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I.

Study of the Relationship Between the Cohesive

Broperties of Different Soil Mixtures

A Thesis Submitted to
The Faculty of
MICHIGAN STATE COLLEGE
of

AGRICULT RE AND APPLIED SCIENCE

By

Morris A. Cornell
—*

Candidate for the Degree of

Bachelor of Science

June 1954

THESIQ

 

Index

Acknowledgment ------------------------------ 1
Introduction ---- -------------- - ------------- 2
Soil Theories ------------------------------- 3
Soil Tests ----------------------------- ----- 6
Laboratory Procedure ------------------------ 8

Sample Recording of Plastic Limit

and Liquid Limit Tests ------------------ -- 12
Discussion of Data -------------------------- 15
Data for Soil Samples Used ----------------- - 16
Data for Combinations Used ---------5 ------- - 20
Graphs of Combinations Used ---------------- - 20a.
Conclusion --------------------------------- - 21
Bibliography ---------------------- L --------- 22

9‘11 46

Acknowledgment

The writer wishes to sincerely thank Mr.Lee
DePree and Mr.W.R.Collings of The Dow Chemical Co.
who so kindly offered the facilities of that firm
for this series of tests and who loaned to Michigan
State College the equipment and materials for ex-
periment on stabilized soil mixtures. The author
also wishes to thank Mr.L.J.Rothgery of the College
Engineering Experiment Station for his advice and

help in preparing this thesis.

[‘6

Introduction

For many years road builders have known that
the performance of a road depended on the properties
of the soil that it contained.

As many as fifteen years ago a government bul-
letin stated:

"In general, the physical characteristics of
gravel which determine its suitability for use in
surfacing a road are:

1. The durability of the pebbles or rock frag-

ments

‘. The quality of the binder

3. The grading of the pebbles, and,

4. The prOportion in which the binder is present."

Later in the same booklet appears the following
paragraph:

"The sand content should be at least twice as
great as the clay content; and the Sand and clay,
when thoroughly mixed should be sufficient to fill
the voids between the larger gravel particles."

Control and correct proportioning of the con-
stituent parts of the road surfaces has not been
easy, however. Characteristics of the materials
vary in different localities, and reliable methods
of measurement were not available to compare the
merits of different soils. Until very recently the

men who have become proficient in pr0portioning

soil materials have done so onl; through years of
experience by the trial and error method.

During the last few years a great deal of pro-
gress has been made in improving means for measure-
ment of the clay content and properties of the com-

bined sand-clay filler.

Boil Theories

The most commonly accepted definition of sta-
bility is resistance to lateral flow when loaded in
all kinds of weather or climatic conditions.

Stable road surfaces are mixtures of a number
of soil constituents, each of which contributes cer-
tain pr0perties to the mixture in a manner similar
to that in which the component parts of concrete de-
termine its characteristics.

The three representative tgpes of soils common-
1y found in road stabilization work are as follows:

1. Gravel and sand---Soils high in frictional

constituents, and containing little or no
cohesive material.

2. Clays-—-Soils high in cohesive materials

and containing little or no gravel or sand.
Commonly used to stabilize gravel and sand
mixtures which are low in cohesion.

3. Gravel-sand-clay mixtures---Soils which con-

tain appreciable proportions of both

frictional and cohesive materials. Sta--
bilized road materials are included in
this type.

Of these types of soils, dry sand, and wet
clay, and, to a lesser degree, loose gravel are un-
stable.

all soil and gravel road behavior can be ex-
plained in terms of the presence or absence of the
following five basic soil pr0perties:

Internal Friction---the resistance of soil
grains to sliding over each other.

Capillarity---the ability of a soil mass to
transmit water in all directions regardless of the
action of gravity or other forces.

Cohesion---the stickiness of soil grains or
their resistance to being pulled apart.

Compressibility---the ability of a soil mass
to be compacted without lateral movement and with-
out loss of water or air from its pores and to re-
main after removal of load.

Elasticity---the ability of a soil to be com-
pacted without loss of water or air from its pores
and to rebound after the removal of load.

Of these five pr0perties, only internal fric-

tion and cohesion are desirable to road surface sta-

bility.

5

When dry and free of clay, gravel. and coarse

and fine sand possess only internal friction. Pe-

sistance to sliding is greatest when the particles

are rough and have sharp angular sides and is least

when the particles are round like pebbles and beach

sands.

Frictional properties are best determined by

mechanical analysis.

Cohesion is supplied in any or all of four ways:

1.

3.

4.

Clay content---Clay supplied a sticky coat-
ing to soil grains and provides a resistance
to being pulled apart. Excessive amounts of
clay, however, upon becoming wet, lubricate
the sand particles and cause wet weather in-
stability.

Water content---In a limited amount, mois-
ture provides some cohesion. This is demon-
strated by observing the difference between
wet and dry sand.

Compaction---Bringing surfaces into close
contact.

Proper grading---Increasing the amount of
surfaces in contact with each other by cor-
rect prOportioning of the sizes of grain

used.

Cohesive prOperties are measured by means of

two tests, called the liquid limit and plastic limit.

Let us summarize, then, the properties of gra-
vel roads by saying that for a stable road, cepecial-
ly in wet weather, both internal friction and cohe-
sion are needed, and that these may be furnished by
a correct amount of sand and clay together with the
right proportion of silt to provide embeddment for

the sand grains.

Soil Tests

In the study of gravel and other road soils,
writers generally refer to the material retained in
the lO-mesh sieve as coarse material or gravel, and
that passing the lO-mesh sieve is called the soil
mortar. This latter fraction contains all the sand
and finer materials from the original mixture, and
its properties greatly influence the behavior of the
sample.

The physical tests that are usually run, how-
ever, are carried out on that portion of the soil
which passes the 40-mesh sieve, and the prOperties
of these screenings are actually measured. .This
portion of the soil is called the soil-fines. It
has been well established that a gravel having a
stable soil-fines fraction will have very good sta-
bility even though it is contained in a large amount

of gravel whose stability range varies widely.

It has been previously stated that the stable
preperties of a soil mixture may be measured in two
ways---mechanical analysis and plastic and liquid
limits. Of these two tests, the latter was used in
an attempt to correlate the relationship between the
'cohesive properties of different soil mixtures.

Before describing the laboratory procedure fol-
lowed, it might be well to censider the definition
and values of the tests used.

1. Plastic limit test---A means of finding the
moisture ccnteht at which soils containing
cohesive material pass from the solid to the
liquid state.

2. Liquid limit test---A means of determining
the moisture content at which soils pass
from the_sclid or plastic states to the
liquid state.

3. Plasticity Index---A means of measuring the
cohesion of a soil under damp conditions.

It is the difference between the two pre-
ceding values.

When water is added to a sample of soil-fine,
it becomes sticky and gradually assumes a state in
which it is plastic, that is, it can be formed into
a shape by the hands. The amount of water which

must necessarily have been added to cause the mass

to reach this state was the measure of the plastic
limit test.

If more water be added the mixture will change
from a condition in which it was plastic to one in
which it is not able to hold its shape when it is
placed in a receptacle and lightly tapped. The
total quantity of water added is again measured and
this becomes the amount of the liquid limit test.

If we then subtract the amount of water for
the plastic limit from that of the liquid limit, we
have left the amount of water necessary to cause the
change from a plastic to a liquid state, or in other
words, a measure of the cohesiveness of the soil

mixture.

Laboratory Procedure

After the various samples are received by the
laboratory, they are filed, graded, and recorded ac-
cording to standard practice. Only the soil-fines
or "through 40” materials are used in these tests.
The total amount of this material is mixed thorough-
ly in order that the results shall be a reliable.
figure for the mixture.

"For the Plastic Limit Test about 20 gms. of
”thru 40" material are used. They are put in an

evaporating dish and mixed with water until plastic

enough to be easily shaped into a ball. A small
portion is formed into a ball and rolled into a
thread one-eighth inch in diameter. If the soil
can be rolled to this diameter without crumbling,
it is too wet. If it crumbles so that it cannot be
rolled down to this diameter, it is too dry. The
moisture content should be so adjusted by the ad-
dition of either water or dry soil that the soil
starts to crumble as the diameter approaches one-
eighth inch, and that when one-eighth inch is reached,
the soil thread has broken into several short seg-

ments. The sections of soil threads are placed in

PAA577C Z/M/T 7557'

 

Abe ve ,a/asf/c //'m/r
A f p/as fie Ifm/i/

6/465 ,0/0/6 / //
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J In. a’iamerer)’

 

 

 

 

 

 

the oven to dry at 105 degrees C. After two hours,
the sample is reweighed."

The weights are recorded in a manner similar
to that shown following the explanation of the
liquid limit test.

"For the Liquid Limit Test, about 15 gms. of

10

the "thru 40" material are added to the plastic mix
remaining in the evaporating dish. The mass is
thoroughly mixed and water is added until the mix-
ture becomes pasty. It is then smoothed with a
spatula into a layer about three-eighths of an inch
thick at the center. A groove is made in the wet
soil with the grooving tool at right angles to the
edge of the evaporating dish, dividing the soil into
two portions. The groove must extend through the
soil down to the dish so that the dish is clearly
visible at the bottom of the groove. The upper
surface of the grooving tool must come flush with
the surface of the soil at the deepest part of the
groove. This shows that the groove is exactly three-
eighths of an inch deep. Having the groove exactly
this depth is very important.' The dish with the
sample is placed in the liquid limit machine with
the groove in the soil apposite the mark on the

machine. The sample is given ten blows by means of

[‘ .
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"If the lower edges of the groove do not Join

with ten blows, the soil is too dry and should be

moistened. If they Join before the ten blows have L“i

been struck, the soil is too wet and dry soil shouldkyprwp

be added. The edges are considered Joined when
they are in contact and cannot be separated along \ -f
the original line of division when carefully pulled
apart with a spatula. When the lower edges have

just Joined after ten blows have been struck, the

 

A/OU/D L/M/T 7557'

 

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Before fec/

 

Af/er 1‘le

 

 

 

fir

moisture content is equal to the liquid limit. A
small portion of that part of the sample which has
flowed is transferred to a weigh bottle and weighed.
The sample in the weigh bottle is dried for two
hours at 105 degrees C. and reweighed."

The Plasticity Index is equal to the difference
between the liquid limit and the plastic limit.

When working with soils of low plasticity indexes

12

Sample Recording of Plastic Limit and Liquid Limit

TGStS,

Sample 5154

No. of weigh bottle and
identification of test PL138

(a)Wt.of wet sample a weigh bt1.- 14.944
(b)" " dry " a " " - 14.786

(c)" " weigh bottle ------------ 14.036

ta)" " dry sample only,b - c--- .750

(e)" " water lost, a - b -------- .158
a .

(r)% of water‘d x 100 ------------ 21.5

(g)Plasticity index -------------- (29.0)

LL134
15.483
14.977

13.975

1.002
.506
50.5

13

the operator may hage some difficult; in adjusting
the moisture content so that the soil ribbon will
break apart at Just the right time during the plas-
tic limit test. In a mixture of this sort a fairly
wide variation in moisture content is hardly notice-
able in the action of the ribbon and care must be
exercised to secure accurate results. The liquid
limit point for this type of soils is more easily
defined. There isusually a relatively small mois-
ture content at the liquid limit and the grooving
tool will make a clear division so that the point
or points of Joining will be easily discernible and
the results should be fairly accurate, if reasonable
care is exercised.

Conversely, with soils of high plastic index,
a very small amount of water need be added to bring
the mixture to the liquid limit. The natural ten-
dency of the beginner is to add an excess of water,
and, of course, more of the soil-fines will need to
be added to lower the moisture content to the plas-
tic limit. This point is fairly easy to ascertain
if the Operator uses caution in rolling and Judging
the fitness of the sample. ror these soils with
high plasticity index, the liquid limit is the har-
der to determine. Because of the high water content
at the point, even a skilled operator may have a

hard time drawing the grooving tool through the soil

14

pat to form a well-defined, firm line. The mail
may have a tendency to cling to the tool and make
the sides of the groove hollowed out. This, of
course, decreases the accuracy of the test, so

care must be taken to make a good groove. Here
again a fairly large variation in moisture content
will not change the action of the test a great deal
so that the Operator must be very observant to de-

termine the true plastic limit.

15

Data

Before sending the samples to be used in this
series of experiments, The Dow Chemical Company very
kindly ran mechanical analysis and approximate Plas-
tic and Liquid Limit tests on them as a check to the
writer in order to eliminate chance of error insofar
as possible.

The first step then was to verify these plasti-
city and liquid limit results. In general, the ver-
ifications on the following page were quite similar
to the figures with the materials. The next thing
to do was to make combinations of the soil samples
to determine if the plasticity indexes followed a
straight line variation according to the preportion
of constituents used. Take a simple example for
instance:

A gravel may have a plasticity index of 2 and
a clay one of 42. If we take a mixture of 50% of
each material and run tests on it, we might expect
the combination to have a result equal to half the
differences between the two plasticity indexes, all
added to the smaller index ([(42-2) e 2]+2) or 22.
Similarly, for a mixture of 25% of the clay and 75%
of the gravel we might expect a plasticity index of
12 and for one of 75% clay and 25% gravel an index
of 52. Theoretically, the variations should occur
along a straight line in a manner similar to this.

From tests by The Dow Chemical Company, it

16

 

Mechanical Anal. Physical

 

 

 

 

 

fl by Weight Test
5; Soil
. Grave; 3 Fines
3 R r
. fi ‘i o 9? : ~g
O Q \ ‘ .
E: ‘S E‘ <5 g 3t ‘E ‘S
k) "Mt a a t ‘.\ M
x §§~ 3d 9 \I a
w . , g x
‘Q U \ a \ fa .U
E S-a-S‘é‘ék‘éhws *5
a) as». E930§io \ s s
\Vi '1 V1 ‘03 b \ \
5: F 223 39:3 V “k
escription o 3 \ s
Sample .0 Q‘ Q k 2““
A.‘3tandard‘SampIes
1400 Sand-Clay 0 0 O 0 b? l4 19 20.5 10.5

2412 Clay ' o o o o c 11 15 we 56 36

B. Sam 1es for
Testing
1.80118 low in
cohesion,
2510 Surface Soil;Barry Co.
Michigan 0 1 50 18 21 22 4 4 14.9 1.5

2557 Road Meta1;Midland 001
.Michigan 0 0 52 20 13 25 6 6 16.6 3

Bank Sand; * o o o o 12 es 0 c o
871 Pit gravel; " o o 20 as 17 25 s s 15.2 o

 

6172 Road Metal:Brcwn 00..
Indiana 0 c 14 13'20 25 16 11 19 2.5

6506 Creek Gravelzdohnson
Co.,Indiana 2 5 40 ll 10 10 17 5 28 3.5

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

' For practical purposes coarse sand Is considered as
passing No. 10 and retained on No. 40 sieve.

 

17

 

 

 

 

 

 

Mechanical Analysis Physical
Per Cent b Weight Test
’5611
Gravel gFines
I S
o§fi
- a ‘* \e N
0 . .-\
2: .3 o ‘g E. d m
‘ Q 2: E ix ‘9
\N “N Q tn t \ £
\ Q t 0 0‘9 0 -S
K. E 0 , Q .. \ §§
S \s 5 VS ox a V x
s \ u U ‘ornr\ s \Q s
w) t ‘3 .t 6 § s¢$ 3 C .\ ‘\
0\..L§L05R * 2
u 'k \
‘0 V1 ”“100: \ K
___i— '9 v) ”Kan \1
Description of § 6 s g \ a
Sample Q mlkih~l
h
B 2. Soils with
considerable
cohesion.
5154 Clay,Wisconsin 0 0 0 O 2 15 52 51 49 29
5142 ” ” 0 0 0 0 2 15 51 52 47 24.5
6192 " :Scott,Ind.0 0 0 1 5 8 44 44 45 19.5
2400 ” ;Minnesota 0 0 0 0 0 5 29 66 71 59
2467 " :Iowa 0 0 0 2 7 54 28 29 55.535.4
2465 CalichezTexas 0 0 0 6 5 56 15 40 56 19.6

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

* For practical purposes coarse sand is considered as
passing No. 10 and retained on No. 40 sieve.

 

18

has been determined that soil mixtures having a
plasticity index of around 10 and graded in the
prcper prOportions are most suitable for stabilized
gravel road construction.

Keeping this in mind, then, the next step was
to make combinations of the different soil samples,
using the plasticity indexes previously determined
and attempting to combine the materials in amounts
that will give indexes of 10.

Take for example samples No.5154(P.I.=29) and
No.6506‘P.I.=5.5). Since the index sought is 10,
it is necessary to find the amount the P.I. of each

must vary in order to reach this point.

No. 5154 No. 6506
29 10
‘10 - 3e5

19 6.5

Therefore the P.I. of Ho. 5154 must change 19%
and Ho. 6506 must change 6.5% to reach the desired
point, in this case 10. Because the total amount
of water change for each material must be the same
to reach the required P.I., a simple proportion will
determine the relative part of each constituent

needed.

5.5 ~ _1_
19 ' x

x 3 2.925

19

This means that 1 part of No. 5154 (high P.I. ma-
terial) and 2.925 parts of No. 6506 (Low P.I. ma-
terial) should combine to form a mixture with plas-
ticity index of 10. In other words, 10 gms. of

No. 5154 and 29.25 gms. of No. 6506 should give the
desired result when combined.

The percentage of each constituent in the mix-
ture is found by proportioning the relative part of
the constituent to the total mixture and multiplyingly
100 per cent. 1

No. 5505

-§L%%% x 100 a 74.4% of the total mixture

No. 5154
100.0%
- 74.4
-—2575% of the total mixture
When the tests were run on a mixture of these
preportions, the resulting P.I. was actually only
8.1, due probably to some error in laboratory tech-
nique. Over the whole range of combinations, some
of the results were above 10 P.I. and some below,
so that when they were all averaged together, there

was very little difference between the theoretical

and actual indexes.

Data for Combinations Used

 

Po I. miXe

 

 

Low P.I. Material th Pd: Material

flo. P.I. %3?1Mix No. P.I. %be”Mix

6506 5.5 74.4 5154 29 25.6 8.1
6172 2.5 71.6 5154 29 28.4 12.0
2510 1.5 69.5 5154 29 50.5 9.6

871 0.0 65.6 5154 29 54.4 8.6
2510 1.5 52.8 6198 19.5 47.2 11.6
2510 1.5 75.0 2467 55.4 25.0 12.2

871 0.0 48.7 6192 19.5 51.5 10.4
6172 2.5 55.8 6192 19.5 44.2 10.6
6506 5.5 59.4 6192 19.5 40.6 9.4
6172 2.5 77.4 2467 55.4 22.6 11.5
6506 5.5 79.6 2467 55.4 20.4 9.6
Avg. .1.88 50 27.97 50 15.7
P.I. Avg. Jix. theoretically should be ------ 14.9

 

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21
Conclusion

From this series of tests it can be easily
recognized that there is close correlation between
a theoretical straight line variation and the act-
ual behavior.of combinations of'goil samples with
regard to their plasticity index. The variation
from one side of the straight line or the other is
not enough to determine a general formula for the
discrepancy so that in general it may be stated
that with reasonable care in performing the plas-
tic and liquid limit tests, for all practical pur-
poses, a straight line variation may be assumed to
exist between the plasticity indexes of soil samples

in combination.

22

Bibliography

"Earth, Sand-Clay and Gravel Roads"---
U.S.Dept. of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 463

"Improved Low Cost Soil and Gravel Boads"---
The Dow Chemical Company

”Laboratory Testing Procedure, Dowflake Soil
Stabilization Department"---
The Dow Chemical Company

"Reports on Subgrade Soil Studies"---
”Public Roads", Vol.12, Nos.4.5.7,& 8
U.S.Dept. of Agriculture

"The Preparation and Maintenance of Stabilized
Gravel Roads"---
American Road Builders Association,Bulletin
No. 36

 

 

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