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SOCIAL STUDIES TEACHER AND VARSITY BASEBALL COACH presented by Scott B. Carlin has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for the PhD. degree in Curriculum, Teaching, and Educational Policy STAN In \IJQKCIML’Q Major Professor’s SignaEre Amgng— l? 10‘ O Date MSU is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Employer LIBRARY Michigan State University 0M.l—o-v-O-v-l------v-l-I-o-U-I-l-I-O-O-I-.-I-o-c-I-I-I-I-l-0-U-t-I-I--O-O-I-I-I-O-I-I-n-n-r-n-v--- - PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE 5/08 ICIProj/Acc8uPrelelRClDateDue.indd CAUGHT IN A RUNDOWN: A STUDY OF THE PROFESSIONAL NAVIGATION AND PERSONAL MOTIVATION OF ONE A.P. SOCIAL STUDIES TEACHER AND VARSITY BASEBALL COACH By Scott B. Carlin A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Curriculum, Teaching, and Educational Policy 2010 ABSTRACT CAUGHT IN A RUNDOWN: A STUDY OF THE PROFESSIONAL NAVIGATION AND PERSONAL MOTIVATION OF ONE A.P. SOCIAL STUDIES TEACHER AND VARSITY BASEBALL COACH By Scott B. Carlin The purpose of the study was to examine, from an in-depth qualitative perspective, the experiences of a high school educator who balances teaching and coaching concurrently to address an extensive gap in the research literature on teacher- coaches. Moreover, the study was conducted to understand the unique advantages and pressures of navigating two equally demanding professional roles during a prolonged period Of time (3 month baseball season). Specifically, this single-case study of one teacher-coach examined the life of Jack, an AP Government teacher and varsity baseball coach, who upon entering his third year of teaching-coaching was considering quitting his career as an educator. Through the use of both formal and informal interviews, classroom and playing field observations, and some artifacts, the study attempted to determine the sociological factors that influenced Jack’s progression or withdrawal in his career during the Span of the Spring baseball season as well as the concurrent preparation for the AP Examination. F essler’s (1992) Teacher Career Model served as a way to identify said factors in Jack’s organizational (school) and personal (family) environments. In addition, the study examined the psychological manner in which Jack’s personal motivation to teach and/or coach were positively and negatively affected during this season. To do so, the study utilized Brophy’s (1998) expectancy/value framework of motivation to categorize where Jack gained or lost motivation due to expectations of success or attribution of value in the roles of teacher and coach. Lastly, the study outlined the possible choices (behavioral outcomes) Jack was left to consider at the end Of the academic year, regarding his fitture as a teacher-coach. The findings suggest that the environmental factors affecting Jack did more to cause withdrawal than progression in his career. In addition, Jack’s motivation to continue teaching and coaching remained low by the end of the season, primarily due to role overload, role ambiguity, and role conflict. Prior to starting the following school year, Jack remained uncertain as to whether to continue his career as a teacher-coach. Finally, the study introduces further questions for research in the relatively unexplored literature on the experiences of teacher-coaches. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ................................................................. 1 Origin of Interest ........................................................................... 2 Significance of Study ...................................................................... 5 CHAPTER II: REVIEW of LITERATURE ...................................................... 9 CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY 23 Research Questions ......................................................................... 23 Research Design .................................................................................................... 23 Participant ............................................................................................................. 28 Data ........................................................................................... 30 Data AnalySIS 34 Theoretical Frameworks ....................................................................................... 37 CHAPTER IV: FINDINGS PART 1: Identifying Sociological Factors...................... 49 Positive Environmental Factors (progression) ..................................................... 51 Negative Environmental Factors (withdrawal) ................................................... 69 CHAPTER V: FINDINGS PART 2: Motivational Influences ....................................... 95 Teaching (Expectancy) ......................................................................................... 96 Teaching (Value) ................................................................................................ 100 Coaching (Expectancy) ....................................................................................... 104 Coaching (Value) ................................................................................................ 108 CHAPTER VI: FINDINGS PART 3: Jack’s Choices .................................................. 112 Outcome A: Leave Teaching Profession ........................................................... 113 Outcome B: Quit Coaching ............................................................................... 117 Outcome C: Administration .............................................................................. 119 Outcome D: Status Quo ..................................................................................... 122 CHAPTER VII: ANALYSIS 124 Role Overload .................................................................................................... 126 Role Ambiguity .................................................................................................. 130 Role Conflict ...................................................................................................... 135 Family Life ........................................................................................................ 140 Cons vs. Pros ...................................................................................................... 142 Attrition for Jack? ............................................................................................... 145 CHAPTER VIII: IMPLICATIONS ............................................................................. 148 Limitations Research & Practice REFERENCES ............................................................................................................. 157 iv CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION This research reports on a single-case study that was conducted primarily from March 2008 through June 2008, with follow-up conversations with the participant occurring over the course of the summer of 2008. This case-study followed Jack, a third- year, Advanced Placement Government teacher and Varsity Baseball Coach during this time as be balanced both teaching and coaching concurrently. With baseball season lasting from March to June and the Advanced Placement Exam being conducted in May, the overlap of and commitment to these two roles was never more extensive than during this time of the school year. This introductory section outlines the motivation for pursuing this particular research study. The title of this dissertation is appropriate in the sense that Jack, the subject of this case study, was “caught” between two roles: teaching and coaching. The act of a base- runner caught between bases (or “in a rundown”) Often involves the runner starting, stopping, and changing directions many times before he is either tagged out or reaches base safely. For this case, traveling the distance between bases may represent the push and pull of the two roles on Jack’s life. Is he drawn more to his role as a teacher (one base) or a coach (the base at the Opposite end of the baseline). Perhaps even more appropriately, the image of forward progress toward a goal and backward movement of reversing direction can be very relevant to any individual teacher trying to navigate his way through a career in education, like a player caught in a rundown. On a daily, if not moment-to-moment basis, environmental factors, both professional and personal, affect an individual’s career movement—whether positive, forward progression or negative, backward regression. For a teacher, or in this case a teacher-coach, one end of the Spectrum might be becoming a master teacher and coach, who both enjoys successes and values the professional roles of his career. On the Opposite end of this spectrum would be “career exit” (F essler, 1992) or attrition, whereby someone loses all motivation to remain in the field of education, and quits the profession entirely. ORIGINS of INTEREST My initial interest in this project came from my own experience as a teacher- coach and my own considerations of how my attempts to balance both teaching and coaching ultimately affected my career in education. During my secondary teaching career and beyond, I have asked myself specific questions regarding my motivations to teach. Specifically, did teaching and coaching make “being a teacher” better? Did I begin in the profession or continue teaching because of the allure of coaching? Would I have continued teaching if I had given up coaching? Would I ever have entered the teaching profession in the first place if not for the option to coach? Would I have been more successful in teaching if not trying to balance coaching as well? Another motivation to pursue this project is to explore what happens to a teacher beyond the classroom and what factors are at play in trying to play multiple roles in the school system. Extensive gaps in the literature on teacher-coaches exist, and I hope this study helps to fill in some of what is missing in the research on teacher-coaches. One of the major gaps in the teacher-coach literature is a lack of in-depth examinations of the experience of teacher-coaches. As one reads in the literature review, researchers cite the need for multi-dimensional profiles of teacher-coaches. One of my goals in undertaking this study was to investigate the “why” and the “how” and not just the “what” about a teacher-coach. The existing literature on teacher-coaches expresses high levels of stress, pressure and burnout in both roles. There are many findings on “role conflict,” “role ambiguity,” and “role overload.” Ofientimes, problems in the socio-political structure within a school regarding teacher-coaches produces the assumption that “if you can teach, you can coach, and if you can coach, then you can teach.” The assumption suggests that coaching is merely an extension of teaching. While some of the research is in case study form, many of the teacher-coaches who are studied come from post- secondary education, or small colleges where individuals teach and coach. In addition, much of the research deals with physical education teacher-coaches and does not incorporate other subjects. The secondary goal of this study was to build on a previous pilot study, involving Jack in the spring of 2007. As that study was less ambitious in length and depth, upon its completion I realized from the pilot study that I could elaborate the study to examine Jack’s experience as a thorough case. During the time Of the pilot, the participant (Jack) was a second-year high school social studies teacher and junior varsity baseball coach. Specifically, during his second year, Jack taught three sections of Advanced Placement Government and coachedjunior varsity baseball. The pilot study began with a single broad question: How does a teacher simultaneously negotiate the roles of both teacher and coach? As the study progressed, a specific theme surrounding Jack’s personal motivation emerged, with an emphasis on what may have led to Jack’s feelings of dissatisfaction and burnout. More importantly, the case allowed me to explore how the addition of coaching may have affected Jack’s motivation to remain in the teaching profession. Upon completion of the pilot study a more critical question came to light: where did the three month confluence of teacher and coach situate Jack in his teaching profession? Rather than only highlighting the differences between Jack’s motivation within each role separately, the more interesting and more substantial issue for Jack’s case came about in the discussion of Jack’s movement through the teaching career cycle. From this several questions arose: How did the added pressure of producing a successful baseball team affect how he performed in the classroom? How did balancing both teaching and coaching concurrently affect his outlook on his teaching future? Through both observation and interview data, evidence showed that Jack’s movement through the career cycle was “fluid and dynamic” (Fessler, 1992). By his own admission, there were “days, even moments” when he “felt like a first year teacher all over again” often feeling overwhelmed, isolated and stressed by the pressure of producing “passing scores (3’5, 4’5 and 5’s)” for his students on the AP exams given in mid May. “For the administration, parents, students, other teachers, and even myself, the only thing I’m being judged on is the result of those tests.” Concurrently, he was charged with fielding a baseball team that would produce (in terms of wins) during the duration of the season. Other data suggested that there were times when Jack moved in and out of other career phases, including the induction phase and mastery phase. Interwoven within Jack’s relative failures and successes, another theme continued to rise to the surface: Jack’s consideration of entering the career exit phase. Comments such as “I don’t know if I want to keep teaching” and “I am not sure if I could do this for another year” were consistently mentioned in our weekly interviews or in informal commentary during informal conversations. Upon beginning the 2007-2008 school year (his third year of teaching), Jack was anxious about the fact that, for the second straight year, he was charged with teaching AP classes exclusively, despite being the shortest tenured social studies teacher on his staff. To add to the stakes of the upcoming spring semester, Jack was asked by his athletic director to become the varsity baseball coach for the 2008 season. During March to June of this year, Jack will be put in a similar situation again with even higher stakes than the previous year. In order to fully understand Jack’s career progression for this longer study, I needed to identify the professional, environmental, and personal factors that influenced his movement through the teacher career cycle. By doing so, I could understand the many influences (both positive and negative) on Jack’s professional life. In addition, the next step was to understand Jack’s personal motivations within his career in order to gain insight on what he expected from himself and the job and what he valued about his professional life. Finally, this would allow me to understand how Jack ultimately came to make the decisions he did regarding his future in the teaching and coaching profession. Essentially, would this experience strengthen his resolve to teach and coach or might it ultimately drive him to leave the profession altogether? SIGNIFICANCE of STUDY In simplest terms, teaching can be stressful and being “successful” under any definition of effective teaching can be difficult and time-consuming. A Similar argument can be made about the difficulty of becoming a successful coach. So, attempting them concurrently poses several important questions about the nature of teachers who coach? Does the addition Of a coaching role enhance or detract from one’s teaching? Does doing both during the same period of time exacerbate the stresses experienced by the individual teacher/coach? Does teaching Advanced Placement classes (with high stakes testing pressures) while coaching a high profile varsity sport further complicate these issues? Most importantly, how does coaching help an individual teacher develop into a master teacher? Or, on the other hand, does the extra work of coaching ultimately push a teacher to withdrawal from teaching? These are all guiding questions that begin to influence my thinking about this case. In varying degrees, the addition of coaching can enhance or detract from a teacher’s work in the classroom. When the two converge, determining where an educator’s energy, time, and focus should be on a day to day, or even momentary basis can be overwhelming for even the most veteran teacher/coach. When one considers the well-documented struggles that many new teachers face in beginning their practice, the addition of a leadership role in the athletic realm can be a daunting task. This combination of tasks is unique to education. Most vocations do not require an individual to work in one capacity for eight hours a day and then completely shift gears and engage in a completely different occupational task for three to five additional hours. It is my hope that this case study might provide insight into the manner in which an individual attempts to balance teaching with coaching and how this combination affects his motivation to continue in the teaching profession. Through this study, I hope to discover how the challenge of teaching and coaching for the final three months of Jack’s third year affects his desire to move forward in his teaching career. Will this challenge eventually move him into the realm of master teacher and coach or will he be withdrawn into career exit, burning out and becoming another attrition statistic? More specifically, I am hoping to understand one teacher’s thinking about his chosen career and how the addition of coaching affects his thinking and action. I am most interested in how Jack talks about all that occurs in his reality on any given day. How does he assimilate himself and accept these roles within the confines of the established professional norms? How does Jack conceptualize all that he is making happen and all that is happening to him? By engaging in conversation about the theoretical framework used to follow Jack’s case, I hope to shed some light on what can be expected to emerge from examining Jack’s journey. Organizationally, for the purpose of this paper, the findings of the study seemed to fall logically into a systematic structure that moved from sociological to psychological 99 66 to behavioral. Admittedly, these respective terms (“sociologicaL psychological,” and “behavioral”) are by no means are meant to be comprehensive. In fact, in this study I use each term in a very limited, specific way. Sociologically, I first tried to identify the numerous factors that affected Jack in his life as a teacher-coach during the three months of being “in season.” Here, the term sociological refers to two specific environments within Fessler’s Teacher Career Model (1992), specifically the organization and the personal environments. Jack is the primary social member within said environments for the purpose of this sociological focus. Psychologically, I looked to establish what how the sociological factors affected Jack’s motivation, both from an expectancy side and a value side. The term “psychological” is limited in this study in that it refers primarily to Jack’s motivation regarding his career only; it does not make any assumptions about Jack’s other psychological states during this or any other time. Finally, behaviorally, I tried to outline the action responses (or decisions) that Jack ultimately had to decide upon at the end of the school year. The study does not go into great detail about Jack’s everyday behaviors during the season. Instead, it limits itself to what Jack chooses to do at the end of the school year. How would he choose to act upon his career? What would Jack ultimately do? CHAPTER II: REVIEW of LITERATURE A specific area of interest in the lives of teachers is that of the teacher-coach. There is of course a vast literature on teachers, and coaching is in itself a separate field. However, a unique situation exists in the lives of teachers who choose to take on a leadership role outside of the classroom in the form of athletic coach. There are issues evident with role relevance and identity. From the perspective of practice, it is the months of the school year where on individual is both teaching in the classroom and coaching his or her sport concurrently where many of the most pressing issues exists in these teachers lives. There is a body of literature on teacher-coaches, but it is small and under-investigated. Nearly all studies involving teacher-coaches examine physical education teachers who also coach. This leaves out the vast majority Of secondary teacher-coaches who teach something other than physical education (i.e. math, science, English, social studies, foreign language, etc.) According to Pagano and Griffin (2004) teacher-coaches lead approximately fifty percent of all high school sport teams. Despite this trend, Clark (2000) found that even exemplary physical education teacher-coaches have not been systematically studied in their dual role context let alone the larger percentage of teacher-coaches who teach in other content areas. A primary aim of this study is to contribute to the literature on teacher-coaches. The literature on teacher-coaches is relatively sparse, and it is vastly underrepresented in studying the professional lives of teachers. There are approximately 1.1 million secondary teachers (excluding vocational and special education) in the United States today (Bureau of Labor Statistics) with a large percentage of those involved in coaching roles outside of the classroom. Jack is one of 25 teacher-coaches in his school (out of 74 total teachers). .Extrapolating, the number of practicing teacher-coaches could well be in the hundreds of thousands. Secondarily, this study may add to the ongoing discussions of well-established research literatures such as: teacher career theory, teacher career progression or regression, teacher motivation, teacher retention/attrition/burnout, role conflict, and even coaching science. As specific themes emerged throughout the duration of this research, various discussion threads may add to other research literatures. First, however, we must understand the current state of the literature on teacher-coaches and the implications that this duality brings to understanding the professional lives of certain teachers. There remains a large gap in the work of a teacher versus a teacher-coach. There is a diverse array of responsibilities required to perform either role; however, during a particular sports season, teachers who coach can Often put in 112-15 hour days simply to fulfill these requirements versus some 6-8 hour days for those who teach without a coaching commitment. In a study by Millslagle and Morley (2004) of those who differentiated between coaching and teaching, teacher-coach subjects perceived more satisfaction from, were more motivated toward, and perceived higher goal attainment from coaching than teaching. In addition, results regarding the levels Of time and effort as well as the value attributed to the teacher role decreased significantly during the sport season versus the “off season.” Essentially, although instruction time is typically the same for teacher-coaches as it is for regular teachers, numerous hours daily are available for regular teachers to devote more time to their teaching practice. According to F igone (1986), the duality tends to detract from the teaching role. When teacher-coaches typically decide how to spend their time, they usually choose the 10 area of greatest reward and recognition, which can often be coaching (Darst & Pangrazi, 1996). AS a result, it is not uncommon to for coaches to organize practices and prepare game plans during their physical education classes, but it is uncommon to find someone preparing their physical education lessons while coaching (Lipira, 1999). Although lack of research explicitly supports it, a similar claim could plausibly be made about teacher- coaches of other content areas. It is probably equally as likely that a social studies teacher would not often spend practice or game time for coaching and use it to plan for the classroom. The issues of time differential and teacher role marginality have been identified in additional research source. In balancing the duality of teacher-coach responsibilities researchers (Carpenter, 1996; Decker, 1986; Figone, 1986; Jones, Potrac, & Ramalli, 1999; Locke & Massengale, 1978; Massengale, 1980;Morford, 1996) have found the twin roles of teaching and coaching cause conflicts related to professional status, role stress, personal and professional values, competency, role overload, and attitudes toward each role. Similarly, studies from Massengale (1980), Morford (1996), Decker (1996), Govemali (I972), and Massengale (1980) suggest that role conflict occurs when role occupants perceive roles as incompatible. This incompatibility is the precursor for a behavioral pattern which Massengale (1980) refers to as "role retreatism." Role retreatism is where the teacher-coach chooses to make one role dominate, and coaching usually becomes dominant at the expense of teaching. Results on the effort and time measures show that time and its inherent issues is the biggest frustration for the teacher-coach. (Magnotta, 1990; Morford, 1996) In addition to the daily time constraints of teaching and coaching “in season” is the more global factor of “offseason time” and that greater ll emphasis is placed on a single sport becoming a year-round activity for athletes and coaches. Aicinena (1999) found that secondary school PE teacher-coaches face role strain as they attempt to perform the various expectations of teacher role and coach role. The result of this is often sub-standard teaching. Sage’s (1987) study using Observations and interviews demonstrated quite convincingly the complexity and pervasiveness of role overload and inter-role conflict in the lives of teacher-coaches and the role strain and conflict that results. While research has been done within Sport fields on how role conflict may lead to turnover (Ryan & Sagas, 2006), little work has examined the mediating effects of conflict, especially related to occupational turnover, in this case teacher or coach retention. Although it was not done outside of physical education teachers, Templin’s (1994) study reveals the marginality of physical education as a subject and its teachers at the secondary school level in contrast to the importance of interscholastic athletics and those who serve in varsity coaching roles. More importantly, this study highlights value and need for biographical research in sport pedagogy, including single case studies of the lives of teacher-coaches. In the same vein, Osborn and McNess (2005) state that teacher career research addresses a need for further research “into the ways in which teacher career theory applies to different cultural contexts and to how teachers adapt to uncertainty and change over the lifetime of a teaching career.” Many stressful job conditions occur in teaching (Farber & Miller, 1981; Paine, 1982; Heck & Williams, 1984) as teaching itself is “high stress work” (Malik, Mueller, & Meinke, 1991). Stress and burnout not only affect the teacher, but also the students, 12 faculty and school as a whole. Kosa (1990) states, “burnout not only results in decline in the quality of teaching; it also negatively affects the quality of the teacher’s personal life” (p. 153). Adding the responsibility of coaching can exacerbate the pressures of teaching. In investigating the feelings and attitudes of 50 high school teacher-coaches Sage (1987) discovered that multiple role demands put added pressure on teachers who coach. In addition, his research data demonstrated that teacher-coaches are at high risk for role overload, conflict, and experiencing added stress and strain to teaching alone. Sisley (1987) suggests, “teacher-coaches Share stresses common to all in the educational environment, but each role has unique stresses and potential for burnout” (p. 71). Although teaching and coaching may be similar professions in comparison to other fields, the two roles can require much different demands on the individual performing both tasks concurrently. Kosa (1990) reports, “Generally, the dual role of teacher-coaches in the public schools is seen to have many incompatible characteristics. This being the case, burnout is likely to occur” (p. 153). Specifically, the affects from burnout can be physical and mental ailments from the stress of dual roles (Warheit, 1979). More definitively, Kroll and Gendersheim (1982) found that 100% of those involved in their survey research (93 of a sample of 93) of male high school coaches they studied felt coaching was “very stressful.” Dobbs et al. (1992) found that different Skills, attitudes, and requirements are demanded by teaching and coaching, and “Conflict may develop in trying to meet expectations of both roles simultaneously.” Moreover, Locke and Massengale (1978) found in their study of 201 teacher/coaches that “role overload conflicts were most commonly perceived and most intensely experienced.” This “role overloa ” occurs when 13 role demands exceed the individual’s available time and effort. Chemiss’ (1980) work shows that well-established research confirms the relationship between role overload and burnout while Sage’s (1987) work demonstrates the ubiquity of role overload and inter- role conflict that is involved in the work of the teacher-coach. The results of these stressful conditions can lead to coaching attrition or teacher- coaches leaving the profession entirely. Kosa reminds us that such attrition results in “costly results to the individual and the school district who have invested time, energy and money” into this individual’s career (p. 153). The stressful conditions experienced by teacher-coaches are exacerbated in cases of “beginning” teacher-coaches. Many beginning coaches, like beginning teachers, feel they already “know” how to coach (or teach) without professional training (Book, Byers, & Freeman, 1983; Hutchinson, 1990; Weinstein, 1989) because they were athletes and played sports for coaches, forming “an apprenticeship of Observation” (Lortie, 1975). This phenomenon, much like for new teachers, often leaves new coaches inadequately equipped to succeed in their new role. There are decades of research that highlight the teaching profession’s sharp learning curve, with no statistic possibly more telling than the fact that approximately one-third of all beginning teachers leaving the profession in the first five years (NCTAF, 1996). Although some teacher-coaches are motivated by the opportunity to coach, the addition of a high pressure coaching role to their regular teaching duties can exacerbate the many issues of learning to teach. In fact, Massengale (1981) found that many coaches who are also teachers may have chosen to withdraw from their teaching responsibilities. Instead teacher-coaches put their energies into their coaching assignment if they perceive the coaching role as resulting in the greater reward. Coakley 14 (1990) found that teacher—coaches Often spend a majority of their time and energy in the coaching portion of their job (Coakley, 1990) often marginalizing the teaching aspect of this professional duality. Though Jack, the subject Of this case study, was in his third year of teaching, in some ways he was still very much learning to teach. According to Sharon F eiman- Nemser (2001), there are many aspects of learning to teach that can only be done on the job. The difficulty lies in the fact that new teachers must teach (i.e. do their job) at the same time learn how to teach (Wildman, Niles, Magliaro, & McLaughlin, 1989). Beginning coaches face similar problems in having to both prepare their teams for competition and learn how to coach. This season was Jack’s first as a varsity coach, forcing him to oftentimes learn on the job and ultimately affected Jack’s progression (or regression) in his teaching career. Some of the main issues experienced in coaching are similar ones faced by beginning teachers. De Knopp, EngstrOm, and Skirstad (1996), suggest that the main issues in coaching science include: coaching effectiveness (coach-athlete relationships, knowledge) and career issues (burnout, career choice and opportunities, team management, and occupational stress) as well as sport content knowledge and strategy (Abraham & Collins, 1998) and coaches’ pedagogical behaviors (Trudel & Gilbert, 1995). Managing a team, organizing practice plans, maintaining team morale, dealing with parents and administrators and producing successful results on the field are just some of the pressures placed on coaches. Lynn’s work reminds us that within the adult development and career development literature there are theories that acknowledge that “teachers have different 15 attitudes, knowledge, skills, and behaviors at various points during their careers” (p. 179). The work of Steffy and Wolfe (1999) strongly supports Lynn’s research as well as shares the dominant characteristics of F essler’s Teaching Career Cycle Model. Steffy and Wolfe believe, “The lines are blurred between the life-cycle phases. The strength of the model is its focus on the processes of how one continues to grow and become a more competent career teacher along the continuum of practice” (p. 1). In addition to teacher career theory and addressing the environmental factors that affect teachers or in this case, a teacher-coach, it is critical to understand the motivational side of teaching and coaching. This moves the conversation from sociological (school context) to psychological (personal motives and reflections). Brophy’s (1998) expectancy/value framework on motivation is central to a study involving teacher motivation. Essentially, this theory posits that one’s motivation equates to the product of one’s expectancy of success (in any given task) times the value attributed to the task. (Motivation=Expectancy X Value). The two factors in this equation (expectancy and value) are important variables to understanding why an individual (in this case, Jack) makes the decisions and eventually takes the action he does regarding his career as teacher-coach. Personal reflection is also critical to fully understanding a teacher’s professional state of mind (Schon, 1983, 1987) and thereby his motivation. Such reflection from the participant was critical to this study. Bell and Gilbert (1996) note that “reflection is a skill which is inherently part of constructivism, particularly personal constructivism.” (p. 67). Teachers construct meaning and knowledge for themselves. Positive and negative forces create a continual tension for teachers moving through the teacher life cycle. 16 Dewey (1920) adds to this with his discussion of reflective thinking as a “process of hesitation or a state of doubt that leads to “the act of searching, hunting, inquiring to find material that will resolve the doubt, settle and dispose of the perplexity.” Fessler (1992) in discussing Dewey adds that this puts the teacher into a state of cognitive dissonance. Through reflection and acquisition of new knowledge, the thinker develops alternative ways of resolving doubt. With doubt resolved, a feeling of renewal and growth manifests. When doubt increases, withdrawal increases and questions about goals and motivation increase as well. As Steffy and Wolfe (1999) suggest, “not so much what happens to people but how they interpret and explain what happens to them that determines their actions, their hopes, their contentment and emotional well-being, and their performance” (p. 2). At the commencement of this study, Jack was sitting on the proverbial third-year fence. Would he begin to consider moving forward in his career in teaching and coaching or would he finish up this year and exit the field for a different career? Lowther (1985) reported that career teachers felt more job lock-in and less opportunity for vertical advancement than did non-teaching professionals. Jack was no longer a rookie teacher; however, at the commencement of the study, Jack was still a year and a half from being tenured and earning professional stability as a mainstay for the school. Although he stated that he is “dedicated to teaching these kids,” he was very much concerned with his own place in both the school context and teaching profession. It often takes several years for the majority of teachers to concern themselves with curriculum, instruction, assessment, and student-centered learning (Burden, 1990; Fuller & Bown, 1975; H uberman, 1993). Peter Youngs (2007) reinforces that while some teachers focus 17 primarily on instruction and student learning from the very outset of their career, others have difficulties with the transition to teaching and fail to reach the mastery stage until several years into their practice. Those who do not leave the profession due to attrition Often struggle to engage their students in specific learning tasks. Essentially, the mastery level of teaching can Often take more than four years to attain, and some educators, despite their tenure, never quite reach the mastery level. This phenomenon causes many teachers, who are unable to look at their practice as more than classroom management and self-adequacy, to leave the profession (Youngs, 2007). Those who remain can struggle to identify students’ needs, differentiate instruction, or effectively motivate students to learn. Teaching is a stressful position as stress is the main origin of burnout. Dworkin (1987) tells us there is a link between teacher stress and teacher burnout. In addition, perhaps teachers like Jack can begin to experience the “diminishing returns of teaching” (Lanier & Little, 1986). In addition, Sykes (1999) suggests, “decreased enjoyment from work with less responsive and appreciative young people, a deteriorating public image of teaching as an important service, the erosion of material benefits, reduced psychic rewards from less regular student achievement, and teaching environments that all too often are disruptive, dangerous, and bureaucratic to the point of frustration.” Early career teachers sometimes cope by establishing practices that can be detrimental to student learning but also keep them from successfully reflecting upon their Own practice (Feiman-Nemser, 1983; Rosenholtz, 1989). Burke (1987) and colleagues State that it gets increasingly more difficult to be enthusiastic about teaching. They also begin to question teaching effectiveness and attitude toward teaching as a profession. 18 For Jack, he has voiced in the past that he is as much concerned with “motivating [himself]” as he is with “motivation [his] kids and players.” Although there was little evidence from the pilot study to show that Jack is engaging in practices “detrimental to student learning,” I could argue that the responsibilities heaped upon him (by both organization and personal environments) during the spring season allowed him Significantly less Opportunity to reflect upon his practice as a teacher or coach. For this study it was critical to use a participant who was capable of talking frequently and fluently about not only his own practice but voicing, in some medium, his own meta-cognitive thinking about his the instructional decisions and professional motivations throughout a given school day. Ball and Cohen (1999) suggest that teachers ofien struggle to discuss their practice through verbal or written discourse. Part of this research focused on the participant’s thinking of his practice in the way he was motivated within each of the respective roles of teacher and coach. Moreover, it was important for the participant to consider both personal motivation as well as the many factors that affect his day-tO-day profession, his movement through the teacher career cycle. Fuller’s (I969) pivotal work centering around the preoccupations of beginning teachers still holds weight today. Fuller believes that new teachers center thoughts around the self, gradually move on toward considerations of teaching practice, and only then begin to consider the thoughts and actions of students. During the high stress time of the spring season, I would argue that Jack often reverted back to these preoccupations normally attributed to first or second year teachers. Being now in his third year, Jack had the ability to consider both himself as an individual involved in his practice and contextual factors that surround him in his professional life. 19 Also important to this work, much like the literature on teaching, literature in the field of coaching science, a sub-discipline within sport pedagogy, has increased dramatically in the past two decades. Coaching science has become an established and critical part of sport science (Haag, 1994). Athletic coaches, like teachers, play an important role as educators and leaders in school communities (Gilbert, 2002). Millions of youth participate in organized school sports annually in the United States (Gilbert, 2002, Ewing, Seefeldt, & Brown, 1996). Especially, during the high school years, Sports participation can have a critical effect on adolescents. Moreover, coaches can have a lasting impact not only on the physical, psychological and social development of teens (Smith & Smoll, 1990). The significant impact coaches may have on students is consistent with other related fields of study such as teaching (Clark & Peterson, 1986) and physical education (Silverman, 1991), where there has been a steady shift in study from examining what people do (behavior) to why they do it (cognition and motivation) and how they learned to do it (development). Some of the main issues in coaching science are similar to ones faced by beginning teachers. De Knopp, Engstr'o’m, and Skirstad (1996), suggest that the main issues in coaching science include: coaching effectiveness (coach-athlete relationships, knowledge) and career issues (burnout, career choice and opportunities, team management, and occupational stress) as well as sport content knowledge and strategy (Abraham & Collins, 1998) and coaches’ pedagogical behaviors (Trudel & Gilbert, 1995) Coaching, like teaching, can sometimes be a very stressful job at any level. A high percentage of studies on coaches have focused directly on coaching stress, burnout, and 20 role conflict. Yow’s work (2000) offers information on the causes and consequences of stress in sports and offers effective coping mechanisms to help individuals understand and control stress-causing issues in their environment. Such research will help to critique specific issues that will directly affect Jack’s coaching experience and thus, subsequently affect his overall career. Effective communication can make or break a coach’s success. Coaching, like teaching can be studied as an interpersonal relations field (Bloom, 1985). Specifically, issues like communication between coaches and other sport participants or stakeholders (i.e., athletes, parents, officials) is Often cited as the keys to effective coaching (Lynch, 2001; Salmela, 1996; Yukelson, 2001) In this study, Jack had numerous interactions with parents. Parents play a key role in the sport experience (Bloom, 1985) and often the most severe challenges encountered by coaches, particularly at the youth sport level, involve disputes with parents (Gilbert, Gilbert, & Trudel, 2001; Strean, 1995). Gilbert (2002) reminds us that methodologically speaking, research on coaching has seen a steady shift in the past 25 years from quantitative research to qualitative research. This push supports the direction of this research on Jack, using a single-case study format to examine work in detail. Studying the behavior of coaches seems to be shifting toward qualitative research (Locke, 1989; Martens, 1987; Denzin & Lincoln, 1994; Lincoln & Guba, 1985), the creation of sport science journals that regularly publish qualitative research that, according to Gilbert (2002), tend to focus on cognition and development as well as behavior. This pendulum swing toward qualitative research in Coaching would help aspects of this particular qualitative study to possibly find audience in the field of coaching science. 21 Despite the recent increase in research, literature and subsequently, knowledge about teacher-coaches, there still remains a large void in the field. The specificity involved in studying a teacher-coach exacerbates this problem. Essentially, an educational literature gap lies betwixt the role of being a classroom teacher and an athletic coach. However, in the real world practice of teaching in our schools, these fields considerably intertwine, in fact Often blurring into the same entity, especially for a teacher who fulfills both roles concurrently. 22 CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY RESEARCH QUESTIONS Prior to coming up with specific research questions, following Yin (1994) and Stake (1995), I made a list of initial questions to explore with Jack’s case. I later narrowed the questions to three which I believe to be interrelated to each other. Perhaps my strategy was closer in proximity to Barone (1999) who encourages individuals to start with broad questions and as “the study progresses other questions emerge which provide more focus” (p. 21). The advantage of an in-depth case study of this nature is that it allows for research questions to emerge as themes arise over the course Of the study. It also allows for existing research questions to evolve into variably phrased questions. 1. What factors affect a teacher-coach trying to be successful in both the classroom and on the athletic field? 2. How does balancing teaching and coaching influence one’s motivation? 3. What can be learned about a teacher’s professional life by studying a teacher-coach during the season of the school year when he is fully engaged in both roles? As with many case studies, the phrasing of these questions Shifted as themes emerged in the data. However, they were meant to guide this research toward the level of depth that can be Obtained by a thorough study of one teacher-coach. RESEARCH DESIGN Methodologically, I chose to do a single case study for several reasons. First, In Order to really get inside the working mind of a participant and to share with others a fi—llly detailed experience of a teacher-coach, one must spend significant time observing 23 and communicating with a sample of one. I wanted to know how he came to the decisions he made. The decision to remain in the teaching profession or exit is a major decision with a profound effect on one’s professional and personal life. Jack agreed to share his intemalizations about his current and future states as an educator by voicing his joys and frustrations, his successes and failures throughout this season of his career. Moreover, I was interested in learning how one individual’s decisions, actions, thoughts, motivations, and interactions with those he encounters within the social milieu of the school affect his career navigation and ultimately his decision to remain in teaching. There was a certain level of detail that I wished to reach in this study. To do so required an extensive amount of time with a single subject. Rapport and trust had to be established and hundreds of hours Of time were spent in the subject’s presence in order to begin to fiilly understand his life. As Bullough (1989) states, “Cases and case studies are stories that, in their telling, invite the reader to question and explore personal values and understandings.” Shulman & Colbert (1987) add that case studies play a unique and critical role in educational research and Shulman (1986) suggests that a case study such as Jack’s can best “document how education was accomplished (or stymied) by a teacher in a particular place” (p. 27). Through this case study perhaps other educators can study issues similar to ones they’ve experienced or identify potential obstacles teachers may face in their own professional experiences. As Fenstermacher (1994) asserts, through Case study we can find a basis for “practical reasoning about teaching in specific Situations” (1 59). The second major reason for choosing a case study for this research is to help fill a gap in the teacher-coach literature. Through a review of the existing knowledge base, 24 what seem to be missing are any in-depth qualitative descriptions of the effects that balancing teaching and coaching have on the individual. There are very few studies that focus on the individual cases of teacher-coaches, the factors that affect them on a daily basis and the specific decisions, actions, and thoughts that they experience during their respective sports season. One of the major biographical case studies, (Templin, Sparkes, Grant, and Schempp, 1994) has as its subject the life of one physical education teacher- coach and his conception of self over his 32 year career. One of the authors’ major conclusions in this study about the field was that further case research was needed in the field of teaching-coaching and sport pedagogy. In addition to the lack of individual case studies, the majority of teacher-coach research to date has been conducted using primarily physical education teacher-coaches (as opposed to core area subjects). The studies include mostly high sample numbers as well as Older research data (prior to 2000). Finally, some studies include data from the college level which may speak to problems unique to postsecondary educators and not appropriate to secondary teacher- coaches. Although some of the literature about teacher-coaches is based in observational and interview data, much is survey oriented and the depth of understanding of the intricacies of the phenomena of teaching and coaching are underdeveloped. Schulman (1986) writes, “Most individuals find specific cases more powerful influences on their decisions than impersonally presented empirical findings. . .Although principles are powerful, cases are memorable, and lodge in memory as the basis for later Judgments” (p. 32). In a word, I believe Jack’s case is “memorable.” I specifically chose Jack for this case study because of the uniqueness of his situation. One year ago, Jack Was only in his second year and had been asked by his principal to take on the 25 responsibility of AP Government and AP World History, teaching both subjects for the first time. Moreover, the fact that his students sat for the AP Exam on May 7, 2007, and AP Exam for World History on May 17, 2007 right in the heart of the baseball schedule, brought about experiences that pushed his practice both as a classroom teacher and as an athletic coach. The following year, spring Of 2008, Jack taught all sections of AP Government and is moving up for his first year as a varsity coach. Patton (1990) recommends “information-rich” cases, where an Observer can find relevant answers to the research question(s) posed (p. 169). I think this case fits that criteria, and thus I chose to delve further into this case in the second season of Jack’s experience as teacher-coach. In order to fully examine Jack’s movement through his teaching and coaching, I utilized a single-case research methodology. From Barone’s (1999) chapter, we learn that single-cases should be utilized: “to test a theory, an extreme or unique case, or revelatory case” (p. 22). For the case Of Jack, I did not test any theories directly; however, it was critical to note how fluid or dynamic the movement within the teacher career cycle can be within a specified period of time. Either way, Jack’s case was unique in the sense that as only a third-year teacher (especially in a large, Class A district), that he taught four sections of AP Government, literally “coaching” students to perform in the testing arena while concurrently coaching his athletes to succeed on the playing field. In addition, I hope this case is revealing to its audience in the sense that it might help to Outline the positive and negative effects that a teaching and coaching combination have 0n a teacher. Although the results of what we discover about Jack’s experience will not be generalizable, they will begin to raise questions about this specific niche in the field of edUCation. 26 Additionally, I chose to do a case study about this question in order to examine the contextual factors involved in learning about a teacher-coach. Although, as Dyson (1995) stipulates, this case study does not offer any information about causality within teacher or coach practices, it does Offer “dimensions and dynamics of classroom living and learning” (p. 51). Although a case study is meant to be neither generalizable nor experimental, that is not the purpose of the research in this study. No other type of research (other than an ethnographic study) would allow me to delve into the cultural aspects of Jack’s life as well as gain insight into his thoughts about his own practice. In both Fessler’s (1992) and Steffy & Wolfe’s (1999) models, environmental and personal influences affect the individual on a regular basis, influencing an individual’s motivations, goals, personality and efficacy. Although I interviewed many individuals involved in Jack’s professional life, this case was bounded (Stake, 2000) by Jack being the sole focus of the study. This case was meant to be, as Merriam (1998) suggests, particularistic, descriptive, heuristic and most importantly, inductive. It is one of my goals for this work to be all of these things, for the reader to know Jack and his practice as a teacher and coach on all of these levels. Lastly, within this study, I hoped to attain certain standards of quality for Jack’s case. As Merriam (1988) suggests, the length of time in the field is critical. I spent an extensive amount of time from March 2008 to June 2008 (and follow-ups beyond) in Order to follow Jack’s case for a season. Second, I used multiple data sources or sources of evidence as to discover “a converging line of inquiry” and a “chain of evidence” (Yin, 1 994 p. 92). Finally, I often conferred with Jack on the accuracy of my findings before they were published. This way, I tried to act responsibly and ethically as a researcher, 27 and Jack has had an opportunity to correct any misconceptions in either the data or the findings. AS previously noted, this case study has very specific ethnographic components. For example, field entry was a critical aspect of being successful in my case. Hoping to spend an extensive amount of time observing Jack in the classroom, the playing field, the locker room, on the bus, and even at his home, made it imperative that I was accepted in Jack’s communities. Like Schensul et al. (1999) state, “Rapport ultimately rests on the connections through which ethnographers have been introduced to the community setting.” (p. 75). Not only did I need to build rapport with the participant, but also I had to establish relationships with those who inhabit the various contextual spheres in which he lived. Such individuals included his fellow teachers, athletic director, administrators, parents, students, and even his family and friends. This was an endeavor of time, physical energy, and personal reflection for not only Jack but also for myself. Hopefully, as Barone suggests, my work will also be “applicable to real life as it relates directly to the reader’s experiences and facilitates understanding of complex situations” (25). PARTICIPANT Jack, the individual participant in this case study, was a third-year high school Social studies teacher. At the time he taught four sections of Advanced Placement Government (his second year teaching Advanced Placement courses). In addition to his tcatching, he was a third-year baseball coach. However, 2008 was his first year as a Varsity coach. In addition to these two major roles, he was also the coordinator for the 28 Close Up program for his school, which is an annual trip for students to Washington DC. At the time, he was also a new father of a baby girl. Jack taught at White Sands High School (a pseudonym). White Sands is a Class A school district, which in Michigan means it lies in the upper quartile of schools according to the student population of the high school. WSHS has approximately 1,500 students. White Sands is a suburban High School, primarily made up of a middle class socioeconomic status, with 85% of students being Caucasian, 9% African American, and 6% other minority groups including Hispanic, Asian and Middle Eastern. As previously mentioned, Jack was one of 74 teachers at the school. WSHS has a high record of achievement in both statewide MEAP and MME/ACT testing and in senior college acceptance rates. Moreover, WSHS has a highly successful baseball program with community and school expectations of making it to the MHSAA State Finals this season. In talking with Jack about doing this project, he informed me that there is a high level of parental involvement in academics at WSHS, including a group of parents who gather to discuss issues surrounding Advanced Placement classes. Moreover, parents, including boosters, are heavily involved in the athletic scene at WSHS. In terms of his baseball team, Jack had several players being recruited to play college baseball. Jack voiced, on several occasions, that there are high expectations for success in both athletics and on AP exams at WSHS. Specific data will be included about these examples within the study. It is critical, contextually, to note that Jack was the youngest and least tenured SOCial studies teacher (out of nine social studies faculty), yet he taught solely AP courses. In addition, this season was his first as varsity coach, as he was taking over the program 29 for a locally legendary baseball coach Of25 years. It just so happens that the coach Jack was replacing is the High School’s athletic director and therefore, Jack’s boss. This participant fully consented to be part of this study and IRB approval is on file with Michigan State University. DATA Collection of data for this particular case study consisted primarily doing interviews and gathering field notes through Observation. Occasionally, the primary participant would send a sampling of thoughts or answer questions via email. In most cases, he did so as an afterthought, perhaps adding something to a question I had asked the day before. Sometimes, he would, without provocation, submit some anecdote that had occurred or random thought or idea that he had. The majority of interviews and observations were conducted from March through June 2008 with a few follow-up interviews coming in July and August of 2008 and thereafter. Across the various formats of data collection, it was my goal to establish credible findings through “prolonged engagement” with the research subject as well as his world (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 301). In addition, Lincoln and Guba believe that an extensive amount of contextual information is needed to establish “transferability” or what Polkinghome (1988) describes as “verisimilitude” or results resembling truth (p. 176). I successfirlly established a rapport with Jack during my pilot study the prior year as well as assimilated myself (as an accepted observer) into the culture of the school. This allowed me to have a solid understanding of the context of the school, prior to commencing this case study. 30 It is important to note that my interactions with Jack allowed for critical access in terms of data collection. As Steffy and Wolfe remind us of the critical nature of reflection in understanding one’s movement within his professional environment, my consistent questioning Of and conversations with Jack allowed him regular reflection and introspection about his career. Given that Jack was asked about his environment and the factors therein as well as his ongoing motivation caused him to consider his thoughts and actions in the midst of his daily work, arguably providing him an outlet to express thinking that would have otherwise been mostly likely kept within. AS his trust toward me as a researcher grew, he gradually opened up more and more, allowing me to ask Often very direct, personal questions and eliciting similar responses. Additionally, as access widened, Jack also began to share more information willingly without prompting, simply choosing to begin a conversation or share a thought in both whimsical and deliberate manners. Lastly, it is important to note that Jack was aware that this study dealt with both the sociological environment in which he worked as well as his personal motivations for teaching and coaching. Although he had at one point looked at some Of the literature as well as briefly examined F essler’s Model prior to the commencement of the study, there were no overt attempts on my part to encourage Jack to consider theory or the frameworks of this study when responding to formal or informal interview questions or to make allowances for data collection by making any professional decisions he would not have otherwise made in the normal course of fulfilling his professional responsibilities. The first data source I utilized was field notes. As suggested by Purcell-Gates (2003) high quality field notes should be recorded as they are Observed and done so 31 without bias. I attempted to write or type field notes regardless of the situation or venue. I dated the notes as to keep organization. The field notes taken through observation were of importance and had to be accurate to record events and dialogue. Most important, the field notes were used to generate interview protocols for a given day (informal interviewing) or week (formal interviewing) as well as setting the contextual scene and describing critical events throughout the work. The most important source of data for this project came from interviews. Both informal and formal interview were utilized in this case study. Formal questions were comprised from observations as well as based on the responses to previous interviews. There were numerous “informal” interviews that took on more of a general conversational tone. For example, I asked Jack to verbalize his thoughts during the transition time between the end of his final class and the beginning of baseball practice. What happens during this role transition? What are his thought processes during this time? When I am Observing silently and cannot directly confer with the participant, I noted specific questions for later formal interviews. Formal interviews took place approximately once a week for approximately 45 minutes to an hour and were audio recorded (as already verbally agreed to by the participant). The questions depended on not only pre-written questions around specific contexts of his practice but perhaps even more appropriately about what has happened thus far. As Bullough (1996) would argue, the most useful protocols are often built directly from observational experiences with the subject. During interviews, I asked questions that built not only from consistent topics but also incorporated themes that emerged throughout the study. The consistent topics that were discussed in interviews 32 included questions surrounding Jack’s navigation through the career cycle. This is not predicated on the premise that I needed to “label” Jack into a career phase or “put him into a box” regarding career stage. On the specific, micro level of his responses, it was more important to decipher what Jack was thinking. This is to say, was he progressing or withdrawing at a particular moment. When does Jack believe he is withdrawing, regressing in his professional development and when is Jack progressing? Where does Jack see himself in Fessler’s model on any given day? Where has he moved from and to in terms of stages and what caused such movement? What specific organizational environmental and personal environmental factors are influencing his thoughts and actions on a given day? Questions were also formulated around the decisions that Jack made on a weekly basis as both a teacher and a coach. I asked about his motivations surrounding observed incidents in the classroom and on the field. I also questioned Jack on how his goals may shift throughout a given week, for not only his team and classes, but also his self-perceptions as a teacher. What did Jack value about his teaching or coaching in a given situation? What were Jack’s expectations of success in the same roles? In addition, I formally interviewed some of the individuals named below and at times asked follow up questions as situations presented themselves. Although the study focused on Jack and his own thoughts, feelings, and actions, it was useful to interview the following individuals to better understand both organizational and personal factors that affect his teaching career. These individuals included: V Sharon: (Mentor Teacher/AP. History Teacher) V Cammie: (Asst. Principal) V Hank: (Athletic Director/Baseball Coach) V Brett: (English Teacher/Jack’s Friend) 33 V Nicky: (Social Studies Teacher) V Jillian: (Wife) V Others: typically informal conversations during or about a specific event Interviewing other individuals who work with or are personally close to Jack helped provide insight to Jack’s life as a teacher, providing perspective outside of the subject’s one particular view. Lastly, there was the use of some artifact data that was included in my analysis, such as Advanced Placement literature or results, Jack’s lesson or practice plans or calendar, sometimes email correspondence, and other relevant artifacts. Schensul et al. (1999) define this data as “collected for administrative purposes that are transformed for research purposes.” (p. 202). These items were primarily used to add depth or specificity or provide additional context to a portion of the notes or interview. DATA ANALYSIS For data analysis, I read the textual database (in this case primarily interviews and field notes) and labeled the various ideas, phenomena, and themes that emerged throughout the study. I then utilized an open coding system (Strauss & Corbin, 1990) to identify and categorize all data. When reviewing interview data, I will listen to the tape once through first before transcribing in order to be able to anticipate the focal areas for transcription. I do not want to simply transcribe for transcription sake but to be able to follow up on certain interview passages with coding notes or additional commentary about the topic being discussed. 34 After collecting data in the form of observational field notes, journal entries, and interviews, I wrote some periodic analytic memos, so as to begin building a knowledge base about the case as well as to organize my writing. Specifically, this helped to organize what occurred in a Short period of time within the study as well as help to drive the narrative portion of the case. Lastly, although I tried to predict certain categories for coding data (as mentioned above), one important note to keep in mind is that I allowed other important themes to emerge from the data and ultimately drive the analysis of the study. When it came to presenting the data in formal writing, there were several possibilities to organizing the findings. Findings could have been organized by themes, or by major events, or even chronologically, depending on what was discovered throughout the study and what was in the best interest of organizational clarity for both researcher and audience. In terms of making this choice, I chose to organize data and code data using the following guidelines. Using NVIVO software, I uploaded the interview and observation data into one central location. First, I wanted to lay out the findings of Jack’s experience in a way that best answered the research questions, best fit into the structure of both F essler’s career framework and Brophy’s motivational framework as well as what provided the most specific insight into what it truly was to be a teacher-coach. Specifically, this meant to first present the sociological factors that influenced Jack’s life. To do so, I coded not only according to factor, but I also separated the data that were deemed “positive” factors (influences that made Jack progress) from those that were deemed “negative” factors (influences that made Jack withdraw). In addition, I used Fessler’s “organizational” and “personal” environments as codes as well. 35 For example, in reading an individual interview transcript, I came across particular commentary offered by Jack regarding an interaction with a student. The first code that this information received is “Sociological Factor.” Next, the same data point from Jack would be coded as “organizational environment” as a sub-category of sociological factors, meaning it was occurring with the school (organizational) environment versus the “personal environment.” Next, I would determine the who/what in terms of the type of factor identified within the organizational environment. In this case the “who” was a student; therefore, this data piece was coded “students.” Next, I determined if the emphasis on the particular commentary were “positive” or “negative.” In other words, did this interview response represent a forward progression or backward regression in Jack’s professional life? Finally, I included a word that was descriptive in terms of alluding to the particular commentary or anecdote. Later in the Findings, there is a conversation about a student who failed to fully answer a test question, becoming argumentative with Jack about his grade. In the end, in this particular illustration, the code for the date was represented as Sociological—Organizational—Student—Negative— Test Questions. Next, I hoped to lay out the psychological-based data of the study or Jack’s thoughts and feelings about what was going on during the season, specifically in terms Of his motivation. In coding this data, I used codes for both the “gaining” Of motivation and the “loss” of motivation as well as codes for both of Brophy’s motivational factors, “expectancy” and “value.” Finally, the last section of findings, Jack’s decisions (or behavior), were coded such due to their having a nature indicative of choice and action. These codes aided in the organization of the findings section of the report to be certain, 36 but more importantly, these themes helped me to gain a strong sense ofJack’S experience and the choices he would make at the end of the school year and moving forward with his career as an educator. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS The theoretical framework used to structure this study is two pronged. First, the sociological aspects of Jack’s life as a teacher-coach are described through the lens of F essler’s (1992) teacher career stages. Fessler’s framework provides a context within which to discuss the sociological context Of Jack’s teaching/coaching. Specifically, Fessler’s framework allows us to talk about the factors within the organizational environment of the school and school district that affect’s Jack’s progression or regression in his teaching career. It features all of the environmental factors that affect a teacher’s thoughts and actions toward teaching. In addition, the framework also allows us to examine the personal environment of Jack. Secondarily, as sociological phenomena happened to Jack during this time, his motivation to teach/coach consistently fluxuated. Therefore, his psychological state of mind regarding his work, his teaching—coaching, was also changing. Therefore in order to discuss his personal motivations, I utilized Brophy’s (I998) expectancy/value framework of motivation in order to frame his goals (expectations) and passions (value) within the experience. At the end of the project, only after using both of these critical frameworks, could we look at Jack’s resulting decisions or behavioral choices moving forward and find meaning in what led him to that point. To elaborate on the above introduction, I wanted to frame this study and understand how Jack balanced teaching and coaching in a way that I might examine both 37 the thoughts and actions that Jack experiences during this period of time. In addition, it was critical to understand the many contextual factors, both personal and professional, that affect Jack’s daily life as a teacher/coach. In this study, Sage’s (1987) approach is appropriate; “It is necessary to examine subjective experiences in order to understand the development of personal and professional identities; this is because self and professional roles and attitudes emerge in response to social interaction and interpretive processes within the framework of environmental variables constituting work setting.” The primary framework for this study is Fessler’s (1992) Teacher Career Cycle Model. I believe this framework not only allows the space, environment and context to describe Jack’s professional movements through this period, but it also gives us a readily available, common language to use to describe both “where Jack is” on any given day (regarding his teaching/coaching life) as well help pinpoint the variousfactors that are affecting his life as a teacher-coach. F essler’s model builds on previous work on career teaching theory including earlier “real world” versions such as Burke, F essler, & Christensen (1984) and Burke (1987). Fessler’s model builds on previous career theory by work by expanding from previous models to provide a more comprehensive look at the professional life of a teacher. The model accomplishes this by integrating the personal and organizational factors that influence a teacher’s everyday practice. The Career Cycle Model has been the theoretical foundation for many design instruments, for developing educational research, and for formulating important research designs in the field (Burke, Christensen, & Fessler 1983; Price 1986; Burke et al. 1987). 38 F essler’s working model offers a framework that is both theoretical and practical for research and analysis. “The model suggests interrelationships among complex phenomena and hypotheses about additional relationships” (p. 33). The Teacher Career Cycle Model is based in social systems theory (Gretzels et al. 1968; Hoy & Miskel, 1991). Possibly the most significant contribution of this model is that it is flexible, fluid, and dynamic rather than earlier models that were “static and fixed.” The week-to-week, day-to-day, even moment-to-moment highs and lows of teaching cannot be effectively studied on a fixed, linear continuum. Teachers can experience the characteristics of several career phases within a given day, depending on infinitely many combinations of factors that influence a teacher’s personality mood, motivation, transmission of knowledge or personal state-of—mind. The Teacher Career Theory Model can chart a teacher’s movement through a variety of phases as an educator reacts both positively and negatively to “environmental conditions.” As the following diagram from Fessler’s 1992 book illustrates, these environmental conditions include both “organizational environment” and “personal environment” factors (p. 36). Fessler explains how both the personal environment and the organizational environment affect the individual teacher and his movement through the career cycle. He goes on to explain that “a supportive posture from these organizational components will reinforce, reward, and encourage teachers as they progress through their career cycles Alternatively, an atmosphere of mistrust and suspicion will likely have a negative impact” (p. 38). Fessler’s model incorporates eight stages, and these stages, as detailed by the illustrative model can be moved in and out of in a fluid fashion according to the environmental factors affecting the teacher. Although the following provides some 39 history on the teacher career cycle, it is important to note that the most useful benefit of Fessler’s model for the purpose of this study is its ability to help pinpoint sociological factors that affected Jack (for worse or for better) in his active work. Looking only at Jack’s life as a teacher on paper, a shallow examination of his teaching career would suggest Jack resides in the “competency building” stage. “Teachers at the ‘competency building stage’ are often planning or beginning their own families. Planning for and having children, being attentive to their care and needs, and balancing the demands of the profession are complicating factors for competency- building teachers” (Fessler 93). Jack is the father of a baby girl, and he is indeed balancing the demands of teaching and coaching along with his family life. However, it is important to note that one stage does not define an individual teacher. In fact, I could argue that Jack circulated throughout all of the stages at some point or another during the pilot study conducted last year. From trying to grasp a concept in a Masters course about a simple classroom management technique (like a pre-service teacher) to taking Significant steps towards leaving his job last summer (career exit), Jack ran the gamut of stages offered in F essler’s model. To use a cliche”, teachers who spend Significant time educating kids indeed oftentimes “see it all.” That is precisely the reason why Fessler’s model contains the structure necessary to describe yet the innovation necessary to include infinite possibilities involved in following the life of a teacher. In earlier career models, teachers progressed in a linear fashion, as if on a time line, from the first stage (or phase) such as “pre-service” or “apprentice” to “beginning teacher” or “induction year” all the way to “career completion” or “retirement.” There was typically no discussion of jumping from one stage to the next in a non-linear way, 40 and the number Of years as a teacher was usually a weighty factor determining where the teacher was situated. In some respects, Fessler’s model is indeed based on its predecessors. Lynn reminds us that Fessler’s model is based “on a process of theory building incorporating data-driven research and preceding theories of teacher development” (p. 179). These models include Fuller (1969), Fuller & Brown (1975), Unruh & Turner (1970), Gregoric (1973), Newman, Burden, & Applegate (1980), and Burden (1982). Fessler gives credit to those models preceding his Teacher Career Cycle Model, and agrees that “Teacher development is a dynamic, career long process” (p. 21). However, he is quick to point out that a teacher moves in and out of these stages on a regular basis, independent of strict time constraints. For example, within a given month, week or even day, an individual can exhibit strong, distinct characteristics of many of the eight stages. Dependent on numerous organizational environment and personal environment factors, the same teacher could experience specific characteristics from multiple stages in a short period of time. Huberman’s (1989) work is also a Significant contributor to the fluid career cycle model. His work included a significant, decade-long longitudinal research study with Swiss Secondary School Teachers and his development of a “non-linear” empirically based model of a 5-phase teaching career cycle. More importantly, Tsui (2003) suggests that in relation to F essler’s framework, Huberman’s work in career theory helped to highlight the manner in which personal experiences, social environments and organizational influences constantly affect a teacher’s career movement. Tsui also points 41 out the regularity with which “teachers move in and out of the various phases” (Sprinthall, Reiman, & Sprinthall, 1996; Field 1979; Fuller, 1969). Lynn (2002) has utilized Fessler’s work to further the discussion of constant teacher movement through the career cycle. The characteristics of teachers appear to change in response to organizational and environmental factors “not in lock-step, linear fashion, but in a dynamic manner reflecting [teacher] responses” to the aforementioned factors of the job (p. 179). According to Lynn such factors include: personal concerns, instructional choices and behaviors, understanding students, awareness of school influences, instructional environment, and self perceptions about teaching identity and professional choice. Lynn furthers her support for looking at the teaching through the Teacher Career Cycle Model by reminding us that the model incorporates both career stages and adult growth and development. At the same time, “the model is an attempt to describe the teacher career cycle within the context of a dynamic and flexible social system.” (179). Lynn echoes Fessler’s beliefs that, “Movement in and between these eight stages is dynamic and flexible rather than static and linear.” In addition Lynn reminds us that teachers do not necessarily move throughout all the stages, yet they may move in and out Of some stages rather frequently. “The significance of the teacher career cycle model lies in the implication that teachers move in and out Of career stages in response to personal and organizational/environmental conditions” (p. 182). For this study, the eight cycles are not of critical importance. However, the understanding that there is constant fluidity of movement is of major importance. 42 Although Steffy and Wolfe’s developmental model consists Ofa different number of defined phases, they agree with F essler and Lynn that an individual teacher can Shift from phase to phase in a dynamic and fluid manner dependent on numerous factors affecting the individual teacher. These phases are “propelled by the mechanisms of reflection and renewal or impeded by withdrawal” (p. 2). Moreover, Yager (1991) reminds us that one of the most important aspects of teacher mobility through stages (or phases) involves choice. These choices are predicated upon by individual teacher motivations, decisions, and goal systems. Steffy and Wolfe add that these choices cause teachers to grow or withdraw, progress, or regress. Continual reflection and renewal create positive teacher growth. On the other hand, the absence of reflections brings about disengagement and withdrawal. Steffy and Wolfe’s work builds from Mezirow’s (1991) transformative learning theory. In looking at the combination of these works, much like F essler, we are left with a theory that “examines teacher growth as unfolding through interactions between persons and their environments” (p. 4). In regard to this specific study, The Teacher Career Cycle Model provides a specific language in which to discuss the daily happenings in the life of Jack as he navigates his way through the baseball season as well as the “AP testing season.” The model will allow both researcher and participant to identify very specifically what factors are influencing Jack’s instructional and coaching decision, his personal motivation, and his outlook on his future as a teacher/coach. This model helps us identify Specifically what and who affect Jack, making him either progress or withdraw. Using this model as a conceptual lens for this study will allow us to take a very detailed look at the career flow over a short period Of time. Rather than talking about a teacher’s “career” in very 43 general terms and grouping stages of the career using yearly increments, this study will take a three-month period of time and look at career movement through intense magnification, highlighting what is causing Jack to make the choices he makes about whether to remain in teaching and/or coaching. The pressures of producing both a successful baseball team while concurrently fielding successful AP Government results in the classroom Should provide an environment for study with a heightened state Of urgency for the participant, ultimately providing ubiquitous environmental factors to discuss as he navigates these two roles. As Lynn states, “The model proposes that a supportive, nurturing environment can assist a teacher in the pursuit of a positive career progression. Alternatively, an environmental atmosphere that includes negative pressures and conflicts can have an adverse effect on a teacher’s career path” (p. 179). Ultimately, this study will allow us to study how these progressions and regressions come to be for an individual teaching and coaching. Although Fessler’s model is ideal for identifying and discussing the environmental factors affecting Jack, when it came to discussing his motivational thoughts about his work, I realized early on in the study that Fessler’s Model was limited. In order to understand Jack’s thinking about his profession (in both roles), I felt I needed to understand his motivations as teacher and as coach as well as his motivations to continue in this chosen field. To do so, I looked to Brophy’s expectancy/value framework as a way of organizing Jack’s thoughts about whether to teach or not to teach. This move in conversation from sociological (school context) to psychological (personal motives and reflections) allowed me to delve deeper into Jack’s thinking about his practice in both roles. 44 Brophy’s (1998) expectancy/value framework on motivation is central to a study involving teacher motivation. According to Brophy, the expectancy side of the expectancy-value framework involves particular “achievement situations” that require individuals to accomplish a goal-oriented task with the knowledge of impending evaluation. For Jack and the specifics of his case, this included the contextual and evaluative pressures (by administrators, parents, students/players, and self-expectations) to produce “passing AP exams for the majority of his students” and “field a winning baseball team.” Optimal motivation is associated with causal attributions (Wiener, 1992) of success due to an individual’s output of suflicient ability and reasonable effort. Thus, Jack began the season with the fleeting belief that with a reasonable amount of ability and effort he could be successful at both teaching and coaching (as suggested in his consideration of whether or not to continue to teach and coach after this year). Generally, one’s expectancy of success is believed to be stronger when the control of outcomes comes from within the individual (i.e., when control is internal). In studying Jack’s professional experience, one theme that emerged early on from the data was the subject of motivation—specifically, Jack’s motivation in each role as well as his overall motivation to continue in the field of education. As Jack’s motivation became a recurring theme, I began to organize and make sense of the data through the conceptual lens of this motivation=expectancy X value theory. This framework posits that motivation is equal to the product of one’s expectancy (the degree to which one expects to accomplish a given task) times the value (the amount one appreciates the success of accomplishment). Motivation (the product of the equation) would in turn be zero should either factor (expectancy or value) be nonexistent. Brophy’s model is 45 influenced by other expectancy/value models (Feather, 1982; Pekrun, 1983; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Brophy’s theoretical stance would also suggest that contextual influences surrounding Jack’s practice as a teacher and coach would also influence his level of motivation not only for specific tasks but also his ultimate decision to continue in the field of education. In addition, to understand teaching and coaching goals we must identify the work of goal theory (Ames, 1992; Blumenfeld, 1992; Meece, 1994) which plays a significant role in the “expectancy” side of motivation. According to Brophy, “goal orientations refer to beliefs about the purposes of engaging in achievement-related behavior” (2004, p. 56). Specifically, the studies of Dweck and Leggett (1988), Ames and Archer (1988), and Nicholls (1984) all find many variations in the approaches and outcomes of individuals who engage in a task with learning goals (also known as “mastery” or “task involvement” goals) as Opposed to outcome goals (Similar to “performance goals” but with a desired concrete result in mind). Learning goals focus on skill, knowledge, or material mastery and understanding of greater benefits for such mastery. In contrast, outcome goals center around an individual’s ability to perform and the specific outcome of a lone event or the reaching of a specific criteria (such as a high performance on a test or earning a specific grade). Though many researchers suggest motivation based solely on performance or outcome goals can produce more negative affects than learning goals, when used in a healthy combination, some researchers believe that motivation based on the two types of goals can produce positive results (Pintrich, 2000; Valle, 2003; Barron & Harackiewicz, 2001; Elliot & McGregor, 1999) 46 The study also explores the value side Of the expectancy/value equation. When it comes to the “value” factor of the equation, a teacher-coach must continually evaluate the benefits involved in teaching, coaching, or, from a holistic perspective, performing both roles concurrently. According to Eccles and Wigfield (1985) there are three major components to a task’s value: 1) attainment value (attaining success for achievement or prestige purposes), 2) intrinsic value (enjoyment or fulfillment from the task), and 3) utility value (value in applying the task to future career goals or larger life achievement). All of these types of “value” factors equate to reasons or purposes for engaging in any particular task (Brophy, 2004). A key part of the value side of motivation is the delineation between extrinsic and intrinsic rewards. Researchers who argue against extrinsic rewards believe that motivation based on such awards can detract from the internalization Of the task itself by the individual and that such awards Often are reduced to acting as prizes or bribes for the purpose of completing a task. Kohn (1993) argues that such rewards can Often undermine an individual’s intrinsic interest in the task at hand. Additional intrinsic value theory significant to this case study includes affective- based engagement in a task, which depends on the level of enjoyment or satisfaction derived from an experience. Deci and Ryan’s (2000) theory on self-determination would also argue that such intrinsic desire for self-improvement or learning is of a higher quality than extrinsically motivated tasks. Since Jack will most likely not be earning significant extrinsic rewards (such as a large salary or highly esteemed societal status) by teaching and coaching in the spring, the question becomes: is the intrinsic value of his professional life enough to provide ample motivation for performing these two roles? 47 A primary component of the expectancy side of motivation is the discussion of goals. Maehr and Meyer (1997) describe motivation as a construct used to explain “initiation, direction, intensity, persistence, and quality of behavior” with specific reference to goal-based action (p. 3). Goals are then characterized as objectives of specific patterns of behavior. By framing Jack’s thoughts, decisions, and actions around his goals for either teaching or coaching, I am able to explain the “direction” or “quality of action sequences” for specific situations (Thrash & Elliot, 2001, p. 4). On the other side of the motivational coin, is the attribution of value. This theme comes up consistently in the data regarding Jack. What he values in teaching, in coaching, in his professional career, in his family, in his life as a whole repeatedly emerge in his thoughts and decision-making during the time of the study, playing a critical role in what decisions he ultimately makes. 48 CHAPTER IV: FINDINGS PART l—IDENTIFYIN G SOCIOLOGICAL FACTORS This section is intended to present the relevant data from Jack’s case. It is important to clarify the three sections of the FINDINGS chapter. 1. The first chapter of the findings (Part 1) simply identifies and states the major sociological factors that influenced Jack’s life as a teacher-coach during the season both positively and negatively. There is no other value judgment made regarding these factors. However, examples or anecdotes from my time with Jack are included to support each recognized category. This data answers the question: “What are the major factors that affected Jack '5 experience as a teacher-coach? " 2. The second chapter (Part 2) outlines the data regarding Jack’s motivation within his roles as teacher and coach (psychological aspects of p the data). This data answers the question, “ What did Jack expect to accomplish and what did Jack value in his teaching and coaching? " 3. The third chapter (Part 3) Of the findings indicates the possible choices Jack can make at the end Of the season. This serves to answer the behavioral question: “What can or does Jack ultimately do as a result of what he 's experienced? " PART 1: ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS Fessler’s model lays out the environmental influences that promote either progression or regression within the teaching career. As Lynn (2002) asserts, F essler’s model allows one to describe the teaching career within the context of a flexible and dynamic social system of the school (organizational environment) as well as teacher life outside of work (personal envrionment). Again, the organizational environment includes 49 variables such as administrative bodies, faculty and staff, teacher course and policy responsibilities, students and parents, and community expectations for the place Of “school” and its teachers therein. Personal environment includes “family support structures, positive critical incidents, life crises, individual dispositions, and avocational outlets (Lynn, p.179). The crux of the model proposes that a positive, nurturing environment aides a teacher in the pursuit of career progression. In contrast, negative environmental influences can cause a teacher to regress or consider leaving the career entirely. For this case, it is not critical to attempt to pigeonhole Jack into one of the eight stages of the cycle at any point during the time of the study. Attempting to use a stage or phase “label” at given times is not proposes. Rather, the important aspect of the research that allows us to understand what occurred with Jack is to identify both the aforementioned negative and positive factors that affected Jack during this critical time. What moved Jack forward (positive factors) and what moved him back (negative)? Therefore this section reports by delineating what (or who) influenced Jack negatively and what (or who) influenced Jack positively. In some cases the same influences acted in a way indicative of both. However, this may help us identify which factors may have most strongly contributed to both negative and positive movements throughout the months of the study. There were deliberate choices made in presenting the following data. Certain factors that were identified from the data set were left out of the findings due to their lack of re-occurrence, emphasis or major impact on the participant’s professional life. Such factors as teacher-to-teacher interactions, professional development sessions, administration of the Close-Up Program, parent- 50 teacher conferences, or the taking of graduate courses all affected Jack’s organizational environment during this time in some way. However, they were left out because they were either relatively insignificant in comparison to the larger factors identified in terms of influence or played some minor role in one of the larger factors described in this section. As a final note, it is critical to point out that some major factors are identified as both “Negative” and “Positive” and the subsequent details that describe the nature of these delineations are Significant to understanding the ups and downs, ebbs and flows, and progression and withdrawal of Jack’s professional life. The factors that appear in both categories are some of the major contributors to the idea of Jack being caught in a rundown, an oscillation between staying committed to the teaching profession or ultimately quitting the profession entirely. Essentially, in this section we ask, " What are the major factors that affected Jack ’3 experience as a teacher-coach? " POSITIVE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS Data shows that the following factors most contributed as “positive” sociological factors in Jack’s life as a teacher-coach. These factors have been identified as those causing the most progression or engagement during this three-month period of time. AP Curriculum and Exam Teaching the AP curriculum and working toward the target date that is the AP Exam has helped Jack progress in his teaching as much as anything. Evidence suggests that the content challenges Jack, and he is rewarded by moving his students toward understanding of the material. Jack felt as if he found his ‘niche’ in the teaching 51 profession, that he has acquired a very specific set of skills that other teachers, possibly even other social studies teachers, do not possess. One example of this was the whole concept of the AP “free response” which is arguably different from any writing students have done prior to this course. The “free response” section of the AP Exam is comprised of four questions that students had 100 minutes to answer. The term “free response” means just that, it has no specific limitations to its structure. The College Board poses a question, and they expect the answer. “You can write it any way you want; the standard English Paragraph and the topic sentence and structure. . . .worthless, worthless. You can do it with bullet points, misspelled words, sentence fragments.” according to Jack. However the difficulty students face arises from the question. “Although the process sounds extraordinarily simple, it is not; the rubric is extremely Specific.” For example, if the question says “describe”, it is imperative that students “describe” in their response. If the question charges students to “explain” then they must use explanatory language. If a question states “list two examples of” then that is what they need do—not one, not three. If asked to “list two examples” and the student lists three examples and they go on to explain it all and say something wrong, they will not receive credit. The AP Exam graders provide little mercy in their evaluation. It truly is a matter of substance over art, as there is a fine line between “not enough” and “too much.” Jack prided himself on being able to teach this skill above most. The skill “is to be able to identify, really know, what the question is asking, maybe do a pre—write and some notes, then put down exactly what they are asking—mo more, no less.” It sounds obvious, but the greatest danger arises when students fail to answer the 52 ( N N— question, yet the same student may have the knowledge necessary to answer it. “If you write too much then the danger is writing stuff that you just don’t know much about. At some point you may have the answer sewn up, but you add two sentences that aren’t completely true, you could lose the point,” Either way, the unlucky student ends up with persuasive writing that “convinces them (the AP Board) that you really didn’t know what you were talking about.” Jack’s confidence in his students’ ability to complete the “free response” section of the test outmatched that of the previous year (his first) teaching AP Government. This confidence was evident in his teaching during the last ten days leading up to May 5. While going over practice questions when asked questions by students, Jack rarely hesitated before delivery specific, definitive responses about what to do and what not to do in answering the question. This included information both about the social studies content knowledge involved as well as the rhetoric to use in composing the response. On multiple occasions between Apr. 23 and May 5, Jack remarked how he “knew this year’s group would outperform last year’s” on the exam, especially when it came to the points earned on “free response” section. Jack “knowing” he had better prepared this year’s group seemed to boost his efficacy as a teacher and certainly was evidence toward career progression. On May 6, one day following the AP Exam, Jack looked at the “free response” section questions, providing this response: Looking at the questions myself and having taught them and knowing what I taught them and what they are capable of writing down and what they should have been prepared for, I am confident that the kids are in better shape this year than they were last year. The free responses that were on the test this year are things we had talked about more than the free responses that were on the test last year. When I opened up last year, there was one [question] I was iffy on. This year I believe that every single kid should have been able to get at least partial credit on each one. There is not 53 one kid that should get a zero on a question. An overarching theme that emerged from studying the positive factors ofJack’s environment was the pride and the challenge of teaching AP. Admittedly, Jack did not feel challenged by content in his first year at White Sands, when he taught freshman US. History (regular class) and sophomore World History (also regulars). Being assigned AP courses during his second year and keeping them throughout this third year has remained a badge Of honor for Jack. Essentially, in his teaching role, he defines himself not just as a “teacher” but rather an “AP Government teacher,” a distinction critical to understanding Jack further as we move forward in this report. Administration In a similar vein as the AP Curriculum and Exam, some ofJack’s interactions and relationships with the administration of his school comprised another positive factor in his professional progression. First and foremost, the administration’s decision (although unexplained) for Jack to teach all of the sections of Advanced Placement Government “has certainly made it more likely that I will stay in teaching longer” said Jack about his content. In Jack’s first year he taught only regular classes, including primarily 9th grade US History and 10‘h grade World Studies. In his second year, he gained three sections of AP Government, but kept two sections of freshman US History. By year three he had built the program to a level and recruited enough students to teach four sections Of AP Government exclusively. Although uncertain about his future in education, his teaching Advanced Placement courses have helped him maintain his focus. Jack admitted, “If I were to stop teaching AP government, and go back to the standard curriculum, I would probably get bored and leave teaching shortly thereafter.” Although the reason for Jack’s 54 appointment to an AP schedule remained inconclusive throughout the school year, Jack could not have progressed to this point in his career without the administration’s decision to trust him with the Junior class’s highest level students. “I don’t know. ..I guess they think I’m reliable. Cammie (Asst. Principal) and Julie (Principal) did not ask me, they assigned me.” This trust in Jack by his administrators carried over into the classroom as well. During the time Spent with Jack, either Cammie or Julie, on multiple occasions, came and asked Jack to allow another teacher to observe him teaching. Jack would also receive email requests from administration or other teachers to Observe. During first week Of April, Jack was talking to another teacher in the hallway about his Close Up responsibilities, and the principal came by and asked Jack if a second-year teacher could Observe his “direct instruction.” Said Jack, “my read on it is that his direct instruction style is not working for whatever reason. . .kids, parents, administrators complaining. For whatever reason, She asked if he could come and Observe me.” Jack had made it known to the struggling teacher that he was welcome to come and observe him anytime. “He didn’t even have to tell me ahead of time, just Show up and have a seat.” During the same conversation, in front of the other teacher, the Principal (Julie) expressed her gratitude to Jack. She stated, He [the struggling teacher] needs a strong teacher; you take the mystery out of directly instructing your students. Can you sort of take him under your wing... ‘blah, blah, blah’ (Jack has trouble discussing compliments he’s received). It is important that we help him get better. He just needs to learn from some master teachers, and you are one Of our master teachers. We are really lucky to have you here. We need to learn from each other. During a conversation with Jack later that day, Jack mentioned that he was somewhat discomfited by the encounter with Julie, especially since it was in front of one of his 55 peers. “It was weird for me to hear ‘master teacher’ because I am only a third year teacher and that was strange for me.” Regardless of Jack’s humility, one could sense the pride in his voice when he talked about the incident. When it comes to his principal as the source, this positive boost in Jack’s self-efficacy was a rather isolated incident. Jack and his assistant principal, Cammie, seem to have a better rapport than that of Jack and his principal, Julie. His relationship with Cammie seems to push Jack forward in his career more so than any other administrational influence. Because Of Jack’s daily use ofa personal teaching website as well as a blog where he posts all Of his AP Government materials, information, and assessments, Cammie often sought out Jack in March and once the first session of April to assist her during QPD (Quality Professional Development). QPD is a weekly 90 minute session where faculty and staff of WSHS meet to improve their practice. On these “late start” days, students come to school at 9:00 am. rather than the typical 7:30 start time. During QPD seesions, teachers may meet in small group department meetings. have full-blown staff meetings, may be presented to by an outside speaker or they may work on individual technology or curriculum issues. During several large-group sessions in the spring, Cammie asked Jack to demonstrate the way he utilizes technology for his classroom to the rest of the school. Cammie admitted that she often asked Jack because of his “unusual technological savvy for a core area teacher.” Her motivation stemmed from events she had Observed in his classroom that were particularly engaging or useful to student success. In why she often asked Jack to share at QPD Cammie stated, “He will give some significance and thought to the task and share it with the staf .” 56 Jack admitted that he felt pride in being asked by his assistant principal to speak to the staff as such a young teacher. Said Cammie, “I think we tried to find a variety of teachers, and Jack’s [site] was geared toward higher level kids. Kids will on their own go 99 onto the website and use his stuff to further themselves in the class. One student in fact told Cammie the previous school year, “I got five more test questions right on the multiple choice [on the 2007 AP Exam] because I went on Jack’s blog and did the quizzes he had posted there.” Jack also experienced positive feedback from presenting to his peers about the MME (Michigan Merit Exam). Not only does the Social Studies department present at QPD more frequently than all the other cores, Jack was asked more than any other teacher. I think we represent ourselves with more over all Of the core areas. I cannot think of anything Science does. If you take the department heads out of this conversation, it would basically be social studies stepping up and running the show. A few of us teachers do a lot! I! To me, colleague Sharing is much more beneficial than some teacher from California doing this for our teachers. These examples of administrative support coupled with their decision to have Jack teach challenging content were positive influences in Jack’s progression. Faculty Relationships In addition to Jack’s administrators, fellow faculty have also been recognized as a positive factor in Jack’s practice. First and foremost, Jack has been fortunate to have had several very formative mentors. Prior to coming to White Sands, Jack student taught at a school in a neighboring district, River Springs. Jack talked a lot about Richard, his former mentor teacher there. He was very impressed with the way Richard taught the material and managed the time and kids. Especially during the summer before this school year, Jack sought advice from his former mentor in both teaching AP and other 57 aspects of educative order and instructional philosophy. Jack often referred to the manner in which Richard communicated with parents and students. Richard was one of the major influences behind Jack’s blog, which he used for daily communication. A connection with the blog brings up another interesting relationship that Jack has established with a co-worker that has moved him forward in his time at White Sands. Corey, the IT specialist at the school has become a close professional acquaintance with Jack, assisting him not only with computer skills necessary to enhance his teaching (i.e. the website and blog) but also as a trusted colleague. In addition, Brett, an English teacher from down the hall, came in to have lunch with Jack on a daily basis, providing the only real “break” Jack would have in his hectic schedule. Jack seemed very impressed by Brett and relished the fact that Brett can discuss different viewpoints about political topics and even challenge Jack’s way of looking at teaching. Said Brett, “1 don’t know how our lunch relationship took off. I guess I just went down there to eat lunch one day, and I really enjoyed talking with him and it just took off from there.” Although Jack stated that they have never met up socially outside Of school, to have a friend in the workplace “is far more important than people realize.” Brett played a role few other could for Jack, a fellow teacher that could act as a sounding board for Jack’s ideas and frustrations as well as one who could empathize with many situations that Jack faced in his life at school. Since his arrival at White Sands, Jack has had the same mentor (Sharon) for all three of his years. Sharon has arguably been the greatest positive influence on Jack inhis time at White Sands. In talking with Sharon, she found it “ridiculous” that she was given the title “Mentor” because she felt as if she “had gotten as much or more from being 58 colleagues with Jack as he’d gotten from me.” A big reason for this came during the prior year when Sharon had to leave school for the second semester for medical reasons, and substitutes are not allowed by the College Board to teach AP courses. As a result, Sharon asked Jack to take over her two sections of AP World History with essentially no preparatory time. She explained that although there all seven of the other social studies teachers in the building who had more experience than Jack, she trusted him above all to prepare her students and bring home the best possible results (on the AP World History Exam) that spring. Said Sharon, “We needed someone who knew World History and was competent, and this course had to be taught at an AP level.” Out of the eight possibilities, it was either Dean (the 30 year veteran Department Chair) or Jack. Out of the two, “Jack was the first choice. I wanted Jack all along. Dean had taught it the first time, and I thought Jeremy might put in even more effort.” Said Jack, “Although she had to do so in a low key, diplomatic way, Sharon was going to go through whatever measures necessary to get me to do it.” Although this made his teaching schedule more difficult, Jack still wore the fact that he was called to step up and teach a second AP course as a second-year teacher as a badge of honor. Baseball Although later issues emerged, the baseball season also acted as a positive factor in his life as a teacher-coach. On certain days, especially on practice days, it was evident Jack was excited to get outside and get his hands dirty helping pitchers with their delivery on the mound, instructing base-running scenarios, taking infield or hitting long fungos to outfielders. The scene of Jack strolling out to practice in his sweats and baseball cap on a crisp, sunny afternoon seemed to be symbolic of shedding the weighty confines of a Shirt 59 and tie and windowless classroom. “Baseball is a nice release to the other stuff I have going on. It can be a nice way to be active and engaged yet outside.” Jack got a lift from baseball primarily on practice days. On such occasions, he could begin with his team by 3:00 pm. and be completed with practice, have raked and tended to the diamond, and put all equipment away and able to leave school by 5:30 on some days (arriving home by 6:00 pm). Practice days allowed a schedule much more suitable to a father and husband, as Jack would make it home in time to prepare dinner and play with his daughter prior to bed. Moreover, practice days allowed Jack to bond with his players without the pressure of executing plays perfectly in a game. The constant enveloping “pressure” was something Jack often alluded to both in the classroom and on the field, so when relief came, there was a noticeable change both physically and emotionally in Jack. Jack remarked about practice, “The moving around outside without the pressure of the classroom setting is a welcome change on these days.” Another evident difference in these days was the interaction Jack had with his players. Jack enjoyed teaching the fundamentals and the more relaxed atmosphere of practice allowed Jack to work with individual players on improving their Skills. Interestingly enough, the very same individuals or instances that infuriated Jack during games, were the same ones he most cherished on practice days. For example, Chris, Jack’s star player who went on to play college level baseball, even remarked, “the improvement of the little things in my game, the attention to detail I got from Coach Jack, like at practice, have made all the difference this season.” Not surprisingly, for Jack to know he had a hand in helping Chris earn college scholarship money to play baseball was a tremendously positive factor in his moving forward in the coaching aspect of his career. 60 In a manner not indicative of many varsity coaches, there was little evidence that Jack progressed in this environment from winning. Strangely, neither his demeanor nor his rhetoric seemed to change much following a victory (nor a defeat for that matter); he typically seemed focused on the individual details of the game with the most critical statistic (the final score) not playing a part in his recounting of a game (more on this point to come in following chapter). However, there was one major exception to this pattern of behavior and that came following the last two games of the year. Following the regular season, White Sands made it through the first two rounds of the playoffs and found themselves in the District Championship. According to Hank, the outgoing coach and Athletic Director, “The District tournament was wrought with so much emotion, in large part because we were playing our arch rivals; there was this very intense rivalry.” In this particular game, Jack had little choice but to rely on an unproven pitcher (due to inning limits mandated by MHSAA), who Jack could not rely upon much during the season, whether from a pitching skill, or an attitude, standpoint. Even Hank remarked at the pitching performance, “He’s a kid you usually can’t count on in really intense situations. I’ve never seen him that composed or a better competitor than he was that day.” Everything seemed to fall into place that game, and WSHS came out with a District Championship, their first in over a decade. As Jack reiterated in describing the victory, “we won, so it was euphoria—to win the championship and then most importantly to beat our cross town rival was huge.” The following week, White Sands would play their final game, losing in the Regional final. 61 Students The last major positive factor identified over time that was a major component in the progression of Jack’s teaching was his relationship with his students. Jack seemed most comfortable when his students were engaged in discussion of the content, but doing so in the quasi-relaxed atmosphere Jack has established for class-wide conversation. Because of the fact that he taught high-level Juniors of ages 16 and 17, he took much more leeway in the way he interacted with students. He allowed them to be young adults and explore topics that may have been inappropriate for younger classes. Still, Jack would have argued that such interactions were always spurred on by AP Government content. For example, take for example one of the lighter moments in the final week leading up to the May 5 AP Exam date. To put the Situation in proper context, it is important to note that Jack justified his consistent use of lecture and notes because, AP Gov is a “college-level class,” and Jack believed it was his duty to instruct as such. On this particular day, Jack was leading his students in a discussion about the Constitution. Very much in Jack’s teaching style, it was part lecture and part whole-class discussion with students taking notes. In Jack’s words about that day’s content, “There was a lot going on right now in terms ofdiscussion of the Constitution in terms of current privacy rights and how that relates to homosexual rights. Essentially, the question is: “Can Georgia pass an anti-sodomy law that bans homosexual activity?” In glancing around the room, it became increasingly more apparent that a good portion of the students did not know or were uncertain if they knew what Jack meant by “anti-sodomy.” Jack picked up on this as well but informed the class that he was “not going to tell them. You can go ask 62 I! 1‘31 your health teacher.” This is of course exponentially raised the interest level in the classroom, with students literally clamoring with cries of “Tell us!” or “You GOTTA tell us, now!” Jack, keeping his cool for the most part, remarked that there is a dictionary “right over there on the shelf, if you really want to know.” Of course, this dictionary became the Holy Grail for the curious teens for the next few minutes of the period with students visibly shaking and reaching over each other with anticipation to grab the dictionary and satisfy their curiosity. With the class finally reaching an absolute frenzy, Jack decided to grab the dictionary out some unsuspecting student and put it behind his desk. “It just got worse and worse, becoming more and more distracting as it went around, so Ijust put a stop to it.” To do so, Jack referred to the word or act in question as “unconventional sexual intercourse” and left it at that. After several seconds of uninterrupted Silence, a usually quiet girl in the back of the class leaned back in her chair, dropped her pen on top of her book, put her hands behind her head, and broke the silence with an undaunted, “OOOHHH. . .AH, I get it now!” The class erupted in laughter, and Jack, shaking his head and grinning ear to ear, put down his dry erase marker, turned off the overhead, closed his book and just walked out of the room saying, “OK, we’re done for today. Do what you want for the rest of the time.” This anecdote was indicative of moments where students were the most positive aspect of his professional life. For Jack, his philosophy when it comes to his rapport with students all comes down to a numbers game. It was as if he was willing to sacrifice a few students who did not fit in well with his classroom and teaching style for the majority Who he believed in fact did. To his credit, there were students in every period of his Classes that seemed to be constantly engaged in not only the material but with their 63 connection with Jack. At the same time, there were students who never seemed to relate to the sometimes cavalier attitude or unpredictable commentary offered by Jack during class. Said Jack: I think that I have about a half a dozen kids in my zero hour that absolutely hate me. But most of them know I’m being sarcastic and think it’s funny, so I’ll take that. I’ll take the 75% of kids that love me for the 25% who don’t andjust don’t get it and think I am a jerk. Those are hall of fame numbers. Those who think I’m funny, really think I’m funny, and those who REALLY, REALLY don’t. I mean there are kids in there that truly believe that I know the answer to every question that’s ever been asked before in the history of the world. One of those who made it clear on a usual basis that he felt Jack belonged in the “Jerk” category was a student named Ryan, who appeared to take AP Government and his overall studies very seriously, to the point where he would Often verbally clash with Jack during class. On this particular day, in his first period class, Jack had students working in groups on a few worksheet activities, and a certain group was having trouble finishing; they had about 10 multiple choice questions left with the class waiting on them. When Ryan Spoke up for his group, complaining they did not have enough time, Jack responded that they should just take guesses on those, “Well, try and act like any other primate, pick up the pencil and take your 20% chance of getting the questions right.” Ryan responded indignantly, “are you calling us primates?” “Well, YEAH! Because you are,” retorted Jack. Ryan fired back with his temper flaring, “NO WE’RE NOT!” Jack then asked, “You don’t think you’re ‘primates’?” Ryan asked, “So you are saying we are the same as monkeys?” “Not only do I KNOW we are primates, I am pretty sure we are of the order Primata. Just like you are an animal, like a coral or a monkey, you also happen to be a 64 Primate.” At this point the class busted in to tell Ryan how wrong he was and that he needed to go and study harder in AP Biology and that he needed to leave the class and go apologize to Mrs. Wishart (The AP Bio teacher) for tarnishing her reputation as a good teacher. Ryan still sat there in exasperation, trying to defend his position. “He doesn’t get it, he can’t get it, that’s it Ijust cannot talk about this anymore.” Jack finally shook his head in frustration, annoyed in part because of the arrogance and ignorance of a student to challenge him publicly, but also feeling shamed for having embarrassed Ryan by taking it to the point he did. Regardless, Jack made sure to try and make light of it and try to repair his rocky relationship with this student. “SO, the next day I had taken the dictionary, looked up the word “primate,” highlighted the definition where it said, “any animal of the order Primata, most notably humans.” Ijust left it on Ryan’s desk, so when he walked in it was just Sitting there.” Ryan walked in looked at and then started laughing aloud as he read the inscription. Jack then, also laughing, grabbed the dictionary, slammed it to draw attention to himself for emphasis, went over and put the dictionary back on the shelf. Ryan then took a moment to apologize to Jack and the class for “throwing a fit” the day before. Despite the tension in the first 6 months of the school year, By the end of May, Jack remarked that he enjoyed his rapport with Ryan as much as any student he taught. Students were not only a prevalent positive factor in Jack’s teaching progression due to time spent in the classroom. There were also moments outside of normal class hours, with little to do with AP Government, where interactions with students moved him forward in his efficacy as a teacher. For instance, one day during fifth period (final hour), Jack’s second semester planning period, one of his 1" period AP Gov students 65 Oll COI “1 I... came into his classroom. The student, Ashley, had essentially begged out of AP English class in order to talk to Jack. She came in to talk about a paper she had to write for English, could not seem to get started on writing, but she felt Jack could “really help.” Since the paper had to be written as a satire, Ashley reasoned, “Mr. Jack, you are very sarcastic...you probably have a lot of possibilities for me.” Jack laughed, unsure whether to take that as a compliment or not, and he informed Ashley that she should write her story about her experience, something she knows. Jack told her, “Why don’t you write something about being an AP student, or even better, why not write about being an AP teacher.” He went on to say She could make fun of how “self-important” AP teachers believe they are or how much emphasis they put on their particular class above all the others. “They each think that their class is far and away the most important, right?” He continued to talk to Ashley for the entire period, eschewing all of his other responsibilities during that time. He told her she was welcome to come back during a future 5th Period if she needed further assistance. With Ashley in particular, Jack beamed with pride about her seeking his help because of the fact that they did not always have a strong teacher-student relationship. Jack mentioned that their relationship was rocky the first semester but had gradually improved over the past several months. He described how things progressed: I really started getting on her about her doing her work. She’d been trying harder, she’d been coming to class better prepared, Obviously having read everything I asked her to read, having done all the work I had asked them to do and had really put thought into it, had been getting better grades and more effort into the discussion. I noticed that a couple of months ago and I had commented to her about it, that I had noticed that she was a much better student now than she was 6 months ago. 66 aliut SCllOi he ‘M' “335 5t. 511’ Star “13 tha' Who 1m; Ch”55/7 lit “We-miss]. 51m l‘OI all Another instance of student interactions outside of class came during moments of “teacher appreciation.” Although Jack attempted play such days off a “hokey” or “no big deal,” whenever a student recognized him as a “good,” “favorite,” or “appreciated” educator, Jack took it as a testament to his decision to teach. The week following the AP Exam, on “Teacher Appreciation Day” Jacked received six cards from students, three of whom he had not taught for two years. You could see his smirk slowly turning into a full-blown smile as he read the accolades from current and former students. One student wrote, “thanks for being a great teacher and a great guy. AP Gov was a heckuva lot more fun having you as a teacher. It’s been great having conversations with you in there and in the hallway.” Another one came from a girl who happened to be doing poorly in Jack’s class and that surprised Jack the most. She wrote, “I would call you my homey, but I think that you would find that insulting. Thanks for all you do.” Additionally, when asked what reaffirms his faith in his chosen profession, Jack alluded to a particular night from earlier in the semester. He had been asked to attend the school musical as a faculty representative. Initially, Jack was annoyed because it meant he would have to Shorten practice that night in order to get ready for the musical (and he was still miffed that five of his players were part of the musical that was interfering with the start of baseball season). What he was unaware of before his attendance that night was that a few of the students in the cast had chosen Jack to be recognized as a teacher who impacted them. Jack was given buttons with pictures of the students who had chosen him, and he was acknowledged in the program. In addition, during the intermission of the play, he ran into several sets of parents who came up to him to thank him for all that he did for their kids. Jack said: 67 .I I3 :63: - 1 ,_. . {/1 (1 LT. (It y) You obviously run into a lot of parents into that sort of situation and there were many of them current and past that came up to me and said ‘my kid is in your class, how engaged they are in the government, how much the discussion at home will revolve around politics, with the Presidential Election. . .much more so than ever did 6 months ago.’ Things like that certainly make you feel that way. You’re getting affirmation that kids are taking things away that you’re trying to convey. What their political ideology is is pointless, just that they have one. Of course, in the end it all comes down to his teaching students, specifically preparing them for success on the AP Exam. On the day he handed back the tests from the April 23rd practice exam, Jack seemed re-energized by not only the results of this dress-rehearsal but by how his students had finally begun matching his energy and publicly acknowledging that they were “psyched” and “pumped up” for the real test on May 5. As Jack had professed many times, one of his greatest struggles had been to teach students to “answer the question that’s asked.” When going over the results with his students, he seemed pleased with their effort to finally begin adhering to his counsel. He said aloud to his class, addressing one unsuspecting student, Fred: I want you, on Monday, to hear my voice saying, ‘Answer the stinkin’ question.’ Read it the first time, and listen to my voice, ‘Answer the stinkin’ question.’ Then write your pre-writing and read the question again and I want you to hear my voice saying, ‘Answer the stinkin’ question.’ THEN, after you write your answer, I want you to go back and read what you wrote and read the question again, and I want you to hear my voice in your head screaming: ‘ANSWER THE STINKIN’ QUESTION!!!’ Without missing a beat, Fred added, “Yeah, answer the stinkin’ question AND make sure '99 your answer doesn’t STINK With the entire class in an uproar and Jack laughing aloud, he countered with the look of that of a proud father and stated the only word he could muster: “Exactly.” Although the positive factors identified (and relevant examples) are relatively benign, they are important to declare in order to outline Jack’s case. More critically, the 68 555136 01 Eli!) 5c will to [M Slate \l'. [1m contrast between the aforementioned positive influences and the following negative influences help to paint a contextual picture of Jack’s organizational environment NEGATIVE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS Data shows that the following factor most readily contributed as “negative” sociological factors in Jack’s life as a teacher-coach. These factors have been identified as those most causing regression or withdrawal from the educational profession. AP Exam The Advance Placement nature of J ack’s classes is a major source of pride for Jack. However, it is also one of the largest sources of stress. In fact, one of the most prominent contributing factors adding to the pressure faced by Jack was the AP Exam itself. The exam, monitored by the College Board, was administered nationally on May 5, and during those few months no date loomed larger for Jack. The test date was inflexible and a finite number of school days away. With every class session missed, Jack knew he would have his kids one day, one class period, one lesson, or 84 minutes less prepared than could otherwise have been. However he put his forth his efforts Jack knew there was no chance to make up that time. As far back as two months before the exam, Jack had already begun to express a sense of urgency, describing March and April as “crunch time” for the upcoming test. Every school day that passed without Jack having maximum instructional time simply added to the pressure. Describing one stretch in March that was particularly frustrating, Jack stated: We had a week of school wide testing this week, so I lost [all instruction time with] the kids. I didn’t have them for any instruction time this week. 69 CO. llilli COUII “eel, Ill ha: Dlouf lllfm 0‘ I also lost five days of instruction to snow days in the last two months. We have spring break coming up in three weeks. So, no instruction time this week, then we have three weeks. After spring break I have only seven class days before the practice exam is given. All the new material needs to be presented to kids by that day (April 23). So, I essentially have four weeks of instruction time with the kids to get through five chapters of [new] information. It’s going to be a lot of pressure to get that in, I’ve got to be very efficient in my class time in that period of time. April 24-May 4 would be used to review eight months of material, so anything new had to have been already introduced to the kids. After the practice exam, Jack would have only 10 days of class time before the real AP Exam (May 5). “Between now and then (March 9-May 5.. .two months!) it’s going to be HIGH stress for AP government. There’s going to be kids who pass or fail this exam based on what happens in here in the next two months. . .really only four weeks of instruction time.” Because of this time crunch and the value placed on class time in March and April, Jack often found himself in a conundrum of how to use that time. He knew each decision affected not only his students but also his life. For example, Jack would contemplate giving the students a brief reprieve in class. However, showing students a movie relevant to government might be educational valuable but may not enhance their exam preparation. He consistently pushed his students toward the exam date (May 5), but he also knew they had to occasionally get a break from seemingly endless material, which would provide him a chance to catch up on the administrative side of teaching. “I could grade while watching a movie for two days. Rather than spending [my] entire weekend grading when [I] don’t see [my] daughter all week. And [I] have a tournament in baseball on Saturday. But that [showing the movie] would take away two whole days of our last classes.” Here Jack had to decide between quality time for his students in the form of rigorous material coverage in preparing for the exam or choosing to give students 70 real for e the }‘e Class c 211035,} Sills (IOI a break (against their best interest) and allowing Jack two days to grade practice tests. And two days it would take. Each of the tests given in AP Government purposely mimics the format of the AP Exam, not only the official “practice exam” given on April 23. That meant each unit test Jack would prepare for his students would include multiple choice questions to be filled out using scantron (electronic grade sheets that students bubble in) and at least two short response questions. (The actual AP Exam contains 60 multiple choice questions and four short response questions). Jack had 90 students and therefore 180 “free response” questions to grade. He estimated that each free response question could take up to five ' minutes to read, evaluate and respond to thoroughly, making the total time needed to grade practice tests to be 900 minutes or 15 hours. During the “bell lap” between April 23 and May 5 Jack put a lot of pressure on himself and often second-guessed not only what he was doing but also what he was NOT doing during class. lHis objective was to put the pressure and focus on him rather than to add to the stress level of the students. “I am not trying to add to it all. I am not trying to freak people out. I am not trying to be part of that problem. For some kids, not staying real ‘foot to the floor’, ‘hammer down on the accelerator,’ that adds to their stress level.” For example, someone like Bailey, arguably one of Jack’s highest performers throughout the year, pleaded with Jack to spend more time lecturing, each and every hour of every class day, like it was truly a college class. Bailey felt as if she could never quite receive enough information. “Bailey wants me to tell her STUFF. She walks in the classroom, Sits down in the desk, and says ‘go.’ That’s what she wants.” That is the only way Bailey could feel as if Jack was rightfully preparing her for success. “She doesn’t want a 71 question to come up in class that she already knows the answer to. She wants me to just go. She’ll probably get a ‘5’ on the exam. I’d be disappointed if she got a ‘4.’ But she’d be VERY disappointed if she got a ‘4’.” Jack felt that a student’s score on the exam eventually all came down to the “Free Response” section. Jack knew many of his students would do well on the multiple choice section, answering many rote level questions they had studied repeatedly throughout the year. A student like Ashley Bailey would probably score between 50-57 on the multiple choice (out of 60), which is a strong score. “But free responses, if they ask her one that she’s not ready to go for, She could get killed on it. Just having one out of four free responses that you are NOT prepared for can hurt your score,” dropping a ‘5’ to a ‘4’ or even a ‘3.’ In the final days leading up to the test, Jack began to panic, flying around making last minute test preparations as well as repeatedly second-guessing his instructional decisions. For instance, Jack spent much of his time two school days prior (Thursday May 1 and Friday May 2) trying to get students pre-registered to take the exam, as well as making phone calls to parents of students who had decided not to take the exam. Jack would try and convince the parents that their students could do reasonably well on the exam and even earn college credit. In addition, on the Thursday before the exam, Jack frantically tried to cover an entire chapter in one session simply because of what appeared on the exam the year before. Normally, Jack leaves out this chapter on “military and foreign policy” because it makes up SO little of the exam. He had not gone over one chapter’s notes yet on military and foreign policy, justifying it by the fact that the section typically made up less than 5% of the exam. “Because it does not take up a lot of the 72 exam, I didn’t cover it. However, that can bite you in the ass, because the War Powers Act was on the [“free response” section] of the test last year, and I hadn’t even covered it.” One could see the guilt in Jack’s eyes as he said this, almost as if counting the number of points it cost his students on last year’s exam. When Test Day finally arrived on Monday morning May 5, Jack’s nerves seemed to have reached their official fraying points. He believed almost everything had to go well that morning for his students to be successful. What that really meant, internally, was that things had to go well for Jack to be successful. Unfortunately, things could not have started more ominously. Students came in at 7:40 am. and went to the Auxiliary Gym, which according to Jack is “a shitty place to take a test.” With its poor lighting dangling from high ceilings, its dirty wooden floor, and its cold cement laden walls, there is no other room in the school in more stark contrast to Jack’s classroom. Moreover, the room contained a lingering odor, that of which Jack described as a combination of (ironically enough) “baseball equipment” and “adolescent boy,” lingering remnants certainly from a multitude of sports practices and physical education classes held in said venue throughout the year. To add to the injurious stakes, students were coming off of the weekend of the prom and were being asked to take a test (a high stakes one at that) first thing on a Monday morning during an arbitrary time when none of them regularly started A.P. Government class. “This is where they [the school] takes the ACT too. This is a terrible test taking facility.” Everyone, everywhere in the Easter Standard Time Zone expecting to take the United States began the US. Government Advanced Placement Exam began the test at 73 exactly 8:00 am. At this point, Jack only hoped to be able to peer around the vast gymnasium and see that his kids were marking their bubble sheets with confidence. Jack hoped that his students would even have enough time to choose an educated answer between two choices on the multiple choice they did not know. “I don’t want to see kids floundering right Off the bat.” As he Officially began the time, he (and most likely his students) could not have been encouraged as they found the introductory directions to read, “You are not expected to know everything on here. It is anticipated that you may not have heard anything about some of this material.” The College Board certainly had a funny way of boosting student (or in this case “teacher”) confidence. Administration Some of the biggest Obstacles to Jack’s progression were presented by the White Sands H.S. Administrationwspecifically, the Assistant Principal and Principal. Although this was the spring of Jack’s second school year teaching A.P. Government, he was still uncertain as to how and why he was teaching that course. In the summer of 2006, after only Jack’s first year of teaching, he was given all three sections of AP. Government. This was odd due to the fact that the incumbent teacher had neither left nor desired to give up the course. This fact was even stranger considering Jack was the youngest member (in terms of seniority) of nine members of the WSHS Social Studies Department. Neither Jack nor the previous AP Government teacher was ever given an explanation. Said Jack, “It was all sort of a mystery how that all came down. Two years ago, I was never told by ANYONE that I was even teaching AP Government. I was simply handed my teaching schedule, and it said I was teaching 3 sections of AP Government.” Jack had no conversations, formally or informally, about teaching anything else his second 74 year, let alone switching primarily to AP courses, often in high demand amongst teaching staff. This left Jack not only unprepared to begin his second year but also placed him in a difficult situation with a colleague (the incumbent AP Gov teacher) from whom the classes were taken. This placed a large target on Jack’s back, for how was Jack to explain why he was getting preferential treatment compared to much more tenured (and experienced in this subject) faculty? Flash forward to Jack’s second year with the course (spring 2008), and though he exclusively taught only AP Government and with measurable success, the relationship between Jack and some of his social studies cohort remained strained. When asked about the decision to make Jack the AP Government teacher, the Assistant Principal and Principal gave Jack and the former instructor different answers, and neither story matched up with the other. One of the reasons provided by administration was that Greg (the former AP Government teacher) “missed too many days, especially last hour, in the spring because of coaching softball and they needed last period for an AP Gov. class.” They never used fifth period (last period) for AP government, that was Jack’s prep his first year. In addition, Jack coached baseball which meant missingjust as many days as softball. This move by administration added extra stress to beginning this job of teaching AP. “So, basically, the reason they gave me was completely made up.” Although Jack, having nearly completed two years of teaching the course, has embraced the role, this administrational decision still left him feeling somewhat of an outsider in his own department. Simply saying “I don’t know why I was given those classes” has seemed to have accomplished little in repairing the damage. 75 One could speculate that the administration trusted Jack to be effective in his role as an AP instructor, especially with WSHS being highly rated academically and having a college preparatory focus to its school-wide curriculum offerings. In fact, WSHS offers around 15 Advanced Placement courses, which puts them in a top percentile for high schools in Michigan. This “trust” by the administration showed up in several other cases throughout the spring. Though on the surface, it may have been flattering to Jack to be given added responsibilities because of the administration’s trust, in some cases the responsibilities put Jack in difficult predicaments ultimately causing regression in his career. Another example of this came during arguably the most stressful week in the school year, when statewide standardized testing was being done. For juniors, this meant the ACT. Although Jack had never before proctored the exam, only taught a handful of Juniors, and was forced to miss out on instructional time with his sophomore AP students, he was given the supervisory role of the largest testing space. They put me in the gym with over 100 kids, the biggest room with the most at stake. I was surprised that they did that. I thought it was a questionable decision by the administration to put me in there, in charge of the proctors and in charge of the administration of it.” B All of the logistics were on me. All of the getting people started and quiet in a timely fashion was on me. They have to be done in a very specific time. You have to create a seating chart that was turned into the ACT that shows the test booklet number and the answer booklet number for each seat. They have then something to compare suspicious tests. These students have the same answers, but they were sitting on Opposite sides of the room. You have to then pass out booklets in the right order and make sure things are picked up in the right order. Every other classroom is waiting on us to start, since we are the slowest room with three times the number of students. I’m in charge of the whole thing, running the whole thing. Reading the whole thing. ..It would be a HUGE freakin’ debacle if something got messed up with this. If I stopped paying attention and lost track of time it would be a mess. Last year a teacher gave them a five minute warning on one section but did so 10 minutes early which messed up the whole thing. This was on the essay portion of the test, so every kid’s essay was all 76 messed up at that point. You can’t go back and fix it. Jack’s words exemplify the stress that he was put under for several weeks leading up to this test, one that had little if nothing to do with his daily teaching duties. He had to help prepare the seating charts, organize the students who would be testing in the gym, become acquainted with all testing validation rules, and more. There were 15-20 other faculty members at the school that could have been better prepared for the task of pulling this off, most with actual experience of supervising the ACT. However, Jack believed that he was put into the gym with 100 kids because of the fact that he was an untenured teacher and Administration could force him to do this with little or no Objection—a classic example of new teacher “hazing.” Other instances of the Administration causing withdrawal for Jack often occurred when Jack felt one of his colleagues were being taken advantage of or were mistreated by administration. In fact, when interviewing one of his colleagues, Brett, an English teacher who often ate lunch with Jack and was considered one of his closer friends on staff, it was revealed that Jack’s “Often biggest frustrations” come from his fellow teacher’s being stunted in their own professional advancement by administrative decision-making. Brett specified, “There was another teacher that was trying to do something positive for the social studies department and that person was met with some hurdles from the administration. They met with resistance. That really hurt him [Jack] or frustrated him [Jack] I think.” The most distressing example of this came when his fellow social studies, Nicky, attempted to acquire a grant worth upwards of $400,000 from AT&T to help her organize and teach a program specifically designed to academically assist at-risk students, a course 77 called “Guided Academics.” According to Nicky, “the course targets students who have failing rates but do not receive services; so, the kids that kind of fall through the crack. They don’t get support from special education but still fail two or three core classes.” These kids tended to have high dropout rates, and though Jack, as an AP educator, did not teach any of them, he fully supported Nicky in her quest to boost this program, which was in practice but still at a grass-roots level. The course was designed to help these students with study skills, organizational skills, homework completion and life management, and Nicky had recruited Jack to help in the planning and implementation of the course with the intention of relieving the administration of having to complete all the ground work involved. Essentially, the Administration agreed to Nicky’s proposal, but had mentioned that due to the lower class load (number of kids in this course), the school would need additional funding to pay the faculty member or members who would teach the course. To remedy the financial problem, the Administration came to Nicky and proposed that She apply for this grant with Jack’s assistance. In order to receive the first round of founding, the guidelines specifically stated that applicants demonstrate a need for “at least $50,000 up to $100,000.” Vicky and Jack had completed the proposal with a documented request of $96,000. They then submitted the grant to the administration (specifically the Principal and the Curriculum Director) and waited for them to sign off on the submission. Weeks went by and they received no response. Just one day before the grant deadline (AT&T’s deadline) arrived, the grant was returned to them with major revisions yet no feedback or reasoning provided. The most damaging one was that the administrators had taken out large portions of the 78 funding requests, including laptops for the students (the technological focal point of the project), leaving the grant request total at $49,000. Grant proposal requirements typically leave little room for interpretation, and this one was no different. If any applicant for this grant did not Specifically request between 50 and 100 thousand dollars, the application would be denied. With the threshold below $50,000, Vicky and Jack knew their application was worthless. The administration refused to alter their revisions, despite their pleas toward common sense and their outlining of the specific requirements of the grant. Unfortunately, the situation would only worsen. After being forced to submit the flawed grant proposal to AT&T, Nicky and Jack continued to try and remedy the situation. As part of the next phase, AT&T required each school to submit district financial statements to the company. When Jack inquired about receiving a copy of said statements, his principal told him he that he was not privy to that information. He was again stymied at the central office when making a Similar request. Soon after, he realized that such statements are public record for any public school and he was able to access them online, “and I found them and printed them off within about three minutes. I told the both my principal and Central Office what they were for. This begs the question, ‘why wouldn’t they just give me a copy?”’ Jack was dumbfounded by the feigned ignorance of the administration and believed that they deliberately lied to him about the financial records. Following this incident, a second lie solidified Jack’s disgust with his administration’s lack of ethics. For Jack, this “trust” had turned to distrust. “We called AT&T [after submitting their proposal for $49,000] and they said if the proposal didn’t meet specific requirements it would end up in the garbage.” Nicky and Jack then asked 79 the Curriculum Director again why they felt it necessary to cut the funding request in half and move the amount out of the specified requirement range provided by AT&T. The Curriculum Director lied and told them that he had spoken with someone at AT&T and they said “it was fine, don’t worry about it.” It was at that point, where Jack realized that his own administration, for reasons unknown to him, was deliberately sabotaging their effort to acquire this funding. “Maybe they are thinking about making cuts or cutting teachers. Both the principal and Curriculum director completely lost credibility. I don’t know. This is as frustrated as I’ve been all year.” Although the administration could sometimes assist Jack in his career progression, they often did more to keep him second-guessing the organization for which he worked and thereby his profession entirely. Baseball Players and Parents Although there are positive aspects of coaching baseball, surprisingly, within Jack’s role of baseball coach, the organizational environment factor most contributing to moments of withdrawal was a direct or indirect result of his players. Whether they were interactions with, decisions made by or overall conduct or attitude of his players, his baseball players caused many instances of regression for Jack. From the very onset of the season, priority conflicts caused problems for Jack and his management of the team. These conflicts often caused players to miss practices or even games and caused a lack of familiarity and fluidity on the field. Such conflicts began with game one, as three major players missed practices in the first couple weeks as they were participating in final rehearsals for the school musical. “You don’t feel as prepared as you should be. In baseball, it’s a sport where you need to know what’s going 80 on before the play...it is not reactionary like Basketball. It’s really hard to address things to baseball player in hypotheticals; kids just don’t get it.” Jack believed his players, all his players needed to be there every day for every practice for them to have a chance at success. Just two weeks later, following spring break, Jack’s team continued to struggle with chemistry due to the fact that half of the team traveled to Mexico for spring break. “GREAT IDEA by the parents: let’s send our kids to Mexico when they’re 18 for eight days with no supervision.” The five seniors on the team returned out-of—sync, lethargic, and seemingly unready to play despite Jack’s best efforts to keep them focused. He told them prior to their trip, “Just make sure you understand the F ederales are much different than American Police. Getting arrested in Mexico is nojoke.” Said Jack, “I tried to scare the crap out of them to keep them from doing anything stupid.” In the first game after their return, Chris, the team’s senior captain and by far the most valuable player, got a hit to left field and barely made it to first base because he failed to run hard. (In baseball, such an act as not hustling on the base paths is a strictly against the code of the game). Essentially, he was setting a poor example to the rest of the team, undermining much of the groundwork Jack had put into the team for the first few weeks. “The other players are looking at us, the coaches, for not chewin’ his ass right there. It just puts us in a terrible position either way.” Chris goes on later that same game failing to hustle down the line to first again. Instances such as these that went against “the baseball code” or examples where players failed to “play the game the right way” evoked a strong reaction of frustration from Jack. “I mean, they don’t wear their hats the right the way, they don’t know how to 81 run the bases, they’re not good hitters, they can’t throw the ball right, they can’t field the ball, and these are my four best players from last year, we’re talking about.” Later in that same game, a player went from first to home on a ball hit to the outfield, with two outs, and he stopped half way between 2nd base and 3rd base to try and locate the ball. “WHY!? There’s two outs youjust f"**ing run, man, I mean, you run until the coach stops you at that point. He almost gets thrown out at the plate. It’s a silly example, but it just goes to Show howjust the understanding of the game’s not there.” Such situations of players not fully respecting the game or their lapses in attending to detail while on the field frequently angered Jack. Oftentimes, Jack would speak out about his decision to coach and why he ever chose to participate in this role for the school. “Sometimes I ask myself why I am there. It is just discouraging. There are some kids out there playing baseball, but they are not ‘baseball players.’ They don’t understand the game. You teach them the same things ten times and they just don’t get it.” These rants against his players were exacerbated by the validation Jack received from others regarding his feelings toward his players. “[Other teacher-coaches] hate the junior class. Those kids that are there are a waste. It makes me feel better about my feelings [toward them].” Jack’s negative feelings toward his players could sometimes be attributed to interactions Jack had with players’ parents. Hank, the Athletic Director and long-time coach from whom Jack is taking over the baseball program, mentioned that Jack would become imitated when parents would come in and make excuses for their kids. “I remember him railing about a parent who had come in and complained that Jack had taken the player out of the starting lineup.” The parent was primarily frustrated by the 82 decision Jack had made, but Jack was insistent to the parent that the player had to “practice and play the game the right way” if he wanted to earn his starting position back. Jack then recounted several incidents over the course of the season that had led to his decision. A specific example ofcoach/parent of player conflict came in late April when a father of a player, Chad, came to speak with Jack after practice. Earlier, in late March, Chad’s father had pulled Chad from the team because he was failing math. Essentially, the father’s reasoning was that Chad needed “more time to devote to his schoolwork.” From the first day Chad was off the team, Jack could find Chad at some athletic or club event after school, just “hanging out.” Oftentimes, the “hanging out” involved Chad watching the baseball team play its games. “To say Chad’s not playing baseball because of Math is a joke, is a fraud,” stated Jack. “They are doing this parenting stuff for show, he stays around after school every day for three hours. So, on this particular day a month into Chad’s family-induced “suspension” his dad comes up to Jack, “right in the middle of talking with another parent, to infonn me that Chad ‘is ready to go.’ We haven’t seen him [at Baseball] in a month.” The most infuriating part was that when Jack checked Chad’s math grade, it was the same as it had been a month earlier: ‘F.’ In general, it is fair to say that the parents, family, and friends of baseball players were consistent contributing factors to moments of withdrawal for Jack. Baseball, for better or worse, tends to lend itself to fan/player communication. Due to the amount of down time between pitches, field changes every half inning, pitching changes and on field time outs, there is ample opportunity for parents and fans to voice their thoughts. Such opportunity is exacerbated by the fact that fans are close, and baseball is genuinely 83 a quiet game, much more so than some other high school Sports. Jack believed that “Baseball is difficult because the fans have access to the players.” It is a much looser configuration, the kids are moving around different aspects of the field; you are not as a fan going to yell at a kid on the football field and think you can give them instruction during the game.” In baseball, it’s much quieter, and you can distinctly hear individual voices during the game. This fact significantly decreases Jack’s enjoyment of coaching games. “Parents piss me off. I’m always fighting with parents or fans.” An example of this ire can be seen in this incident, indicative of many that occurred during games. White Sands players were winning a critical conference game in the bottom of the seventh inning (the last inning). They had two outs and were playing the field in “Position 1,” a maximum depth at every position where each player could still make a standard defensive play. WSHS was ahead by one run, but the opposition had bases loaded. A ground ball was hit to the shortstop, playing in the grass between 2"d and 3'“. Before the shortstop began to throw across the diamond to first base (the highest percentage play available) a few fans began yelling “TWO!” and “Go to Two!” and “Second, play’s at second!” This was not only the wrong play, but it was counter to what Jack had repeatedly practiced with his team and to what Jack had yelled prior to the batted ball. As a result of the opposing directives, the shortstop began to rear back and throw to second base but hesitate as he saw that he would never beat the runner already sliding in safely to second. He then re-pumped the ball and threw towards first. Because he had to rush the throw in order to beat the hustling runner down the line, his throw was high and over the first baseman’s head. As a result of the over-throw, two runs (they tying and winning runs) scored and White Sands lost the game. Said Jack of the incident: 84 Fans were yelling that second [base] was the easier play. That is not the easier play; the play is to throw across to first and make the routine play. Fans and parents don’t understand this stuff. I don’t care if they don’t understand, I care if they talk loudly to their kids about doing something wrong. If you have no concept of what you are speaking Of, you Should not speak so that everyone can hear you. Fan’s don’t know what the hell they’re talking about. . .they should just shut the P"** up! Jack’s frustration with his players and his regular anger toward parents had a profound effect on Jack’s attitude, personality, and his desire to continue working with young adults as a teacher-coach. Family Life and Time Commitments Although there was only one factor from Jack’s personal environment that affected his daily professional life, that “factor” (his family) may have been the most influential. During one game in mid-season, Jack got to see his I9-month old daughter, Emily, for the first time in two and a half days. “I got to hang out with her for 20 seconds. I got to touch her through a fence.” That sort of interaction illustrates what was typical of Jack’s time with his family from March to J une—a negative factor causing arguably the most powerful force of withdrawal in Jack’ life as teacher-coach. Although during this study there was not a significant amount of time spent delving into the personal life of Jack, the conflict between career life and family life was ever-present. Prior to the beginning of the season, Jack had already begun to fret about how time consuming he knew the upcoming season to be and that the biggest toll was taken on his wife, Jillian, and his baby daughter, Emily. The easy part of the balancing act of school and home (between August and February) had passed and March brought a heightened sense of concern for Jack and his finding equilibrium. “1 think I can appease 85 my wife by not really doing a lot for baseball or anything [else] outside of the season.” However, when the season started, justifying time away became more complicated. Jack’s schedule from early March to mid June was exhausting, complex, and in length rivaled that of the most demanding professions. Whenever the alarm clock blared in the morning hours and it signaled Jack to awake, he’d start his day seeing a “4” as the first number the clock. With Jack typically getting up around 4:50 am. and having to leave his house for school by 5:45 am. there was little hope of any quality family time in the morning. Every school day, neither his daughter nor his wife was awake before he would leave. On the other end of the day, it was typical for Jack to return home often as late as 9:00 or 10:00 pm, depending on where his team was scheduled to play on a given night. Even on days when his team had only practice, he would not return home until 7:00 or 7:30 pm. Despite Jack’s early departure for school, he had little time to prepare for his first class. After a 20 minute drive, he arrived with only 15 minutes before his “zero hour” session. Due to the demand for A.P. courses, Jack’s first class actually began at 6:30 am. (known as “Zero Hour” at White Sands). He then taught five straight sections of AP Government (each lasting 84 minutes). With his school on trimesters, only 4 courses was considered a full teaching load. Therefore, Jack had an overload, with the 20% pay increase having been too much to turn down with one young one at home and a second on the way. However, that would not typically be the end of his day. “With Jillian working, picking up Emily and then watching her, I’d still have to come home and cook. Sometimes she is able to start dinner, but there’s no chance to cook it [until I get home.]” 86 Jillian, being a professional business woman, would not have an Opportunity to pick up their daughter from daycare on a daily basis until 6:00 pm, and then would not arrive home until 6:30 pm. Jillian would then Spend the next two hours giving Emily a bath, feeding her, maybe a few minutes reading or playing with Emily and then getting her to bed. On more nights than not during the baseball season, Jillian was left to perform all of the parental duties, and Emily can go days without literally seeing her dad. On one occasion while talking with Jillian, she shared this story regarding the challenging schedule during the spring: During Jack’s season, everything seriously compounds. Just the other day, Emily had been sick and I had taken her to the doctor and had given her an antibiotic and she didn’t react well to it and the third day into she developed a really bad diaper rash, blistered and raw, and she’d been having a really rough few days, and in turn that means I am having a rough day and in turn, when Jack gets home, he’ll be having a rough day. It was right at the end of the day, and Emily’s crying right before bed. She’s completely upset and it’s 8:45 pm at night, and she hadn’t seen Jack at all for three days at that point, My comment [to him] was, ‘I hate baseball right now.’ To J illian’s credit, Jack acknowledged that Jillian tends to reserve her stark displeasure toward the family environment that coaching baseball tends to cause. Jack stated, “She usually gives me more sh** before and after the season.” During the season, she typically did not bring up the subject of whether he should coach or not, for she realized that quitting mid-season was not an option. However, that does not mean she did not put on Jack pressure to consider stepping down from coaching. According to Jillian it was heart-breaking for Emily (and for Jillian to witness) to be missing so much time with her Dad for those three and a half months. There were always several days each week when Emily never saw her father. Once you consider that they played games about three nights during the school week, nearly all double-headers 87 lasting until 7:00 or 8:00 pm. and had a tournament two-thirds of the Saturdays in the spring, lasting all day, it left only Sunday to really have any family time. On Sundays, then, Jack would be forced to juggle spending time with Jillian and Emily as well as catch up on piles of grading and planning for the upcoming week’s instruction. From March to June there were but few moments of reprieve from the hectic schedule. To combat the lack of time he saw his daughter, Jack attempted to find creative ways to see his daughter more often, including occasionally leaving school during his planning period to see her. With his school day starting at 6:30, even with an overload, he would have the fifth (last) hour of the day open for planning. If Jack left school at or 2:00, he could drive 15 minutes to Emily’s day care and see her for 30 minutes and make it back to practice by 3:00 pm. Essentially, the plan was great in theory, but he was only able to execute it on a couple of occasions. Instead, he would be pressed during “teaching planning” to prepare for baseball (or execute “coaching planning”). At other times, he would be asked by other members of the staff or administration to assist in filling some unseen, random need that arose in that day, whether speaking with William about baseball issues or being stopped in the hall by an administrator or other teaching wanting to speak with him. On one occasion Jack’s mentor, Sharon, foiled this plan. “I had to help her with her kids [students] in her AP World History class because her husband had hoof-n-mouth disease. That’s the random stuff I’m talking about that I have to do during planning.” The other deterrent to the plan lay in the ambiguity regarding the contract legality of teacher’s leaving school grounds during “planning time.” Jack, being untenured, felt guilty when he would do this and was hesitant about possibly breaking some district rules. 88 Although cliche, in this particular case there were literally “not enough hours in the day” for Jack to fulfill successfiilly his role as “father” during the season with any level of consistency. The sphere encompassing the personal environment loomed large over Jack throughout the season, dominated primarily by his attempt to be the dad and husband that Jill, Emily, and most of all Jack expected him to be—the roles he executes significantly more effectively when he is but teacher and not a teacher-coach. Students It could probably be argued that for many teachers the very reason for choosing teaching as a career is for the interaction with students (or some derivation thereof). Without the students, no school would exist and neither would the profession of teaching. AS evidenced earlier, students were a major positive factor in Jack’s progression as an educator. However, the opposite side of this was also true, as students added to the frustrations Of Jack’s busy life at school. Considering that Jack’s students are ofa higher level academically, much of the contentiousness between his students and him arose from the pressures of his class being Advanced Placement. In that sense, generally speaking, Jack had a captive audience, a group of college preparatory-tracked students who were motivated to do well academically and had elected to take his course. Most seemed motivated both by the grade given for the course and by putting forth a solid effort on the AP Exam in hopes of earning college credit with a passing score. From student grades to student AP exam preparation to student expectations, Jack experienced a unique set of teacher-student interactions, all contributing to questioning his career choice. 89 Each chapter of his AP curriculum has a corresponding test. When Jack created the tests, he did so to purposely reflect the format of the AP Exam. In addition, students took a full length practice exam on April 23, just 12 days prior to the real AP Exam. Oftentimes, when Jack would grade the kids’ practice tests, he would become frustrated when students challenged him on particular answers. Most of the time, Jack could chalk this up to students failing to adhere to his most important rule in AP Govemment— “Answer the Question.” Basically, Jack consistently reminded students that they needed to answer the specific question (especially on “free response” section) that is asked, not what they thought was being asked. For example, following the review of the practice exam, which also doubled as a test grade for students, Amy (one of Jack’s students) approached him after school with a complaint about her grade. One of the questions on the practice exam asked, “How would having penalties affect voter participation rates?” (essentially, asking about penalties for not voting in an election). Amy attempted to argue that giving peOple an “incentive” to vote, would increase their likelihood to participate. Jack acknowledged to Amy that he agreed with her point; however, Jack replied, “Right, but that is NOT what the question asked. The question asked, if there were ‘penalties’ what does that do to the rates? So, in other words, if there were a tax, or they published names in the newspaper of those who did not vote, etc. it would drive up voter rates. It didn’t ask if you gave CASH bonuses.” Jack essentially took off credit because she wrote about “incentives” (positive reward) versus “penalty” (negative consequence). After Amy left, visibly upset with Jack’s verdict, he added, “You had to talk about DISINCENTIVES, something to dissuade you from doing something. At the end of it all, I had had this argument with her 90 before, and I wasn’t going to have it again.” After grading the practice test from Apr. 23—due to the length of time it takes to grade the “Free Response” questions and the impending May 5 AP Exam date approaching—Jack become increasingly defensive and combative with students challenging his assessment of their knowledge. In the case of Amy, “I got equally frustrated by the conversation because I couldn’t remember exactly. I had 400 f"‘**ing questions I have been grading over the last three days, and hers was just one paper and she bitched about it for 5 minutes three separate times this week, and she’s mad because I told her she was wrong.” Another similarly frustrating incident for Jack occurred later that week. One of the questions on the test read, “Please list and describe two ways that the government limits the power of lobbyists and other special interest groups?” Travis answered, “One, you have limitations on spending to keep interest groups from having too much power in Congress, and two: McCain-Feingold” Jack gave him half the possible points with no credit going to “McCain-Feingold” (A bi-partisan campaign reform act). Jack reminded Travis that part of McCain-Feingold deals with financial limitations of interest groups, so in a sense he was repeating himself. Jack explained, “I called it ‘double dipping’.” He then went on to illustrate the example of describing two characteristics of the tennis court outside his classroom window. “If you said the tennis court was ‘inside a fenced-in area’ AND ‘it’s got a fence,’ that would be double dipping.” Travis replied, “Yeah, well there are other parts to McCain Feingold.” Jack stated, “If you had actually mentioned any of them I would have given you credit for that.” Travis stayed and protested for a few more minutes but to no avail. If anything, rather than reaching a mutual understanding, they each became increasingly more frustrated defending their opinion. Although Travis 91 “lost” this battle, Jack’s stress level was the worse for wear. "These kids don’t like it when you tell them that their answer is wrong when they think it’s good. Like with Travis today, he just wouldn’t let it go. I was like Travis, man, damn, let it go, it’s over. ..I’m NOT changing it.” Another factor leading to Jack’s withdrawal was the actions or attitudes of students who declined to take the AP Exam. From Jack’s perspective it was unfortunate that students in his classes were not required to sit for the AP Exam. Although Jack believed that students could still learn valuable content by taking his class, he felt they were less motivated to master learning objectives of the course, knowing they were not going to take the AP Exam come May. By late April, nearly every student had made a decision about whether to take the AP Exam. After taking their final graded test on April 23, those students not sitting for the AP Exam, in Jack’s words, “just mailed it in.” By this, he meant these students were no longer caring about the class, possibly even acting as a disruption for those still preparing for the AP Exam. Regarding the kids not taking the AP Exam Jack said. “At this point, I’ve gone to ridiculing them, completely making fun of them, I almost have disgust for them and they know it. Why? Because they shouldn’t even be in the class, and they know it.” For those majority of students who “should be” in the class, the last 10 days (Apr 23- May 5) leading up to the AP Exam and a few days post exam may have the most pressure packed of Jack’s teaching year: Going into this last week I didn’t know whether or not to keep the pressure on the kids or to let up on them and let them relax and not try to stress them out anymore than they already are. They are stressing me out by association, more than I already am. I mean, you saw Angela today, she was freakin’ out. The stress if freaking real man. As the Exam date approached, one could just feel the tension in the room increase. This was evidenced by less and less student interaction and typical teenage conversation. Instead, nearly all dialogue centered around specific content questions or test-taking strategies. Jack, often sarcastic and playful in front of his students, rarely smiled and essentially stopped making jokes altogether during these days. There was no downtime, and the variety of instructional strategies employed throughout the year (group work, projects, student presentations, website and blog design, etc) were replaced by teacher-centered question and answer sessions, class-wide multiple choice practice questions, individual free response essays and hour-long direct instruction lecture and note-taking. Not allowed to discuss the test questions for 48 hours upon AP Exam completion, neither Jack nor the students could talk about the Exam for the next couple days. Jack was left only to ask the occasional student, “How did you do?” or “How did it go?” or 9, 66 “How do you think ‘it’ went?” all the while never mentioning the words “test, exam,” or “AP.” No cliché better mirrored reality than the old adage alleging that ‘waiting is the hardest part.’ Jack would not receive the AP Exam results until August, and he knew that the only gauge he had on how his charges performed was the feedback he received directly from them. “The student reactions affect my mood entirely.” Jack described asking Bailey, perhaps his brightest pupil, about her performance at the end of the day on May 5. If Jack were a betting man, and there was any student who was certain to earn a ‘5’ on the exam it would have been Bailey “I went to the girl who is the smartest one (of all classes) and ask her ‘how’d it go?.’ And Bailey just paused, looked down and replied, 93 ‘It was really hard.’ ...I was just about to fall down in the hallway when She said that. I walked down to another teacher’s room and I was just crushed.” Bailey had been the litmus test that Jack used to decipher the difficulty of the exam, and it left nothing but the acidic taste of doubt in Jack’s head for next three months of waiting for results—results that would eventually dictate Jack’s level of success as a teacher for this year. 94 CHAPTER V: FINDINGS PART 2—MOTIVATION The previous part identified and categorized the various sociological factors (in both the organizational and personal environments) that either positively or negatively influenced Jack in his teaching-coaching career. Building upon the recognition of those factors, this chapter’s purpose is to move from the sociological realm into the psychological realm of Jack’s experience balancing teaching and coaching. Specifically, this chapter outlines Jack’s motivation to teach, to coach, and his overall motivation to continue his career as an educator. Utilizing Brophy’s (1998) expectancy/value framework of motivation, this chapter examines Jack’s expectancy of success and attribution of value for teaching, for coaching, and the combination thereof. By doing so, we gain a glimpse of Jack’s thought processes, mindset, and attitude about these educational roles at this point in his career. Whether analyzing Jack’s beliefs about his chances for reaching his goals on the field or in the classroom (expectations) or understanding his fundamental reasons for taking on these two often high pressure roles during the same season (value), Brophy’s framework will allow for us to structure our conversation about Jack’s motivation during his coaching season. In studying Jack’s professional experience, one theme that emerged early on from the data was the subject of motivation—specifically, Jack’s motivation in each role as well as his overall motivation to continue in the field of education. As Jack’s motivation became a recurring theme, I began to organize and make sense of the data through the conceptual lens of motivation theory; specifically, Brophy’s ( I998) expectancy/value theory. This framework posits that motivation is equal to the product of one’s expectancy (the degree to which one expects to accomplish a given task) times the value 95 (the amount one appreciates the success of accomplishment). Motivation (the product of the equation) would in turn be zero should either factor (expectancy or value) be nonexistent. Brophy’s model is influenced by other expectancy/value models (Feather, 1982; Pekrun, 1983; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Brophy’s theoretical stance would also suggest that contextual influences surrounding Jack’s practice as a teacher and coach would also influence his level of motivation not only for specific tasks but also his ultimate decision to continue in the field of education. Jack himself stated, “A lot of the time that I have left in teaching depends on my personal growth and motivation.” TEACHING (EXPECTAN CY) Having already taught and coached for two years, Jack went into this year with hopes of establishing a cooperative student goal system (Ames & Ames, 1984). He admitted that he was Often too individualistically oriented (with his students) and too competitive (with his baseball players) in his first year of teaching. Specifically, Jack set a personal goal (in his “teacher” role) to establish a cooperative learning environment within his three AP Government classes. Although the students would ultimately be taking the AP Exam individually, he initially set the goal to build “teams” of students who together would help each other prepare for the AP Exam throughout the months leading up to May 5. Jack often claimed to approach teaching from a cooperative system, consistently collaborating with his mentor, other social studies teachers, and even other subject area AP teachers. He worked under the belief that he would be most successful in teaching these AP courses by integrating many other educators’ experiences into his own course development. 96 Despite his early inclination toward cooperation, Jack noted that he was motivated by the competition that existed within the social structure of the school. He stated, “There is competition between me and the people who have taught this subject before me. There are definitely real criteria and real numbers that you (an AP teacher) are being judged on. These are compared to previous years as far as success rates are concerned.” Moreover, Jack remarked that his current students had taken and would take additional AP Exams and people would inevitably compare his teaching efforts to those who taught other AP courses to the same student population: These kids have taken other AP exams. If a kid has gotten a 4 or 5 on an AP World History Examination, and they do not get a 4 or 5 on a AP Government Examination, then that is a negative reflection upon me. . .because it [AP Government] is not as hard as the AP World History. Plus, if they are passing [a score of 3/4/5] on AP Chem, AP World, AP Eng and AP Calc and NOT AP Government, then that will definitely come back to me. I definitely feel competition between those who taught this course before me in the past, as well as teachers in other AP courses. Despite Jack’s initial attempts to establish a cooperative goal system, as the season progressed into April, Jack’s expectancy focus began to shift. Specifically, with regard to goals, Jack had very specific performance goals outlined for his five sections of AP Government. Out of the approximately 70 students who were going to Sit for the exam on May 5, Jack expected at least two-thirds (or 47 out of 70) students to “pass” (earn a 3, 4, or 5) on the exam. Of the 67 who were likely to pass, he also expected at a minimum of 5 students to earn a score of 5. “Ideally, I would love 60 passing scores, with at least a ‘3.’ Maybe a 5 (fives), 20 (fours), 23 (threes) breakdown.” In this case, Jack’s motivation related specifically to student performance. 97 One could also argue that Jack worked from the task mastery system at times within his pedagogical approach. For example, after the initial parent/student meeting, Jack consistently tried to increase performance of his AP Government students by focusing on the proverbial “task at hand.” In this system, Jack’s primary focus was “what and how important educational goals should be accomplished for the student” (p. 549). With regard to task mastery, the teacher and student ego are removed from the equation, as the majority of the energy is applied to reaching a concrete student-centered goal. In this case, these goals included both Jack’s aforementioned 47 “passing” and “qualified” exam scores (out of 70) goal, and each individual student’s self—determined goal of success for the exam. As a teacher, he appeared to be motivated by outcome goals, and this message filtered down to his students: The ‘dates’ are always in your mind. May 5 AP Gov exam. We have known this date since first week of school, and it is a constant reminder... always trying to keep us on pace, moving forward, with the idea of covering material with no time to slow down at any point. They [Students] must bear down and focus toward success on the magic date. I keep the date constantly in their minds and what the goal is. The test is the motivation. According to his assistant principal, Cammie, Jack’s expectations are that students not only complete the class but also take the exam. “I will say that not only his expectations are high but the kids respond. The expectations come from the classroom and the teacher themselves [more than the administration].” Cammie explained that She believed that Jack wants students who take the class to take the test, and that he did not want kids to take the class just to get a weighted grade. Added Cammie, regarding Jack’s expectations, “I just know the kind of person he is, he wants his kids to do well. . .it’s not just, well get through my class and where you fall, well that’s your fault. He personalizes it too, that’s how he is.” 98 Although it was not mandatory, Jack had the expectation that kids not only take the AP Exam but give their best possible effort. During the final few days before May 5, Jack tried arduously to convince several students to take the AP Exam. “There are two kids that absolutely would have passed the Exam but didn’t take the test.” One of the students in question was one of Jack’s top students. When Jack called her mother he discovered that she was taking three other AP Exams (Biology, Calculus, and English) within a week’s time of the AP Government test and that she simply felt “overwhelmed.” Said, Jack, “It’s hard for me to beat them over the heard for not taking the test. The only thing I don’t understand is that they were so close to the summit, and it’s as if they turned back.” Despite Jack’s seeming understanding, he offered to personally pay the 84 dollars for a student to sit for the AP Exam, a student who claimed that cost was the major deterrent. As for the student who was merely “overwhelmed” by other coursework, Jack explained, “They take the test at school, so it’s not even extra time.” Regardless of student or parent reasoning, Jack remained frustrated by those who took his class all year and then refused to take the exam at the end. The expectancy side of Jack’s motivation for teaching was summarized concisely yet accurately by his wife Jillian. She believed that Jack was primarily motivated by his students’ AP results, and when he spoke of teaching, it often revolved around how his students’ progress at any point in the school year matched up with their preparation for the AP Exam. Said, Jill, “I think he was really happy last year (his first year teaching AP Government) when he got his students’ AP results. I think he was pleased about that.” On the other side, however, for this year, Jack became frustrated at the end of April after grading their practice exams. Said Jill, “When student scores were not as high as Jack 99 expected them to be. We were up north for a short vacation and he took them with him and he got frustrated when they didn’t do things that he had repeatedly taught them to do. When grading practice exams, Jack knew students were able to score higher than they demonstrated. “Jack knows what they’re capable of and it frustrates him when they don’t live up to that...when they are not implementing the instruction he gives. Maybe they won’t get as high as results as they Should.” TEACHING (VALUE) Throughout the time with Jack, one thread remained constant: Jack valued what he did as a teacher. Consider the earlier scenario where Jack assisted Ashley with her satire for English class. Like with any satirical piece, in it was a slice of truth. Said Jack: I think that is what makes the AP teachers a pretty easy target, because they are so serious about what they do. For somebody to be good at what they do, they should take their job and themselves very seriously, almost over-emphasizing their importance. Whether that means you are an Art Teacher, you are going to be a better art teacher if you think art is the most important curriculum for those students. You’re going to be a better math teacher if you think math is the most important things for these students. It shows you have passion about it, it makes you better at it, it makes them respond to you more if you think you are into it as well. So, I think there is some truth in it. Jack attempted to maintain perspective on the value ofhis teaching. He did not believe that his course was more valuable than math or English or science, but Jack has certainly said as much to his students on multiple occasions. Jack believed that he had to present that image to his students so that they would better value AP Gov on a daily basis. Said Jack, “They are not sitting in my class doing Chemistry. I won’t allow that. This class has to be the most important why they’re there.” From bell to bell, for 74 minutes, AP Government had to be the focus of these students’ lives. “But, when the bell 100 rings then maybe English becomes the most important thing or the play or whatever I ' becomes the most important thing. I don’t have a problem with that whatsoever.” For Jack just teaching kids was not enough to keep the value factor high enough. Even if he continued to teach AP Government repeatedly and his own learning eventually becomes stagnant, he would most likely become bored with it. “I have to be intellectually stimulated in order to gain any satisfaction from my role.” The outcome expectancy of the AP results was a major motivational factor for Jack, but they alone did not define his success. Jack believed that being the best teacher was not always just knowing the most about a subject matter but more of being able to convey the knowledge to the kids to maximize their learning. Moreover, Jack felt he must continue to stretch himself cognitively or he may begin to devalue teaching. “I don’t get a majority of my satisfaction from just being able to pass on information to the kids. It’s about learning myself and growing myself. It’s kind of a selfish standpoint to view this from but it’s kind of the way it is.” Nonetheless, teaching AP is a major source of value for Jack, and his students’ results on the AP exam dominate the expectancy Side of his motivation. Jack has made it clear on numerous occasions that if he were teaching world studies or US history “I would be bored already and probably considering moving on.” However, teaching the higher level course challenged him in ways the lower level course could not. First of all, there was a great amount of material, complex content, that was more in depth than mainstream courses. Jack stipulated that he was not a master AP teacher yet, as this was only his second year teaching the course, one that carries with it a steep learning curve for the instructor. “I will probably have to teach this for four or five years before I get a 101 handle on it and can teach it really well.” Ample evidence Showed that Jack was motivated to drive his instruction toward the master level for that of an AP Government teacher. However, there was an equal preponderance that suggested that if Jack were ever asked (or forced) to go back to teaching the standard curriculum he would become bored quickly and contemplate leaving the field. Others in Jack’s environment reiterated the value that Jack attributes to teaching. For example, Shannon, Jack’s mentor, talked about Jack’s “passion for the material.” “We have so many high level kids that say, ‘Jack is my favorite teacher’ and I don’t think that happens very often.” Shannon also suggested that his passion for teaching increased dramatically once he took over the AP Government program. “He’s just so passionate about it and knowledgeable about it. He works at it, goes to conferences and does things constantly to work on his Gov. and teaching skills, which is rare among teachers or even good teachers. He’s really stepped up.” His colleague, Brett, summarized Jack’s teaching as, “I think Jack thinks very much like ‘give me the tools and Opportunities to teach. Give me what I need, and I’m ready to go.’ When I look at our conversations that’s almost one of the cornerstones of Jack’s teaching.” From the value factor, Jack definitively yearned to be considered a professional. He has acknowledged that teachers often have to fight to be thought of as professionals on par with other occupations. One example of Jack demonstrating his professional nature were his purposeful strides toward being a leader in the district in the use of technology in the classroom. Said Brett, “I think technology has really enhanced his teaching, and I think most people would say that he was one of the more adept people at technology.” Jack was one of four individuals to be chosen in the district to be a pilot case for the use of “smart carts” in his room. This apparatus allowed Jack to use a computer, overhead, smart-board, DVD, and other technologies all from one central system. He spent dozens of hours sharing his information with his colleagues at weekly QPD (Quality Professional Development) sessions as well as district-wide seminars on the use of technology. However, on the other side of this, the administration devalued this aspect of Jack’s teaching by not following through with their part of the agreement. Explained Brett, “Jack tries very hard to be a good teacher and gets frustrated when something gets in his way or if he feels like the administration is holding him back. If he needs something for his classroom. . .give it to him if it’s reasonable and get out of his way and let him do his thing.” At one point during the year, Jack’s smart-cart ran out of the specialized batteries due to the high volume of usage. In fact, Jack led the study participants in total usage. However, administration failed to use any of the funds to acquire batteries and therefore told Jack that he would have to wait Six weeks (until second semester) to receive new ones. At one point he was frustrated that the district did not acquire batteries for the carts, making Jack feel like all he was doing to help the district with its pilot program was not being taken seriously. He had seen a measured increase in student engagement and learning through his use of technology and now it was the students of the district that were paying the price for the administration’s decision. This lack Of professionalism was perhaps the greatest factor that caused a decrease in the value side of Jack’s motivation to teach. According to Jack’s mentor, Sharon: As a generalization, Jack believes that a lot of teachers lack professionalism that they want to be treated like professionals. That is a huge, general 103 frustration he has. I know he doesn’t like the QPD (professional development). It is a big waste of time and it could be much more beneficial to him and to other teachers as a whole. They could work on something or learn from each other. More than anything, Jack became frustrated about teaching when he or other teachers were not being treated well. Jack’s wife, Jillian reiterated this frustration when she discussed how visibly angry Jack was about the school’s treatment of AT&T grant. Jack could not say voice his displeasure or stand up for himself and his colleagues due to his lack of tenure. Stated Jillian, “Jack does not go into a lot of detail about those things, but he continued to claim that the situation was simply, ‘wrong.’ The general feelings he conveys are that teachers are not adequately supported by the administration.” Jack’s value in teaching decreased whenever there was an instance where he felt could do nothing to right an injustice, whether it be with a student, fellow faculty member or even himself. Perhaps the de-valuing of teaching for Jack could be best summarized by Jillian’s explanation. “In teaching there are things he wants to change, but at the same time, he feels powerless to do anything. Much of the frustration comes from that.” COACHING (EXPECTANCY) For Jack, as a baseball coach, he tried to move his team from point A (where they were starting from) to point B (how much they could improve), and he cared very little about specific performance goals. “I put very little on the outcome of the game (winning), the traditional outcome. The first thing that people always ask you[regarding games], ‘How did we do last night’. What they are getting at is did you WIN or LOSE. To me that means little to nothing.” Players, parents, administrators and fellow teachers and coaches always wanted to know the outcome of Jack’s baseball games; they rarely 104 dug deeper into their questioning Jack than inquiring about what caused their winning or losing. Jack focused on everything besides the outcome. This was in sharp contrast to the very specific goals he set for his AP Government Exam scores. Jack added to his learning goal focus by stating “It’s how we play that is important. Are we improving and are we learning? The goal is to be a good baseball player, to master it, as opposed to achieve a specific outcome.” When probing further into Jack’s expectations, there was a sense that the goals he set for his players were indeed non-competitive and intrinsically based. His goals for them were explicitly “effort, attitude, and improvement” centered. None of these goals were tangible or concrete, but Jack was trying to instill characteristics that would stay with these players beyond baseball and into other areas of their lives. On the field, I am looking for other things, not how many games we win or what our players’ individual stats are. I am more concerned with the questions: ‘Are we doing things how we practiced them? Are we doing things right? Are we improving?’ AS Opposed to wins and losses. I would rather lose a game by one run and play well than win a game by one run and play poorly. I would feel better at the end of the day. To be completely honest, I often don’t know the score at the end of the game or what our record is at any time during the season. For the players, however, Jack believed that extrinsic performance goals, like winning every game, hitting for a certain average, and playing for a district championship were important to them yet entirely unimportant to him. “My players are obsessed first with their numbers—batting average, home runs, steals, strikeouts, etc., then whether we won or lost the game. The ‘how’ they as a team or individual perform doesn’t really seem to matter to them much.” Jack later reiterated this belief by saying that high school athletes were “stats focused” and “ME-oriented” when it came to performance, especially when it 105 came to baseball, which has such a cultural and historical tradition rooted in statistics. In his words, “this goes against my own approach to coaching a team.” According to Jack’s commentary, the expectancy side of Jack’s motivation to coach, particularly when it came to learning goals, appeared to be in conflict with his players’ statistic—driven outcome goals. Players wanted to achieve certain statistics as a primary goal,judging themselves as individuals first. Secondarily, players judged themselves as a team by wins and losses. What Jack was striving for with his players was a victory that would come with focusing on being a complete baseball player, not one who hit .350 or won 10 games, but one who played with “class” and “pride,” things not easily measured by arithmetic. Jack stated, “The one thing I am also trying to instill in their motivation is PRIDE. . .for the school for the uniform, for the team, for the family, for themselves. There is a difference between someone who plays baseball and a baseball player. I am trying to teach these kids how to be BASEBALL PLAYERS.” He echoed these sentiments further through his reiteration of the team’s learning goals of “effort, attitude, and improvement.” Although these goals were difficult to measure, for Jack, they were more important than anything that might be represented by a number. While many coaches are preoccupied with motivating their players to win, Jack stated that he was motivated by his players “to improve everyday on every facet of the physical and mental aspect of being a baseball player and representing not only the school and one’s family but also one’s self.” Such sentiments Spoke to the value that Jack attributed to the game of baseball as well as the value he hoped his players would ultimately get out of the game. Even self-admittedly, Jack understood the complications behind convincing 15- and 16-year-old boys to strive toward abstract learning goals such 106 as improving attitude and instilling self-pride. “It’s difficult to get them to see my reasoning. Their value system is different than mine and many of these goals will not be able to be measured until years after their high school baseball days are over.” Essentially, Jack consistently focused on his players’ potential to learn. Moreover, he habitually reminded them to value “the challenge and learning of the game” over focusing on trying to appear as if they are flawless ball players. Lastly, Jack “(taught) them to concentrate on effort and learning processes in the face of obstacles” which was indicative of Jack’s valuing the sport of baseball as a “metaphor for life.” With the raw materials that Jack was given to build his baseball team this season, keeping the positive reinforcement through situations of high-effort or high difficulty may have been challenging. Conversations with Jack suggested that he wanted to avoid his players “dissembling” (Brophy, 2004), or their “recognizing the value” in winning a high percentage of games, “but not feeling capable of meeting its demands” (p. 20). Jack admitted that he did not have a very skilled team in comparison with other years’ varsity squads. From the onset of the season, he realized that he had a lot of work to do to get this year’s team anywhere near the level Ofplay of last year’s team (which finished 21-1). “It will be tough but not impossible” he stated; however, “I am not judging my success or the team’s by the number of games we win.” In fact, this statement was most indicative of his expectancy side of coaching: I put very little on the outcome of the game (coaching), the traditional outcome. The first thing that people always ask you, ‘How did we do last night’. What they are getting at is did you WIN or LOSE. It’s important to everyone else: the kids, parents, administration To me that means little to nothing. It’s how you play. Are we improving and are we learning? That is far more important to me on a baseball field. 107 For Jack, these expectations for players led to both increases and decreases in his motivation to coach. For Jack, coaching was about building relationships with players, and he was able to made very strong connections with some. On the other hand, some of his players fell quite short in living up to Jack’s expectations. As Hank, the Athletic Director, suggested, “Jack has a very, very high standard for behavior. He has expectations that are sometimes, frankly, unrealistic. I think sometimes he doesn’t always accept kids as kids. He expects almost too much of them.” Hank was Speaking specifically about three or four varsity players who are average or even below-average students with occasional discipline problems—none of whom Jack had in class for AP Government. One of these individuals was the student whose father had removed him from the team due to grades (specifically a low math grade) and later asked for reinstatement despite little academic improvement. Hank went on to describe Jack’s expectations as an individual who was capable of making strong connections with some players but also as a coach who often “raises the bar too high:” Said Hank: I think when he does that [has high expectations] he is easily disappointed. He expects them [players] to act like adults 24-7. I realize that they are kids and they are flawed, just like we all are. But Jack has an extremely high level of expectation. Which I think is a positive thing, when it’s all said and done. What he brings to us is someone who knows baseball and is a teacher, a guy that can connect to kids. COACHING (VALUE) Regardless of Hank’s interpretations of Jack’s coaching expectations, Hank’s insight into the value which Jack attributes to coaching was significant to understanding the role coaching played in Jack’s experience as a teacher-coach. According to Hank, Jack’s athletic director, Jack had a love of the game of baseball ingrained in him, 108 enabling him to value his coaching role. “I think Jack feels that he has something to offer, something to contribute, which rightfully so, he does. It’s a chance to see student athletes in a different environment. I that that he also sees some value in the coaching collegiality.” Having a strong connection with certain kids in an environment apart from the classroom was a critical aspect of finding value in coaching. These players often carried over their higher achievement status from the classroom to the field. Included in this discussion was Chris, the team’s captain and best player. Hank told Jack on several occasions that during the times that Chris was struggling in the season that Jack had a stronger bond with Jack than Chris ever had with Hank. “I coached him for 3 years, and I still don’t think I have the connection with him that Jack does,” said Hank. Jack valued having some Of the brightest students from his AP course as leaders of the baseball team. Said Hank, “They are very bright, like Jack, Jack is extremely intelligent. They connected on that level. The more cerebral, classroom kids, guys he could Sit on the bus with and talk about politics with. . .he connected with. That was a positive thing for the team and for Jack.” On the flip Side, Jack did not seem to connect as well with some of the kids that were not in his class. From Hank’s perspective there were three players in particular that seemed to devalue the coaching experience for Jack, primarily because of work ethic and behavioral issues. Hank explained, “The fact that they are kids and behave like kids, for that fact, I think sometimes he has less respect for them. I think sometimes it showed. I think that is why he struggled with his team last year, because he had 14 guys like that last year on JV.” 109 1 ‘5'“.- 1i! Jack spoke Often of the opportunity to leave the classroom chaos behind at the end of the day and go outside to participate in the structure offered by the specific rules and regulations of baseball. Jack could literally Shed the layers of clothing representing the work day and physically leave the building that housed the organizational environment of his teaching role. “Just to get outside and move around and hit and throw some balls, allows me the chance to take my mind off of the day. It’s a unique release you cannot get in school or at home,” maintained Jack. According to his assistant principal, his motivation to coach baseball comes from the value he attributes to the sport. Said his assistant principal, “Baseball is Jack’s love, that’s a positive part of what he does. He is able to see kids on a different level in a different place, he has a different relationship with them and so that’s another piece of putting this [career] together.” Although Jack did not provide a great deal of evidence as to what added value to his coaching, there was some evidence that suggested what de-valued coaching for Jack. It seemed that the extra responsibilities added to teaching the players baseball skills with his own team seemed to be a motivational deterrent: “the organization, the paperwork, the setting up, the communication with parents and everything else. . .that is the hard part.” Added Hank, “I don’t think Jack likes some of the grunt work. Dealing with uniforms, parents, kids, so I have felt like I was going to lose him [not become varsity coach].” Jack realized over the season the amount of time and work that goes into such “grunt work” and running a high quality Division I varsity program. Even days outside of varsity commitments take time. For example, the varsity coach at White Sands has always run a Skills Camp for younger kids in the community. During such weekends, Jack Spent five or six hours a day running the camp, on both Saturdays and Sundays. In 110 addition, having to scout other teams for competitive purposes at the varsity level as well as watching the JV and freshman teams play increased the time commitment to the sport. Moreover, in the summer, Jack knew in taking over the program that he would play the primary role in organizing baseball camps, running the summer team, and working with youth baseball programs in the community. This is not to say that Jack found no value in these things; however, all of these commitments took Jack away from time with family, time he valued above all things baseball. Even more devaluing than the time commitment was the fact that Jack believed his players’ work ethic did not match his own: It bothers me more than it bothers them. That’s the tough thing about coaching sometimes. You care about it more than the kids do most of the time, and you realize that the way they approach the game often equates to the way they will approach life. Baseball is an example of how you approach life. If you go hard all the time even when things aren’t going well, then you will probably do that in life. Athletics is just a way to teach that. When I have to tell the best player in the conference [Chris] to run hard to first base. . .really? Is that where we are at right now? This sentiment, unfortunately, came late in the season. Despite the team actually winning the District Championship, baseball rarely seemed fun for Jack. Although Jack claimed to not care about the Championship, per se, he was more thrilled by his players finally “being baseball players, playing the game the right way.” For, up until that point, with only two weeks of the season remaining, Jack had explained, “Baseball had been zero fun thus far (up until that night)” 111 CHAPTER VI: FINDINGS PART 3—JACK’S CHOICES After identifying the sociological factors (in both the organizational and personal environments) of Jack’s experience and then outlining Jack’s psychological processes through a look into his motivation during the season, we are left with a critical question. What does Jack decide (his behavioral response) to do as a result of this season of experience of balancing teaching and coaching? As the school year wound down, Jack’s AP classes had been completed and the baseball team concluded their season, Jack found himself in mid June to have at times thrived and other times survived through another academic year. With three fiill years in the books, it became obvious that Jack stood at a crossroads in his career as an educator, and more Specifically as a teacher-coach. During the summer following the season (and within the scope of the timeframe Of this project), Jack concluded that he had a significant choice to make regarding his career—that his motivation to continue teaching and coaching may not be great enough to continue down the same career path. Specifically, four possible outcomes were identified, each of which Jack was considering in his decision-making process: Outcome A: Jack could leave the teaching profession entirely. Outcome B: Jack could continue teaching and quit coaching. Outcome C: Jack could leave teaching and move into an administration role. Outcome D: Jack could maintain his status quo (to teach and coach). This final section of the study’s findings lays out Jack’s exploration of the four outcomes, and it explores the options that Jack considered and the actions Jack took toward the given outcomes by late August of that year. Although other outcomes are certainly 112 possible, according to the data, no other outcomes were plausible in Jack’s thinking at the time (e.g. teaching at another school was not an option Jack considered). The following examines the outcomes Jack considered—those which could be concluded by the end of the summer break following the season of the study. OUTCOME A: LEAVING TEACHING PROFESSION Examining first Outcome A, Jack made mention many times of his feelings of possibly changing careers. Specifically Outcome A would be a choice to change professions entirely (as opposed to leaving teaching to be a stay-at-home dad for example or merely changing jobs by working for another school district) As the season came to a close, Jack’s frustrations had risen to a maximum threshold. In reference to the final days of school and of baseball, Jack said, “I just want this month to be over. I am starting to realize my inability to control things in this job. I can’t win the games for them [his students]. I can’t take the AP exams for them [his players]. They have to want to go out there and do it.” Jack made it consistently known that during his off-time in the summer he would seriously looking for other jobs outside of teaching, that if something did not change to affect his overall mindset toward teaching and coaching, he would “consider leaving in the next year or two.” There was one opportunity in particular that may have helped precipitate Jack’s leaving his teaching role. Jack had been invited to attend some MEEPA Education Advancement (pseudonym to protect identity) training earlier in the school year. After a two-day conference, Ed Advancement officials asked picked out a handful of candidates to attend fiirther training that may lead to an eventual full-time position for the following 113 cm In school year. The week following the end of the school year, Jack went away for a four- day training session for MEEPA. He would eventually attend another in late July, and talks with MEEPA officials made considerations of leaving teaching more of a reality. As Jack confirmed, it was one thing for him to consider leaving his teachingjob without a tangible alternative. Having a specific offer from another entity made that possibility even stronger. Regardless of the MEEPA opportunity, Jack made it clear that there were other mitigating factors that continued to push his thinking about doing something else professionally. Out of all the factors and influences affecting Jack’s career path, one incident at the end of year seemed to remain with Jack more than any other—the possibility of a former WSHS social studies teacher returning from four years of active military duty to re-claim his job and ultimately Jack’s classes. Specifically, the teacher in question, Mr. Joseph, voluntarily serving in the Marine Corps at the time, had informed the WSHS administration in June that he intended to return to the classroom that August. For the past four years, White Sands has been “holding” his position for him. Although, according to Jack, the official school policy did not state that someone who volunteers for military service can have his position saved for him, it would have been an unwise public relations move for White Sands to not welcome Mr. Joseph back to hisjob. In fact, two years prior, in 2006, Mr. Joseph did indeed return to teach for two months in the middle of the year then decided to go back into the military again. Said Jack, “He [Mr. Joseph] gets to come back to his job whenever he wants. He came back for two months, completely disrupted the staff, demanded his old courses back, and then he left again. Unfair to the kids, unfair to the teachers.” According to other teachers in the building 114 Mr. Joseph went back strictly for financial reasons, to increase his military retirement, to get a higher grade.” Even if Jack got to keep hisjob, he remained upset at this possibility because at the final staff meeting of the year, the Department Chair informed Jack, “Mr. Joseph’s been serving and he’s going to get his pick of the litter about what he wants to teach.” Since Mr. Joseph taught one AP Government course in the past, Jack believed that he will take all four sections of Jack’s AP Government, leaving Jack to go back to teaching three classes of ninth grade and two classes of tenth grade social studies. Sharon, Jack’s mentor and former colleague of Mr. Joseph stated regarding the issue, “That’s bulls***! Mr. Joseph doesn’t deserve those classes back. Jack’s made them what they are. Jack’s more than doubled the enrollment Since Joseph was here.” In fact, Jack’s pass rate was higher in his first year teaching it and had more kids pass the test and more kids earn 5’s in one year than Joseph had in several years. In addition, Jack has had twice the number of students take the AP Exam than the previous two years. The following excerpt from a summer interview with Jack summarizes the powerful effect this had on Jack’s impending decision: But, if it’s up to the Department Chair, I’m not teaching it [AP Gov] next year. My take on it is, ‘What’s best for kids, for education? Why are we here?’ The Department Chair’s take on it is, ‘Steve’ served his country, and he would otherwise still be teaching AP Gov. So, what do I say to that that would not make me look foolish? So, there is no discussion. It starts and ends with that argument. It was his before, he left to serve his country, he should have it now. I don’t know how I can Open up that discussion without looking like a jerk. You go into education to make a difference. You’re making great strides in AP. More kids are taking the test, more kids are passing. Higher numbers, higher scores, regardless of that, it’s just going to get stripped from you because of the bureaucracy. Yeah, Joseph’s taught here before me, but not better. Not according to my definition. Not according to AP numbers. Anyone of those numbers you want to look at. It’s not close. If they take those classes 115 away and give them to him, even if we have the discussion. ...it is making me look for another job. Finally, in considering “Outcome A” (leaving teaching), Jack mused about the advantages of making such a decision. First and foremost, he cited the relief of no longer having to deal with parents, as a teacher or coach would be a primary advantage. Jack believed that too many people complained that “kids are different today” when in all actuality Jack felt that “kids are no different today than they’ve ever been. Kids challenge, kids push boundaries, kids test waters, it’s what being an adolescent is all about. Kids are not different. . .parents are.” Unsure whether parents possess guilt about working too much or parents want too much to be a “friend” to their kids or that parents used to construct stricter boundaries for their kids, but Jack talked often about always having to defend himself or his actions to parents, instead of parents trusting him to do what he knew to be right as a teacher and coach. Either way, he believed that in a conflict with a student, it was the exception that a parent backed Jack’s play rather than the norm. Said Jack, “That is entirely frustrating. To feel like you are under attack or question for everything you do in the classroom or on the baseball field regardless of how professional or positive impact you try and have on kids.” He wanted his students’ parents to have more trust in him as a teacher and coach, that he knew what he was doing and that what he did in the classroom and on the playing field was always in the best interest of the child. Jack often talked about teachers and coaches that he had that influenced him. In these examples, Jack expressed that his own parents trusted these teacher-coaches’ role in Jack’s life and supported their decisions. “Now, that doesn’t seem to be the case. As a teacher-coach you have to defend everything you do. I would 116 not miss that if I leave. That makes you question whether or not all of this is even worth it ” OUTCOME B: KEEP TEACHING/QUIT COACHING Jack’s second consideration (Outcome B) was to continue teaching and quit coaching. Giving up teaching was of course not a feasible option because high school coaching is not a full-timejob. As Jack put it, “Without the teaching, there is no coaching.” Such a decision would of course relieve him of much of the responsibilities he has during the year. Although his baseball salary consisted of roughly 5% of his total salary, he ended up in some capacity, spending time coaching, preparing, drilling, or scouting baseball during 8 of the 12 months Of year. It has become a legitimate argument that to build a successful varsity program, in any sport, it must be a year-round job. When considering his long-term decision to take over the baseball program entirely, Jack considered the immense time strain it would put on him and his family. That is what keeps me from actually doing it. Because I know, I KNOW the time commitment necessary to do this to the level it requires, to give things the full attention of my time. I know if I did it, what I would expect from myself, and what value I’d place on the position. . .and that leads to time and lots of it. I’m not sure if I’m willing to give that much. Jack’s wife, Jillian, believed that the cons of coaching overwhelmingly outweigh any benefit Jack’s coaching provides for the family at large. Said Jillian, “It’s night and day, the difference. When he’s not coaching, he picks Emily up at four and he spends a couple of hours with her before I get home.” In contrast, when coaching, Jack would Often come home at 8:00 or 9:00 o’clock and go days without seeing his daughter and 117 have little time to see his wife. From Jillian’s perspective, her stance was definitive. When asked if she would prefer that Jack consider resigning as a coach, she responded: Absolutely. It [his coaching] doesn’t benefit us at all. Unless you could say that he is a better person for coaching baseball, and we reap the rewards of that, then that would be a good reason. But, he’s not. He’s more tired, here less Often, doesn’t make near enough money to justify the time he spends. He may benefit from it, internally, but it doesn’t benefit our family. One Of the biggest factors in Jack’s contemplation on whether to take over the baseball program permanently involved similar reasoning to whether to remain a teacher. One of the biggest issues was Jack constantly felt like every decision he made was called into question. Whether it be little coaching moves during a game that fans, parents, and players second-guessed or larger program-wide decisions that parents or administrators questioned. For Jack, when making a coaching decision, he abided by a specific principled pyramid. Number one, he would make a decision based on what is best for the WSHS Varsity Baseball Program. Number two, he would consider what is best for the team. Lastly, he would take into account what was best for the individual player. For others it was the direct opposite. Explained Jack, “Well, parents invert that pyramid. They want what’s best for their kid and don’t much see beyond that.” Jack believed that coaches have to have fidelity to the program above and beyond the current team or any individual player. You cannot take an individual’s needs into account as much as parents demand. “Of course it’s best for the individual kid and his parents that Tommy or whomever gets to play every game, every inning at shortstop, but that’s not necessarily what’s best for the team or the program long term.” Players, parents and sometimes administration’s attacks were often unwarranted, when Jack had the same goals in mind for his players as the other stakeholders: the goal of doing whatever was best for kids. 118 From the personal side, Jack wanted his wife, his daughter and his parents to come to the games to support him, but criticism made it difficult. “I’m not going to want my kids around people in the stands as they bitch about everything we’re doing and criticizing everything my daughter’s dad is doing. . .without remorse, just being horrible.” Jack’s dejection about coaching was apparent at this point, after the end of the season. He acknowledged on numerous occasions how he gave up hundreds of hours of his time “For what? For grief? For criticism?” As Opposed to the thought that the coach knows more about baseball than the parents do and that Jack was devoted to the parents’ kids, in Jack’s mind, the Opposite was true. By the end of June, in one of our final conversations, Jack left his thoughts on coaching as such: “Stopping the coaching would be an easy decision. My wife would love it, I would get to see my kids an extra 3-4 hours a day per day, and there would be minimal difference in pay. The question is not, why would somebody quit coaching, but why WOULD somebody coach?” OUTCOME C: MOVING INTO ADMINISTRATION Another option Jack considered during the season as well as during the subsequent summer was to forego his teaching and coaching duties in order to look for an administrative position within the White Sands School District. Specifically, Jack was approached by Hank, the Athletic Director, to gauge his interest on becoming the new Athletic Director starting the following fall at the commencement of the new academic year. Hank had already been given assurances by the superintendent that he would be given an Assistant Principal job at the High School if he so desired it. The current 119 10 pl al 511 C0 I€S Assistant Principal, Cammie, was leaving her position in order to take the job of Curriculum Director in the White Sands District’s central office. In terms of Jack’s decision-making, he admitted that administrative opportunities were not on his radar. He had first begun to consider moving in that direction after being approached by both Hank the AD. and Cammie, the Asst. Principal. When Cammie first approached Jack in May about the opening, she exclaimed, “You should do it.” According to Jack, “Cammie was really kind of pushing me toward it. I had not thought much about that at the time, as that being an option other than teaching. However, it is tough to ignore when your Assistant Principal is pushing you to do it.” Jack knew, despite their occasional differences, that Cammie supported Jack and respected him as a professional. He also knew that Hank would support him as a successor for the Athletic Director job just as he had in the baseball coaching role. Said Jack, “I could not imagine a better situation in which to do it. . .having Hank in the Asst. Principal job, I would have support to do it. He would obviously be there, and it would be an easy transition. It seemed like a good step into getting into administration.” Although he had not considered such a choice prior to this, being sought out by two administrators that he respected in the District gave Jack another Option to consider in his career path. In deliberating, Jack identified the primary negative to such a move would be not dealing with students on a daily basis, lacking the feeling that he was having a direct impact on the lives of kids. “As a classroom teacher you have direct impact with over a 1 00 kids all year, at any given moment.” On the other hand, the positive to moving toward a career in administration would be the ability to reach a much greater number of kids through policy. “If I can change a policy [for the better] and carry it out across the district in those areas, it could impact thousands of kids.” As a teacher, Jack was able to make great strides in his own program, but he often cited frustration from other AP programs within the school, “resistance from other classroom teachers that have their own philosophies and agendas, the administration which may or may not buy in to everything that I am doing.” For Jack, frustration occurred whenever he would try to make a change to help students learning, especially in the AP realm, but trying to change other teachers’ and administrators’ minds from the role of “teacher” was often met with resistance and barriers, “which is very frustrating and time consuming and difficult to make headway.” Instead, the lure of moving permanently into administration would be to “...start making policy. I just feel like I could make a much bigger impact as the administrator’s role than as a teacher.” Unfortunately, for Jack, this outcome (becoming the new Athletic Director) was surprisingly taken away from him as a viable choice later that summer. Jack admitted, “Six weeks into the summer, I was convinced I was going to do it. I had changed to that mindset.” In fact, when Jack put in his application to Central Office, the individual in charge of Human Resources (Sue) said to Jack, “I’m so glad that you are applying. I had heard that you were, and I am so pleased to see that you have brought your application stuff in.” Jack then stopped into see Carnmie (now the new Curriculum Director for the District) Cammie reiterated, “that’s great, I’m so glad. You’ll be perfect for the job. I really hope you get it, there’s a really good chance.” In addition, Jack talked again to Hank, who had started his new role as Assistant Principal, and Hank once again reminded Jack that he was his “first pick” for the Athletic Director position. 121 ll’e Soon after these conversations, the posting for Athletic Director closed and the interview process began. Jack heard nothing for the next two weeks. “There was no notification from Principal, Asst. Principal, current AD. or anything about not getting an interview. Suddenly, there is someone hired from out of district.” Two more weeks went by, and Jack still heard nothing. After the District had hired someone else for the job, Jack still had not heard a word from anybody in White Sands. When he finally went into the school in August, there was a card in his mailbox that said that the administration could not interview every candidate but “thanks for your interest in the position.” Jack, to say the least, was stunned. That card was how Jack discovered the position had been filled by someone else. When he finally went over to Central Office, he ran into Susan in Human Resources who voiced her opinion. Susan told Jack, “I just got to tell you, I’m really disappointed that they didn’t give you an interview, and I voiced my opinion that that was really wrong they didn’t give you one.” Susan in Human Resources was the only person that said anything or even acknowledged that Jack had even applied for the job. Jack went from “obvious successor” to Hank to a candidate “never really considered.” OUTCOME D: MAINTAINING STATUS QUO The final possible outcome for Jack for the following school year would be to maintain the status quo and remain in his current positions as social studies teacher [and varsity baseball coach. Should Jack decide to maintain this status quo and enter the next school year in August (assuming the same teaching and coaching assignments), there were still aspects of this outcome that were predicated on other variables. For example, 122 as mentioned before, Jack may been able to keep his teaching position but ultimately lost his AP courses to Mr. Joseph returning from active duty. Should Jack maintain the same course load as he had, Jack identified some benefits of staying in his teacher-coach role. First, he had interest in starting a new AP course, most like AP Geography or AP US. History. “Something like this would further increase my enjoyment, mental stimulation, and longevity at the school.” If Jack were to lose his AP Government courses and be unable to start up new AP courses, it would lessen the chances of his remaining in his position. Being able to work with students driven to exceed with challenging content and having the ability to further the AP program within the school was a major factor in Jack’s consideration. In terms of coaching side of things, Jack identified three factors that drove him to consider continuing to coach: “the comraderie, the youthfulness, and the being part of the competition. Those three things.” If Jack chose not to continue coaching, he’d “lose the camaraderie of other coaches, the spirit of competition. It’s not the same as playing but it’s as close as you get when you’re older.” The fulfillment of building relationships with students “on another level in Sports” would be the driving force behind a decision to maintain both teaching and coaching. 123 CHAPTER VII: ANALYSIS As in most professions, stress exists between people and their environments (Lazarus, 1990). Deci and Ryan (1989) suggest that workplace stress is the result of a collision between human nature and organizations. Therefore, the social context can either support or thwart the natural tendencies toward active engagement and psychological growth. Such interactions within Jack’s organizational environment caused stress in his professional roles. Literature states that teachers’ responsibility for students is inherently stressful (Greenberg, 1984, Sarason, 1985), and teachers tend to give significantly more effort and give in significantly greater proportion than they receive (Yee, 1990) In fact, Kyraciou (1997) found that the teaching profession is one of the most stressful occupations. Moreover, Sunbul (2003) cites that higher stress levels occur in male teachers versus female. In addition, stress has also been found to be higher in younger teachers over older. These are both demographics to which Jack belonged, in terms of the stress involved in being a teacher-coach, data suggests that Jack’s experience was no exception. If stress is indeed an individual’s interpretation of his interactions with environmental events (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), then Jack regularly provided ample interpretations about the impact both his organizational and personal environments have had on his ability to perform as a teacher-coach. As a teacher-coach, Jack’s organizational environment has created role overload, role ambiguity, and role conflict— all primary factors that generate stress for teachers and coaches (Wiley, 2000). Not surprisingly, such factors directly led to Jack’s physical and mental fatigue as well as the feeling of perpetually being behind in his work and neglect of his familial responsibilities. As Durbin (1994) found, such feeling of under-accomplishment is one of the most powerful stressors. The stress of balancing both teaching and coaching led Jack to question his profession. Conversations with Jack regarding considerations of his future as an educator were a recurring theme throughout the study. His thought of leaving teaching (and coaching) is possibly the most significant issue regarding his overall motivation with regard to being a teacher-coach. Obviously, should he leave the profession, the sociological factors and psychological impact on his job motivation would become irrelevant for Jack. However, it is the hope, like in any researched account, that what is learned from Jack’s case may be informative for future researchers as well as future practitioners. In our very first interview, Jack mentioned his motivation for entering the educational profession in the first place. “Basically, I had a passion for history and baseball and wanted to share my passions with kids.” Ironically, it is the combination of baseball and history which were contributing to Jack’s considerations about leaving the field. In early May, just days before the Advanced Placement exam, he stated, “I just don’t know how much longer I want to do this. I’ve considered quitting teaching altogether.” This introduces this question: In examining the findings of this case on Jack’s motivational position in each role, what might one come to understand about not only balancing teaching and coaching concurrently but also attempting to be successful in both educational roles? This section aims to analyze the findings in Jack’s Situation as well as discuss how his case both intersects and adds to the current knowledge base regarding teacher-coaches. 125 ROLE OVERLOAD While attempting to coach and teach simultaneously, the process of attempting to put a successful baseball team on the field does not provide Jack the adequate time and energy to devote to his primary job—teaching. Jack has a high standard and a definite set of goals he attempted to attain in his courses. Therefore, by attempting to attain “success” (in Jack’s definition and evaluation) in each role, Jack often stretched his physical, mental and emotional limits to maximum tolerability. In fact, while trying to reach the goals Jack set for himself in both the academic and athletic realms, the limits were often injuriously strained. In order to be as effective as he could in leading his students to those goals, balancing the coaching responsibilities along with teaching made the time and effort commitment necessary a near impossibility. Essentially, Jack’s role overload or work overload led to many of the negative issues faced in these specific circumstances of his chosen profession. Specifically, work overload involves too many demands and too little time which to meet them adequately. Teachers have consistently cited work overload as a major stressor in the job (Borg, 1990). Researchers cite emotional exhaustion in particular among the beginning symptoms of occupational fatigue (F riesen and Sarros, 1989, Lutz and Maddirala, 1990). For Jack, like many other teachers, there was an expectation that teachers feel they need to deal with whatever their workplace asks of them (Chomey, 1998). In Jack’s case these “dealings” were multiplied by the dual roles he assumed for most of the spring semester months. Recurring commentary offered by Jack in the interviews expressed his consideration of leaving teaching at the end of the school year. He offered comments such as “I don’t know if teaching was the right decision for me, 126 some days I think ‘yes’, some days ‘no.’ I don’t know.” He also discussed the interesting predicament in which he was put by the duality of his coaching season. Specifically, Jack offered, “I got into education so I could teach and coach baseball. Ironic, I know, but that’s the time I feel most worked up or stressed out. I think I have a tough load, tougher than a lot Of others that’s for sure.” He later added when talking about day to day life during the season, “It’s tough to accomplish everything you set out to do. Some things just get left behind.” At the same time, Jack’s situation was complicated by the fact that he valued both roles. Despite the evident flux in stress and everyday goal achievement, Jack said, “I don’t necessarily want to give up coaching baseball, and I don’t want to go back to teaching ‘regular classes,’ so there is not much give on my part I realize.” This suggested that teaching AP classes and coaching baseball was an “all ornothing deal.” Although data support other alternatives (namely, the four outcomes identified in the Findings section), it is fair to say that Jack often spoke of his job as exactly that—a teacher and coach, a group package. As a result of this viewpoint toward his career, Jack’s job performance during this season would be dependent on attempting to reach all of his job goals concurrently, including teaching and coaching. Moreover, evidence suggests that Jack put most of the responsibility of reaching these goals upon himself. Psychologically, there was evidence of his using a variety of goal systems to frame his work. Data suggested that Jack used the moral system and task mastery system in his overall profession (Ames & Ames, 1984). Thesevtwo systems were joined by a third system, the ability-evaluative system. Each of these systems had a different “value and goal focus.” Ames and Ames wrote that 127 ' I “perfonnance information is filtered through this value and belief system and interpreted iv in such a way so as to maintain the important teacher goal or value associated with the particular motivational system” (p. 547). These motivational systems provide insight into Jack’s psychological approach. In one interview, Jack quickly dismissed having any of the traits associated with the ability-evaluative system (Ames & Ames, 1984). Jack explicitly stated that he was not interested “in protecting his own teacher or coach ego” for the sake of performance whether positive or negative. In fact, he admitted that should the students or players perform at a high level he would give most of the credit to the students. Should negative results occur, he felt the majority of the blame Should “fall upon my shoulders.” Specifically, in discussing the assignment of credit or blame with regard to whether students in AP Government achieve certain outcome goals, Jack gave this response: I would blame the parents very little, and the school none. The students would still not receive very much (of the blame) if we get disappointing results. I will blame myself far more, 80-90% will fall on my shoulders, at least from my perspective. I built on instructors’ materials from previous years, credit will go there to former teachers, to the school, for paying for a conference to be preparedto teach this, most of the credit will go to the students. . .70% of the credit will go to the kids. Jack made similar comments regarding his coaching in that he felt that “the pride, attitude, and improvement my players Show during games is a direct reflection on me as a coachf’ To accept the onus of his students’ and players’ successes so readily is indicative of teachers who have high outcome expectations. Although some of this weight stemmed from parents, students, and administrators, the primary expectations seemed to be placed on Jack by himself. Teachers typically face additional job pressure when there are heightened expectations for performance and accountability (Firestone, Bader, Masel, & 128 Rosenblum, I992). The addition of the second major role (coaching) exacerbates the issue. Tasks that require individuals to think about and deal with multiple Situations at the same time can add further complications to fulfilling job expectations (Greenberg, 1984) In dismissing his connection to the ability-evaluative system, Jack believed he was positioned within both the moral system and the task mastery system (Ames & Ames, 1984). Within the moral system, the educator’s primary focus is that the teacher in fact blames himself for negative student outcomes and credits the students for positive outcomes. This type of system can lead to the educator acting out of a sense of duty and guilt and can possibly lead to teacher attrition. According to the Ames’ work, Jack would most likely be labeled “high attainment” for he, admittedly, blamed himself for most of the negative outcomes incurred by his classes’ performances. Moreover, Bacharach (1986) and Byme (1994) found greater anxiety and psychological problems among teachers of high-ability students. This is furthered by Byrd (1999) in that “given the more advanced nature of course content at the high school level, these teachers may experience substantially more mental pressure in the preparation of lessons, construction of tests, and overall need to keep abreast of knowledge in their subject area.” With Jack teaching only Advanced Placement courses coupled with a “Zero Hour” class (adding to the overall time of his work day) it stood to reason that such factors perpetuated a sense of “overload.” As the work of Tuettenmann & Punch, 1992 found, workload has been identified as a major source of stress for teachers. It stands to reason, therefore, that the addition of coaching and its number of similar responsibilities and time commitments only added to Jack’s occupational stress. 129 For both teaching and coaching, Jack felt at times that he could only do so much, “there are only so many hours in a given spring day.” Locke and Massengale (1978) found that “role overload conflicts were the most commonly perceived and most intensely experienced” by the teacher-coaches in their study. Since role overload occurs when role demands exceed the individual’s available time and effort. It is possible that Jack Simply had too many obligations to attend to and tasks to accomplish in order to meet the demands of both roles, especially as a third-year teacher. Despite his high value level for both teaching and coaching and his seeming determination to do both (should he continue as an educator) it could be that Jack cannot, over time, continue to perform both roles at the level he and others expect, without experiencing symptoms of burnout and in turn lesser motivation to continue in his current profession. ROLE AMBIGUITY In addition to “overload,” it is evident that Jack experienced role ambiguity (Dobbs, 1992) during his season of balancing teaching and coaching. This challenging dichotomy seemed to cause frustration for Jack in the sense that the goals he had for teaching did not often align themselves with those he had for coaching. Therefore, the daily flux between the two roles sometimes caused an occupational disconnect, leaving Jack to navigate through ambiguous territory at times where the two roles may have otherwise more comfortably intersected. Farber (1991) cites this ambiguity as a lack of clarity regarding obligations, status, and accountability” and would include the balance of and prioritization of complex tasks within the organizational environment of school. The occasional feeling of uncertainty that comes from a lack of confidence in task completion 130 coupled with the sensation of being overwhelmed can only detract from a teacher-coach’s efficacy. Role ambiguity may not only lead to a perception of a lack of public trust or confidence from: parents, students, administrators, and other community stakeholders (Blasé and Mattews, 1984), but also has shown to be a critical determinant of professional burnout (Schwab and Iwanicki, 1982). One interpretation of the data would suggest that Jack experienced symptoms of role ambiguity. This points directly back to data related to Jack’s goals. Blasé’ (1982) found that decreased work satisfaction and motivation may occur as a result of failing to reach a valued outcome with students. Jack readily admitted that his success in the classroom was directly related to the “bottom line” (or final scores) of his students’ AP exams. In his words, “(s)tudents, parents, fellow teachers, administrators, and most of all—me. All of us judge, I judge my performance in the classroom almost entirely on the outcome of that test. The hardest part is waiting, knowing I cannot take the test for them. . .it is out Of my hands.” On the coaching side, Jack also acknowledged that he could not take the field for his team, “I cannot hit, can’t pitch. . .in a way, I am just a more glorified spectator.” Perhaps some of Jack’s feelings of job pressure arose from a sense of helplessness or ambiguity within the actual student or player action, that he felt he had little control over outcomes during baseball competition or student test-taking. In either role, he may have played a large part in the preparative aspects of student or player performance but little part in the actual performance. As a coach, this inability to control competitive action would have been reoccurring with every baseball game. In teaching, although it may have occurred only during the taking of the AP Exam, the buildup to that one event was extraordinary. During the actual moments that most defined Jack as coach 131 or Jack as teacher (baseball games and AP Exam, respectively), he had the least amount of control over outcomes. Thus, at these times, it could be argued that his role in the success of players or students (and ultimately, Jack) were least defined and thereby most ambiguous. Although there were defining moments in Jack’s season (games and exam), there were more subtle yet at the same time more constant examples of role ambiguity in his professional life. For example, Jack often used the term “learning community” as a way to frame his teaching, yet Jack also admitted that his classroom performance depended solely on the effort of each person as an individual and not the outcome of the collective. Jack said, “Ultimately it’s up to each one Of them to score well on their own test.” Though he stated to students and admittedly to parents (at the outset of the year) that he intended his classes to be cooperative and supportive, Jack readily admitted that competition was an important undercurrent of his classroom. Jack stated, “When it comes down to performance, students cannot help each other on the actual AP test, the competition is a solo endeavor.” Brophy argues, “Anything done to encourage performance goals would work against efforts to create a learning community” (p. l 10). Almost by definition, “learning community” and “individual competition” are asynchronous. This may have caused not only unclear expectations for students but may have complicated Jack’s Specific efforts toward reaching teaching-oriented goals, ultimately clouding his overall pedagogical mission. There appeared to be a contradiction in that Jack spoke to stakeholders at the beginning of the year about a “learning community” and how he would establish his teaching role using cooperative learning goals; however, the interview and observational 132 data during the Spring season suggested that the stakes of his teaching role involved mainly outcome goals earned by each individual. Another explanation could be that Jack had internalized a different definition of “learning community” than that of most educational researchers or that his goal system toward his teaching role changed from the time he began the school year to the time when the spring season began. As Kahn (1964) reported, role ambiguity involves a lack of clear, consistent information regarding responsibilities and tasks. This is often associated with vague organizational goals, role definitions, and expectations for performance. It is associated with uncertainty concerning what a person must do to perform his or her role effectively. (Chemiss, 1980, McGrath, 1983) Jack’s three primary learning goals for his baseball team (“effort, attitude, and improvement”) each innately abstract, could have lead to the “arousal, discovery, and/or use of task-relevant knowledge and strategies” (p. 706). However, one might also argue that without tangible, measurable goals, it may have been difficult for Jack to maintain his level of intensity. Normally, as Locke (2002) suggests, when a task is moderately difficult, the highest levels of effort tend to occur. Specifically, Locke argues that “to say that one is trying to attain a goal of X means that one will not be satisfied unless one attains X” (p. 709). However, Jack’s coaching goals being both somewhat indistinct and intangible in nature made it difficult to place his expectancy into Locke’s framework. Therefore, Jack’s level of satisfaction, achievement or success may have been more difficult to determine than if “X” were a more concrete goal. In many instances, role ambiguity can lead to what Massengale (1980) refers to as role retreatism, where a teacher-coach’s values or expectancies cause one role to become dominant over the other, oftentimes marginalizing the less dominant role. Typically, 133 both common teacher-talk and research would suggest that coaching becomes the dominant role in the life of the teacher-coach. Figone (1994) found research to show that teacher-coaches are Often indifferent to academic achievement. Moreover, research results support the contentions that teacher-coaches often enjoy the dual role but that time devoted to teaching decreases when a role retreatism or ambiguity exists (Darst & Pangrazi, 1996, Lipira, 1999). It then follows that Jack, especially during his baseball season, assumed a coaching role dominant over his teaching role. Interestingly enough, however, both sociological data and motivational data from this case suggest otherwise. In examining the sociological factors that moved Jack forward in his career, the majority of positive organizational factors seem to have existed in his teaching and less comparable factors could be similarly identified in his coaching. Meanwhile, the negative factors (those which promoted regression) seemed more ubiquitous in his conversations regarding coaching. Psychologically Speaking, the motivational data support a similar argument. Thus, looking at the findings from a global perspective may lead to the conclusion that Jack actually values teaching more than coaching. Interestingly enough, in this case, Jack’s case works against the stereotypical reputation of the teacher-coach, who would focus less on the classroom than on the playing field. According to Millslagle and Morley (2004) most teacher-coaches perceive greater satisfaction from, are more motivated toward, and finally perceive higher goal attainment from coaching than they do teaching. Although initially, coaching played an integral part in Jack’s decision to enter the field of secondary education, by the end of the season, Jack stated that he rated the importance of his roles and his investment therein as a “95% / 5%” ratio, teaching to coaching. Jack 134 added, “I just don’t know if I’m passionate enough to keep coaching. I guess I feel much more passion on the academic side than on the athletic side.” Such an outright admission (and backed by data over time) makes a definitive statement regarding Jack’s prioritie as a teacher-coach, one very different than research has previously suggested. Moreover, it does much to speak against an often talked about stereotype involving male social studies teachers who coach a varsity sport (and the attention placed in the classroom versus the athletic field). This could perhaps be explained in terms of Jack being an anomalous case—a ftill-time A.P. teacher in a core subject (social studies) and varsity coach versus nearly all previous research that only addresses teacher-coaches whose content area was physical education. ROLE CONFLICT In addition to overload and ambiguity, Jack experienced conflict within the organizational environment to an extent great enough to affect his dual roles. As a result of such conflict, Jack’s motivation fluxuated throughout the season. In such a case, this role conflict possesses several distinct characteristiscs. For Kahn (1964) “role conflict represents the simultaneous occurrence of two or more sets of pressures such that compliance with one makes compliance with the other more difficult.” In addition, the quantity of work to be done as well as the quality of work to be achieved (like in the case of Jack’s spring semester) cannot realistically be accomplished within given time restraints. Researchers (Decker, 1986; Govemali, 1972; Massengale, 1980; Locke and Massengale, 1978; Morford, 1996) go so far as to say that such conflict occurs when occupants perceive the roles as often incompatible. The most alarming aspect of role 135 conflict is that it has been determined to be a critical factor in generating feelings of job stress and ultimately burnout among teachers (Capel, 1992). Having identified the sociological factors involved with Jack’s progression and regression and then looking at how that played out psychologically for Jack in terms of his professional motivation, it appeared that several key issues were at play for Jack during this time as a result of such conflict. Returning to Brophy’s (1998) framework where motivation is the product of expectancy times value, it was observed that Jack repeatedly emphasized the high attribution of value he placed on each role as well as the overall profession of teaching. Therefore, if there was evidence to suggest Jack’s motivation shifted, hypotheses to address the reason for this Should be apparent in looking at the data from the expectancy side of motivation. One explanation for this is that there may have been significant role conflict for Jack in that he approached his coaching role much differently than his teaching role. Although his intention was to build a “learning community” in the classroom, the aforementioned sectioned discussed how Jack’s classroom and teaching were very much dependent on the performance of the individual (as opposed to a group or team) and were very much outcome goal-oriented, with the AP Exam being the ultimate determinant of success or failure. As a learning community is typically established to “teach things worth learning,” it is more appropriate to describe Jack’s coaching philosophy as one establishing attributes of a learning community than that of his teaching. Jack seemed to wholeheartedly ascribe to such ideals in coaching baseball as evidenced in his talking of coaching. As found in the interview data, Jack spoke of baseball as a “metaphor for life” 136 and a way to learn “pride, discipline, and teamwork.” He stated that “playing a game such as baseball and experiencing ups and downs of a game is as authentic a task as one can have as a high school student.” These learning goals, indicative of a “learning community” were prevalent in his coaching role. In addition these qualities were voiced to players and parents of the baseball team. There is evidence that abstract learning goals comprised Jack’s expectations for his coaching role. Another explanation could be that Jack placed a higher value on “winning” in his teaching role (with passing AP exam grades), than the value of “winning” in his coaching role (in terms of victories), thereby allowing for him to take the approach of a “learning community” with his baseball team. This contrast between the outcome goal structure of his teaching and learning goal structure of his coaching could have caused role conflict for Jack and consequently affected his motivation to continue teaching and coaching indefinitely. Millslagle and Morley (2004) believe role conflict occurs when one experiences incompatibilities while fulfilling two roles. From a motivational perspective, I would argue that outcome goals and learning goals are by definition incompatible. Examples from the data highlight this stark contrast. For instance, Jack made no apologies for only teaching what was in the AP curriculum, knowledge only specific to the test. In AP testing, he mentioned that he was unconvinced that all material was “worth learning” and suggested that the most valuable things to learn in AP course were the “exact material that will be on the exam.” During observation, when students asked the importance of a particular piece of content covered in class, the standard answer provided by Jack was that “it is important to know for the test.” In contrast, during observations of his coaching role on the baseball field when asked “why” players would do something, data revealed that Jack’s responses 137 included, “because it’s good for our team” or “for the enjoyment of the game,” or “it will make you a stronger person” but never “because it will help us win” or “we will score more runs.” 1 would argue that Jack’s motivational stances relative to each role were fundamentally different because of the difference in the expectancy factor (specific to the relative goal structures) within each role. His expectancy for teaching seemed to be the outcome of each individual on one specific assessment and the total number of individuals (75%) “earning a passing grade (a 3,4,5), whereas for coaching it was solely based in learning outcomes and “winning” did not matter. This was a contrast in expectancy and, thereby, a contrast in motivational stance regarding each role that could have caused role conflict in Jack’s life. AS Sage’s (1987) work highlights, teacher- coaches’ respective roles can have very different demands, creating “role conflict” and adding stress to an already time and energy consuming endeavor. However, other alternatives to this conclusion are possible, including the fact that having expectations in each role that were grossly different did not necessarily mean they were in direct conflict with each other. Jack may have taken solace in the fact that he approached goal-setting in coaching and teaching in such divergent ways. In essence, this compartmentalization of roles may have provided satisfaction or professional peace-of—mind for Jack independent of motivation. Another possibility is that Jack felt external pressures to succeed (from parents, administrators, even students and players) by establishing goals that others set with regard to the same task(s). From the expectancy Side of motivation, teachers and coaches alike cannot ultimately control how their students or players achieve. I could argue that 138 Jack’s motivation for either role would most likely be higher if he had direct control on performance outcomes. As Stipek and Weisz, (1981) or Thomas (1980) would argue, a great deal of the outcome of a game (winning or losing) or the AP exam (performance during the sitting of the test) depends on external factors outside of Jack’s control— primarily people (students or players) who are not Jack, himself. Jack acknowledged that ultimately “I have little to do with success for players or students during the actual time of competition or performance.” Jack stated, “Just because I put great effort into both jobs, it may still mean I am successful in none.” If Jack began to feel that success (or goal obtainment) in either role was increasingly more difficult to obtain through what Brophy (2004) would suggest is a “reasonable amount of effort,” than that lower expectancy factor could ultimately reduce Jack’s overall motivational product (in the expectancy/value equation). Unfortunately, role conflict is seldom resolved because the expectations Of one role position simply do not intersect adequately with the expectations of the Other role (Massengale, 1980). This seems especially true in this case where Jack’s motivational structures are so diametrically opposed in their philosophies, as they are in teaching role versus coaching role. Perhaps it is oversimplification, but Jack’s teaching philosophy seems to dwell in the world of the concrete while Jack’s coaching philosophy hovers in the abstract. Corresponding to what Jack has experienced Ryan and Sagas (2006) found that high school teacher-coaches experiencing role conflict often lost personal satisfaction to execute the other role. In coming into the education profession with a desire to both teach and coach, and viewing the job as a combination of teacher and coach, losing motivation or ability to perform either role thus affects the job in its entirety. For Jack, 139 struggling to succeed in both roles simultaneously often kept him from achieving high satisfaction in either role. As Ryan and Sagas suggest, such dissatisfaction often leads to thoughts of leaving the school district or field of education entirely. No sentiment more accurately portrays Jack’s mindset before, at times throughout, and after the season than his consistent thoughts of leaving. FAMILY LIFE Although the majority of the data in this case study centered around Jack’s professional life the most pronounced issues from his career seemed to most affect on his family and his family life. The conflict and overload of his workplace duality spilled over from the organizational environment of school into his personal environment at home. As a result of Jack’s busy work schedule, he lacked ample interactions with his wife and daughter, producing the greatest stressors in his life. His stressful and time- consuming job made him often unavailable to his family. The time spent devoted to teaching and coaching concurrently took a significant toll on Jack’s family life. As Hargreaves (1994) suggests, “Teachers don’t just have jobs. They have professional and personal lives as well. Understanding the teacher means understanding the person the teacher is” (p. viii). To understand Jack is to understand an individual who rarely gave less than maximum effort to whatever task lay in front of him. However, since most of these tasks during the spring were work-related, this allowed for little consistency and minimal growth in his family relationships. Even though Jack’s wife, Jillian, worked full-time as well, Jack could not help beingjealous of the fact that Jillian saw Emily on a daily basis. 140 Specifically, Jillian could leave work every day at 5:00 pm. and relax at home for the rest of the evening as well as have each weekend open and free from work responsibilities. She infrequently had to “take her work home with her.” In contrast, as is the case with many teachers, Jack had difficulty “leaving school at school.” As Manthei and Gilmore (1996) found, a lack of preparation time increases teaching anxiety. Therefore, on the rare nights and weekends that Jack was home (and not coaching baseball), he needed to spend a good deal of time grading assignments, preparing tests, writing lesson plans, and overall maintaining his classroom responsibilities. These duties would often get missed because of a lack of planning or after-school time due to preparation, practice, travel, games, and administrative work for baseball. Research certainly supports the strain that work places on the home. McGrath (1983) found individuals often experience conflict between family roles and work roles. Such work-family conflict (Kirchmeyer, 1992) is compounded by the stress caused by a lack of personal relaxation and leisure time (Mokhtar, 1998). Teachers in general experience work-family conflict involving their two most prominent social roles, and coaches often give it as a primary reason for increased stress at home. It is often a specific reason for an individual failing to progress within the coaching profession (Bruening and Dixon, 2007; Sagas and Cunningham, 2005, Sage, 1987). Moreover, work-family conflict has attributed to outcomes such as absenteeism, lowerjob satisfaction, and higher turnover intentions in addition to personal effects such as lesser family satisfaction and relationship difficulties (Eby, 2005). Since Jack had to commit up to 16 hours on some days and seven days per week (in many weeks during spring months) fulfilling his teacher and coach duties, this made him unable to be physically 141 present for his family, making it increasingly more difficult to maintain a positive, healthy family life. Unfortunately, as Jack may certainly acknowledge, the more effort Jack put into being successful in the roles of teacher and coach, the less successful he became in the roles of husband and father. J illian’s testimony said it best: “At this point, there is really no positive we gain as a family from Jack coaching.” CONS VS. PROS Holistically speaking, Jack’s case suggests that the “cons” ofj uggling both roles outweigh the “pros.” While the stressors experienced by Jack mirror regular teaching population, such pressures were exacerbated by coaching as well. In the end, the value attributed to being both a teacher and coach may have been outweighed by the de-valuing caused by environmental affects (both organizationally and personally). For Jack, despite the joys that being a teacher-coach sometimes provided, the pains may have simply outnumbered them. Interactions can have negative consequences when the environmental stressors exceed the physical, psychological or ethical propensities of the individual (Fontana & Abouserie, 1993). Such could be argued was the case for Jack, as the negative interactions with parents, administrators, students/players, and even his family have surmounted the number of equally positive interactions. A very strong hypothesis for Jack’s future is that something will eventually have to give, and Jack will no longer be able to maintain his status quo. Most likely, Jack will first give up coaching baseball before making a decision to quit teaching/coaching altogether. Since baseball is nearly equal in time consumption during the spring yet provides merely a nominal percentage of his family’s household income, pragmatically, 142 this seems like a likely first step towards Jack adjusting his professional path. Besides such a decision making sense financially, from a motivational perspective, several insights of Jack’s coaching role have materialized throughout the season. For instance, one of Jack’s initial attractions to teaching was the opportunity to also be involved in athletics, primarily baseball. His love for the game was deeply rooted in tradition, integrity, doing things “the right way” and the sense of pride and passion that comes along with involvement in the National Pastime. What he came to discover, however, was that his passion and dedication did not equate to the level of his players, causing a gap in the level of value attributed to the sport. Moreover, Jack’s expectations for conduct and performance could not be reconciled by similar expectations of his players. Such an unbalanced equation may have caused irreconcilable conflict for Jack. He struggled consistently with the notion that he cared more for the game than did his players. In the classroom, the same argument could not be made for the students in his AP Government classes. Jack would be the first to admit that, on the whole, the students both valued and shared expectations similar to his own when it came to experiencing success in the class. However, as the year progressed, the Exam administered and Jack completed the final month of school, he had a particular revelation critical to his self- evaluation of his profession. When it came down to it, “I had an entire year of ‘teaching to the test’.” The entire structure of his teaching philosophy essentially boiled down to the scores earned on a nationally administered, standards-based, summative assessment. As May 5 came and passed, the final weeks of school became the first stretch of “the waiting game” as AP Exam scores would take months before being evaluated and 143 reported to Jack during late summer. Regarding Jack’s litmus test of teaching success, he closed down the academic year in June, not knowing whether he it was a successful year or not. This is not to say that Jack did not have moments of teaching in the spring semester (or in general) that were enjoyable or fulfilling. However, to put such weight on the outcome based results of one test as a means of evaluating professional achievement was indeed problematic and not an indicator of long-term career fulfillment. In the end, the AP test results were not available until weeks after the end of the year, so Jack closed the academic year with little concrete evidence (by his own standards) to show for his year of teaching. In addition, for the most part, the abstract learning goals (like instilling “attitude” and teaching “pride”) established in his coaching role would be difficult to measure in his players until years later. As a result, it is quite possible that during the time of this study, Jack never had an opportunity to achieve “success” by his own definitions as a “teacher” or as a “coach;” Jack never had a chance to experience the fruits of success as set down in his own goals. Therefore, his waning motivation with regard to continuing to teach could have boiled down to the simple explanation that no critical part of the expectancy side of his motivation, in either role, had yet been achieved. With expectancy unaccounted for (or remaining zero), despite the level of the value factor, the motivation product in the equation would essentially remain zero. Therefore, because of the goal structure, when Jack left the school in mid—June, he had no substantial sense of goal achievement as either teacher or coach. 144 ATTRITION for JACK? Taking into consideration Jack’s case in its entirety, it seems plausible if not probable that Jack will eventually experience teacher-coach burnout orjob dissatisfaction to the extent that he may leave the profession. Problems regarding teacher stress have compounded into a national problem of teacher attrition (National Commission on Teaching & America’s Future, NCTAF, 2003) Jack, a third-year teacher, sat right in the middle of the statistic citing that over one-third will leave education in the first five years of teaching (Ingersoll, 2001 ). In addition, research suggests that teacher commitment tends to progressively decrease over the course of their career (Fraser, Draper, & Taylor, 1998; Huberman, 1993). As Lynn (2001) describes in her summations Of F essler, “Teachers move in and out of career stages in response to personal and organizational environmental conditions" (p.182). By the end of year, Jack felt himself sliding gradually toward “career exit.” Interestingly enough, at one point during the study, Jack took it upon himself to examine both F essler’s Model, illustrating the environmental influences on his career as a teacher-coach, as well as to look at Brophy’s expectancy/value framework regarding motivation. After doing so, Jack remarked, “the sociological expectations in this [Fessler’s] model are what keep me from moving forward on a daily basis. They are just too great. There’s just too much shit involved.” As far as motivation goes, he stated, “Accepting, meeting, and exceeding the high expectations of my school is my [overall] goal, and I have the inability to not force myself to exceed the expectations of the job requirement.” The overwhelming quantity of factors (“shit” in Jack’s words) that caused regression outnumbered those that promoted progression. Even when they were in 145 balance, Jack failed to move forward more often than he was forced backward, and even he readily recognized this. Coupled with his goal to “exceed the expectations” of his high-achieving school and its respective stakeholders, made success without burnout a difficult task to accomplish over time, as a significant amount of stress resulted from such high-stake accountability systems (Sirotnik, 2002). Whether looked at individually or collectively, both Jack’s teaching position and coaching position could be defined as “high stakes.” The highest stakes may have been placed on Jack by one specific set of stakeholders—parents. Of the many factors identified as negative environmental influences identified in Jack’s experience were his interactions with and impressions of parents. Murphy, (1995) found that parents and community at large often caused great conflict for teachers. Parents of students, but primarily of those baseball players made for stressful situations for Jack, who felt he was doing the right thing for the students in class and for players on the field. As Farber’s work found, many of the most stressful situations in the lives of teachers are caused by unreasonable or unconcerned parents (Farber, 1991). As indicated in the data, parents seemed to be a primary factor in Jack asking himself, “Why do I bother to do this?” This question above all else is the one Jack will ultimately have to answer in terms of his future as both teacher and coach. Over time, it has been painfully evident that teachers are a high risk for burnout. In fact, teachers are the largest homogenous occupational group investigated in burnout research (Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998, Maslach 1998) cites three reasons for burnout: exhaustion, cynicism (depersonalization) and inefficacy (reduced personal accomplishment). Of the three. exhaustion is found to be the central quality of burnout. 146 With Jack’s professional life from March to June, exhaustion was paramount, and similar to Domyei’s (2001) findings, the resulting stress has correlated negatively to Jack’s motivation to continue teaching and coaching. In addition, Jack’s sentiments reflected the findings of Vanoost (1994) who found leaving teachers felt “stuck” in their careers. Jack identified the threat of a having a promotionally flat career, especially on the heels of his attempts to move into the position of Athletic Director. Jack also fit this mold: many “leaving” teachers were talented, highly committed and motivated but were leaving due to a lack of personal and professional self- development (Vandenberghe and Vanoost, 1996). Above all, Teacher stress is exacerbated by task complexity, difficulty and Simultaneity (McGrath, 1983). Jack’s attempt to navigate the Often choppy waters of the teacher-coach experience has shown itself to be a complex task—a difficult balancing act where striving toward success in two Spheres, simultaneously, has proven to be a challenge that can marginalize either role, personal life, or the overall motivation to remain in the profession altogether. 147 CHAPTER VIII: IMPLICATIONS In looking at the important implications of this study, I must first outline its limitations. First, by engaging in single case study (where n=l), the sample space had limitations. In analyzing Jack’s case, one cannot assume causality or generalizability. What occurred in the life of the subject may in fact be very different than what happens in the lives of other individuals who participate in teaching and coaching as a profession. In addition, this study was limited by specific time structures. Because I studied a subject for only one season of his teaching-coaching career (approximately three-four months), I only experienced a fraction of his career and thus was forced to extrapolate about what may occur over longer periods after having left the subject. Along the same line, I could not spend every teaching and coaching moment with Jack over the length of the season, so the re-construction of certain events, actions, thoughts, and feelings was done primarily through interview correspondence. In addition, thoughts and actions unseen by me or unreported by the participant also played an important part in completing the full picture of Jack’s experience during the season. As in all qualitative research, there is an aspect of what was not known about the experience. Finally, as I remain a novice in the field of research, one of the limitations of this research study is that I acted alone in all aspects of this study (other than faculty and literary guidance) and had only my previous practicum experience, doctoral experience, and intuition to guide me in this endeavor. Due to such limitations, one implication for research is to broaden the scope of future study. The works of Millslagle & Morley, 2004, Darst & Pangrazi (1996), F igone, (1986), and Massengale (1980) have each demonstrated that dual role conflicts of teacher-coaches often results in a dominant role. In such happenings, an individual 148 teacher-coach attributes greater significance, in some form of professional time, energy, or value is given to either teaching or coaching. Not only is it important to know the extent of such attributions (such as through an in-depth case study), it is also important to build on larger quantitative research efforts to understand the motivations of a large numbers of teacher-coaches. Through large-sample interview and survey research, we might better understand the origins of role overload, role ambiguity, role conflict, and other issues encountered by teacher-coaches in many of our nation’s schools. This case study has a limited focus of a single source, and additional stakeholder perspectives could enhance the knowledge base of the research. For researchers utilizing a single-case study, they could include in their study participants who are both students in the classroom as well as players on the athletic team of a particular teacher-coach. These student-athletes would provide comparative perspective on the experience of having a teacher-coach in both roles. In addition to broadening the scope of a single subject, such as Jack, future research could include additional subjects. For example, researchers could utilize more than one teacher-coach in the same study at the same school, perhaps a second social studies teacher that would provide comparative circumstances. Moreover, studying a teacher-coach within a different sport or teaching context could provide data that either challenges or affirms information gathered in Jack’s case. For instance, we need to examine how content area or sport coached or gender differences may make a difference in the practice of teacher-coaches. In studying the life of a teacher-coach it could also be advantageous to look at someone like Jack over a longer period of time, such as conducting a two or three year longitudinal study. 149 From a research perspective, what we can learn from Jack’s case only scratches the surface about the experiences of individual teacher-coaches and is in fact a call for more studies about the lives of teacher-coaches. Jack, for example, is but one of 25 teacher-coaches at his own school. With 1.1 million secondary educators in the country, there are hundreds of thousands of teachers who balance leadership roles, like athletic coaching, outside of the typical school day (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2004). We could gain much insight about the specific causes of role conflict, overload, burnout, and teacher retention by studying these individual teachers’ lives in depth. This case attempts to respond to the call in the literature, but it is just one case. More case studies are needed to broaden the knowledge base about what teacher-coaches experience. Learning from such case studies, researchers in the field who work with larger samples can use other methods (such as survey research) to discover who and what influences teacher- coaches to do what they do and feel what they feel while performing these two roles. Coaches and teachers can each have a huge impact on students’ lives, but the same individual can carry out these roles in different ways. Another gap in the literature includes looking at the effects that teacher-coaches have on students that they both teach and coach. Research suggests a significant impact coaches may have on students is consistent with other related fields of study such as teaching (Clark & Peterson, 1986) and physical education (Silverman, 1991), where there has been a steady shift in study from examining what people do (behavior) to why they do it (cognition and motivation) (Gilbert, 2002). Beyond the case of Jack, there is important research to be done on the topic of this teaching/coaching duality. 150 There are aspects of this particular case that are significant to Jack’s experience specifically. Although these aspects are typical of and relevant to many high school teachers, it is the particular combination of roles that Jack plays in only his third year of teaching that make his a unique case. Teaching exclusively AP courses, coaching a varsity Sport, and being a new father concurrently are not indicative of the average third- year teacher. It certainly brings about the implications that each of these major roles plays in the entirety of the situation. How would the experience be different if a teacher had two of these roles? Or one of the roles? Or had not been in any of the three? It is fair to suggest that many beginning teachers are not asked to take on any of these roles, having only had two years experiences as teachers, whereas Jack was placed into AP teaching after only his first year and encouraged to coach varsity baseball after merely two years. Although a personal choice to be sure, adding the role of fatherhood into the equation adds an added degree of difficulty in terms of navigating the waters where the three converge. First and foremost, from the perspective of practice, what does Jack’s case teach us about beginning teachers taking on Advanced Placement teaching? The learning curve may be sharp for any new teacher to teach AP, let alone to teach all sections of an AP course. Although one might say that Jack willingly “chose” to teach AP, some would argue that an untenured teacher does not really “choose” to teach anything, rather he teaches whatever courses he is asked to teach by his administration or risk termination. In Jack’s case he was ultimately pleased to accept such a role, but it certainly came at a social cost amongst his peers (in this sense the other eight social studies faculty) as some were left bemused by or envious of Jack’s ascent to AP status. The exception to this was 151 Jack’s mentor, Shannon, who perceived Jack as the individual she most trusted to teach challenging social studies content. However, Shannon’s AP courses (AP World History) were not threatened by Jack’s teaching AP Government, so it may have been easier for her to support her mentee in this process. Regardless, administration felt it appropriate to assign roughly 100 high-level students to a teacher with only one year experience and to keep him in that role during his third year. This implies a high expectation of ability as well as a deep sense of trust in Jack to best serve in furthering the college preparatory aspect of the educational mission of the school. It certainly speaks to Jack’s performance that he would not only successfully complete one year as an AP instructor but be asked to do so exclusively in his third-year overall. In many schools, the least-tenured teacher may in fact be the least likely to teach AP, as many teachers try to position themselves to work with higher-level students, and oftentimes course selection is dictated by seniority. Having been entrusted with as many AP sections as he was put Jack in a difficult Situation in terms of being the envy of some of his peers both in social studies as well as teachers of other core content areas. Although one may argue that Jack was the “right man for the job” (in terms of teaching AP Government) it may have been too much for the administration to ask him to do both that and ask him to take over the baseball program in such a Short period of time. The implications of taking on too many leadership roles at once may contribute greatly to beginning teacher burnout in ways not necessarily examined by administration (in practice) or in ways specifically examined in the literature on new teacher attrition or career burnout. During the spring semester, Jack experienced the anxiety of producing specific, concrete results on the AP Exam as well as producing wins on the baseball field. 152 Despite the high level of pressure that Jack placed upon himself, pressure in both arenas was also put on Jack from administration, parents, faculty, and students/athletes. When the expectations of various others, each with their own agenda, do not correlate with those of the teacher-coach, it can no doubt exacerbate the stress of the job. On the other hand, Jack might have a difficult time reverting back to coaching JV players or teaching regular students in regular courses due to a lack of challenge or because of the perceived step-back in social status. One could argue he had been indoctrinated into the social system that equates prestige with his roles. Like the social structure of almost any school, there certainly exists status in both AP teaching and Varsity-level coaching. Would taking a step back from these levels of “achievement,” especially so early into a career, be a healthy move for a beginning teacher? Or, would such a step be considered failure or only the first step toward absolute attrition? By taking into account the demands that come during the time of year when some teachers assume both roles, administrators could perhaps counsel beginning teachers about whether their goals (for teaching and coaching) are realistic prior to the coaching season. The polarization of a given teacher’s teaching and coaching goal systems might make it hard for someone in Jack’s Situation to negotiate both of these roles on an everyday basis for the entire season. In terms of expectancy, mixing some learning with complimentary outcome goals for each role could make transitioning between roles more fluid and establish a common ground of expectation for one’s overall job as a teacher- coach. This process could include a principal or mentor talking with the teacher-coach about establishing a less outcome goal oriented (more learning goal oriented) expectation for his classroom teaching. In addition, an athletic director could talk with the teacher- 153 coach about establishing at least some concrete outcome goals (less learning goal oriented) for their team or sport. By shifting one’s goal structures for each role in this way, they would not be so diametrically opposed (as they were in Jack’s case), and instead could lead to a more moderate approach to both. This could help the teacher to establish a more holistic philosophy for their individual goal system as alteacher-coach as suggested by Ames and Ames’ goal systems (1984). As a result of this, a teacher similar to Jack might experience less role conflict from his relative expectations in teaching and coaching. Something else administrators could learn from Jack’s case would be consideration of lightening the load of any teacher-coach during the competitive season. Administrators need to be more aware of the special circumstances and issues teacher- coaches face. For instance, they could develop alternative staffing patterns, and try to relieve some of the stress and pressure attributed to teaching and coaching concurrently (Sisley, 1987). It seems a tribute to Jack’s ability that he was teaching all AP courses as the youngest social studies teacher in the school. However, the fact that he was also assuming his coaching duties during the same season as the AP exam might have heightened his role overload. This would be a delicate balancing act for many veteran teacher-coaches not to mention a third-year teacher. Strong support structures could be put into place for other beginning teachers in similar positions, including regular interactions with competent teaching and coaching mentors, consistent induction programs and professional development, and regular progress conversations arranged by administration to support such teachers during this high pressure time. As Steffy & Wolfe suggest, “teachers make the difference for students, and they need support for their 154 continued growth and satisfaction in a profession with a high burnout rate. If we expect excellence, we must support it” (p. 16). It is my sincere belief that this work is important, can contribute to the literature on teacher-coaches, and represents itself as productive research in a field in short supply of an experiential knowledge base. As Pagnano and Griffin (2004) cite, “In the US, teacher-coaches lead approximately fifty percent of all high school sport teams.” Therefore half of the nation’s high school coaches are also teachers, similar to Jack, who attempt to navigate through the often high-pressured duality of their profession experienced during their respective sports’ seasons. As stated earlier in this study’s Literature Review, there is a large gap in knowledge about the lives of teacher-coaches. Most of what we know involves college level coaches or secondary physical educator- coaches; however, they account for only a small percentage of the population in question. Moreover, there remains an extensive void of in-depth qualitative information that can really begin to paint a picture of what life is like for a teacher-coach. I attest that this study may serve to at least splash a little bit of color upon what remains a relatively blank canvas. In addition to adding to the specific research of teacher-coaches, perhaps the review of this case can add to the ongoing discussions on teacher retention/attrition, career theory, teacher or coach burnout, teacher motivation, and role conflict. From a practical standpoint, I hope that teacher-coaches, especially those just beginning their careers can learn from Jack’s experiences. In addition, perhaps administrators such as principals, athletic directors, and even mentors can help recognize some of the things that 155 teacher-coaches experience early in their careers and can help to lessen the problems associated with trying to balance and be successful in each of these roles. The most exciting part of this study lay in the realm of the unexpected. Delving into Jack’s life as a teacher-coach was an immense undertaking. I remain grateful for Jack’s participation in this study, for he granted a gracious amount of access into the triumphs and trials of his professional career. This research lent itself to reflection, understanding, and most importantly learning about how one strives to be a successful teacher and coach. Osborn and McNess (2005) say it most appropriately as they state how teacher- career research addresses a need for further inquiry “into the ways in which teacher career theory applies to different cultural contexts and to how teachers adapt to uncertainty and change over the lifetime of a teaching career.” Although I did not have a chance to study Jack over the “lifetime” of his career, it was my hope that by studying this little slice of it provided some insight for us into the life of one AP Government teacher and varsity baseball coach. 156 REFERENCES Abraham, A., & Collins, D. (1998). Examining and extending research in coach development. Quest, 50, 59-79. Achinstein, B., Ogawa, R., & Speiglman, A. (2004). Are we creating separate and unequal tracks of teachers? The impact of state policy, local conditions, and teacher characteristics. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Diego. Aicinena, S. 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