J l . v 0 j on ‘ ' JJ“ - . . . . - "" ' ' . ' -. . a 0v ‘V - A - . . G - a‘. ‘ ‘TIM‘- ‘V-’ . . . . ' I. . “"F, . - ”-0400Q9‘3"..~"y:”‘1“;'-VO'" v v ‘ - . -.- - . -" v v - . . _ . _ V v . [1 ‘.' .nw-o 0"“. . . ‘ I, ; ‘ -. « w- 0 o ,‘mw44m, "' . S . . . _ _ . - . . . _. .5 v ' . o o , , . . . '\ '. '0 Q s A oummm.._.smpv creams”: _ osvomn LITHOFACIES 1,» me. MICHIGAN mm ' ‘ " f: 1%:ch 51m umvgasm ‘ Bruce Burtqn Die; 1955 9UPPLEMENTARY MATER‘. AL {N BACK OF A QUANTITATIVE STUDY OF COMPOSITE DEVONIAN LITHOFACIES IN THE MICHIGAN BASIN By BRU CE BURTON DICE A THESIS Submitted to the School of Advanced Graduate Studies of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Geology and Geography 1955 ABSTRACT Lithofacies is the concept most geOIOgists have in mind when they think of facies, for it is generally understood that reference is made to rock. Lithofacies denotes the collective characters of any sedimentary rock which furnishes a record of its depositional environment. This study attempts to show how a quantitative study is made, the general conditions of sedimentation, and the facies' change as recorded for us today in the Devonian formations of Michigan. With these factors in mind, samples were obtained from twenty-nine wells, as equidistant and as complete as the well cuttings would allow. A quantitative study of any section involves sampling, disaggre— gation of the sample, and the classification of the constituent parts into arbitrary units which can be expressed as statistical data. The water-soluble and acid—soluble salts are removed from the sample. The sand, silt, and clay fractions then-are classified by mechanical analysis. The results of these analyses are expressed in percentages of total sample, and represent prOportions of the total section con- sidered. These individual percentages are expressed statistically ii by elastic and sand-shale ratios. The values obtained are trans- ferred to the separate maps and contoured. The two ratios are superimposed on a triangle which has been divided into nine arbitrary divisions representing a type of section based on percentage of the components in the section. The areal values obtained. from plotting the individual well values on the triangle are transferred onto an isopach-lithofacies map. Four graphs have been prepared along lines across the state showing the relative prOportions of sedimentation. These representations of sedimentation show the general conditions prevailing during Devonian time by the quantity of the various components in the section across the state, - iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writerlwishes to express his sincere appreciation to Dr. B. T. Sandefur, under whose direction this problem was under— taken. Dr, Sandefur's cheerful c00peration and friendly advice in this venture was most helpful. Dr. S. G. Bergquist's assistance in the preparation of the thesis and arrangement of aid in the laboratory is deeply appreci- ated. The writer wishes to express his appreciation to Mr. George Straight of the Michigan State Geological Survey for making available the samples used and for his elucidation of various stratigraphic problems which arose in certain areas. iv INTRODUCTION LOCATION . . . TABLE OF CONTENTS IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII PURPOSE OF STUDY .......................... METHOD OF INVESTIGATION .................... General . . . Laboratory Sampling ......................... Leaching . . Sieving . . . Pipetting . . RESULTS . . . CONCLUSIONS BIBLIOGRAPHY ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo .............................. 10 11 11 13 14 16 16 17 17 18 21 39 47 LIST OF TABLES TABLE Page I. Wells Used in this Study ................. 8 II. Laboratory Data ........................ 22 III. Statistical Data ........................ 24 vi FIGURE 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. LIST OF FIGURES Location of the Area IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII Location of Wells ...................... Geologic Column of Michigan ............... The Clastic and Sand-Shale Ratio Triangle A Scatter Diagram of Well Data on the Clastic and Sand—Shale Ratio Triangle .............. Cross-‘section of Sedimentation along Line A-A' Cross-section of Sedimentation along Line B-B' Cross—section of Sedimentation along Line C—C‘ Cross-section of Sedimentation along Line D-D' Sand-shale Ratio Map of the Devonian of Michigan ..... _ ........................ Clastic Ratio Map of the Devonian of Michigan A Composite Devonian Lithofacies Map ....... ISOpach Map of the Devonian of Michigan ...... Combination Devonian ISOpach and Lithofacies vii 28 29 33 34 35 36 Pocket Pocket Pocket Pocket Pocket Pocket INTRODUCTION "Sedimentary facies'l is a term which has been used in differentiating parts of historical geology. It refers to the com- bined products of past conditions and processes as recorded over parts of the earth's surface and represents a part of geologic history. Credit for the original recognition of sedimentary facies is given to Gressly and Prevost, who in 1838 observed the marked changes of lithology in Jurassic rocks of eastern France. Local variation in the nature of contemporaneous sedimenta- tion during the geologic past is not surprising when one views com- parable present-day differences of environment from place to place. On the land, wind, running water, and other geologic agents operate in making dissimilar deposits. In the sea, the character of the bottom, the strength of currents, the. agitation by waves, the depth of water, and other factors which affect deposition likewise produce dissimilar sediments. ‘ A sedimentary facies basically comprises one of any two or more different deposits which are partly or wholly equivalent in age and which occur side by side or in close proximity. The difference 1 between the facies may be whatever is deemed significant; that is, size, composition, and the like. A designated facies may be de- veloped wherever strata are judged to be areal variants of a genetically related body of sedimentary materials. The genetically related body of sedimentary rock is composed of parts which are commonly classed as a single stratigraphic unit. The term facies refers to distinguishable segments of a geologic entity. Thus one could not call rocks of equivalent age, separated by an appreciable distance and not genetically related, facies of one another. Areally segregated parts differing in some measurable attribute and belonging to any genetically related body of sedimentary deposits could be de- fined as sedimentary facies.1 Lithofacies is the concept most geologists have in mind when they think of sedimentary facies, for it is generally understood that reference is made to rock (lithos). Lithofacies denotes the collective characteristics of any sedi- mentary rock which furnishes a record of its depositional environ- ment. This definition applies in the broadest possible manner to sedimentary deposits without reference to how they are classified '7 1 Raymond C. Moore, Meaning of Facies, The Geological Social of America, Memoir 39, June 1949, pp. 3-16. stratigraphically. Facies then may be used. to differentiate specified parts of a designated stratigraphic unit. Krumbein1 agrees with Moore when he defines lithofacies as the sum total of the lithologic characteristics of a sedimentary rock. A sedimentary facies comprises one or more lithofacies. Any facies differs from others adjacent to it in having one or more lithofacies constituents which are absent in the others. It follows that two facies having respective features which serve readily to distinguish them may be composed partly of the same lithofacies. 1 W. C. Krumbein, Lithofacies maps and regional sedimentary- stratigraphic analyses, American Association of lietroleum Geologists, Bulletin, vol. 32, 1948, pp. 1909-1923. LOCATION The Devonian formations of Michigan considered in this study underlie all but a very small portion of the Southern Peninsula (Figure 3). The complete section is overlain by formations of later time, eSpecially in'the greater central part of the state. The Devonian formations around the fringes in the southeastern and northern portions of the state underlie the mantle of glacial de- posits (Figure I). The wells from which samples were taken for this treatise were Spaced about the. state as nearly equal as the completed wells permitted (Figure 2). These wells are listed in Table I. DOMHMON 995 ~ A mas . . p N “QIQPON/AN Er "I SAL NA ,» MAC K/NAC b 'Devonion Formations Overlaln By Glacial Drift. .:Devonim Section Overlain By _.Younger Formations. FIGURE I: LOCATION OF THE AREA OF CANADA VE E CANADA TRO/TF? I in. 31:55 ISLAND E R / E 5/(0 ‘ ’4 KE 5 u P E R I 0 R ‘ Onfomo \ DOMINION OF CANADA N . BARAGA ~.——../ g ' _ costaac ‘ is? . '-\ ' “Raving I LUCE (a 8‘6 . R ALGER \\ ' ‘ I ON 0 N?T\ scuomcnan cmnm A: \ . mcwson ncx mc ‘ - (007,, I ‘, Cfllflflft I ° ‘ " . :90; “Yomcouwv .‘ . . 0 1, I I .. ‘3' ‘- I Patsout ISLt 6‘ a, 3 0' e 1/ 9 0Q orszco ? IALPENA $ ,é i'aoumonzucv t 4 (I / S— b -' ‘ IALKASKA CRAWFORD oscogg “con; I b nuvzns: I I \ . c _. .1. Ism wurono ulsswnttnoscowon oouuw i nosco n / 04 I . b ’ I I O I \ ‘ I I ARtNAC ( '. MASON LAKE OSCEOLA ; cunt ouowm , 9* 28 z I F I e" HURON O .' F I on She I OCEANA MECOSTA ISABELLA'lquLAuo’ O ‘- : NERVGO _ 1 \ 6 T 1 __J YUSCOLA SAN“ ' I ' \ .7stch MONICALMI Gamer 5‘9“" I 27 "I Lu.‘ I *\ M"T9 cmstt umn 5AM '- ”A“ low amen sumssu. CUMl ‘ I I0 1 g \I n 4 ”cans I ALLEGAN gum um. gig“ afisrou 0“”"D I 9.2 x Luz" .‘ Z srcam I “big” 'L4AMAZOCI CALHOUN. JACKSON usmcm um: I 0 . CANADA . I5 2 ' atnmtn CASS a": r O / 6° '7 JOSEPH 3“" H HILLZSDOALE LENAWEE MONROE, ' 0 ./ LAKE ........................ /‘ i; INDIANA fir—u d'fi'zo't-' ER/E 3k FIGURE 2: LOCATION OF WELLS -————.__..____. ‘— ~-_Hi FIGURE 3 A DEVONIAN GEOLOGIC COLUMN OF MICHIGAN Thickness or dolomite Name of Unit , Description Remarks in Feet I Traverse 100-875 Limestone Bell shale at base. I“ group and shale é: - Erosional Uncgnformity P Rogers City 0-125 Brown Absent in southern f o r'mation lime st one Michigan — —~ h— p — Erosional Unconformity Dundee 0-400 Mostly Absent infisouthwestern f ormation lime stone Michigan — - —— _. Erosional UnconformityI 68-1124 Dolomite, F PT PT ' F 8° anhydrite “" and salt Cl) 8 _ _ fiRichfield 0—80 Dolomite, Subsurface only and “member with mainly in central and sandstone we stern Michigan :3' s w Erosional Unconfcgmitj 3 0-150 Dark lime- Absent in southwestern ‘ P . stone or g I; dolomite E PéIFiler 0-100 Sandstone Erratic distribution *8 and stone thickest in we stern IE Sfentil Michigan _ Egg _ _ __ L H 1 0‘200 Dark black % limestone st} ——— Sylvania i 0-300 Sandstone ' Sandstone ‘ with dolomite ember and chert Bois Blanc 0-1000 Cherty lime-I formation stone or $4 dolomite E __ a. _ A ,4 Garden Island 0-30 Dolomite formation 1 Bass Island _ I I dolomite Present only in eastern Michigan E ro sional Unconfvormity Absent in southeastern and southwestern Michigan Erosional Unconformity Patchy distribution Erosional Uncofllmiti1 h...— -————-‘ -.r.«-w,.. ‘._ , u,- v" 1'.“ TABLE I WELLS USED IN THIS STUDY Well Number County Township 1 Alpena Long Rapids _2 Cheboygan Ellis 3 Antrim Central Lake 4 Ogemaw We st Branch 5 Mason Summit 6 Ne way g 0 She rrnan 7 Muskegon Muskegon 8 Ottawa Grand Haven 9 Kent Ve rgenne s l 0 Kent Caledonia 1 1 Barry Rutland 12 Alle gan Lee I 3 Van Buren Bangor 14 Kalamazoo Oshte mo 1 5 Be rrien Benton 1 6 Be rrien Buchanan 1 7 Cass Milton 18 St. Joseph Lockport 1 9 Calhoun Albion 2 0 Hill sdale Camden 2 l Lenawee Dee rfield Z Z Lenawee Clinton 2 3 Washtenaw Superior 24 Living ston Handy 2 5 Ingham Wheatfie ld 2.6 St. Clair St. Clair Z 7 Sanilac Fremont 2 8 Huron Rubicon Z 9 Bay Kawkawlin TABLE I - -Continued Company and Farm Sec. Twp. Range C. W. Teater - Nevins. No. l 18 32 N. 6 E. Roosevelt Oil Co. - Ormsbee No. 1 l 34 N. 2 W. Ohio Oil Co. - Chamberlain No. 1 14 31 N. 8 W. Ohio Oil Co. - Reihnardt Consolidated No. 35 22 N. 2 E. C. W. Teater - George Piper No. l 18 17 N. 17 W. Newaygo Gas 8: Oil Co. - A. J. Bates No. 12 13 N. 13 W. Muskegon Oil Corp. - H. Heinz No. 5 8 10 N. 16 W. Voorhees Drilling Co. - Reible No. 1 36 7 N. 16 W. J. E. Flannigan - Croff No. 1 35 7 N. 9 W. Smith Petroleum Co. - Sherk et al. No. 1 21 5 N. 10 W. Sun Oil Co. - W. L. Kidder No. 1 8 3 N. 9 W. N. L. Stevens - R. 81 L. Starback No. 1 29 1 N. 15 W. Whitehill 8; Drury —- Ament 8: Webster No. 35 2 S. 16 W. C. L. Hook - C. 8: M. Hook No. 1 31 2 S. 12 W. Sprenger Brothers - G. Herwig No. 1 10 4 S. 18 W. N. Nelson - V. Specking No. 1 32 7 S. 18 W. Blair 8: Miller - F. Knowlton No. 1 2 8 S. 16 W. O. A. Avery - S. D'unworth No. 1 13 6 S. 11 W. Continental Oil Co. - J. C. Turner No. 1 15 3 S. 4 W. H. C. Rogers - Zeiter No. l 24 8 S. 4 W. N. J. Berston Jr. - A. E. Heath No. 1 13 7 S. 5 E. Voorhees Drilling Co. - I. Gove No. 1 8 5 S. 4 E. Colvin & Assoc. - V. Meinzinger No. 1 12 2 S. 7 E. Panhandle Eastern Pipeline Co. - E. C. Addison No. l 11 3 N. 3 E. W. H. Colvin Jr. - J. G. Glaser No. l 14 3 N. 1 E. Diamond Crystal Salt Co. - TEE No. 19 1 4 N. 16 E. Swan-King Oil Co. - G. Marshall No. 1 26 9 N. 15 E. Pure Oil Co. - J. Stapleton No. 1 22 17 N. 15 E. Gulf Refining Co. - Salina No. 1 34 15 N. 4 E. PURPOSE OF STUDY The purpose of this paper is to determine a feasible quanti- tative laboratory method of determining facies change and to study quantitatively the conditions of sedimentation during the Devonian period. The study is based upon samples taken .from twenty-nine wells located at intervals throughout the State of Michigan. 10 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION General The method of investigation used in this quantitative study of consolidated sedimentary rocks involves the disaggregation of rock samples and the classification of the constituent parts into arbitrary units which can be expressed as statistics. The purpose of a preliminary disaggregation as the first step in a quantitative study is to prepare the material in such a form that it may be representatively sampled in small workable portions. Partially disaggregated samples were obtained from the Michigan Geological Survey. From the prepared material, a representative sample is taken from each depth interval of two to five feet, and the samples constituting the Devonian section are built into a composite of the unit. This composite is then Split into a workable laboratory sample representing the unit to be analyzed. The sample is ready to be separated into arbitrary units so that a classification can be made. The first materials removed from the sample are the pre- cipitated components. According to the writer's classification these 11 12 have been broken down into water—soluble salts and acid—soluble materials. They-are removed in the order listed so that there will be a progressive and noninterfering loss in the component parts of the sediment. The primary constituent removed in the first process is the salt (NaCl). There will be other materials removed during this process also; however, these are insignificant as individuals, being usually associated with the salt in natural solution and deposition. The second process is designed to leach and remove the carbonates. Before beginning the mechanical analysis, a second disaggre- gation is necessary to break down any small aggregates which have stubbornly resisted disaggregation. It is imperative that complete disaggregation be accomplished before making any Size determina- tions. The clastic materials were separated into three sizes accord- ing to the Wentworth system of classification, and the values obtained represent prOportions of each grade. The three size classes are: (1) sand, that material ranging from 2 mm. to 1/16 mm.; (2) silt, that material ranging from 1/16 mm. to 1/256 mm.; and (3) clay, any material finer than 1/256 mm. The separation of the sand from the silt and clay is accomplished by sieving. The relative amounts 13 of silt and clay were determined by pipetting method, which is based on Stokes' Law for the settling velocities of particles. The values determined by this procedure are representative of prOportions of the various fractions of which the section is com- posed. The results and statistical inferences from these values are considered in the following section. Samples The samples used in this study were obtained from well cuttings kept on file in the office of the Michigan Geological Survey. These samples, partially disaggregated through drilling, are con- tained in small glass vials. Each vial contains approximately fifteen grams of a representative portion of the cuttings taken during the drilling of a two- to five-foot interval well. Most samples from the wells were collected at five-foot intervals. Thus, it is be- lieved that the samples available are generally well suited for this problem. An effort was made to obtain samples from wells having the most complete record in order to insure the greatest accuracy. 14 Laboratory Sampling A one-gram sample of the cuttings from each interval was selected. It was necessary to use a delicate balance, since the statistical expressions to follow are only as accurate as the weighed samples. Extreme caution must be exercised in sampling to insure a uniform mixture which is representative of the well cuttings avail- able. G. H. Otto1 has shown that sampling of this nature is agree- able only if the variable factors such as sediment size, mixture, and sampling technique, are very closely controlled; otherwise a very serious selective error can result. After each one-gram sample is taken, it is poured into a container sufficiently large to hold the composite sample. In this manner a composite sample population is constructed for each well. Before taken an experimental sample, the composite sample should be disaggregated to avoid the selective error so commonly associated with larger size grains. 1 G. H. Otto, Comparative tests of several methods of sampling heavy mineral concentrates, Jour. Sed. Petrology, vol. 3, 1933, pp. 30-39. 2 . Loc. c1t. 15 Disaggregation, however, must be undertaken with an under- standing of the effect of each process on the characteristics of the sediment. Of prime importance is the principle that no process should be used which in any way alters or destroys data to be ob- tained in subsequent analyses.l Breakage of grains or the removal of constituents will result in an error in the statistical constants to be determined and yield results which are biased in the degree to which the broken or removed material is an integral part of that statistic. The composite, generally being larger than that desired for a workable portion, is divided by means of the Jones sample splitter. The weight of the workable portion will vary somewhat with the thickness of the section, but to facilitate measurement, it whould be approximately 100 grams. Splitting the composite will reduce by the relative size of the Split, any error inherent in, or thus far introduced into the composite by any means. Since the statistical expressions to follow will be expressed as percentages, using a loo-gram or larger sample does not magnify any error which could be introduced later in the procedure. 1 W. C. Krumbein and F. J. Pettijohn, Manual of Sedimentary Petrography, Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., New York, 1938, p. 47. 16 Leaching Salt. The experimental sample is next placed in a clean 500- or 600-ml. beaker and accurately weighed. Four hundred or 500 ml. of warm water is then added to the sample and the mixture is boiled until approximately one-fourth of the water has evaporated. Wiegner1 has Shown that boiling was the most effective method of removing water-soluble salts from the sample. The mixture is then allowed to settle until there is no visible suSpended sediment. A 10—ml. sample of the liquid from approxi- mately the middle of the beaker is pipetted into a test tube and tested for salt by adding a small crystal of Silver nitrate. If salt is present in amounts greater than 0.01 gram per liter a milky- white precipitate forms. The supernatent liquid from the beaker is removed by a Siphon and the process is repeated until no salt is present in excess of this amount. When all the salt is leached the sample is then dried and weighed. The difference in weight repre— sents the amount of salt in the original sample. 1 G. Wiegner, Method of preparation of soil suSpenSion and degree of diSperSion as measured by the Wiegner—Gessner apparatus, Soil Science, vol. 23, 1927, pp. 377-390. (Translated by R. M. Barnette.) . 17 Carbonate. A 25—percent solution of hydrochloric acid is ~ added in small amounts to the sample in order to minimize the danger of overactive effervescence. After this action has ceased and the sediment has been allowed to settle, the supernatent liquid is'decante'd and fresh acid is added to the mixture. The strength of the (acid Solution is increased at each step during this procedure until effervescence has ceased. In the last treatment, the solution is gently heated, but kept below the boiling point in order to effec- tively remove the leSs soluble carbonate which may resist ordinary treatment. The supernatent liquid again is decanted and the sample is washed and tested with litmus paper until no acid remains. The sample is-then dried and weighed. The difference between the weight before and after the acid treatment denotes the amount of carbonate in the original sample. Sieving Before beginning the actual mechanical analysis, a physical I dispersion of the sediment should take place so that any small aggregates are completely disintegrated. The boiling and acid treatments up to this point have disemminated most of the ag- gregates, but for the few stubborn ones still remaining, a procedure 18 outlined by C. L. Whittlesl was adopted and modified to fit this analysis. Just enough water is added to the sample to make it into a paste. The paste is rubbed with the fingers or very lightly with a rubber pestle and then allowed to soak in water for several hours. After soaking, the sample is washed. through a number 230 mesh (1/16 mm.) Tyler sieve. The material remaining on the sieve, that'is, the material larger than 1/16 mm., is carefully washed into a beaker, dried, and then weighed. This represents the sand fraction of the analysis. Pipetting The mixture that passed through the number 230 Sieve is transferred to a 1000-cc. graduated cylinder. Ten ml. of a N/IOO sodium oxalate solution is added in order to disperse the sus- pended particles in the solution. Krumbein2 has recommended sodium oxalate as the best dispersing medium available for a mechanical analysis such as this. v—v— 1 Vfi—‘w—fi 1 C. L. Whittles, Methods for disintegration of soil aggre- gates and the preparation of soil suSpensions, Jour._Agricultural Sciences, vol. 14, 1924, pp. 346-369. ’ Krumbein, op. cit., p. 72. 19 The total mixture is then brought to 1000 cc., shaken well, and allowed to settle for two hours and three minutes. This time. is computed from the equation for Stokes' Law of settling velocities. After two hours and three minutes, a 20-ml. pipette is in- serted 10 cm. into the solution and a 20-ml. sample is withdrawn, transferred to a beaker, dried, and weighed. The sample weight thus obtained represents 1/50 of the total clay in suspension plus the dispersing solution employed. In order to obtain the actual amount of clay in suspension, 0.013 gram is subtracted from the clay sample weight. This value represents 1/50 of the 0.67 grams of the sodium oxalate per liter of solution. After the weight of the dispersing agent has been sub- tracted from the total sample weight, the remaining weight multi- plied by 50 represents the actual weight of the clay fraction in the original sample. This now leaves the silt to be computed. Since the process required considerable time for each sample, the silt was determined by adding together the fractions already separated and subtracting this value from the original sample weight. The value thus ob- tained represents the silt fraction of the sample. The method, even though logical has been thoroughly checked on several of the individual sample analyses. The pipette procedure as already 20 outlined for determining the amount of clay was repeated; however, the time factor was computed at 1 minute and 56 seconds. RESULTS The results of the laboratory procedure listed in Table II eXpress the actual pr0portions of the total sample considered. For ease of expression and to facilitate further statistical analysis, the individual proportions have been expressed as percentages of the total sample (Table 111). These values are expressions of the individual percentages of the components which constitute the total Devonian section. These percentages may be readily visualized by taking the percentages determined from this laboratory study for well number 1 in Alpena County. The statistics. are as follows: salt, 1.01 percent; carbonate, 75.81 percent; sand, 16.18 percent; silt, 5.84 percent; and clay, 1.16 percent. The percentages Show that this 2,038-foot section contains 1.01 percent, or the equivalent of 20.6 feet of salt. Likewise, a 75.81-percent carbonate expres- sion signifies 1,545 feet of calcareous material. The remaining percentages expressed in feet are as follows: sand, 329.8 feet; silt, 119.0 feet; and clay, 23.6 feet. A cursory examination of the log published by the Michigan Geological Survey reveals the following fottages of section as. close as the breakdown can be estimated: carbonate, 1,748 feet, sand, 21 . ._ _ ( ~,.-_L-_, - Iw—-—-__——- x 22 TABLE 11 LA BORATORY DATA w.m—§iflrw_- .——.. Well . Original No. County Township Sample Weight 1 Alpena Long Rapids 94.810 2 Cheboygan Ellis 102.470 3 Antrim Central Lake 97.220 4 Ogemaw West Branch 100.000 5 Mason Smnmit 114.410 6 Newaygo Sherman 11 0.200 7 Muskegon Muskegon 109.450 8 Ottawa Grand Haven 100.105 9 Kent Vergennes 93.985 10 Kent Caledonia 113.490 11 Barry Rutland 103.325 12 Allegan Lee 115.040 13 Van Buren Bangor 116.290 14 Kalamazoo Oshtemo 111.900 15 Berrien Benton 28.510 16 Be rrien Buchanan 5 3. 660 17 Cass Milton 43.400 18 St. Joseph Lockport 88.935 19 Calhoun Albion 120.010 2 0 Hillsdale Camden 9 8.52 O 2 1 Lenawee Dee rfield 38.2 70 2 2 Lenawee Clinton 1 06 . 040 2 3 Washtenaw Superior 1 09.81 5 24 Livingston Handy 106.410 25 Ingham Wheatfield 113.035 26 St. Clair St. Clair 110.300 27 Sanilac Fremont 95.830 28 Huron Rubicon 100.650 2 9 Bay Kawkawlin 1 06.400 Weight of TABLE II--Continued —w— 23 Weight Weight of Weight Weight Water-Soluble A cid -Soluble of of of Salts Mate rials Sand Silt Clay 0.960 71.871 15.339 5.540 1.100 0.570 85.410 10.565 5.025 0.900 1.415 76.275 11.945 6.285 1.300 10.280 69.932 11.535 6.803 1.450 1.955 76.834 24.463 9.858 1.300 1.545 82.155 16.365 8.885 1.250 0.230 77.025 21.720 9.225 1.250 0.815 86.270 10.190 1.030 0.800 0.230 76.115 13.495 2.995 1.150 0.035 83.193 21.113 7.899 1.250 0.390 76.941 12.997 11.697 1.300 0.180 99.070 8.615 4.475 2.700 0.305 103.704 4.654 6.027 1.600 0.550 97.008 7.144 6.048 1.150 0.425 23.185 2.414 1.336 1.150 0.865 47.599 3.014 0.782 1.400 0.310 38.800 1,857 0.833 1.600 0.505 73.105 8.088 5.887 1.350 0.455 95.762 15.231 7.602 1.050 0.540 81.680 9.711 5.789 0.800 none 33.583 3.804 0.083 . 0.800 0.145 90.405 9.455 3.785 2.250 0.925 82.620 19.455 4.865 1.950 1.255 86.604 13.184 7.867 1.500 0.150 88.360 15.505 6.720 2.300 0.415 90.678 8.962 4.445 5.800 0.765 72.688 9.825 11.202 1.350 0.960 74.103 9.857 14.280 1.450 0.445 74.685 18.295 11.425 1.550 . . .n ‘ rn II: . 24 TABLE III STATISTICAL DATA Well Percentage No. County Township ~ W W” Salt Carbonate 1 Alpena Long Rapids 1.01 75.81 2 Cheboygan Ellis 0.56 83.35 3 Antrim Central 1.45 78.46 4 Ogemaw West Branch 10.28 69.93 p 5 Mason Summit 1.71 67.16 6 Newaygo Sherman 1.40 74.55 7 Muskegon Muskegon 0.21 70.37 8 Ottawa Grand Haven 0.81 86.18 9 Kent Vergennes 0.24 80.99 10 Kent Caledonia 0.03 73.31 1 1 Barry Rutland 0. 3 8 74.46 12 Allegan Lee 0.16 86.12 13 Van Buren Bangor 0.26 89.18 14 Kalamazoo Oshtemo 0.49 86.69 15 Berrien Benton 1.49 81.32 1 6 Be rrien Buchanan 1.6 1 88 . 70 17 Cass Milton 0.71 89.40 18 St. Joseph Lockport 0.57 82.20 19 Calhoun Albion 0. 38 79.72 2 0 Hillsdale Camden 0.55 82 .9 1 2 1 Lenawee Deerfield 0.00 86.76 22 Lenawee Clinton 0.14 85.25 2 3 Washtenaw Superior 0.84 75 .2 3 24 Livingston Handy 1 . 1 8 77. 63 2 5 Ingham Wheatfield 0.1 3 78.17 26 St. Clair St. Clair 0.38 82.21 27 Sanilac Fremont 0.80 75.85 28 Huron Rubicon 0.95 73.63 2 9 Bay Kawkawlin 0.42 70 . 19 I 25 TA BLE III --Continued Expressions of Cla stic Sand—Shale Sand V Silt Clay Rafi" Ratio 16.18 5.84 1.18 0.3017- 2.3114 10.31 4.90 0.88 0.1918 1.7837 12.29 8.48 1.34 0.2514 1.5758 11.54 8.80 1.45 0.2487- 1.3988 21.38 8.82 1.13 0.4520- 2.1928 14.85 8.08 1.14 0.3187 1.8141 19.85 8.43 1.14 0.4188 2.0742 10.18 1.03 1.80 0.4198 3.5972 14.38 3.19 1.22 0.2434 3.2582 18.80 8.98 1.10 0.3835 2.3077 12.58 11.32 1.28 0.3382 1.0000 7.49 1.89 2.34 0.1590 1.2022 4.00 5.18 1.38 0.1181 0.8098 8.38 5.41 1.03 0.1471 0.9907 8.47 4.89 4.03 0.2078 0.9713 5.82 1.48 2.81 0.1073 1.3808 4.28 1.92 3.89 0.1098 0.7830 9.09 8.82 1.52 0.2082 1.1187 12.89 8.33 0.88 0.2484 1.7801 9.88 5.87 0.81 0.1982 1.4780 9.94 0.21 2.09 0.1395 4.3217 8.92 3.57 2.12 0.1711 1.5877 17.72 4.43 1.78 0.3148 2.8535 12.39 7.39 1.41 0.2889 1.4080 13.72 5.95 2.03 0.2771 1.7194 8.12 4.03 5.28 0.2108 0.8741 10.25 11.89 1.41 0.3048 0.7824 9.79 14.19 1.44 0.3408 0.8284 17.19 10.74 1.48 0.4182 1.4090 26 156 feet; silt and clay, 138 feet. Although these latter figures in general agree with the laboratory determinations, it is apparent that the actual expressions of total section are generally not found on the available well logs of the section, since the various compon- ents are usually integrated to some degree throughout the section. The limestone described on the well logs may contain various amounts of elastic material, whereas any elastic material listed may contain some clacium carbonate as cement. Thus these foot- ages need not, and generally will not, express actual zone or forma- tion thicknesses. This illustration points to the erroneous con- clusions which might be drawn from a measured and described section for a facies study. To express the individual percentages in a ratio which is a statistical measure, the over-all lithologic character of the section is determined by grouping the percentages of sand, silt, and clay into a clastic expression representing the conglomerate, sandstone, and shale in the section. The carbonate and water-soluble salts constitute the nonclastic grouping which represents the limestone, dolomite, and evaporites of the section. The Clastic percentages are added, and divided by the sum of the percentages of the non- clastics. The resultant is the Clastic ratio. 27 The Clastic ratio is augmented by the sand-Shale ratio which is a statistical expression of the amount of conglomerate and sand- stone divided by the amount of shale in the section. The sand per- centage (Table III) expresses the conglomerate and sandstone portion of the ratio and the sum of the silt and clay percentages comprises the shale portion of the ratio. The nonclastics are not included in this expression. The two ratios are listed as follows: , sand + silt+ clay conglomerate+ sandstone+ shale Clastic Ratio 2 ve ~fi = . . *— carbonate + salts lime stone + dolomite + evaporites sand _ conglomerate + sandstone nd-Sh i = _ Sa ale Rat 0 silt + clay shale The numerical values determined from the above formulae represent the relative amounts of material in the numerator of the ratio per unit thickness of material in the denominator. For example, let us take the sand-shale ratio for well number 1 which has been computed to be 2.31. This means that for each 2.31 feet of sand— stone and conglomerate in the section, there is 1 foot of Shale. These ratios apply as averages for the total section and are indices of the gross statistical lithology. The relation between the elastic and sand-shale ratios is illustrated in Figure 4. The figure is a triangle upon which the elastic and sand-Shale ratios have been superimposed. The Clastic FIGURE 4 NON - CLASTICS /4 /2 . I 2 “ 0:..qm Bkmdso I. 'la SHALE '— fifi' ‘[//1//~./]A//\_' - f /-z-///-:( /)\‘” 4 DIAGRAM ' D wowovp—Q-..~-_- . . ..- _ -.-. _.. . é / ’\\ x 1\ V7 \7\\i\\ X ‘ Y\ [\\~\"\\\ «\-\\-- ‘ 2\ \\ \\m\\ x X f/ V/ VJ/AA ‘A\ SAND 7' SHALE RATIO 0551031 FIGURE 5 -_.._. F.-- mm - cmsncs .\—-- * -~ ~ 0 ‘I \ . ‘ . ‘ ‘ . ,' I \ —-L y] ——.oao+1—_.-————— —— ——»—- -«J w -awa-‘J— —-. -. _-——— ——.—-—.—— o. . w _- -_ .. - 4,—- .—__— _. _—. __- A 72 '/8 SHALE I SAND. - SHALE RATIO SCATTER DIAGRAM 30 ratio is plotted along the vertical axis of the triangle while the sand-shale ratio is plotted along the horizontal axis. At the apices of the triangle lie the extremes of the. three factors considered in these ratios: sand, shale, and nonclastics. Each of these apices represents 100 percent of each of the frac- tions. The percentage divisions arithxnetically decrease from each apex. Thus the individual percentages could be plotted as points as well as the two ratios. The Clastic ratio and sand-Shale ratio scales are divided logarithmically along the sides of the triangle. The values repre- senting the elastic ratio begin at zero at the nonclastic apex of the triangle since at this point there could be no clastics in the ratio. The values logarithmically increase toward the Opposite side of the triangle. The sand-shale values begin at the shale apex of the triangle for the same reason: a ratio of zero would mean there could be no sand. These divisions progress logarithmically to infinity at the opposite side of the triangle. The triangle area is divided into nine arbitrary divisions for mapping the statistical lithologic associations. These divisions are based on values of the ratios. The nonclastic area includes those clastic values having a ratio of less than 1 to 4 or having 20 percent or less clastic material to 80 percent or more 31 precipitates in the section. Other Clastic divisions are made at points where critical values expressed by the ratios occur: at 1 (50%) and 8 (90%) clastic. The sand-shale ratio expressions are divided at 1/8 (20%) Shale; 1 (50%) and 8 (80%)Isha1e. The apical areas of the triangle. are sand or Shale. The divisions which lie between the apices of the triangle are intermediate areas which can be defined by the major percentage expressed dominantly and the minor percentage expressed as an accessory description. For ex— ample, the area lying between 1 and 1/ 8 on the sand-shale scale and between 8 and infinity on the clastic scale would be labelled as a sandy Shale series, and from our definition of this area, it would be apparent that the section would lie within the following limits: 20 to 50 percent sand; 50 to 80 percent shale; and 0 to 10 percent carbonate. The area between 50 and 80 percent carbonate and 0 to 50 percent sand would be labelled a sandy lime series. Tim-e did not allow a further investigation into a possible lithologic nomenclature based on the areas of the. triangle. How- ever, a study of this problem at some future date may prove of great value. It is the opinion of the writer that these associations might be classified into a System somewhat following Johannsen‘s 32 classification of igneous rocks,1 and be of great value in future studies of this nature. To map these. lithologies, it was found that contouring on the basis of the sand-shale and the elastic ratio values, an overlay map could very easily be prepared. The areas limited by critical con- tours are designated as type areas. according to our classification. Where two areas intersect, they are plotted on the classification triangle and from the contour limitations are defined as a certain type area.v Reference is made at this point to the elastic, sand-shale, lithofacies, iSOpach and combination isopach and lithofacies maps (Figures 10-14). From a perusal of these maps it will be evident how this mapping is accomplished. This endeavor has been orientated in the direction of de-— veloping a lithofacies. study based on the five fractions analyzed: salt, carbonate, sand, silt, and clay. It is the writer's Opinion that future studies should be conducted on this section in various other phases, eSpecially with reference to a petrographic study of the clastics and a paleontological study of the fauna. These two w—w 1 A. Johannsen, A Descriptive Petrography of the Igneous Rocks, vol. 1, Second Edition, 1939, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 111., pp. 141—161. reaffishi. at)? R‘ . ... .. . 37 mple s well Ition ~11 of Jery .rer, ified bed ions Iepo Si- Lion de - linear .riable, Iale .. 4 r 14. a . . . L I o IIIIIOIII I . i 14101:: l I aunii‘i . _ . _ » F a H . a . fi . . . ,. .. . . . . _ . L m i u .. I ‘III.-. I 1.0! I 10 ii i! '10 I 1 II VI IIII‘I 1 .i‘lv III 1‘. I It: .P _ MI . . . . — . _ h H. a . . . . a .i . _ . h . _ . . . n _ p. . _ m i . . . 5 _ . _ _ _. — s L III I .I I. I I I. v I II 111107.11! [.1111l OIII I01..II‘.II+I.IIOII IIIIIOI.-. 4. , . m . .1 . .. .. _ . . _ . .— . .. . . . . . . g .. _ . . , , . . _ mm: 7 . i . . o . , _ . , .. . H _ . III IIT IhIIIIIIl I II III I LIII I .IIIIII -. III . IIIII.I . II....I ....I III“ I . . - . I p n . . . . . .— _ . . n . 9. S ql 6 a. 2 k 0 I II 37 I.—--- V- .4 . t mple 5 well Ltion on of 7e ry «er, ified bed. ions . L n . . r . _ v . . T. 4 . . . . YIII III It I I .1 . IIIII‘III i Iii-I1 ‘1 Ieposi- :1 on de- linear ble , ria Iale . . . I . 4 . . I I... . . . I.I I ll" 14!.ll9ll I‘AIIIIIID. .IOIII _ . .. .. 37 mple 5 well 1121.011 . In of very ve r, ified .bed . ions lepo si- ion de - linear l Ia 8 1.. b a .1 r. Iale 37 phases could be very profitably used in an interpretation of the various environments of sedimentation. A salt map (Figure 15) was constructed primarily as an aid to the interpretation of the lithofacies map. Most of the samples analyzed exhibited slightly variable salt concentrations; however, well number 4 in Ogemaw County shows an extremely high concentration of salt which should be of some value in pointing out a condition of sedimentation. The map constructed of the Michigan Basin is very general, due to a lack of sufficient reliable information. However, as additional data become available, this condition may be rectified and the lithofacies boundaries become more permanently described. The map was constructed primarily for a comparison of conditions existing after Silurian time, which was a period of great salt deposi- tion in the Michigan Basin. The work on that secion is being deveIOped concurrently by another member of the department. A graphic representation of the conditions of sedimentation is illustrated in Figures 6 to 9 inclusive. Among the graphic de- vices used to illustrate conditions of sedimentation, graphs of linear variation with the size of some sedimentary attribute have been very effective. In this study, distance being an independent variable, is plotted along the horizontal axis, and the elastic or sand-shale values are represented on the vertical. These graphs could be 38 called cross-sections of sedimentation based on the elastic and sand shale maps. The values plotted increase with an increase in the elastic or sand values while a decrease in these values is repre- sented by a decline on the graph. The clastic cross-section repre- senting the ratio of clastics to nonclastics is used to illustrate the general basic deposition, while the sand-shale cross-section Shows a breakdown of the clastic deposition into the two basic fractions. A further breakdown could be made and illustrated by using the individual sand, Silt, and clay fractions plotted as values on cross- sections. For the values obtained from these sections, and in keeping with the nature of this work, it was deemed inadvisable to present the data in this form presently. CONCLUSIONS In order to interpret the conditions of sedimentation during Devonian time, let us first observe the structural conditions which were present at the beginning of this period. The Lower Peninsula of Michigan, as described by Eardley1 is part of the central stable region which is composed of a founda- tion of pre-Cambrian crystalline rock, undoubtedly similar to that of the Canadian Shield, overlain by a thin mantle of sedimentary rocks. In this region, an elongate basin somewhat parallel to the Appalachian geosyncline, covering the major portion of Michigan and extending into northern Illinois and Indiana was formed in early Paleozoic time. The greatest amount of sediment received by this basin in pre-Devonian time is found in the east-central part of Michigan. Although not classified as a geosyncline, sedimentation in this basin was of geosynclinal proportions. The Michigan area prior to Devonian time received approximately 9,000 feet of sedi-~ ments primarily composed of carbonates and evaporites. — aw— W V 1 A. J. Eardley, Structural Geology of North Amerigcfia, Harper ' Brothers, New York, 1951, pp. 12-13 and 26. 39 40 In early Devonian time the uplift of the two northern exten- sions of the Cincinnati Arch began to affect the Michigan-Illinois basin. These two extensions were the Kankakee Arch, a north- northwest extension which develOped through Indiana and northern Illinois into Wisconsin; and the Findlay Arch, a north—northeast arm which extended through Ohio into Ontario. The Kankakee Arch began dividing the basin into two seg- ments; the Illinois and Michigan basins progressively became more. individualistic. The earliest significant uplift preceded the Ordo- vician deposition of the St. Peter sandstone. Since that time, according to measurements made on the top of the Trenton Lime- stone (Ordovician), there has been a subsidence of 10,000 feet in the basins. Since Ordovician time, the Findlay Arch has had a history similar to that of the Kankakee Arch. However, the Findlay Arch may have been a low ridge at the beginning of Cambrian deposition.Z Uplift along the Findlay Arch was localized and of somewhat greater magnitude than along the Kankakee axis.3 fit a— 1 Ibid., p. 38. 2 G. V. Cohee, US. Geological Survey Preliminary Chart 9, 1945. 3 G. V. Cohee, Cambrian and Ordovician rocks in the Michi— gan basin and adjoining areas, Bull. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geol., vol. 32, 1948, pp. 1417-1448. 41 At the end of the Devonian, the Kankakee and Findlay Arches were well established. Gentle erosion undoubtedly occurred during the Devonian period and supplied sediments. to the Michigan Basin. By the end. of Devonian time the Wisconsin Dome also had become well established and supplied sediments to the basin. According to Kay,1 the Michigan Basin is a type example of an autogeosyncline which he describes as an isolated depositional area within a cratonic unit which accumulates sediments at a greater rate than the surrounding area, receiving those sediments from cratonic sources. However, his classification of a zeugogeo- Syncline also fits the Michigan Basin. This he describes as an ovate or linear area of subsidence in the oraton adjacent to cratonic uplifts deriving its sediments from complimentary uplift. To sub—- stantiate these points, reference is made to the preceding material by Eardley, and Krumbein and Sloss,2 who state that parts of the Canadian Shield were emergent at times and served as source areas for crat onic depo sition. M. Kay, Geosynclinal nomenclature and the craton, Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geol., Bull., Vol. 31, 1947, pp. 1289-51293. Z W. C. Krumbein and L. L. 51055, Stratigraphy and Sedi— mentation, Freeman and Co., San Francisco, 1951, p. 342. 42 In the light of these geologic events let us examine the lithofacies maps and the cross-sections of deposition to determine the conditions of sedimentation. In the southern and southwestern sections of the state there is a predominantly limestone section. The clastic ratio contours Show very small concentrations of elastic material. The sand-shale ratio contours Show a predominant deposition of finer material in the southwest corner of Michigan. An examination of cross-ksection A-A' reveals that during the Devonian period there extended through Allegan, Van Buren, and into Kalamazoo Counties, either a deep trough where few clastics were deposited, or an emergent area where clastics were removed from time to time. However, an examination of the general isopach map reveals an increased thickness in this area indicative of a trough. Farther to the southeast there is a large clastic deposition in St. Joseph County which remains quite uniform in Branch and Hillsdale Counties. A graph of the sand-Shale values reveals this deep trough extending into Van Buren County. In Kalamazoo County there is a gradual increase in the coarser clastics to the southeast indicative of a Shelf or epineritic environment in general throughout 43 the Devonian period. The cross-section points to the newly emergent Kankakee Arch as a source for these sediments. The trough then would seem to be a break in the Arch throughout most of the Devonian period or a relatively large sub- sidence of this linear area. The type of sedimentation to the west . should, in the writer's mind, be quite similar to the southeastern type as is shown on the B-B' cross—section to the north of this area. Farther north, in the western part of the basin, in Allegan, Ottawa, Kent, Ionia, and Muskegon Counties, the clastic materials increase and become coarser, indicating a near source of supply or a deep estuary. The contours seem to indicate a large channel with fairly low gradient in Michigan to meet these conditions. To the north in Lake, Mason, and Oceana Counties there is evidence of a large amount of elastic material. The texture of the clastics is approximately the same throughout the west-central part of the state. The elastic outline would indicate that the source of the sediments was from the Wisconsin area. Landes1 states that there is good reason to believe that many coarse clastic sediments were supplied to the Michigan basin from erosion of the Wisconsin i —v_—. — 1 K. K. Landes, Detroit River Group in the Michigan Basin, US. Geological Survex Circular 133, September, 1951. 44 Dome. He further states that the greater part of this material was windblown. The general configuration of the contours would seemto indicate that erosional material was conveyed into the basin in a depositional sheet from this area or that the material was windblown as indicated by Landes. The windblown theory seems most logical. The B-B' cross-section through the south-central portion of the state is very interesting. The deposition in the western part is the shelf type which drops quite abruptly into a basin. According to the elastic ratio, this is evidence of a definitely infraneritic type environment. However, the sand-shale ratio Shows a large increase in sand. This is the effect of the channel of deposition perviously mentioned. In the northern part of the state the precipitates again pre- dominate. There is a slight increase in the sand-shale contours to the northeast which would indicate that a very small amount. of fine sediment was derived from the Canadian Shield. There is general agreement that the Canadian Shield was emergent at times throughout the Devonian period. The Clastic ratio does not eXpreSS any great amount of sediments from this direction and the sand- Shale ratio indicates that the few sediments from that area were predominantly fine grained. 45 The C-C' cross-section through the north-central part of the state is unusual in several respects. The usual concept of the central part of the basin area Should Show an increase in precipitates and fine clastic deposition; however, this cross-section shows an undulating clastic deposition. A rise in Kalkaska and Crawford Counties is undoubtedly an effect of the depoSition from the Wisconsin Dome. However, the prOportions of fine to coarse clastics remain rela- tively constant throughout the northeastern half of the state. This points to a source of sediments from the west from which material transgressed east-northeast into the basin. The increase in amount of deposition is due to a Shallow, gradually subsiding trough through Kalkaska and Crawford Counties. The second rise in the amount of clastics, with no noticeable change in the size of the sediments, is undoubtedly due to little or no erosion of the deeper part of the basin, thus preserving a greater pr0portion of the clastics than elsewhere. There is evidence in the arenaceous limestone that char— acterizes the "Thumb" area that there was a source of material from the Canadian Shield —Findlay Arch in Canada. To the south of the "Thumb" however, there must have been a break in the Arch indicated on the lithofacies map and on the D—D' cross-section by the general calcareous section throughout this area. 46 In the southeastern portion of the state there is evidence of some coarse sedimentation related to the Findlay Arch and the Howell anticline. The clastic ratio expressed on the map, however, Shows this sedimentation as Slight in comparison to the total Devonian section. At the southeastern end of the cross-section B-B' the two ratios coincide in Ingham and Livingston Counties, and another small trough probably existed in eastern Livingston and Washtenaw Counties. An abrupt rise- and fall in both Clastic and sand values is noted to the southeast. This appears to be a result of sediments from the Howell anticline. An examination of cross-section D-D' shows an outstanding rise in the amount and size of clastics derived from the Howell anticline. The small decline in the eastern section of the state in Macomb and St. Clair Counties, points to the deep area which must have existed there from a probable sag in the Findlay Arch. 10. 11. BIBLIOGRAPHY Baker, H. A., On the investigation of loose arenaceous sedi- ments by the method of elutriation, GeolL Mag, Vol. 57, 1920, pp. 321-332, 411-420, 463-470. Cohee, G. V., Cambrian and Ordovician rocks in the Michigan basin and adjoining area, Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geol., Bull., Vol. 32, 1948, pp. 1417-1448. Cohee, G. V., US. Geological SuveLPmlimEafl Chart 9, 1945. Eardley, A. J., Structural Geology ofjofih America, Harper Bros., New York, 1951, pp. 4-37. Ekblaw, G. E., Kankakee arch in Illinois, Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., V81. 49, 1938, pp. 1425-1430. Johannsen, A., A Descriptive Petrography of the Igneous Rocks, Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago, 111., Vol. 1, 2nd Ed., 1939. Pp. 141-161. Kay, M., Geosyncline nomenclature and the craton, Am. Assoc. Petrgleum Geol., Bull., Vol. 31, 1947, pp. 1289-1293. Kay, M., Paleogeography and palinspastic maps, Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geol. Bull., Vol. 29, .1945, pp. 426-450. King, P. B., The Tectonics of Middle North America, Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1951, pp. 3-4, 39—41. King, P. B., Permian of west Texas and southeastern New Mexico, Am. Assoc. Petroleum_Geol. Bull., Vol. 26, 1942, pp. 711-783. Krumbein, W. C., A history of the principles and methods of mechanical analysis, Jour..Sed. Petrology, Vol. 2, .1932, pp. 894124. 47 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 48 Krumbein, W. C., Lithofacies maps and regional sedimentary- stratigraphic analysis, Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geol. Bull., Vol. 32, 1948, pp. 1909-1923. Krumbein, W. C., The mechanical analysis of fine—grained sediments, Jour._Sed. Petrologg, Vol. 2, 1932, pp. 140-149. Krumbein, W. C., and F. J. Pettijohn, Manual offiSfie‘dimentary Petrography, Appleton-Century‘Crofts, New York, 1938, pp. 1-212. Krumbein, W. C., and L. L. Sloss, Stratigraphy and Sedimen- tation, Freeman 8: Co., San Francisco, 1951, pp. 252-286, 317- 422. Landes, K. K., Detroit River Group in the Michigan Basin, U.S.fiCieological SurveLCircular 133, September, 1951. Levorsen, A. 1., Studies in paleogeology, Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geol. Bull., Vol. 17, pp. 1107-1132. Moore, R. C., Meaning of facies, Geol.‘ Soc. Am. Memoi: 39, JW, 1949: PP- 3‘34. Otto, G. H., Comparative tests of several methods of sampling heavy mineral concentrates, Jour._Sed. Petrology, Vol. 3, 1933, pp. 30-39. Rittenhouse, G., A laboratory study of an unusual series of varved clays from northern Ontario, Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. 28, 1934, pp. 110-120. Rittenhouse, G., A suggested modification of the pipette method, Jour. Sci Petrologg, Vol. 3, 1933, pp. 44-345. Whittles, C. L., Methods for disintegration of soil aggregates and the preparation of soil suSpenSions, Jour. Agri. Sci., Vol. 14, 1924, pp. 346-369. ' Wiegner, G., Method of preparation of soil suSpenSion and degree of dispersion as measured by the Wiegner-Gessner apparatus, Soil Sci., Vol. 23, 1927, pp. 377-390 (Translated by R. M. Barnette). "IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII“