased (mean=15.67), the magnitude of the relationship
between self-directedness level and perceived problem-solving capability decreased
(F.4l). One of the explanations of this is that whereas some of the respondents who had
high level self-directedness may have decreased their perception about problem-solving
capability at the posttest, some other ofﬁcers whose pre-intervention perception was low
may have increased their post perception due to other factors (e.g., assigned unit,

computer knowledge, etc). This is also supported by a multivariate OLS regression

 

97
This variable was selected because self-directedness level of the ofﬁcers was signiﬁcantly negatively

related with change in this variable at the end of the training program.

98
In this OLS regression analysis, previous perceived problem-solving capability was regressed on self-

directedness level, education level, rank, pre-experience in COP training, gender, age, assigned current
unit, and logged department size. Only two coefﬁcients were signiﬁcant (Self-directedness and gender);
however, beta weight of self-directedness was quit high (B=.518) comparing with gender’s (B=.06).

175

 

analysis.99 Because of this decrease, although the relationship between self-directedness
level of the ofﬁcers and their perceived problem-solving capability is still positive,
change in this variable is negative since the mean value of the posttest is smaller than the
mean value of the pretest for the ofﬁcers who have high level of self-directedness. This is
what the statistical regression threat indicates. If the problem is related to high level

pretest scores, controlling of the pretest scores can help to see the real relationship

 

between self-directedness level of the ofﬁcers and change in their perceived problem
solving capability at the end of the training program. Table 15 presents 6 models
including regression of each of the gain-related outcome on independent and control
variables of this study and pretest score of each dependent variable as well.

Results of these analyses show that the relationship between level of self-
directedness of the ofﬁcers and change in their perceived problem-solving capability
becomes positive and signiﬁcant controlling the other variables and pretest scores of
problem-solving capability (B=.025, B=.157, p<.001). This kind of relationships is also
observed in the other models. That is, the relationship between self-directedness and
other gain related variables (except change in perception on police-public relations) also

become signiﬁcant and positive. In addition, these results, presented in table 15, also

support four of the six gain-related hypotheses (H3a, H3e, H3d, and H31).100

 

99 In this OLS regression analysis, post perceived problem-solving capability was regressed on self-

directedness level, computer knowledge, education level, rank, pre-experience in COP training, gender,

internet accessibility, assigned current unit, and logged department size. In this analysis, whereas beta

weight of self-directedness decreases (B=.379), the coefﬁcients of two other variables became signiﬁcant
current assigned unit, and logged department size).

Although controlling the pretest scores leads the coefficients of self-directedness signiﬁcant and
positive in ﬁve gain related models, it causes small number of changes on coefﬁcients of the other
variables.

176

 

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177

It can be summarized that because of high level of self-directedness, some
ofﬁcers may have learned something related to problem-solving before the training
program and during the pretest they may have assumed that they were highly qualiﬁed in
this issue (this is inﬂation of pretest score by error as Cook and Campbell (1979)
mentioned). However, after the training program they may have ﬁgured out their exact
qualiﬁcation level and they may have decreased the level of their perceived problem-
solving capability at the posttest and direction of change in their perception became
negative. This is likely to have generated the negative relationship between ofﬁcers’ self-
directedness level and change in their perception. However, this result might have been
due to the statistical regression, and may have caused a spurious relationship between
self-directedness of ofﬁcers and change in their perceived problem solving capability.

Controlling pretest scores of each gain related variable, the OLS regression
analyses support this claim and shows that self—directedness of the ofﬁcers signiﬁcantly
and positively related to not only change in ofﬁcers perceived problems-solving
capability but also three of the other gain-related outcomes. Finally, it can be said that
there is a positive relationship between self-directedness of the ofﬁcers and change in
their attitudes toward community oriented policing at the end of the online COP training
program holding constant pretest scores and other independent and control variables.

Although the main interest of this study is examination of the relationship
between self-directedness level of police ofﬁcers and outcomes of online COP training
program in which they participated, the results also give ideas about what other factors
inﬂuence these outcomes. Findings of this study showed that after the self-directedness

level of the ofﬁcers, the most important variable predicting outcomes of online COP

178

training program is ofﬁcers’ assigned unit (COP related or not) during the training
program. According to the results, ofﬁcers working in COP related units were more
likely to have higher level of perceived learning and satisfaction at the end of the online
COP training program than ofﬁcers working in other units. In addition, in terms of three
of the six gain related variables (change in orientation to COP, change in support for
COP, and change in perceived problem-solving capability), ofﬁcers working in COP 7

related units had more positive change at the end of the training program. Even,

 

controlling pretest scores also strengthens the importance of this variable on predicting

gain-related outcomes of the online COP training.101 Actually, these results are not
surprising. As Mastrofski and Ritti (1996) theorized, organizational level considerations
inﬂuenced the impact of police training; that is, “training has a signiﬁcant positive effect
in agencies that provide a supportive environment, but fails to have an effect in agencies
that are otherwise in different or hostile to the purposes the ofﬁcers are trained for”

(F eltes, 2002, p. 55). Mastrofski and Ritti’s (1996) research focusing on the effects of
training in DUI (Driving Under Inﬂuence) arrest productivity in different police
departments also demonstrated that “in departments that value DUI arrest productivity,
training has a strikingly positive effect” (pp. 317-318). Similarly, for the online COP
police training, it was already expected that ofﬁcers who were working in COP units
were more likely to be exposed to a more supportive environment during the training
program compared with the ofﬁcers who were working other departments, and thereby,
their success in the training program may have been affected positively. The results

mentioned above also support this expectation.

 

101
As seen in table 15, assignment is also signiﬁcantly related to change in omcers’ support for non-

traditional policing in favor of cop related units controlling the pretest scores.

179

The other variable emerging as the third important predictor for outcomes of the
online COP training program is gender. In four models (Model 1, 2, 3, and 4), this
variable has signiﬁcant relationships with the outcomes. However, the ﬁndings are
contradictory; whereas gender is related to the perceived learning level and satisfaction in
favor of male police ofﬁcers, it is also related to two gain variables (change in support for
non-traditional policing and change in support for traditional policing) in favor of female
police ofﬁcers. When we look at online learning related literature, the researchers
focusing on the relationship between gender and achievement or success in online
learning did not ﬁnd any signiﬁcant relationship (Dutton, Dutton, & Perry, 2002;
Wojciechowski & Palmer, 2005; Wu & Hiltz, 2004). In contrast, this study shows that
male police ofﬁcers are more likely to learn in online COP training program and be
satisﬁed with it. These results ﬁnd support in discussions of previous studies indicating
that females are less conﬁdent with the use of the computers (Wu & Hiltz, 2004), are
disadvantaged in the online learning environment (Gunn, McSporran, Macleod, &
French, 2003, p. 14), and childcare responsibilities lower their performance (Dutton et al.,
2002). On the other hand, in terms of change in support for non-traditional policing and
traditional policing, ﬁndings indicate that female police ofﬁcers have more positive
change in their support for both outcomes. In Turkish Police context, female police
ofﬁcers generally work in ofﬁces and they do not have much more contact with the other
police ofﬁcers in terms of policing; therefore, they are less exposed to police culture than
their male counterparts. Because of this, we can expect that female ofﬁcers resist any
change in policing ﬁom traditional policing to non-traditional policing less than male

police ofﬁcers do. This can explain why female ofﬁcers have more change in their

180

 

 

support for non-traditional policing at the end of the online training program. However,
according to the results, they also have more change in their support for traditional
policing. This contradictory result cannot be explained easily; it may be due to response

bias of female police ofﬁcers or the large unbalanced distribution between male and

female ofﬁcers or any other reasons. 102 I
The other important variable predicting outcomes of the online COP training is

internet accessibility of the police ofﬁcers during the training program. Results show that

 

this variable is signiﬁcantly and positively related with one of the three main outcomes 1

(perceived learning level) and two of the six gain related outcome variables (change in

direct support for COP and change in perceived problem-solving capability).103 That is,
according to the ﬁndings, as ofﬁcers’ internet accessibility increases during the online
COP training program, their perceived learning level, change in their direct support for
COP and change in their perceived problem-solving capability also increase at the end of
the training program. These results provide support for previous discussions indicating
that one of the most important barriers to achievement and learning in online learning
environment is limited or lack of internet or computer accessibility (Ibrahim & Silong,
2000) and online learning can be hindered due to limits to access the internet (Murphy et
al., 2007). Similar to the results of this study, Pachnowski and Jurczk (2000) also found

that having reliable internet accessibility was one of the features of successful online

 

l 2
0 The relationship between gender and change in support for non-traditional policing and traditional

policing was also examined through independent sample t-test in terms of pretest, posttest, and change. The
results showed that there is signiﬁcant difference between male and female only for change variables in
favor of female ofﬁcers.

0
3 According to table 15, accessibility is also signiﬁcantly and positively related with change in ofﬁcers’
orientation to COP when controlling pretest scores. However, signiﬁcant relationship between this variable
and change in perceived problem solving capability disappear.

181

learning students. However, although some previous studies indicated that there was a
positive relationship between internet accessibility of the student and their satisfaction in
an online learning program (Creedy et al., 2007), this study does not show any signiﬁcant
relationship between internet accessibility and ofﬁcers’ satisfaction with the online COP
training program-

The other variables in the models seem not to be signiﬁcantly related to two of the
main outcomes, perceived learning and satisfaction. However, according to the results,
three of them (computer knowledge, pre-experience in online learning, and age) are
signiﬁcantly related to some of the gain related outcome variables. Computer knowledge

has a positive relationship with only one gain related outcome, change in ofﬁcers’ direct

support for COP.104 As it is expected, as computer knowledge of an ofﬁcer increases,
change in his/her support for COP also increases. However, although prior literature on
online learning emphasized the importance of computer and internet knowledge and
skills in terms of outcomes (e. g., achievement or success) of online learning environment
(McVay, 2000; Wojciechowski & Palmer, 2005), and although results of some studies
found positive relationships between computer knowledge/ skills and the outcomes of
online learning (Creedy et al., 2007; Pachnowski & Jurczyk, 2000), this one signiﬁcant
relationship found in this study cannot provide a strong evidence for the relationship
between these two concepts and support the previous literature and their claims about this
issue.

In terms of previous experience in online learning (1=Yes, having experience),

the results show only one signiﬁcant relationship with one of the gain related variables,

 

104
However, table 15 shows that computer knowledge has also signiﬁcant positive association with

change in ofﬁcers’ perceived problem-solving capability controlling the pretest scores.

182

change in perceived problem-solving capability. Although previous studies claim a
positive effect of having experience on the outcomes of online learning (Wu & Hiltz,
2004) and found a signiﬁcant relationship in favor of having experience (W ojciechowski
& Palmer, 2005), this study shows that there is a signiﬁcant relationship between this
variable and change in ofﬁcers’ perceived problem-solving capability at the end of the
training program in favor of ofﬁcers who did not have any experience in online learning
controlling the other variables. That is, these ofﬁcers had more change compared to the

ofﬁcers who had experience. This result is not consistent with expectations and literature

about this issue, and it might be due to the unbalanced distribution of this variablews
According to the results, age also seems signiﬁcantly and positively related with
two of the gain related outcomes (change in support for COP and change in perception on
police-public relations). That is, as ofﬁcers’ age increase, change in their support to COP
and change in their perception on police-public relations also increase. Although some
studies indicated that being young was an advantage in online learning (Ibrahim &
Silong, 2000) and might be effective on success of students (Pachnowski & Jurczyk,
2000), some research found positive relationships between age and outcomes of online
and self-directed distance learning (Harriman, 1990; Wojciechowski & Palmer, 2005).
This study is also consistent with this later research. The positive relationship can be
explained by Sitzmann and her colleagues’ discussion: older trainees “have more positive
attitudes toward training, are less anxious, and focus more on achieving speciﬁc learning

outcomes than younger trainees” (Sitzmann et al., 2006, p. 630).

 

105 . . . . -
As shown in the descnptrve statistics, only 9 percent of the respondents had experience before the

online COP training program

183

Finally, the main analyses of this study could not identify any signiﬁcant
inﬂuence of education level, previous experience in COP training, rank, and department
size (logged) in which ofﬁcers worked on outcomes of the online COP training program.
However, as seen in table 15, controlling pretest scores make rank (1=1ine ofﬁcers) and
logged department size signiﬁcantly related to some of the gain related outcomes. That is,
results show that whereas line ofﬁcers have more change in their orientation to COP and
their direct support for COP, ofﬁcers working in large city police departments have more
change in their direct support for COP and their perceived problem-solving capability

because as their logged department size increases, change in those attitudes also

increases.106

As mentioned frequently, the aim of the online COP basic training program is to
move values and attitudes of the police ofﬁcers away from traditional policing to the non-
traditional policing model of COP. Therefore, it can be expected that if this training
program was successful, there should have been positive changes in the attitudes and
beliefs of the ofﬁcers in favor of COP. However, because of the validity threats of the
research design of the study, we should be cautious to say any change or gain is due to
the online COP training program. On the other hand, in spite of this limitation of the
design, we can still discuss the gain of the ofﬁcers at the end of the training program.

In terms of six gain related variables described previously, results showed
expected change for each of them. However, whereas four ,of these changes were
signiﬁcant, the other two (change in ofﬁcers’ support for traditional policing and change

in ofﬁcers’ orientation to COP) were not. In general, the ﬁndings of this study reveal that

 

106
These results related to department size are opposite of the expectation mentioned in the methodology

part.

184

there were signiﬁcant and expected changes in ofﬁcers’ attitudes and behaviors toward
community policing at the end of the online COP training program. Even being cautious,
it may be claimed that the online COP training program had a positive inﬂuence on
shaping police ofﬁcers’ attitudes and behaviors related to community oriented policing. It
should be also emphasized that despite of the fact that ofﬁcers had signiﬁcant gain

(changes) in terms of attitudes toward COP, these changes were very small. The results of

 

this study are very consistent with Haarr’s (2001) research focusing on impact of the

 

Phoenix Regional Police Training Academy on police recruits’ attitudes toward COP and
ﬁnding signiﬁcant impact of the academy training on police recruits’ attitudes and skills.
Similarly, her results also showed that changes at the end of the training program were
very small. There might be a question asking why there were small changes or no change
in attitudes at the end of the online COP training program. In reality, since the TNP have
long been applying traditional policing approaches in all area of policing, these kinds of
approaches are very inﬂuential on the behavior and the attitudes of police ofﬁcers.
Therefore, we could expect that pre-training attitudes of police ofﬁcers should have been
in favor of traditional policing. However, univariate statistics show that the ofﬁcers’
attitudes toward COP were positively high before the training program. This is the most
important answer of the question asked above; because ofﬁcers’ attitudes toward COP
were already high (maybe, due to inﬂation by error or other reasons) in the pretest, before
the training program, it seems that there was small or no change in the posttest, after the
training program.

In addition to the change in the attitudes of the ofﬁcers toward COP at the end of

the training program, the perceived learning levels of the ofﬁcers and their satisfaction

185

level with the program can also give some ideas about success or effectiveness of the
online COP basic training program. The descriptive statistics of this study show that the
average perceived learning level of the ofﬁcers in the training program was very high
(mean=l9.24) and frequency of this variable also show that approximately 70 percent of
the ofﬁcers agree or strongly agree that they learned in this training program; that is, their
perceived learning level was high (above the moderate level). Similarly, according to the
results, the average satisfaction level of the ofﬁcers with the online COP training program
was also high (mean=15.31). Findings reveal that 70 percent of the ofﬁcers have either
moderate or high level of satisfaction with the training program. Finally, it can be said
that these results support success or effectiveness of the online COP basic training

program on two outcomes, ofﬁcers perceived learning level and their satisfaction.

6.2. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

6.2.1. Summary and Conclusion of the study

The main problem necessitating this study was that although it is widely accepted
that online learning is a self-directed learning environment (Killion, 2000; King, 1998;
Murphy et al., 2007; Sitzmann et al., 2006; Thombory, 2003; Trombley & Lee, 2002),
there was a lack of research focusing on the relationship between self-directed learning
- and online learning.107 Another main problem was that although the Turkish National
Police (TNP) had been conducting a 60-hour online COP basic training program since
2006, and although importance of training was well-known in terms of successful

implementation of community policing principles (Adams et al., 2002; F eltes, 2002;

 

107 . . . . . . . . . . .
Especrally in police training ﬁeld (or occupational training ﬁeld), any Signiﬁcant study focusrng on

these issues together cannot be located.

186

Gutierrez & Thurman, 2003; J. Zhao et al., 1999; J. Zhao et al., 1995), no study had

empirically assessed the success of this training program.108 Therefore, this study aimed

to understand the relationship between self-directedness of ofﬁcers in the TNP and the

outcomes of the online training (e. g., learning, satisfaction, and gain) and to identify what

other factors predict these outcomes. Additionally, this study aimed to ﬁgure out if there a

was any change in ofﬁcers’ attitudes toward community policing after the online COP

basic training program.109

 

This study was theoretically based on Brockett & Hiemstra’s (1991) Personal 1
Responsibility Orientation (PRO) model. According to this model SDL is comprised of
two dimensions: 1- instructional method process (which is called self-directed learning),
and 2- personality characteristics of individual (called learner self-direction). The PRO
model combines these two dimensions and proposes that “. . .optimal conditions for
learning result when there is a balance, or congruence, between the leamer’s level of self-
direction and the extent to which opportunity for self-directed learning is possible in a
given situation” (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991, p. 30). This model also indicates a link
between effective learning or success and self-directedness in self-directed learning
context; thus, this study hypothesized a positive relationship between self-directedness
level of the ofﬁcers and each of the outcomes of the online COP basic training program.

Furthermore, to both identify and control other factors predicting these outcomes, a logic-

 

108
Even, there is no scientiﬁc study or research focusing on online training in TNP although TNP invests

a lot of resources to the projects (e.g. Smart Class) related to this issue.

109

Some claim that if community policing trainings are successful, they “should eventually produce
change in ofﬁcers’ perceptions of their relationship with the community, their deﬁnition of police and
community roles, and their attitudes about community policing” (Rosenbaum & Wilkinson, 2004, p. 94)

187

model was developed based on previous literature related to online learning and distance
learning.

The data of this study were collected using a pre-experimental design, the one-
group pretest-posttest design (Campbell & Stanley, 1966; Kraska & Neuman, 2008;
Singleton & Straits, 2005). All the participants of the 4th term Online cop Basic Training
program, conducted between May 25 and June 5, 2009, were selected as the sample of
this study. There were 1406 participants of the training program working in 79 city police
departments of Turkey. The data were collected through a web-survey method
administered before and after the training program under the approval of the MSU
Institutional Review Board. For the pretest of this research, the response rate was 1162
(83%). For the posttest, the response rate was 1006 (72%). But, when we matched the
data of the pretest and posttest, the response rate including the ofﬁcers who responded to
both pretest and posttest was 884 (63%).

To measure the self-directedness level of the police officers, the 24-item Oddi
Continuing Learning Inventory (OCLI) was used during the pretest. The other

independent variables of the study and two of the main outcomes (perceived learning

level and satisfaction) were measured during the posttest.110 Gain related outcomes

(change in attitudes of ofﬁcers toward COP) were measured by calculating differences

between posttest scores and pretest scores of six attitude-related variables. 1 11

 

110 . . . .
The other independent and control variables of this study were computer knowledge, internet

accessibility, previous experience in online learning, age, gender, education level, previous experience in
COP training, rank, assigned unit during the training program, and department size in which ofﬁcers

worked.

lll . . . . . . . . . . .
These variables are support for non-traditional polrcmg, support for traditional polrcmg, orientation to

COP, support for COP, perception about police-public relations, and perceived problem solving capability.

188

The multivariate OLS regression analysis was used to test the hypotheses of this
study. Each outcome variable was regressed on self-directedness level of the ofﬁcers and

other independent/control variables. Results supported two main hypotheses (H1 and

H2),112 and showed a signiﬁcant positive relationship between self-directedness and

ofﬁcers’ perceived learning level and satisfaction with the online COP training program.

These analyses also indicated that self-directedness is the most important variable of the

« «Ir-.7
I
r.
I

 

logic model in terms of predicting perceived learning level and satisfaction. On the
contrary, the main results of this study failed to show a signiﬁcant positive relationship
between self-directedness and the outcome variables related to change in attitudes; thus,
they did not support the remaining gain-related hypotheses (H3a, H3b, H3c, H3d, H3e,
and H30. However, close examination of these unexpected results revealed that a
statistical regression problem occurring due to inﬂated pretest scores of ofﬁcers who have
high level of self-directedness may have been the reason for these results. To understand
whether high pretest scores were generating these results, each of the eight models was
run in OLS regression by controlling the pretest scores as well. The results revealed that
pretest scores were inﬂuencing the change scores and supported four gain-related
hypotheses (H3a, H3c, H3d, and H30; that is, they showed a signiﬁcant positive
relationship between self-directedness of the ofﬁcers and change in their support for non-

traditional policing, their orientation to COP, their direct support for COP, and their

 

The differences between posttest and pretest scores of these variables gave the gain or change score at the

end of the training program.

112
H1: There is a positive relationship between self-directedness level of police officers and their learning

level in the online training program
H2:There is a positive relationship between self-directedness level of police ofﬁcers and their satisfaction
with the online training program

189

 

perceived problem-solving capability at the end of the online COP basic training program
controlling the pretest scores and other independent variables.

In addition to self-directedness of the ofﬁcers, the results of the study also gave
some ideas about other factors predicting the outcomes of the online training program.
The most important ﬁnding was that assigned unit of the ofﬁcers during the training
program was a very important variable predicting outcomes of the online COP training.
That is, ofﬁcers working in COP related units are more likely to have higher level of
perceived learning, satisfaction, change in their support for non-traditional policing, their
orientation to COP, their direct support to COP, and their perceived problem-solving
capability. The results also showed that whereas gender is related to the perceived
learning level and satisfaction in favor of male police ofﬁcers, it is also related to two
gain variables—change in support for non-traditional policing and change in support for
traditional policing—in favor of female police ofﬁcers. In terms of internet accessibility,
ﬁndings revealed that this variable is signiﬁcantly and positively related with perceived
learning level of ofﬁcers and two of the six gain-related outcome variables (change in
direct support for COP and change in perceived problem-solving capability). Finally,
according to the results, the other independent and control variables seemed not to be
signiﬁcantly related to two of the main outcomes; perceived learning and satisfaction.

However, three of them (computer knowledge, pre-experience in online learning, and

age) were signiﬁcantly related to a few of the gain related outcome variables.113 The later

 

13 Computer knowledge had a positive relationship with only one gain related outcome, change in
ofﬁcers’ direct support for COP; previous experience in online learning was related to change in problem-
solving capability in favor of those who did not have any experience; and age also seemed signiﬁcantly and
positively related with two of the gain related outcomes (change in support for COP and change in
perception on police-public relations).

190

analyses conducted through controlling the pretest scores showed that rank and

department size also positively related a few gain related outcomes.114
This study also provides knowledge about effectiveness of the online COP
training program. Results revealed signiﬁcant and expected changes in ofﬁcers’ attitudes

and behaviors toward community policing at the end of the online COP training program

in terms of four of the six gain-related outcomes.115 Although we should talk about the
effect of the training program (intervention) cautiously due to validity threats of the
research design of this study, we can say that overall attitudes of ofﬁcers toward COP
were changed signiﬁcantly after the training program. In addition, ﬁndings showed that
ofﬁcers had high level of perceived learning level and satisfaction with this online
learning. All of these positive results point out the success of the online COP basic
training program.

6.2.2. Implications of the results

It is clear that this study contributes to our knowledge about the relationship
between self-direction and online learning as a self-directed learning environment and
ﬁlls the gaps in online learning, self-directed learning and police training ﬁelds. Today,
online learning is widely accepted as an important instruction and learning method and it
has become the center of attraction not only for formal education and training institutes
(e. g., Colleges, Universities, etc.) but also for public and private sectors seeking effective,

fast, and economic training for their personnel all around the world. The Turkish National

 

114 Results show that whereas line ofﬁcers have more change in their orientation to COP and their direct
support for COP, oﬂicers working in large city police departments have more change in their direct support
for COP and their perceived problem-solving capability because as their logged department size increases,
change in those attitudes also increases.

Support for not-traditional policing, support for COP, perception on police-public relations, and
perceived problem-solving capability.

191

Police is one of those public sectors. The TNP has been offering online training programs
on some special topics since 2006. In this study, the central issue of concern was one of
those online training programs, the Community Oriented Policing Basic Training Course.
As mentioned previously, to be able to implement COP successfully, it is important to
change attitudes, beliefs and behaviors of police ofﬁcers positively toward COP, and
prerequisite of these changes is effective training. Thus, since COP trainings are offered
only online in the TNP, it is vital to increase the effectiveness of the online trainings to
achieve effective COP implementation. To increase effectiveness of online police {
training programs (speciﬁcally COP trainings), it is necessary to know what inﬂuences
the outcomes of this kind of training. Once factors affecting these outcomes or success of
online training programs are empirically found, researchers focusing on police training
issues and police trainers can ﬁnd the most appropriate strategies to deal with these
issues. Therefore, this study provides a wealth of practical information to police trainers
and organizers of police training programs, and especially online police training
programs.

The ﬁndings of this study indicate a positive relationship between self-
directedness of the ofﬁcers and the outcomes of online COP training program (learning,
satisfaction, and change in attitudes toward COP), and this variable is one of the most

important predictors of those outcomes. There may be some practical implications of

these results. In the short run, the ﬁrst one or two lessons or days116 of the online training

programs can be designed to provide ofﬁcers for online learning as a self-directed

 

116
If it is a long term—such as a one semester or year-program—training program, one weak can also be

planned and implemented as a opening exercises and practices session to increase officers readiness self-
directed learning (online learning).

192

 

learning environment or to increase ofﬁcers’ readiness to self-directed learning through

opening exercises and orientation practices. Opening exercises or orientation practices

are very good opportunity for the participants in order to get a taste of what is to follow

(Silberrnan & Auerbach, 2006) and learn how to behave in a self-directed online learning

environment. In order to promote self-directedness of the ofﬁcers in learning, these

orientation activities and exercises should (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991; Mezirow, 1981;

Silberrnan & Auerbach, 2006):

Help ofﬁcers to become acquainted with the facilitator, other participants (for
small training groups), and training materials (textbooks, software programs,
etc.)

Aim to decrease the ofﬁcers’ dependency on facilitator or trainer(s)

Attract officers’ interest in the training topic

Assist ofﬁcers to deﬁne and assess their capabilities and needs so that each of
them can outline his/her individual learning plan

Provide feedback for each learning plan

Locate available resources related to the training topic and build a resource
collection including all necessary information, media, etc.

Encourage ofﬁcers to contact resource people related to the learning topic and
to set up learning experiences.

Help officers to approach to learning independently and foster learner
decision-making.

Promote online discussions and small group activities to attract ofﬁcers’

interest in learning experience

193

 

 

 

- Develop a positive attitude toward self-directed inquiry and learning itself,

and reinforce the self-concept of the ofﬁcers as learners.

- Facilitate problem posing and solving ability of the ofﬁcers1 17

The other short run implication might be matching teaching strategy with self-
directedness level of the ofﬁcers as the PRO model indicates. Here, one of the
instructional models, Staged Self-Directed Learning (SSDL) model of Grow (Grow,
1991) can be used to increase the effectiveness of the online training program. SSDL
depends on some important assumptions, such as “the goal of the educational process is
to produce self-directed, lifelong learners”, “there is more than one way to teach well”,
“one may be self-directed in one subject, a dependent learner in another”, “self-direction
is advantageous in many settings” and “self-direction can be leamed—and it can be
thought” (Grow, 1991, p. 127). In this model there are four stages of learners: a)
dependent learner, b) interested learner, 0) involved learner, d) self-directed learner. For
each stage, learners become more self-directed than the previous stage. Grow also
indicates that teaching strategies should be individualized and matched the self-direction
stage of the learner. He also shows four different teaching strategies matching learner’s
self-direction stage: a) authority, expert, b) salesperson, motivator, c) facilitator, d)
delegator (Grow, 1991, p. 143). This approach of SSDL is also parallel with balanced
teaching-learning transaction assumption of the PRO model (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991).
Grow adds that “the fundamental movement implicit in the SSDL model is the movement

ﬁ'om dependent to self-directed learning. Teaching is matched to learners with the

 

l 17
As seen, aim of these recommendations is to facilitate and promote self-directedness in learning

environment; therefore, some of them should also be incorporated in all body of the online training
programs.

194

explicit purpose of helping them attain the knowledge, skills, motivation, and goal of
becoming more autonomous in learning and in life” (Grow, 1991, p. 142).

Regarding the results of this study emphasizing the importance of self-
directedness in online training and depending on SSDL, it can be suggested that self-
directedness level of ofﬁcers who will participate in any online training program (COP or

other) can be identiﬁed before the training program in needs assessment process using

OCLI or similar instrumental 18 Then, participants should be put into different groups or
stages described in SSDL according to their self directedness—from the group of
dependent learners to the group of self-directed learners. Online learning programs
should also be designed regarding self-directedness level of eachgroups; that is, whereas
for the dependent learner groups, an authority teaching strategy can be planned and

applied, for the self-directed learner groups, facilitator or delegator teaching strategies

can be planned and applied.119 It is important that for each group, “teachers’ purpose

should be to match the learner’s stage of self-direction and prepare the learner to advance

 

1 18 . . . .
Needs assessment is very important part of any comprehensrve training or Professronal Development

(PD) program plan and process. This plan process is generally comprised of ﬁve main steps: analyzing
program contexts, assessing needs, developing instructional objectives, selecting instructional formats and
methods, and assessing training (Danziger & Dunkle, 2005; Queeney, 1995; Silberman & Auerbach, 2006;
Vella, 2002). Two of well-known examples of training or PD design process are ADDIE (Analyze,
Design, Development, Implement, and Evaluate) Instructional Systems Design Process (Noe, 2005) and
Interactive Model of Program Planning (Caffarella, 2002). All of these plan and implementation models
emphasize importance of need assessment deﬁned as “a decision-making tool for continuing educators’ use
identifying the educational activities or programs they should offer to best meet their clients’—and

society’s-—educational needs” (Queeney, 1995, p. 1)

119
Example teaching style for dependent learners group might be informational lecture with increased

interaction through well-designed synchronize online programs, coaching including immediate feedback,
overcoming deﬁciencies of the of the ofﬁcers because these learners need teacher-centered learning; for
interested learners group, it might be inspiring lecture supported by online discussions guided by teacher
and learners should be encouraged and motivated to learn on their own; for involved learners group, it
might be discussion and group projects which are facilitated by teacher; and ﬁnally, for self-directed
learners group, teacher should be consultant, there might be self-directed study group or individual work
projects, and student-directed discussions conducted online (Grow, 1991).

195

 

 

to higher stages” (italics were added, Grow, 1991, p. 129) so that the ofﬁcers can be more
successful in the online training program.

On the other hand, as understood in this study, online learning may not be good
teaching-learning method for highly dependent learners or for those with low level self-
directedness. Therefore, ofﬁcers can be divided into two groups during the needs

assessment and planning process: ofﬁcers with low level self-directedness and ofﬁcers

 

with moderate or high level self-directedness. For those ofﬁcers with low level self-
directedness, face-to-face training program can be organized and in these programs,
trainers should aim to increase those ofﬁcers’ self-directedness level so that they can be
ready for other online learning programs. For those ofﬁcers who have moderate or high
level self—directedness, well-designed online learning programs can be applied. Finally, it
can again be emphasized that during all the process of planning and implementation of
online police training programs, the trainers, organizers, and planners should keep in
mind that there is a positive relationship between self-directedness of the ofﬁcers and the
outcomes of online training.

Furthermore, it can be foreseen that online and similar technological and self-
directed learning methods will dorrrinate future training and education ﬁeld. Therefore, it

is important to make all ofﬁcers of the TNP ready to learn and behave in self-directed
manner. 120 In long run, one of the best ways to provide this is that strategies enhancing

self-directedness of the ofﬁcers should be incorporated in the curricula of both the police

academy and police schools. Brockett and Hiemstra (1991) suggest three strategies to

 

120 A number of the studies on self-directed learning indicates that self-direction can be learned and

progressed (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991; Grow, 1991; Knowles, 1975; Merriam, Caffarella, &
Baurngartner, 2007; Mezirow, 1981, 1991)

196

 

enhance learners’ self-direction: facilitating critical reﬂection, promoting rational
thinking, and using helping skills in the facilitation process. According to Brookﬁeld
(1987, p. 4), “in adulthood, we are thinking critically whenever we question why we, or
our partners, behave in certain ways within relationships.” Similarly, Brockett and
Hiemstra (1991, p. 134) indicate “when people question existing ideas or behaviors, or
information that has been presented to them, they are engaging in critical thinking.”

According to these scholars, since critical thinking requires analysis and judgment of any

 

given situation or problem, it is an important part of self-directedness in learning. To
facilitate learning of critical thinking, there are some suggested activities that students of
the police academy and schools can be encouraged to apply: reading, participating in the
arts, thinking, writing, discussing, and acting (ibid.). On the other side, rational thinking
refers to choosing to retain control of our lives through controlling our responses to the
events occurring around us (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991). This thinking process supports
the association between personal responsibility of adults and their self-directedness.
Therefore, in the pre-service training process, how to think rationally should be taught.
The last strategy, using helping skills to enhance learner self-direction, refers to the fact
that facilitators use some core skills to enhance learners’ self-directedness. These skills
are respecting and being genuine to the learners,121 and some basic communication skills,
such as listening, attending, empatlrizing, and probing (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991).
These skills should be applied by trainers and commanders of the police academy and

police schools so that recruits’ self-directedness can be progressed. Irnportantly, to apply

 

121
“Respect does not necessarily mean that the facilitator must agree with the learner; it does mean that
the facilitator accepts the learner despite these kinds of differences” (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991, p. 141)

197

 

these strategies in pre-service police training institutes, trainers should also be trained in
using theories and practices related to self-directed learning.

The other most important ﬁnding of this study is that there is a relationship
between ofﬁcers’ assigned unit during the online training program and the outcomes of

the training in favor of those working in COP related units; that is, ofﬁcers working in

 

COP related units are more likely to have higher level of perceived learning, satisfaction,

and positive change in their attitudes toward COP at the end of the training program.

 

Based on these results and discussions on this issue, it can be suggested that only ofﬁcers
working in COP related units during the training program should be accepted for this
kind of online COP basic trainings. The reason is that ofﬁcers working other rurits may
not be exposed to a supportive environment during the training program. On the contrary,
ofﬁcers, working in COP related units and supported by their departments, may ﬁnd
more opportunity to practice what they learned in real duty, and they may be more
motivated because the training is mostly related to their duties. However, this doesn’t
mean that COP training should not be offered to the other ofﬁcers working in different
units. It is clear that in this new policing era, the aim of TNP should be moving attitudes
of not only ofﬁcers working in COP units but also ofﬁcers working in other units from
traditional policing to non-traditional COP policing. This will facilitate implementation
of COP and may increase its success. Therefore, for other officers, workshops or similar

training programs related to COP can be applied.

 

This study also shows that male police ofﬁcers are more likely to learn in an
online COP training program and be satisﬁed with it. In terms of implementation of this

result, departments should facilitate female ofﬁcers’ participation process by providing

198

more ﬂexibility and time regarding their family responsibilities during the training
program. In addition, some courses or programs can be organized for female ofﬁcers to

increase their computer and internet knowledge and make them more conﬁdent with the

technology environment. 122 In the literature, gender differences in learning environment
is widely examined, and it is indicated that in terms of success, there might be link
between gender differences and the way students learn (e. g., teaching method, learning

strategy, or learning style) (Blum, 1999; Severiens & Darn, 1994). One of those ways is

collaborative learningm' or learning in group. Some of the prior research also found that
female learners preferred collaborative learning (Lundeberg & Moch, 1995) or they may
be more receptive to learn in group context (Underwood & Underwood, 1999).
Therefore, it was suggested to design learning environments promoting and encouraging
collaborative learning for females (Blum, 1999). Based on prior studies, it can be said
that female police ofﬁcers may not ﬁnd the online method offered through only classic
lecture method as supportive. Thus, online courses can be complemented with group
activities for female ofﬁcers.

Moreover, according to these results, internet accessibility is also seen positively
related to some of the outcomes of the online learning (perceived learning level, change
in direct support for COP and in perceived problem-solving capability). It is known that

departments are responsible for providing internet connected computer for their ofﬁcer

 

122
Actually this programs can be also organized for male ofﬁcers who have no or limited internet or

computer knowledge.

123
Collaborative learning refers to a learning environment in which groups of learners work together to

achieve a common goal (Underwood & Underwood, 1999). Collaborative learning covers a broad area of
approaches based on discussions and active work with the course material (Smith & MacGregor, 1992).
There are some collaborative learning methods used by instructors widely. Some of these are guided
discussion or teaching, case study, role-playing, demonstration and simulation, problem-centered
instruction, writing groups, peer teaching (Cantor, 1992; Silberman & Auerbach, 2006; Smith &
MacGregor, 1992).

199

during the synchronized lessons. But, for online learning, this is not enough. That is, for
ﬁrture online training programs departments should provide more opportunities to reach
internet for the ofﬁcers who do not have efﬁcient internet access in both work and home.
Finally, we can also talk about theoretical implication of the results. The literature
related to online learning shows a gap in terms of theory to understand this ﬁeld
comprehensively (Irnel, 2003). This study, based on self-directed learning theory
(Personal Responsibility Orientation Model) and adult learning theories showed a
signiﬁcant and positive relationship between self-directedness and outcomes of online
learning. Therefore, any future theoretical endeavor to understand and describe online
learning should incorporate self-directedness of learner into their deﬁnitions, propositions
and models. In addition, theoretical approaches related to self-directed learning
emphasize the importance of context referring to a variety of settings in which learning
occur and including both institutional and the global contexts which participants
experience during the learning process (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991). In occupational
learning settings in which non-traditional adult learners are trained, work conditions to
which trainees are exposed are important learning contexts (e. g., work load, shifts,
supervisory or departmental support, etc.) (Bartlett, 1999). This study revealed that some
of the context-related variables (e.g., assigned unit and internet accessibility) are
signiﬁcantly linked to the outcomes of online learning. Therefore, future theoretical

endeavors focusing on online leanring should also cover context issues.

200

6.3. LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH
6.3.1. Limitations of the Study
As with any scientiﬁc study, this study is not without limitations; several
limitations are inherent. As mentioned previously, one of the most important limitations

is its research design, the one-group pretest-posttest design. There are a number of
possible threats to validity in this design (Campbell & Stanley, 1966; Cook & Campbell, l

1979). These threats make it difficult to say any change in ofﬁcers’ attitudes toward COP

 

is due to the online training program. Therefore, throughout the study, caution was used l i
when talking about the effect of the online training program on gain of the ofﬁcers. Non-
random sampling and lack of control group are also other design related limitations of
this study. Although participants were not randomly assigned to that training program,
some of their demographic characteristics showed similarities to the general population
of the TNP. However, this comparison was done based on only two broad variables
(gender and rank); there might be other important differences that could not be captured.
This is an important limitation and weakens the generalizability of the results. On the
other hand, due to the lack of control group, we could not control some of the threats to
validity mentioned above. In addition, although we got some idea about the effectiveness
of the online training program, we could not learn the extent of this effectiveness
compared to the traditional face-to-face community policing training because of the
absence of control group.

Additionally, there are several measurement-related limitations. First, because the
training program did not provide an opportunity to measure direct learning level or

success of the officers, to measure these outcomes, intangible measurements were used,

201

 

such as perceived learning level, and satisfaction. Although these intangible
measurements are widely used to measure outcomes of education or training programs in
the literature, use of them can be seen as a limitation because sometimes students’
evaluation might be different from the tangible grades they would receive (Y. Zhao et al.,

2005). Furthermore, use of translated instruments can be seen as a limitation of this

 

study. Although previously developed and validated scales and instruments provide
advantages in terms of time, energy and comparison of the ﬁndings with previous studies,
use of those instruments in a linguistically different population may cause distortion of
the original intent of the instruments due to any translation problem or it may not be
consistent with the other population or culture (Y u, Lee, & Woo, 2004). To rrrinimize any
negative effect of this limitation, accuracy of the translation and congruity of the

questions to the Turkish and TNP context were checked through a cognitive interview

with seven members of TNP.124

The lack of qualitative research is also another limitation of this study. Although
they have a number of strengths, quantitative studies may not provide in depth
understanding of human experiences and behaviors. Similarly, because the general
tendency in quantitative studies is testing the predetermined hypotheses through
standardized questionnaire or interviews, respondents answer only what the researchers
ask them. Therefore, some interesting responses occurring spontaneously may be
excluded or missed (Grossnickle & Raskin, 2001). However, the particular strength of

qualitative research is that we can look or understand more closely how things/ events

 

124
Four of them were graduate students in the U.S., two of them were ofﬁcers who graduated from

graduate programs in the U.S. and were working in TNP, and one of them was a graduate from a graduate
program in the U.S. and was working in a COP unit in Turkey.

 

202

work or occur through providing detailed description of the events, group, particular
setting, culture, etc. (Scale, 2004). Therefore, some qualitative research approaches—
such as phenomenological research focusing on meaning of a concept or phenomenon
experienced by several individuals, or grounded theory research aiming to generate or
discover a theory summarizing the analytical schema of a process (Creswell, 2007)—may
have helped to understand the experiences of the police ofﬁcers in online COP police
training program, or helped to generate a theoretical approach to understand the online
training process comprehensively.

Moreover, this study made the assumption that online learning was a self-directed
learning environment. However, it is clear that there may have been variance in the
delivery of each online lesson in terms of level of self-directed learning environment.
Therefore, lack of measures of the extent of self-directed learning in each lesson is
another limitation of this study. That is, like the learners’ self-directedness, to what extent
each instructor or each lesson provided self-directed learning environment could have
been measured.

On the other hand, the policy implications focusing on self-directedness of
ofﬁcers were made based on SDL related results of this study. However, it is clear that
the main analyses showed that models of this study explain at most 10 percent variance in
outcome variables (e. g., perceived learning level and satisfaction). Therefore, there must
be some other variables explaining those outcomes signiﬁcantly and we could not capture
in this study.

Finally, although this study provides some ideas about the extent ofﬁcers’

attitudes toward community oriented policing changed at the end of the training program,

203

 

 

it cannot give any information about whether ofﬁcers could apply or transfer what they
learned ﬁ'om the training program to the actual work environment. Similarly, this study
did not assess the implementation process of community policing nor the factors that
affect implementation (e. g. supervisory support, work load, citizen support, etc.). In
addition, this study does not provide knowledge about whether the ofﬁcers maintained
their attitudes toward COP or whether there were changes in those attitudes (negative or
positive) during the implementation process. That is, the lack of follow-up research on

the impact of this training in the daily police workplace is another limitation of this study.

6.3.2. Future Research

The limitations and results of this study provide some recommendations for future
research. First, this study needs to be reorganized through a research design including
both random assignment and control group, such as the pretest-posttest control group
designlzs Such a design would address many of the threats from which this study
suffers. In addition, this kind of design will provide the opportunity to understand to what
extent the online COP training (or other police trainings) is effective on the outcomes of
the training by comparing the treatment and control groups (i.e., those exposed to
traditional face-to-face COP training). This would also give the opportunity to observe

the inﬂuence of self-directedness on outcomes in each training environment. Similarly, a

 

12
5 In a research conducted through pretest-posttest control group design the experimental group is

observed or measured before and after the treatment. The control group is also observed or measured at the
same time but does not receive the treatment or receive another treatment (Singleton & Straits, 2005). For
exanrple, in our case, whereas the experimental group is exposed to online COP training, the control group
can receive traditional face-to-face COP training.

204

 

 

longitudinal panel study126 that would provide a follow-up (time 3) can be designed after
three or six months from the training program to identify any changes in ofﬁcers’
attitudes toward COP after the training program, to what extent they can apply what they
learned from the training, and what predicts both changes in attitudes and implementation
process.

Future research can use more tangible measurements (e. g. grades, test scores, etc.)
to measure outcomes of the online training pro gram in addition to the intangible
measurements (e. g., perceived learning level and satisfaction). The relationship or
correlation between these tangible and intangible measurements should be examined.
Additionally, the translated instruments used in this study should be applied by future
research to understand their reliability and to compare results with this study. Moreover,
other scales can be also used to measure self-directedness of the ofﬁcers (such as
SDLRS) and its results can be compared the results of this study taken by OCLI.

The PRO model suggests that there should be balance and harmony between
learners’ self-direction and self-directed learning environment (Brockett & Hiemstra,
1991). In this study it was assumed that online learning was a self-directed learning
environment and thereby, self-direction of the ofﬁcers was the main interest. However, if
lessons are presented by different instructors there may be variance in providing self-
directed learning environment. Therefore, future research should also take into account
the extent to which the process, learning environment, or instructors provides self-

directed learning opportunity.

 

In panel study, researchers observe the same set of people at two or more times (Maxﬁeld & Babbie,
1998). This design allow the researchers to identify the changes in people, groups, or any selection that
they are studying (Bachman & Schutt, 2001). The key issue in panel studies is that follow-up sample ﬁ'om
which data collected in time 2 or time 3 is the same as the sample ﬁ'om which data collected in time 1
(except those pe0ple who are not to be able to located).

205

Finally, regarding their strengths and limitations, it can be suggested that future
research should apply combinations of both qualitative and quantitative approaches.
Whereas quantitative research will provide the opportunity to test existing theory and
examine any causal relationship between self-directedness of ofﬁcers and outcomes of
online training, qualitative approaches may provide in depth understanding of ofﬁcers’
experiences in online police training program and help to generate theoretical approaches

summarizing the online police training process. Emphasizing the importance of the

 

 

qualitative research, Brocket & Hiemstra (1991, p. 83) indicated that “in the current effort
to gain greater understanding of self-direction in adult learning, qualitative approaches
have been the most recent stream of inquiry to evolve and. . .offer much toward creating a
greater understanding of the context in which self-directed learning takes place, and the
many meanings that learners and educators attach to the concept of learner self-

direction.”

206

APPENDICES

207

 

 

APPENDIX A — PARTICIPANTS OF THE 4TH TERM ONLINE COP BASIC

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

t1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TRAINING PROGRAM
City# Name of the City 11 City # Name of the City 11
1 ADANA 3o 42 KONYA 21
2 ADIYAMAN 10 43 KUTAHYA 26
3 AFYONKARAHISAR 19 44 MALATYA 20
4 AGRI 9 45 MANlSA 35
5 AMASYA 1 46 KAI-IRAMANMARAS 26
6 ANKARA 15 47 MARDIN 16
7 ANTALYA 37 48 MUGLA fv‘.’
partzcrpant
8 ARTVIN 9 49 MUS 5
9 AYDIN 33 50 NEVSEl-IIR 9
10 BALIKESIR 39 51 NIGDE 11
11 BILECIK 8 52 ORDU 23
12 BINGOL 7 53 RIZE 10
13 BlTLlS 4 54 SAKARYA 16
14 BOLU 15 55 SAMSUN 35
15 BURDUR 16 56 SIIRT 11
16 BURSA 48 57 SINOP 11
17 CANAKKALE 18 58 SlVAS 18
18 CANKIRI 9 59 TEKIRDAG 17
19 CORUM 19 60 TOKAT 26
20 DEN 1th 8 61 TRABZON 23
21 DIYARBAKIR 23 62 TUNCELI 2
22 EDlRNE 15 63 SANLIURFA 29
23 ELAZIG 8 64 USAK 5
24 ERZINCAN 8 65 VAN 27
25 ERZURUM 17 66 YOZGAT 10
26 ESKISEHIR 23 67 ZONGULDAK 14
27 GAZIANTEP 72 68 AKSARAY 8
28 GIRESUN 12 69 BAYBURT 3
29 Gt'IMt'JsHANE 2 7o KARAMAN 9
3o HAKKARI 4 71 KIRIKKALE 9
31 HATAY 27 72 BATMAN 4
32 ISPARTA 10 73 SIRNAK 12
33 MERSIN 41 74 BARTHV 1Y9
partrczpant
34 ISTANBUL 53 75 ARDAHAN 11
35 IZMlR 73 76 IGDIR 4
36 KARS 7 77 YALOVA 5
37 KASTAMONU 6 78 KARABUK 9
38 KAYSERI 18 79 KILIS 7
39 KIRKLARELI 17 80 OSMANIYE 15
4o KIRSEHIR 12 81 DUZCE 12
41 KOCAELI so TOPLAM 1406

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

208

APPENDIX B — LESSONS PRESENTED IN THE ONLINE COP BASIC
TRAINING PROGRAM AND THEIR SHORT DESCRIPTIONS

The Online COP Basic Training program was an online in-service training
program and offered a synchronous training for the officers. There were 6-hour lessons
every day during the course. Although participants were expected to follow the lessons
simultaneously, they did not have to do so. Because all lessons were recorded as video
and published, all PowerPoint and other presentations were uploaded to the website, and
there was also some other resources related to lessons on the website, those who could
not follow the lessons synchronously because of their work or personal issues or those
who wanted to repeat the lessons could watch the lessons or read the materials
asynchronously whenever and wherever they wanted. The lessons of the COP Basic
Training program were provided both by ranked police ofﬁcers who were experts on
COP and who had academic or professional training on COP, and by academician ﬁom
Universities. Each instructor gave his/her presentation, outline of his/her lesson, copy of
helpful resources related to his lesson or links to resources to the organizers of the
program and all of them were uploaded to the website of the lessons so that participants
could use them. The lessons were presented through a stand-up presentation method.
During the lessons, if a student had a question, he sent it as soon as possible to the
program’s email address and it was asked to the instructor during the lesson. If a student
had a question out of the time of the program, he/she still could send the question through
e-mail to the program organizers or direct to the e-mail address of the instructors. The
table below shows names and number of hours of each lesson of the training program and
presents explanation of each of them.

 

Number of

Name of the Lesson
Hours

Explanation

 

This lesson aim to provide base to COP
so that the participants of the training

program can understand later
How Policing is information better. General structure of
1 Applied in Turkey 2 the TNP, contemporary innovations in
Now policing and in the TNP, dimension and

types of crime in Turkey, and changes
in policing approaches are taught in this
lesson.

This lesson focuses on what is the
meaning of COP, how it emerged and

 

Deﬁnition of COP has developed in the world. In this
and Its Development: lesson, some examples related to
2 Implementations of 2 implementation of COP in the United
COP in U.S. and EU States and in some European Union
Countries countries are discussed. That is, this
lesson aims to give a pre-vision related
to COP to the trainees.

 

 

 

 

 

 

209

 

 

 

In this lesson, what is the main
philosophy underlying COP, what
makes it differ ﬁ'om traditional policing

 

$132021;ng COP approaches, what are the main goals in
the implementation of COP in the
community, how these goals can be
achieved are discussed.
What are the legislations supporting
National and COP in Turkey, and what are
. international regulations constituting the
Internatronal . .
. ground of rrnplernentatron of COP are
Regulatrons on COP . tlri l C . f
Services taught in s esson. omparrson 0

both national and international
regulations is also discussed.

 

Fear of Crime and
Eliminating Fear of
Insecurity and Crime
in the Community

Shortly, what the fear of crime is,
relationship between crime rates and
fear of crime, and how to approach and
treat the fear of crime in the community
are taught in this lesson. Speciﬁcally,
some statistical analyses showing the
relationship between fear of crime and
crime rates are presented; how fear of
crime emerge among people, and the
relationship between police and citizen
and its effect on fear of crime are
discussed.

 

 

 

Identiﬁcation of the
Area of
Responsibility and Its
Importance

 

 

In this lesson it is mentioned that each
CO-P is responsible for his/her duty
area and has to be able to know and
identify his/her responsible area well.
To achieve this, CO-Ps should enter the
community and establish relationship
with the citizens. During this process,
CO—Ps are responsible for identifying
the problems ﬁ'om which community
suffer and attempting to understand and
deﬁne the reasons of the problems by
the help of the citizens. They also
responsible for developing alternative
responses to solve the identiﬁed
problems together with representatives
of the community, other police
departments, and other public/private
sectors. Then, they will lead to the
implementation of the solutions,
establish connection between each party

 

210

 

 

 

of the solutions, and follow to what
extent the implementations are
achieved. In this lesson, trainees are
also taught how to do each of the items
mentioned above.

 

Comprehensive
Approach to COP
Services

In this lesson, practitioners tell
comprehensively how to implement
COP in the cities, what are the key
features of the implementation of COP,
importance of establishing
communication and relationship with
the citizens in neighborhoods, how to
establish relationship with the citizens,
and what kind of problem might be
faced during this process, and how to
cope with them.

 

Role of the Municipal
Governments in
Struggling Crime

In this lesson, what are the roles of the
municipal governments in struggling
with crime in other countries and in our
country, what the municipal
governments can do related to the
people who tend to commit crime and
related to places providing opportunity
to commit crime, what are the
contributions of the municipal
government to preventing crime, and
how the relationship between the
municipal governments and the police
should be are discussed.

 

Characteristics of
Community Oriented
Police (CO-P).

Though showing differences of
community oriented police from
traditional police, in this lesson some
the most important characteristics of
CO-P are discussed.

 

 

10

 

Importance of
infrastructure of the
Information
Technologies in the
Implementation of
COP

 

 

In this lesson, it is mentioned that the
use of related technology is very
important to implement COP
effectively, and to increase its
efﬁciency. In this lesson, a software
program provided by General
Directorate of Security Department of
Data Process in order to record all
activities related to COP across the
country. Through the lesson, how to use
this software program is taught. This
software program provides opportunity

 

211

 

 

 

for both the central organization and
each of city organizations to see success
and problems encountered in different
cities and to learn lessons from
experiences of other COP units.

 

11

Analysis of Crime
and Importance of it
in COP services

In Turkey, there is a project called
Crime Analysis Central Project that
aims to analyze crime across the
country and also in each city. In this
lesson, how to use the data provided by
this project is thought. Speciﬁcally,
how to make strategic and tactic
analysis depending on this project, and
how to use crime maps are taught.

 

12

Programs And
Activities In Which
Citizens Participate

Two police ofﬁcers working in two
different cities of Turkey, Eskisehir and
Kayseri, tell about challenges that they
face during the implementation of COP
in their duty area, and they explain what
they did to get citizen participate into
activities and programs related to
preventing and struggling with crime
and related to problems of
neighborhoods. They, speciﬁcally, tell
how to establish relationship with other
organizations, how to inform citizens,
how to visit citizens, and what kind of
activities and programs in which
citizens participate they organized and
planned to organize etc.

 

13

Practice of Daily
Works of CO-P in the
Duty Area

This is an eight-hour lesson.
Participants are expected to go street in
their duty area and try to apply or think
how to apply what they learned in the
course, and write-down if they have
questions or ideas related to
implementations of the COP. Then their
experiences or questions are discussed
through online. '

 

 

14

 

Psychology of
Community

 

 

This lesson aim to make ofﬁcers to
learn the psychology of the community
that they serve. This important to
acknowledge to whom we, as police
ofﬁcers, serve, and from whom we are
expecting support in struggling with
and preventing crime. Speciﬁcally, this

 

 

212

 

 

 

lesson focuses on why people tend to
live together, what are the reasons
underlying this.

 

15

Relationships with the
Media

This lesson focuses on how police-
media relationships should be, historical
overview of these relationships, how the
police can lead the media, and how the
media can be used to inform citizens
about COP activities, programs, and
successes.

 

16

Communication
Techniques and
Public Relations

For successfully implementation of
COP, establishing effective
communication with the citizens is very
important. In this lesson, effective
communication techniques are taught
and main parts of communication
process are discussed, such as resource,
message, channel, receiver, feedback.

 

17

Body Language

Body language is one of the techniques
used in effective communication. How
to use our body effectively to establish
successful communication with citizen
through the implementation of COP
process is taught in this lesson.

 

18

Victims’ Rights and
Consultations and
Support Services for
Victims

One side of crime, criminal activities or
problems in a community is victim. In
the problem solving process in
neighborhood, victims should be also
taken into account. In order to help
victims effectively, police should know
rights of them, how to help them, which
public/private sectors provide
consultation or support for victims, etc.
This lesson focuses on these issues.

 

19

Police Professional
Ethic

In this lesson some of the professional
principles forcing police ofﬁcers to
behave in a certain way, preventing or
limiting their personnel tendencies,
deﬁning and eliminating the
unprincipled ofﬁcers, arranging
domestic competition, etc. are taught
and discussed.

 

 

20

 

Police Culture

 

 

Several positive and negative
characteristics which shape or affect
routine police decision-making process
and how new recruits become socialized

 

 

213

 

 

 

 

 

 

in the available culture are told in this
lesson. Also, the relationship of the
current police culture with the new
innovation, COP, and how to ﬁt police
culture with COP are discussed.

 

 

21

 

Human Rights

 

 

Human rights issue has very important
place in democratic societies. In
democratic societies, it is clear that
there is a relationship between Human
Rights and policing. Police should be
also very respectful to human rights
during the implementation of COP. In
this lesson, historical development of
human rights, international and national
law and regulations related to human
rights, and how to incorporate human
right principles in police daily routine
during the implementation of COP are
discussed.

 

214

 

APPENDIX C - SURVEY INSTRUMENT (ENGLISH VERSION)

 

 

PRETEST

The questionnaire delivered as a pretest was comprised of
questions and scales measuring attitudes toward
Community Policing, ODDI Continuing Learning
Inventory (OCLI), and Assessing The Learning Strategies
of Adults (ATLAS) instrument.

 

215

 

 

COMMUNITY ORIENTED POLICING RELATED QUESTIONS FOR PRETEST

Direction: This part of the questionnaire aims to measure your knowledge about general
policing activities and Community Oriented Policing. COP is acronym for Community
Oriented Policing. Please be objective and realist as you possibly can when you answer
the each question.

1- How much of the agency's/department's resources should be committed to the
activities listed below? Please check the response that best describes your

opinion.

Small Moderate Large
None Amount Amount Amount

a) Patrolling on foot in neighborhoods 1 2 3 4
b) Marketing police service to the public 1 2 3 4
c) Explaining crime prevention
. . . l 2 3 4
techmques to citizens
(1) Handling special events 1 2 3 4
e) Researching and solving problems 1 2 3 4
f) Coordinating with other agencies to 1 2 3 4
improve the quality of life in the city
g) Working with citizen groups to resolve
1 2 3 4
local problems
h) Assisting persons in emergencies 1 2 3 4
i) Helping settle family disputes 1 2 3 4
j) Responding to calls for service 1 2 3 4
k) Checking buildings and residences l 2 3 4
l) Responding to crimes 1 2 3 4
m) Investigating criminal incidents l 2 3 4
11) Trafﬁc enforcement 1 2 3 4

2- To what extent do you agree or disagree with the following statements? Check
the number that ge_s_t corresponds to the level of your agreement with each
statement.

216

d)

g)

h)

j)

k)

1)

Police ofﬁcer should
make ﬁ'equent informal
contacts with the people
in their beat.

Police ofﬁcers should
try to solve non-crime
problems in their beat
Crime in their beat is not
the only problem that
police ofﬁcers should be
concerned about

Police ofﬁcers should
work with citizens to try
and solve problems in
their beat

Assisting citizens can be
as important as
enforcing the law
Citizens know more
about what goes on in
their area than the
ofﬁcers who patrol there
The prevention of crime
is the joint responsibility
of the community and
the police

Lowering citizens’ fear
of crime should be just
as high a priority for the
department as cutting
the crime rate

Without citizen
cooperation, the
majority of crimes
would never be solved
Police ofﬁcers should
focus on solving crimes
and apprehending
offenders

Motorized patrol is
important to deter crime
Police ofﬁcers should
check building and
residence to struggle

Strongly
' Disagee

Disagree

217

Neutral

Agree

Strongly
Aggee

 

 

with crime.

3- To what extent do you agree or disagree with the following statements related to
Community Oriented Policing (COP)? Check the number that melt corresponds
to the level of your agreement with each statement.

Strongly Strongly
Disaggee Disagr_'ee Neutral Aggee Aggee
a) COP prevents street
ofﬁcers ﬁom
performing more

important activities, 1 2 3 4 5
such as responding to
emergency calls.
b) COP makes it easier for
street ofﬁcers to 1 2 3 4 5

apprehend criminals.

c) COP takes good
ofﬁcers and turns them 1 2 3 4 5
into social workers.

(1) COP is just one more
fad in policing and will
soon be replaced by
another fad.

e) COP does not provide
ofﬁcers with enough
guidance for handling
incidents.

f) In most cases, referring
a citizen to social
services, health, or
welfare agencies is a
waste of police
officers’ time.

g) COP puts more
decision-making
authority in the hands
of the street ofﬁcer.

4- To what extent do you agree or disagree with the following statements related to
general patrol functions? Check the number that gigs; corresponds to the level
of your agreement with each statement.

218

 

8)

Most people do not
respect the police

The relationship between
the police and the people
is very good

Citizens do not
understand the problems
of the police

Most people have no idea
of how difficult a police
ofﬁcer’s job is

Citizens will never trust
police enough to work
together effectively

The public shows a lot of
respect for law
enforcement ofﬁcers

The public is more apt to
obstruct law enforcement
work than to cooperate

Strongly
Disagree

1

Disaggee

2

E81321

3

Aggee

4

Strongly
Aggee

5

5- How qualified do you feel to do each of the following? Check the number that

best corresponds to the level of your qualification with each statement.

Identify community
problems

Use problem-solving
techniques to analyze
problems

Develop solutions to
community problems
Evaluate solutions to see
how well they work

Work with beat residents to

solve problems in the
neighborhood

Vets
Unqualiﬁed Ungualiﬁed Qggliﬁed Qualiﬁed

l

219

2

3

Very

4

THE ODDl CONTINUING LEARNING INVENTORY (OCLI)
For the purpose of this research, a royalty-free copyright license for the use of the
OCLI was granted by Lorys F. Oddi. In the license agreement it is requested that “a copy
of the OCLI will NOT be published or included with study report.” Therefore, OCLI was
not put into this appendix. This is the signed agreement:

W

Lorys F. Oddi (Licensor) hereby grants a license under the copyright on the Oddi
Continuing Learning Inventory (OCLD to the undersigned Licensee on the
following terms and conditions:

1. The license is granted only for use of the OCLI in research to be undertaken by
the Licensee as speciﬁed in the research proposal provided herewith by the
licensee.

2. The license is granted on a royalty-free basis provided the OCLI is used only
for the speciﬁed research. Any use of the OCLI for other purposes is strictly
prohibited without the express written authorization of the Licensor.

3. The Licensee shall include the following statement in any written report
(published or communicated to others) of the research undertaken with the use of
the OCLI: “For the purposes of this research, a royalty-free c0pyright license for

the use of the OCLI was granted by Lorys F. Oddi.”

4. The licensee shall provide Licensor with a copy of the ﬁnal version of any
written report (published or communicated to others) of the research undertaken
with the use of the OCLI.

5. The Licensee shall provide Licensor with item scores and demographic data,
which shall be used only for further development of the OCLI.

6. A copy of the OCLI will NOT be published or included with study report.

AGREEDW WW 5 M/é/é' %ﬁ/Zwo

Llorys F. Oddi (Licensor)

Oat/1.2

Mustafa B. Halicioglu (Licensee)

 

 

220

ASSESSING THE LEARNING STRATEGIES OF ADULTS (ATLAS)

Directions: The following statements relate to learning in real-life situations in which
you control the learning situation. For each statement, select the one answer that best ﬁts
you. Some of the items make look similar to you, so it is important that once you respond
to an item, do not go back and change any items.

1-

When considering a new learning activity such as learning a new craft, hobby, or
skill for use in my personal life:

a. I like to identify the best possible resources such as manuals, books, modern
information sources, or experts for learning project.

b. I usually will not begin the learning until I am convinced that I will enjoy it

enough to successfully ﬁnish it.
It is important for me to:
a. Focus on the end result and then set up a plan with such things as schedules and
deadlines for learning it.
b. Think of a variety of ways of learning the material.
I like to:
a. Involve other people who know about the topic in my learning activity.
b. Structure the information to be learned to help remind me that I can successfully
complete the learning activity.
I like to:
a. Set up a plan for the best way to proceed with a speciﬁc learning task.
b. Check out the resources that I am going to use to make sure that they are the best
ones for the learning task.
I like to:

a. Involve other people who know about the topic in my learning activity.

b. Determine the best way to proceed with a learning task by evaluating the results
that I have already obtained during the learning task.

©G.J. Conti / Teaching and Teacher Education, 25 (2009) 887—896

221

 

 

PQSTTEST

The questionnaire delivered as a posttest was comprised
of two parts: 1) general questions measuring officers’
learning level, satisfaction with the training program,

perceptions about the program, personal characteristics,

and demographic characteristics; 2) The same COP
related scales applied in the pretest.

 

222

 

 

Introduction: This questionnaire aims to evaluate success and effectiveness of the online
Community Policing Training program through perspectives of the participants. Your
answer will help us to understand real effectiveness of this program and to adjust it for
next training programs. Because of this, please be objective and realist as possible when
you answer each of the questions. It should be noted that the questionnaire is completely
conﬁdential.

START HERE:

The course that you have just completed is called online distance training through
online technologies (intemet/web). Have you ever participated in any online
training program before?

13 Yes

Cl No

2. If your answer was “yes”, what were they about? Please specify your answer in
the blank below this question.

 

 

 

 

3. Please grade your computer and internet knowledge by circling one of the
numbers below. (This is a lO-point scale: whereas (1) refers to “I have no
knowledge about computer and internet” 10 refers to “I am professional on
computer and Internet”).

1 have no knowledge I am professional
I l
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

 

223

4.

I know how to turn my computer system on and off
properly

I know ﬁle management on my computer, such as
moving ﬁles around different directories and drives,
saving ﬁles, or deleting them.

I know how to use a web browser (e. g. Netscape or
Internet explorer)

Know how to use a standard word processor, such as
Microsoft word

Know how to provide a presentation using some kind
of software (such as the PowerPoint program)

Know how to use Microsoft Excel and Excel functions
I am able to design a web page

I am able to write computer programs by using some
other programs (such as visual basic)

I know more than previous items

If you know more than previous items, please specify in
the blank.

Cl Yes
[I No

El 1 time
Cl 2 times
Cl 3 times
El 4 times
El More than 4 times

224

Yes
(Apply)

1

p—ap—ay—p—ap—a

Please indicate whether or not you know how to do each of the types of
computer tasks listed below. (Please select 1(yes) or 2 (no) for each item)

No
(Not apply)

2

NNNNN

 

 

 

During the training program that you have just completed, have you ever
check the material in the web site of the course or watch the lessons that you
missed or did not understand again?

If your answer is yes, how many times did you check the materials or watch
the lesson out of the normal course hours during the training program.

 

d)

To what extent do you agree or disagree with the following statements related
to the online training program that you participated in? Select the number
that Leg; corresponds to the level of your agreement with each statement.

Strongly Strongly
Disagr_'ee Disagee Neutral Aggee Agree

The training was '

effective in facilitating

my learning. 1 2 3 4 5

I feel I learned a lot

besides the normal

course material. 1 2 3 4 5

My learning was

hindered in this training

program. 1 2 3 4 5

I was able to focus on

the learning task in this

training program. 1 2 3 4 5

This training program

increased my '

knowledge level on

community policing. 1 2 3 4 5

To what extent do you agree or disagree with the following statements related
to this online training program? Check the number that Es; corresponds to
the level of your agreement with each statement.

Strongly Strongly
Disaggee Disagree Neutral Agree Agree
I overall satisﬁed with
this training program. 1 2 3 4 5
I desire to participate
another distance online
training program 1 2 3 4 5
This training program
provided highly
imported knowledge
for me. 1 2 3 4 5
This training program
was a waste of time. 1 2 3 4 5

Out of the course times, to what extent you had opportunity to use computer
and internet during the training program? (You can think about your

225

 

 

10. Which g9 of the following best describes your education level?

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

accessibility to computer and internet both in your work environment and in your
home).

Cl Very great extent
El To some extent
Cl A small extent

Cl Not at all

High school

Police school (1 year)
Police school (2 year)
Two-year University
Police academy (4 year)
Bachelor degree

Master

PhD or more

 

DUUUDUDD

What is your age now?

years old.

 

What is your gender?

El Male
13 Female

Please specify your service year. How many years have you been working in
Turkish National Police?

year (s)

 

Which 295 of the following best describes your current rank?

Cl Police ofﬁcer
El Sergeant

Cl Lieutenant

Cl Captain

1] Major and above

Please specify your current assigned unit and city in the blanks below?

226

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

Unit: City:

 

 

Is your unit responsible for apply perspectives of community oriented
policing?

Cl Yes
[:1 No
Cl Not sure

Which m of the following best describes your marital status when you were
taking that course?

Cl Single

Cl Married

El Married with children
Cl Divorced

El Divorced with children

If this community oriented policing training program was given both online
and traditional face to face, which one would you want to participate? Why?
Please chose one answer and then specify your reason in the blank area.

El Online training pro gram
Cl Traditional face to face training pro gram

 

 

 

So far, how many in-service training program offered online have you
participated in?

So far, how many in-service training program offered face-to-face have you
participated in?

227

 

21. Have you ever participated in any COP training program before this online
COP training program?

ClYes
EINo

22. What were the advantages of the distance online training that you
participated? Please list in the blank area

 

 

 

 

23. What were the disadvantages of the distance online training that you
participated? Please list in the blank area.

 

 

 

 

228

COMMUNITY ORIENTED POLICING RELATED QUESTIONS FOR
POSTTEST
Direction: This part of the questionnaire aims to measure your knowledge about general

policing activities and Community Oriented Policing. COP is acronym for Community
Oriented Policing. Please be objective and realist as you possibly can when you answer
the each question.

1- How much of the agency's/department's resources should be committed to the
activities listed below? Please check the response that best describes your

opinion.

Small Moderate Large
None Amount Amount Amount

a) Patrolling on foot in neighborhoods 1 2 3 4
b) Marketing police service to the
. l 2 3 4
publrc

c) Explaining crime prevention

techniques to citizens I 2 3 4
d) Handling special events 1 2 3 4
e) Researching and solving problems 1 2 3 4
f) Coordinating with other agencies to

improve the quality of life in the 1 2 3 4

city
g) Working with citizen groups to

l 2 3 4

resolve local problems
h) Assisting persons in emergencies 1 2 3 4
i) Helping settle family disputes l 2 3 4
j) Responding to calls for service 1 2 3 4
k) Checking buildings and residences 1 2 3 4
l) Responding to crimes 1 2 3 4
m) Investigating criminal incidents l 2 3 4
n) Trafﬁc enforcement l 2 3 4

2- To what extent do you agree or disagree with the following statements? Check
the number that b_es_t_ corresponds to the level of your agreement with each
statement.

229

d)

g)

h)

1)

Police ofﬁcer should
make ﬁequent informal
contacts with the
people in their beat.
Police ofﬁcers should
try to solve non-crime
problems in their beat
Crime in their beat is
not the only problem
that police ofﬁcers
should be concerned
about

Police ofﬁcers should
work with citizens to
try and solve problems
in their beat

Assisting citizens can
be as important as
enforcing the law
Citizens know more
about what goes on in
their area than the
ofﬁcers who patrol
there

The prevention of
crime is the joint
responsibility of the
community and the
police

Lowering citizens’ fear
of crime should be just
as high a priority for
the department as
cutting the crime rate
Without citizen
cooperation, the
majority of crimes
would never be solved
Police ofﬁcers should
focus on solving crimes
and apprehending
offenders

Strongly
Disagzee

Disaggee

230

m

Aggee

Strongly
Agr_'ee

 

k) Motorized patrol is
important to deter 1 2 3 4 5
crime

1) Police officers should
check building and
residence to struggle 1 2 3 4 5
with crime.

3— To what extent do you agree or disagree with the following statements related to
Community Oriented Policing (COP)? Check the number that bLst corresponds
to the level of your agreement with each statement.

 

 

Strongly . Strongly
Disagree Disaggee Neutral Agree Agree

a) COP prevents street
officers from
performing more
important activities,
such as responding to
emergency calls.

b) COP makes it easier for
street officers to l 2 3 4 5
apprehend criminals.

c) COP takes good
officers and turns them 1 2 3 4 5
into social workers.

(1) COP is just one more
fad in policing and will
soon be replaced by
another fad.

' e) COP does not provide
ofﬁcers with enough
guidance for handling
incidents.

f) In most cases, referring
a citizen to social
services, health, or
welfare agencies is a
waste of police
ofﬁcers’ time.

g) COP puts more
decision-making l 2 3 4 5
authority in the hands

._i
N
U)
.h
kl:

231

of the street ofﬁcer.

4- To what extent do you agree or disagree with the following statements related to
general patrol functions? Check the number that M corresponds to the level
of your agreement with each statement.

Strongly Strongly
Disaggee Disagree Neutral Agree Agree
a) Most people do not
respect the police 1 2 3 4 5
b) The relationship
between the police and
the people is very good 1 2 3 4 5
c) Citizens do not
understand the
problems of the police 1 2 3 4 5
d) Most people have no
idea of how difﬁcult a
police ofﬁcer’s job is 1 2 3 4 5
e) Citizens will never trust
police enough to work
together effectively 1 2 3 4 5
f) The public shows a lot
of respect for law

enforcement ofﬁcers 1 2 3 4 5
g) The public is more apt

to obstruct law

enforcement work than

to cooperate 1 2 3 4 5

5- How qualiﬁed do you feel to do each of the following? Check the number that
best corresponds to the level of your qualification with each statement.

Very Very
Unqualiﬁed Unqualiﬁed (Mliﬁed Qualiﬁed
a) Identify community

problems 1 2 3 4
b) Use problem-solving
techniques to analyze 1 2 3 4

232

 

problems

Develop solutions to
community problems
Evaluate solutions to see
how well they work

Work with beat residents to
solve problems in the
neighborhood

233

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

234

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abdullalr, M. M. B., Koren, S. F., Muniapan, B., Parasuraman, B., & Rathakrishnan, B.
(2008). Adult Participation in Self-Directed Learning Programs. International
Education Studies, I (3), P66.

Adams, R. E., Rohe, W. M., & Arcury, T. A. (2002). Implementing community-oriented
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