A STUDY OF THE PRESENT AND $‘O7ENTEAL APPLECATEQNS OP wristoncs EN FOOD PRESzERVATEGH Thesis hr the Mn 0% PA. A. mcmm mm; unsalmsrrv Ember? J. 33mm 3958 W08 LIBRARY A STUDY OF THE PRESENT AND POTENTIAL APPLICATION OF ANTIBIOTICS IN FOOD PRESERVATION -by Robert J. Dunn AN ABSTRACT Submitted to the College of Businees and Public Service of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Marketing and Transportation Administration Curriculum in Food Distribution Robert J. Dunn The strain on world food resources brought about by a rapidly increasing population, coupled with excessive food spoilage losses, create demands upon technologists of the world to deveIOp more efficient methods of preserving and marketing food. This thesis embraces the present and potential uses of antibiotics as food preservatives. The method used to develop this topic was primarily a review of literature on many aspects of antibiotics: history, mode of action, medical and legal implications, and application to food preservation. Correspondence with workers in the fields of eXperimentation, production, and sales of antibiotics, and with an authority in food retailing, brought responses of particular importance to this thesis. The majority of antibiotics are bacteriostatic in nature, while some exhibit anti-fungal properties. As food preservatives, they can delay only that spoilage caused by bacteria or fungi., They have no effect upon spoilage caused by chemical, enzymatic, oxidative, or autolytic activity. For the permanent preservation of foods, antibiotics must be used in conjunction with established methods of sterilization such as heat, refrigeration, anti- oxidants, or possibly with some of the more recent experi- mental methods such as atomic radiation, ultrasonic radiation, microwave heating, or freeze-drying. Exnerimentation and commercial application of antibiotics has been directed primarily at short-term preservation of highly perishable foods such as meat, fish, poultry, fresh vegetables, and cheese: Antibiotics, when used in conjunction with refrigeration, have extended storage life of fresh poultry meat approximately one week. The storage life of fresh fish held in antibiotic-containing ice can be extended one week or more. .- / Fresh beef treated with antibiotics can be stored for as long as nineteen days at room temperature without spoiling. In areas where refrigeration facilities are unavailable, antibiotics could revolutionize meat distribution. More rapid tenderization of meat can be accomplished by permitting storage at room temperatures . immediately after slaughter. EXperimental preservation of green leafy vegetables by pro-and post-harvest applications of antibiotics has proven effective in adding from one to three days to I refrigerated storage life. Commercial application of antibiotics to these foods is hampered by the presence of residues when the food is consumed. Water rinses after treatment may overcome this problem. Such applications may depend upon the discovery of new antibiotics which are not 'harmful to the human body and are not used in human medicine. Subtilin and nisin have shown some promise in reducing the time and temperature necessary to sterilize foods by heat. However, neither antibiotic has exhibited the ability to produce complete destruction or permanent inhibition of food poisoning organisms. Nisin has also proved effective in preventing defects in processed cheese. The future of antibiotics in food preservation lies with the ability to adapt these substances to processes involving many different kinds of preservation techniques, each acting upon one type of food spoilage. The Curriculum in Food Distribution at Michigan State University is under the sponsorship of the National Association of Food Chains A STUDY OF THE PRESENT AND POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS OF ANTIBIOTICS IN FOOD PRESERVATION by Robert J. Dunn A THESIS Submitted to the College of Business and Public Service of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Marketing and Transportation Administration Curriculum in Food Distribution 1958 G I, “ F: r‘ ’2: |\x \ u ‘7 0\ fl . '5 \ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer wishes to express his appreciation to Dr. E. A. Brand, Director of the Food Distribution Curriculum at Michigan State University, for his interest and guidance during the school year and in the preparation of this thesis. Grateful acknowledgement is extended to The Grand Union Company, and particularly to Mr. Lloyd w. Moseley, Vice President in Charge of Personnel, and to Mr. Charles W. Garrett, Personnel Manager of the New York Region. Without their aid and assistance, the author's attendance at Michigan State University would not have been possible. - Some of the material presented in this thesis was provided by the following organization: The American cyanamid Company, The Chas. Pfizer Company, and The National Canner’s Association. The author is extremely grateful for their assistance. There are no words to express the gratitude the writer feels toward his wife for her encouragement, hard work, and tireless energy in typing this thesis. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . f . . . . . . Prediction of World Ponulation . . . . . . World Food Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . Waste in Food Marketing . . . . . . . . . Brief history of Food Preservation . . . . Antibiotics in Food Preservation . . . . . II. THE NRTURE AND ACTION OF ANTIBIOTICS . . . . Definition and Sources of Antibiotics . . Mode of Action and Limitations of Antibiotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . Application of Antibiotics to Food . . . . Brief History of AntibiOtics . . . . . . . iedical Aspects of Antibiotics in Food . Legal Aspects of Antibiotics in Food . . .‘ Economic Aspects of Antibiotics in Food Preservation . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . III. MEAT AND FISH PRESEFVATIUN WITH ANTIBIOTICS Spoilage of Meat . . . . . . . . . . . . . Methods of Application to Meat . . . . . . Results of Experiments with Meat . . . . . Commercial Application and Advantages . . SpOilage Of Inj-Sh O O O O O O O O O O O 0 PAGE QCfiCflP-‘H 13 14 16 18 19 r: as CHAPTER - PAGE Applications of Antibiotics to Fish . . . . 59 Results of Application on Fish . . . . . . 4O Advantages of Antibiotic Treatment of Fresh Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 ISummary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 IV. APPLICATION OF ANTIBIOTICS TO POULTRY PROCESSING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Observations of Poultry Meat Spoilage . . . ' 47 Brief History of Experiments . . . . . . . . 49 Commercial Application of Antibiotics to Fresh Poultry Meat . ... . . . . . . . 50 Application of antibiotics to turkeys. . .- 52 Labeling of Antibiotic-treated Poultry . . 52 Commercial Versus Laboratory Results . . . . 53 Promotional Efforts of American Cyanamid . . 55 The Franchise Program . . . . . . . . . . . 5? Advantages of Antibiotic Preservation of Poultry Meat . . . . . . . . . . . . . i 58 Application to Erozen Poultry . . . . . . . 65 Summary' . . . . . .'. . . . . . . . . . . . 64 V. SHELF-LIFE EXTENSION OF FRESH FRUITS AND ‘HIGMFKISE O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 66 Spoilage Problems Encountered . . . . . . . 66 Present Uses of Antibiotics in Controlling Plant Diseases . . . . . . . 68 CHAPTER - i P GE Preservation with Antibiotics . . . . . . .i 71 Salad vegetables . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Vegetables usually cooked . . . . . . . . 74 Fruits . . . . a . .‘. . . . . . . . . . . 77 The Problem of Residues . . . . . . . . . . 78 Future of Antibiotic Preservation of Fresh Produce . . . . .i. . . . . . . . . 80 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . f . . . . . . 80 VI. APPLICATION OF ANTIBIOTICS TO THE CANNING INDUSTRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Canning Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Sterilization by‘Canning ; . . . . . . . . . 83 Experiments with Subtilin and Mild Heat . . 84 Experiments with Nisin . . .3. . . . . . . . 87 The Future of Antibiotics in Canning . . . . 89 Summary . . . . . . . . . . a . . . . . . .' 90 O VII._ APPLICATIUVS OF APTIBIOTICS TO DAIRY PRODUCTS, EGGS, AND MISCEIJANEOUS '0 f FOODS AND EE‘J'EJ'LAGFIS o o o o o o ‘0 o o o o o Antibiotics in Fresh Milk . . . . . . . . . 95 Antibiotics in Canned Milk ano Puddings . . 94 Antibiotics in Cheese Manufacture . . . . . 96 Miscellaneous Applications of Antibiotics . 97 summa fly. 0 O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O 99 CHA PTER VIII. CONCLUSION: A CONBIN {1‘10}! 0F METHODS OF PRESERVAT I ON C C O O O O O O O BIBLIOGRAPHY . o . CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION War, the threat of war and the pressure of rapidly expanding pepulations upon food supplies are slowly focusing world attention upon three things connected with food: the search for new sources, the search for increased production and the prevention of waste.1 This study was designed to gather together available data on the present and possible future uses of antibiotics in the preservation of foods. It is a compilation of data written by numerous authors in all fields of food production, distribution, marketing, and technology. Because of the importance of food preservation to the entire world population, an effort was made to consider the possibilities of antibiotic food preservation, not only in the United States, but in the entire world. Predictign of; W :ngulatign . World pOpulation is increasing at the rate of? approximately 5,000 persons per hour. A new pOpulation equivalent in size to the United States is added every three and one-half years; that of India is added every —‘ A.‘ 1R. A. Bottomley, "Food Additives-~Preservatives, Antioxidants and Antibiotics," Food frechnology ig_ :flpstralig:x:2 (February, 1958), p. 63. eight 3" popllatt the yes fun 19 are exr America at 1955 Ferrite have ex area of Populst eight years.2 The United Nations estimates that the pepulation of the world will increase to 2,910,000,000 in 1960; to 3,830,000,000 in 1975; and to o, 270,000,000 in the year 2000. This represents a 115.5 per cent increase from 1960 to 2000.3 Unfortunately, the largest increases are expected in under developed countries such as Latin America, Africa, and Asia. Each of these countries will at least double their populations by the year 2000.4 The Carribean Islands, Middle America, and South.America, which have exhibited the most rapid human increase of any major area of the world, are expected to increase their populations by 188 per cent by the year 2000.5 This tremendous increase in p0pulation is due both to an increasing birth rate and a decreasing death rate. Life expectancy of white males in the United States in- creased three years during the period 1945 to 1954. In Hungary, ten years were added to normal life expectancy during this same period.6 There has also been a 2"Pive Thousand Million by the Year 2000," United Nations Review IV:1 (July, 1957), p. 30. SKingsley Davis, "Recent Population Trends in the New World: An Over-all View," The Annals of the American Academ of_Political and SociaI"ScI€HFEICUUXVI‘ I are , T958), p. 4. "'“" "'""'""" 4Ibid. 51bid., pp. 2-4. . 6npive Thousand Million by the Year 2000." p. 51- revolutionary decline in mortality in the past few years. Sulfa drugs, and more recently, antibiotics, have been responsible for a large percentage of this decrease. It is ironic that technologists are now looking to these same substances to help increase present food supplies to the level necessary to properly feed people over a longer span of life. World Food §Bpplies The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations was established to study and try to solve problems involved in feeding the peoples of the world. At the time when FAO (Food and Agriculture Organiza- tion) was established, at the end of the second world war, one prOblem above all existed, which it was the new Agency's business to tryvand solve: there was not enough food in the world. Many millions of people are still undernourished. This undernourishment has not changed very much since 1945, except that per capita production is now slightly above prewar levels. These are average figures for the entire world, however, and they conceal the extreme levels of per capita production at either end.8 To draw a comparison 7Food and Agriculture Organization, Millions Still Go Hun (Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture UrganizaEIon, U51 6 ations, 1957), p. 1. ' 31bid., p. 2. between the United States and one of the under developed countries of the world, the following statistics are offered: United States India Daily Calorie Intake 3,117 calories ' 1,040 calories Daily Protein Intake 90 grams 44 grams The people of India, like the peoples in many areas of the world, are fed only half as well as the people of the United States. There are, of course, many factors which control the amount of food available to certain peonles of the world. Food surpluses are maintained in many areas of the world while the people of other nations go undernourished. Transportation alone is not the complete answer to this prdblem. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations has defined a part of this prdblem as the "distribution problem." , By y'the distribution problem' is meant not merely the mechanical distribution of such food as is avail- able in any part of the world at any given time, but rather its availability for consumption where, and at times when, it is most needed. It is of little use for a government, a majority of whose people may be . living on the verge of starvation, to know that ten thousand miles away there are vast supplies of materials for feeding them,.even if those supplies were of a sort acceptable to these famished people, which all too often they are not. .71... 91bid., p. 3. Part of the answer to properly feeding the increased population of the world lies in increased production, part lies in improved distribution, part lies in education of the ponulation as to the bestjfoods to eat, and part lies in the reduction of waste by improved preservation practices. This thesis is concerned with one phase of this problem, preservation with antibiotics. Waste in Food Marketing There is no exact figure on the amount of food that is wasted during the process of getting it from the producer to the ultimate consumer. Numerous studies have been made to estimate food waste. Waste can be caused by ‘improper use of the elements of production, by an imbalance in production causing some foods to go unwanted, from disease and insects, from poor handling and storage conditions, from bacterial and other types of spoilage, from impr0per cooking, and from waste in the home due to improper buying. Some of these wastes can be controlled very easigy while others require a great deal of re- education.of producers, distributors, and consumers. One author has estimated that, "Each year enough food to maintain 150,000,000 people is lost through spoilage."10 Losses in various food products varies both Vt ‘— 10Bottomley, 10c. cit. with the perishability of the item and the type of handling it receives. A study of rail shipments of fresh fruits and vegetables received at New York City during the seven year period from July 1, 1935, to August 1, 1942, revealed that the average decay per carlot was 2.1 per cent for fruits and 5.8 per cent for vegetables. The following conclusions were drawn from this study: By assuming that decay occurred in the carlots not inspected to the same extent as in those in- spected, it was estimated that for the period under study decay of these 45 commodities during rail transit to New York City totaled nearly 5,000 carlots annually.11 Another source estimated that of 100,000 cars of vegetables shipped from Florida to New York in 1952 and 1955, the equivalent of 4,000 carlots were discarded as spoiled.12 According to a scientist from the United States Army Quartermaster Food and Container Institute, approximately $74.00 of each $1,000.00 of self-service food store fruit and vegetable sales is lost through spoilage.13 _‘_ A 11James S. Wiant and C. O. Bratiey, SpOila e of Fresh Fruits and Ye stables in Rail Shipments Unloaded at New"Y3FE Cit , 1935-42 11an States Depa rtmen‘t WKE?‘fiuTEuFe—: Circular 773 (Washington: Government Printing Office, June, 1948), p. 62. ' 12"Food Antibiotics: Market Meteor," Chemical and Engineering News XXXIV:50 (December 1C, 1956!, p. 3108. lsflarry E. Goresline, "Food Spoilage and Deteriora- tion," Handbook of Food and A riculture, Fred C. Blanck, Editor {New York: Rfiifihold PugIIsHing‘Ucmpany, 1955), p. 590. Losses in the marketing of chickens and turkeys during the period 1942 to 1951 amounted to over $152,000,000, or 11.5 per cent of total poultry production during this period.14 'Approximately twenty-one per cent of an annual shell egg production of 2,500,000,000 eggs is lost annually, twelve per cent of which is due to quality deterioration.15 Losses in marketing beef, lamb, pork, or veal have not been estimated by the United States Department of Agriculture. Brief fistory'gg Food_?reservation Man has known for many years that food will spoil before it is consumed unless some method is used to prevent the growth of bacteria and other organisms. People living in ancient times preserved their food by drying it in the sun, keeping it refrigerated in snow or natural ice, and by salting it. Accidental fermentation of grape juice and curdling of milk led to the manufacture of wine and cheese. Meat and fish were preserved while hanging over a burning fireplace. Lime water as a preservative for shell eggs was discovered in China years before the birth of Christ. 14AgriculturalResearch.Service, Losses in Agriculture, United States Department of IgricuITure, gr cu ural ilesearch Report ARS 20-1 (Washington: Government Printing Office, June, 1954), p. 157. 15Goresline, 22. cit., p. 596. 8 The science of food technology probably started with Nicholas Appert's discovery of canning in 1800.16 However, not until 1895 did Samuel C. Prescott and William L. Underwood apply the science of bacteriology to food spoilage.17 The discovery of quick freezing by Clarence Birdseye in 1925 was a milestone in food preservation. With this process, foods could be kept in almost a natural state for extended periods of time. Until the recent discoveries of radiation, ultra- sonics, and antibiotics, there were but a few methods of food preservation: (1) drying; (2) salting or pickling: (5) chilling or freezing; (4) chemical preservation: (5) heating or hermetically sealing and heating; and (6) inhibition of oxidation by packaging or antioxidants. V These methods have not been fully adopted by people throughout the world because they cause changes in the taste and consistency of foods. The majority of peOple prefer to consume foods as close to the natural state as possible. Radiation, ultrasonics, dehydro- freezing, and antibiotic-treatment have been developed to better satisfy these desires. 16Askel G. Clean and Daniel A. Mills, ”Recent Advances in Food Technology," Mechanical Engineegigg IXIVIII:9 (September, 1956), p. 353. 17Ibid. , « Radiation preserves food by killing spoilage organisms with ionizing radiations from radioactive sub- stances or high voltage electrical machines. These radiations are capable of destroying bacteria but often cause disagreeable flavors and odors when used in sterilizing doses. Freeze-drying, which has been used successfully by pharmaceutical manufacturers in the production of sensitive drugs, shows a great deal of promise in food preservation.18 Such foods as mushrooms, carrots, beef rib and sirloin steaks, veal cutlets, pork chops, lobsters, shrimp, straw- berries, and several kinds of fish have been treated. Peas have been changed to miniature ping pong balls and chicken breasts to balsa wood consistency by a process in which the food is frozen and placed in a vacuum chamber which causes ice crystals to turn directly into vapor without melting to water. Some of the advantages of this method of preservation are: (1) that food processed in this way does not have to be refrigerated, and (2) these foods can be reconstituted with almost any liquid. Certain technical problems still must be solved before freeze-drying can become a commercial method of food preservation. The A 18"Freeze-Dried Food," Time LXIX:20 (May 20: 1957): p. 610 ' 10 process is difficult to apply and has not yet been adopted commercially to use on low-cost materials like food. Ultrasonic waves have been successfully used in the prevention of crystallization of honey. "The results were astonishingly successful in every respect."19 Passage of sound waves through milk have been shown to improve the efficiency of homogenization.2o Hercury-in-gas resonance radiation, which is a type of ultrasonic radiation, proved to be less expensive and produced less flavor change than atomic radiation of milk.21 Ultrasonics appear to have limited application in food preservation but perhaps further experimentation will prove theSe ultra-high frequency sound waves to be helpful in combination with other methods of preservation. Each of the above new methods of preservation has certain hurdles to pass before it can be accepted on a commercial scale. That one will emerge as the only method, or as an individually important method of preservation is w if 1QSocrates A. Koloyereas, "Preliminary Report on the Effect of Ultrasonic Waves on the Crystallization of Honey,” Science CXXI (March, 1955), p. 540. 2OJ. L. Newcomer, et al., "Effect of an Electric Current on the Effieiency’3f'Homogenization of Ultra- sonically Irradiated Milk," Journal of Dairy Science XL (November, 1957), p. 1422. “‘ """'"'“' 21"May Can Fresh Milk," Science News Letter EXVII:15 (March 26, 1955), p. 197. ls"? -. extrenel other we Antibiot .1 must be p tion, s< canning preventf ”Irenshej number ft"Ode: bio (1). he Con EX? for Mr (41 Otis 61‘0- Dre bio ll extremely doubtful. Each will be used in combination with other methods to help prevent food spoilage. égtibiotigs in Food grassrvation Just as atomic radiation and ultrasonic radiation must be used in combination with other methods of preserva- tion, so must antibiotics depend upon refrigeration or canning to provide the greatest benefit in spoilage prevention. R. C. Kersey, F. C. Visor, and C. L. Wrenshall, of the Chas. Pfizer Company, have listed a number of ways in which antibiotics might be used in foods: . The following general applications for anti- biotics in foods offer interesting possibilities: (I) as adjuncts in the sterilization of foods by heat; (2) to prevent the build-up of bacterial contaminants prior to organic processing, for example, in the preparation of fruits and vegetables for freezing; (5) delaying the deterioration of perishable foods during transportation and marketing; (4) as an adjunct to refrigeration thus delaying the onset of spoilage in fresh foods; (5) preventing the growth of food poisoning organisms in certain processed foods; (6) controlling contaminagéon in biological processes such as fermentation. These possibilities will be discussed in this thesis. Chapter II will cover the nature and action of antibiotics, explaining how they work and how they might , 22R. C. Kersey, F. C. Visor, and C. L. Wrenshall, "Residual Antibiotic Levels in Food Products During Storage and Processing," Antibiotics Annual, 1955-1954 (New York: Medical Encyclopedia, 1954), p. 438. f v“ v be abilii nrimarily 8mm eff% therod\ antibi 0t 1) “M598 on ' QWEPKine Th antibigti the uge < Sta-$3 1 of “sec the” '9: “matey: benefit “Dultrw The 8?: (tannini or 681 covgre 12 be applied to food preservation. Because antibiotics are primarily therapeutic aids, their use in foods could have some effect upon their medicinal values. The attitude of the Food and Drug Administration on the application of antibiotics to food has changed in the past ten years. Notes on this regulatory agency's attitude are made to determine the reason for the change. The third chapter covers the application of antibiotics in the preservation of meat and fish. Although the use of these drugs in meat and fish sold in the United States is still not sanctioned under law, the governments of Canada, Costa Rica, Brazil, and Columbia now permit their preservation with antibiotics. The fourth and fifth chapters are concerned with methods of application and benefits to be derived from the use of antibiotics on pOultry meat and on fresh fruits and vegetables respectively. The application of antibiotics to heat sterilization by canning is discussed in Chapter VI. Antibiotic treatment of dairy products, eggs, and fermentation products are covered in Chapter VII. 'The fact that antibiotics will probably not be used alone in food preServation, and the reasons for this, will 'be discussed in Chapter VIII. CHAPTER I I THE NATURE AND ACTION OF ANTIBIOTICS This chapter is designed to acquaint the reader with a few basic facts about antibiotics, what they are, how they act, their limitations, and how they might be' applied to the preservation of food. Included will be a brief history of antibiotics and antibiotic substances from the time the foundations.for antibiotic knowledge were laid down to the present commercial production of a great number of these extremely beneficial substances. ‘The medical and legal aspects of the use of antibiotics in food preservation, particularly those used in human medicine, and the effect which their continued ingestion might have upon the human body will be discussed. The development of antibiotic-resistant strains of micro- qorganisms may effect the futureNapplication of antibiotics to food preservation. The Food and Drug Administration of the United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare has nude statements regarding the commercial use of antibiotics in 14 food preservation. The attitude of this regulatory agency will be examined in the light of recent developments in antibiotic preservation. Finally, the cost of antibiotics will be discussed in relation to the benefits which they can offer the world in terms of prevention of waste due to food spoilage. Befinitiog and Sourcgygi Antibiotics The word antibiotic is made of two Greek words, ”anti” and "bios," which.mean "against life.”1 Selman A. Jaksman, a pioneer in the field of anti- biotics and discoverer of.such well-known substances as streptomycin and neomycin, has defined an antibiotic as follows: , An antibiotic is a chemical substance, produced by micro-organisms, which has the capacity to inhibit the growth of and even to destroy bacteria and other micro-organisms.2 He later modified this definition by adding the words, "in dilute solutions" in order to exclude substances such as acids and alcohols that have weak anti-bacterial activity.5 Later definitions have included substances Inorigin °f Antibiotics," Today's Health xxx1:4 (April, 1955), p, 4, . , ._ ZSeIman A. Waksman. "What is An Antibiotic or An tintibiotic Substance?,” Mycologia XXXIX (1947), p. 568. 3F. A. Robinson, Antibiotics (New York: Pitman Pliblishing Company, 195377'p."9} ‘ 15 that are produced by animals and plants in addition to microbes.4 _ The above definitions indicate that antibiotics are substances which are capable of inhibiting or destroying- bacteria or micro-organisms. The principal source of these antibiotics are bacteria and molds, the former being the source of the greatest number. Apart from penicillin and one or two bacterial antibiotics that are made on a comparitively small scale, the antibiOtics of clinical importance are all derived from actinomycetes.... Actinomycetes are soil bacteria, normally found in soils and composts which are associated with plants. Soils from all parts of the world have been sampled and tested (and continue to be examined) for actinomycetes which produce antibiotics showing promise in therapeutics. In a search for antibiotics with antiefungal properties, micro-organisms have been isolated from Indian fruits and vegetables. {Thirty-nine isolates from two hundred plant sources were found to have some anti-fungal activity.6 4Ibid. 51bid., p. 47. 6Majunda and Bose, "studies on Anti-fungal ‘kntibiotics. I. Anti-fungal micro-organisms in Indian IhTuits and Vegetables," J. Sci. Indus. Res. (India, 1955) pp. 126-128, cited by Food meme “mtg XXVIII (1956), D. 118. 16 The sources of antibiotics or antibiotic substances appear almost endless. Although the majority of antibiotics discovered to date have come from soil micro-organisms, there is no indication that the soil will continue to be the major source. Anything which contains bacteria, fungi, or other micro-organisms is a potential source of these substances. Perhaps the next source will be the sea, or even the human body. Nisin, an antibiotic which.shows promise in the cheese-making and canning industries, is derived from a cheese-starter organism, Streptocgccus lactis, normally present in milk.7 Mode gfl Action and Idmitations‘gf Antibiotics The mode of action of antibiotics is still not completely known. That they inhibit or destroy micro- organisms is.sufficient for this discussion. It has been suggested that the reason why antibiotics have been so brilliantly successful in the treatment of disease is that they represent the end-products of a long process of natural selection in which perhaps tens of thousands of substances have been built up by bacteria and moulds and rejected before the right molecular architecture was found that produced a substance capable of giving the organism some advantage oveg other organisms in the struggle for living-space. _' 7H. B. Hawley, ”Nisin in Food T6Chfl010gy--1," Eflggg'Manufacture XXXII:8 (August, 1957), p. 570. 8F. A. Robinson, 33. 31.33., p. 118. 17 This inhibition or destruction, however, varies greatly with the specific antibiotic used and with the medium in which it is used. Each antibiotic is effective against certain microbes, some against a select few, and others, like chlortetracycline and oxytetracycline, against a wide variety or broad spectrum of micro-organisms. Because of their selectivity against bacteria, many antibiotics may cause an upset in the balance of nature, and allow for the more rapid growth of yeasts and molds. Although this has not been a problem in short-term preservation of highly perishable'foods, other applications may be affected. The food substrate to which the antibiotic is applied can have a detrimental effect on its activity. Such factors as acid content, water content, salt concentration, physical makeup (oil stratification), storage conditions, temperature, and strain of organisms, may have an adverse effect upon the degree of activity exhibited by an antibiotic. Some substrates may even destroy the antibiotic. Antibiotics affect different species of micro- organisms in different ways. Their presence may cause an organism to germinate (change from spore form to mobile .form) more rapidly. The organism may become less heat' :resistant, it may stop multiplying, or it may multiply at El much slower rate in the presence of certain antibiotics. 18 Applicatigg_2£ fintibiotie: to Food Because of the aforementioned variations in activity of antibiotics, their use as preservatives in food substances must be carefully studied to insure that spoilage is being controlled, and that pathogenic micro-organisms are completely destroyed. Each antibiotic which shows potential for food preservation must be tested under actual field conditions in the food substrate to which it is to be applied, and under conditions of temperature, pressure, acidity, etc., that will exist under actual storage conditions. Since scme antibiotics are destroyed by heat, their application in canning is limited; because others work only with heat to destroy certain organisms, their activity in fresh food preservation is limited. The problem of residues existent when food is consumed must also be studied and solved. Some antibiotics are destroyed by normal cooking procedures and therefore find application in preservation of'meat and fish that is normally cooked before eating. Others, such as strepto- mycin, have exhibited extreme stability in storage and in cooking, and therefore have limited application in food preservation. Others, like nisin, appear to be digested by the human body. l9 ,Brief History gfléntibioticg From 1885 to 1939 the real foundation was laid for the development of our knowledge of antibiotics.9 The antagonistic activities of micro-organisms were first eXplained during this time, although no mention was made 'of the production of specific antibiotic substances. The first names given to what are known today as antibiotics were "lethal principles" and "toxic substances."10 Antibiotics were discovered as early as 1907, however, these were too toxic to be applied in human medicine. ' In 1929, Sir (then Professor) Alexander Fleming isolated a substance from a mold culture and reported that it had a peculiar property of inhibiting bacteria.11 No clinical tests of this substance (which Fleming named penicillin), were attempted at this time although it was tested on many types of bacteria. Not until 1940 did researchers finally succeed in getting a dry, stable broth of the mold which produces penicillin, Eenicillum notatum.12 9Selman A. Waksman, "Historical Background of Antibiotics," Antibiotics Annual, 1954-1955 (New York: Medical Encyclopedia I954), p. 5. lolbid. 11Robinson, 22. cit., p. 3. 12Waksman, "Historical Background of Antibiotics," p. 90 20 The second world war had started in Europe at this time and a great need for effective therapeutics for war wounds was expected. American and British scientists and drug manufacturers pooled their talents to find methods of producing penicillin in commercial quantities. Production of a few million units in January, 1943, was increased to 130,000,000 units eighteen months later. At war's end, twenty drug companies were producing 250,000 pounds of penicillin to treat 7,000,000 patients a year.13 Actinomycin was isolated from a soil microbe by Rutgers University scientists in 1939, followed in 1942 by streptothricin, and in 1945 by streptomycin.14 These discoveries culminated almost twenty-five years of research on soil organisms by Selman A. Waksman and his colleagues. Neomycin was also discovered at the Rutgers University laboratories in 1949.15 Bacteria have yielded nearly one hundred antibiotics; fungi have produced the different penicillins plus one hundred or more others; and one hundred and twenty-five more have come from the actinomycetes, including streptomycin, “ , 13Dana L. Thomas, "Broader Spectrum,” Barron's XXXVIMS (November 5, 1956), p. 5. I‘Waksman. "Historical Background of Antibiotics," p. 9. 15Selman A. Waksman, Neomycin (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers Universi y ress, 1953), p. vii. 21 t actinomycin, chloramphenicol, the tetracyclines, neomycin, 16 and nystatin. New ones are being discovered and checked for their therapeutic values almost daily. Medical Aspects 2f Antibiotics in Food The principal use for antibiotics at present is in the prevention and cure of human disease. This, then, should be the first consideration in any decision to use antibiotics in food preservation. If there is any doubt about the possibility of food uses of antibiotics preventing or hindering the therapeutic.value of these substances, they should not be applied to food. Some of the ways in which antibiotics in food might destroy or lessen their therapeutic value are through a buildup of resistance among pathogenic 'organisms, a change in the normal bacterial flora of the digestive tract and increased sensitivity to the drugs. Numerous instances of development of antibiotic- 'resistant strains of pathogenic bacteria have been reported by medical authorities. Micro-organisms in the bodies of one-fifth of a group of mice_which were fed low doses of antibiotics for one month were found to be more resistant to the drugs.17 There annéars to be no doubt that: _ 16Waksman, "Historical Background 0f Antibiotics," p. 11. 1'7"Report Danger of Foods Preserved by Antibiotics," Science News Letter LXXI:19 (May 11,-1957), p. 297. 22 The continued use of an antibiotic in a given locality leads to the appearance of resistant strains there and, for this reason, the antibiotics in common use in American hospitals are changed almost annually.18 ‘ An increase in the resistance of micrococci found in indoor hospital air to the antibiotics used in that hospital has also been noted.19. However, there have also been reports that the danger from controlled, intelligent use of anti- biotics is probably not great. It appears, therefore, that the danger of the formation of strains of bacteria resistant to anti- biotics is not as great as might appear from some of these reports: however, it seems established that the promiscuous use of antibiotics may result in an increasgd resistance of certain strains to some of them. In an experiment in which 245 children in rural Haiti were fed'a daily dose of fifty milligrams of oxytetracycline for nine months, no increase in resistant strains of micro- organisms could be found?"1 19M. Ingram and Ella M. Barnes, "Problems in the Use of Antibiotics for Preserving Meat, " The Journal of Applied Bacteriology XVIII (1955), p. 559.- 19Frank B. Engley, Jr. and Joseph A. Boss, "The Comparative Antibiotic Resistance of Airbourne Micro- organisms Isolated from Hospital Areas, ”_Antibiotics Annual, 1956-1957 (New York: Medical Encyc10pedia, I957), p. 635. 20". F. Von Oettingen, "Untoward Effects Resulting from the Indiscriminate Use of Antibiotics," Antibiotics Annual, 1954-1955 (New York: Medical Encyclopedia, 1955), p. 37:. ’ A 21Elmer H. Loughlin, Aurele A. Joseph, and Louverture Alcindor, "Extended Low-level Dosage of 25 One effect of antibiotics on the human digestive tract may be to suppress the normal bacterial flora and lead to secondary infections which are usually less serious in nature than the disease but may lead to fatal complica- tions.22 Long-term, low-level feeding of certain antibiotics may also result in a deficiency of certain vitamins.23 However, in the majority of cases, low-level feeding of antibiotics to school children and to geriatrics has produced only beneficial results, with an increase in growth and general health improvement. The benefits of low-level antibiotic feeding have been demonstrated in animals by a twelve to twenty-two per cent increase in growth of swine over expected basal rates.24 Chickens have also shown improved growth rates, as have other meat animals. Another problem which may be encountered in the use of antibiotics in food preservation is that of sensitivity and reactions to these drugs by some people. Penicillin ,Oxytetracycline," Antibiotics Annual, 1957-1958 (New York: Medical Encyclopedia, 1958), p. 97. 22Von Oettingen, 22. cit., p. 572. 231b1d., p. 373. 24Henry Welch and Felix Marti-Ibanez, "Summation and New Perspectives," Antibiotics Annual, 195491955 (New York: Medical Encyélopedia,‘1955), p.’ . .zukrn. m. $1.... E v. . l Més l 51.)! 1r?!)- 1' 24 appears to produce the greatest number and most severe reactions while the broad spectrum antibiotics produce rare and non-severe reactions.25 These facts support the use of oxytetracycline and chlortetracycline in food . preservation. The majority of the reports of deaths due to severe reactions to antibiotics have been traced to improper administration. Over 6,000 pounds of beef treated with antibiotics were consumed by known persons during trials with meat preservation without a sing1e_instance of reaction or development of sensitivity.26 There have been no reported cases of skin rash or dermatitis in persons working with antibiotics in feed mills or in groups experimenting with fresh meat preservation.27 ' Legal Aspects 23 Antibiotics i3 Food The use of antibiotics in food preservation is under the regulation of the Food and Drug~Adminiatration. Section 408 of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act #A _‘ 25Henry Welch, et al., "Severe Reactions to Antibiotics-~A Nationwide Survey," Antibiotics Annual, 1957-195§_(New‘Xork: Medical Encyclopedia, 1958), p. 508. 26"Antibiotic Prolongs Heat Storage Life,"‘ The National ggpgisioner LXXXIII:22 (November 26, 1955), p. 104. 27Fred R. Deatherage, "Present Status of Antibiotics in the Preservation of Food," A panel discussion, Antibiotics Annual 1956-1957 (New York: Medical Ehcyclopedia, 1951 , p. 1120. 25 provides for the establishment of safe tolerances for residues of pesticides on raw agricultural products. Before a tolerance will be established by the Food and Drug Administration, the drug manufacturer must prove: first, to the United States Department of Agriculture that the drug has usefulness on the product: and second, to the Food.and Drug Administration that no harmful effects will result to the consumer. In February, 1955, the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare made the following statement in regard to antibiotic use on foods: The presence of antibiotic drugs in foods intended for human consumption, or the direct or indirect addition of such drugs to such foods, may be deemed an adulteration within the meaning of section 402 of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act.28 , A few years later, Wilton P. Rankin of the Food and Drug Administration, stated the position of that agency after certain experiments had proven the value of anti- biotics: 1. They may be used so that no residues remain in the food. This is acceptable. 2. They may be used so that residues remain in the uncooked food provided: a. The food is always cooked. b. The cooking destroys the antibiotics. c. The official tolerance has been ' established under the Food, Drug, A 28"Antibiotics in Food Preservation-oPublic Health and Regulatory Aspects," Science cxxv1:524e (December 6, 1957), p. 1160. “"“" and Cosmetic Act for the residue that remains in the uncooked food. , d. The residue is within this tolerance. 5. Antibiotics have been proposed for uses that will leave some of the chemical in the food as it is eaten. Their safety under these conditions has not been established. They should not be used in this way until we know more about the effect of 2&6 residues on man and on micro-organisms.‘ The use of antibiotics on poultry has been established and sanctioned under law by the Food and Drug Administration. The tolerance of antibiotic on raw poultry has been set at seven parts per million. This food is presently the only one on which antibiotics may be used in the United States. However, petitions have been placed with the Food and Drug'Administration for tolerances of antibiotics on fresh fish. The government of Canada has arproved the use of antibiotics in the preservation of fresh fish, with an established tolerance of five‘parts per million. Columbia and Costa Rica permit antibiotic preservation of beef, and the government of Brazil allows antibiotic preservation of beef, poultry, and fish. Ecgpomis ASheets g; Antibiotics 12_Food Presergation The first chapter has indicated the amount of loss in food supplies throughout the world. If antibiotics 29"Antibiotics for Fishery Products Preservation," Commercial Fisheries Review XVIII:12 (December, 1956), pp. 25-280 — ‘ 27 could reduce this loss a few percentage points, their use would be economically feasible. The justification for food additives such as antibiotics are primarily from the - standpoint of consumer benefits: they should maintain the nutritional quality of_the Poods; they should enhance the keeping quality or stability of the food, thus reducing waste; they should make the food attractive; or they should provide essential aids in the processing of foods, thus reducing costoso Antibiotics have been shown to prevent waste and maintain the nutritional quality of foods over extended storage periods. The cost of doing this has been minimal and some retailers and processors are willing to absorb this added cost for insurance of a better product. \ Omytetracycline treatment would cost approximately a mill to one cent per pennd of food treated;:51 the cost of chlortetracycline treatment is about one-third of a cent per pound;32 the cost of oxytetracycline to the poultry processor is only about four-tenths of a cent per 0‘ 30R. A. Bottomley, "Food Additives--Preservatives, Antioxidants and Antibiotics," Food Technol 0 ‘12 Australia Xz2 (February, 1958),“ pp. . 31Loughlin, Joseph, and Alcindor, 22. cit., p. 95. 32"Antibiotics and Food, " Chemical and Engineering News XXXIII: 50 (December 12,1955}, p. 5353: -28 pound;33 and the cost of subtilin treatment of canned foods has been estimated at one-tenth of a cent per can.34 As new techniques are devised and more antibiotics are produced synthetically, costs will be reduced without any reduction of benefits. Antibiotics can be a less expensive method of preservation than refrigeration in certain under developed countries. Summary - Antibiotics are substances produced by micro- organisms capable of destroying or inhibiting other micro- organisms. They vary in their bacteriostatic properties in that some are capable of inhibiting a wide range of bacteria while'others can affect only a select few. The majority of antibiotics are effective only against bacteria, while a few are effective against yeasts and molds. Prdblems may arise as a result of food preservation with antibiotics in that certain bacteria are capable of building up resistance to these substances. This danger is apparent particularly with the use of antibiotics against human parasites. Should human pathogens develop resistance to a therapeutic antibiotic as a result of long term WV— WV— 33"Food Antibioticso-narket Meteor," ChemiCal and Engineerigngews XXXIV:50 (December 10, 19535, p. EIUE: 54"Antibiotic Preserves Food," Science News Letter LVII:21 (May 27, 1950), p. 325. "'""“'"" ‘- """" 29 ingestion, new methods of disease control must be devised. Some persons exhibit reactions to certain drugs and their presence in food products could present medical problems. This sensitivity might be built up as a result of long-term feeding. Because there is limited proof both for and against these theories, food uses of antibiotics must be limited to those substances which will be destroyed prior to consumption. The Feed and Drug Administration of the Federal Government regulates the use of antibiotics in foods under the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. Tolerances must be. established by this agency, but only after the United States Department of Agriculture is satisfied that the drug has definite usefulness in the food. The cost of antibiotic preservation of food is very minor compared with the amount of money and food that could be saved as a result of reduction in spoilage. As new antibiotics are discovered that have potential in food preservation, and as new methods are devised to produce these substances at lower cost, antibiotic preservation of foods will become more widespread. CHAPTER III HEAT AND FISH PRESERVATION WITH ANTIBIOTICS The flesh of meat and fish are ideal media for the growth of bacteria. Man has learned to preserve meat and fish in many ways: by salting, canning, pickling, and drying. All of these processes have an effect upon the taste and appearance of the meat or fish. Freezing and refrigeration have proven valuable means of holding flesh foods satisfactorily for short periods of time, however, mechanical refrigeration facilities are not available in many parts of the world. ' Antibiotics have proven to be of value in retarding bacterial decomposition of fish and red meats. Preservation of these foods with antibiotics has already been approved by the governments of at least three countries. In the laboratory, and under simulated commercial conditions, certain broad spectrum antibiotics have not only extended the shelf-life of fish and meat, but have also sharply re- duced the length of time necessary for enzymatic tenderizing of meat. Spoilage 23 Heat _ Scientists at the Ohio State Agricultural Experiment J .nb lnrf. ,E-I.§~ ‘l m r311..|l.n.. a: 51 Station have isolated ninety-two micro-organisms responsible for meat spoilage.1 Bacteria are responsible for surface spoilage and for deep spoilage in meats. In order to pre- vent mieredorganism from causing deep spoilage of beef, the carcass must be placed under refrigeration immediately after killing and dressing. The activity of enzymes naturally present in meats, which are responsible for the ”aging" or ”tenderizing" process, are slowed down at low temperatures. The future pepulation of this country may eventually require the marketing of more and more lower grade cattle in retail stores. In order to tenderize these tougher steers, beef must be hung under refrigeration for periods of up to three or four weeks. In addition to bacterial spoilage of meats, there is also damage by yeasts and molds. Although these micro- organisms are innocuous from the standpoint of the health of the consumer, they must be reckoned with from the stand- point of appearance of the product. Two other types of loss in quality of meat are oxidative and physical in nature. The oxidative loss causes a darkening and browning of the surface of the meat, and occurs even if microbial growth can be controlled. The physical loss, or "drip loss," is a reduction in weight {body fluids) which can eventually lead 1Milton Silverman, "New Way to Keep Food Fresh." Readers Digest LXVIII:410 (June, 1956), p. 75. r) to dehydration {quality 1053).“ Methods 2!: Applicatign 1:2 193.2 "The first method used for the introduction of anti- biotics into whole animals was the infusion method."3 This method involved bleeding the animal and pumping an antibiotic solution through the blood system. The procedure was difficult to administer and required well-trained .personnel: it was time consuming; a possibility existed of pumping foreign matter into the animal; and water absorption by the carcass was excessive.‘ Other methods such as spraying and dipping were found to protect the surface of the meat but had little control over deep spoilage. Injection of individual rounds proved satisfactory, but this, too, was time consuming and required skilled Operators. The most recent method of application of antibiotics to beef cattle, swine, and sheep, is an injection prior to slaughter. The antibiotic is mixed in a saline solution 20. F. Niven, Jr., and w. R. Chesbro, "Complemen- tary Action of Antibiotics and Irradiation in the Preserva- tion of Fresh Meats,”'Antibiotics Annual, 1956-1957 (New Yerk: Medical EhcycIopeaIa, 1957Tt-p. 853. 3E. M. Sacchi, J. R. lcuahan, R. c. Ottke, and C. L.‘Wrenshall, "New Methods of Pro-Slaughter Administra- tion of Antibiotics," Paper presented at 17th Annual Meeting of the Institute of Food Technologists, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, May 12-16, 1956, p. 1. 4Ibid. 53 and injected into the peritoneal cavity of the animal one to four hours before slaughter. The circulatory system of the live animal acts as the carrier and distributes the antibiotic evenly throughout the carcass. The method is easy t0>administer, and regular packinghouse employees can easily be taught where and hou'to inject the animals.5 In addition to pro-slaughter injection of hogs, an antibiotic spray was found helpful in reducing discolora- tion of exposed areas of flesh.6 Results‘gg Experiments With.Meat Some remarkable results have been recorded on the antibiotic preservation experiments carried out to date. A comparison of treated and untreated rounds of beef kept for forty-eight hours at room temperatures indicates that ———— 5.1. R. nemamn,_a. E. Downing, a. c. Ottke, H. s. Luther, and C. L. Wrenshall, "Antibiotic Preservation of Heats. I. Preliminary Experiments with Intraperitoneal s Injection of Animals before Slaughter," Antibiotics Annual, 1955-1956 (New Yerk: Medical Encyclepediij—TUSBTt'EpT—WZW: ; . . Sacchi, J. R. McMahan, R. C. Ottke, and R. C. Kersey,” Antibiotic Preservation of Meats. II. Intraperito- neal Injection of Oxytetracycline in Beef Cattle,” Antibiotics Annual, 1955-1956 (New Yerk: Medical Encyclo- pedia, 1953), pp. 731-733: H. E. Downing, W. B. Hardie, J. R. flcuahan, and D. C. Billman, "Antibiotic Preservation of nests. III. Intraperitoneal Injection of Oxytetracycline in sheep," Antibiotics Annual, 1955-1956 (New York: ledical .EncycIOpedia, 1955}, pp. v3I-736; and H. E. Downing, J. R. lcliahan and C. Baker, ”Antibiotic Preservation of Meats. IV. Intraperitoneal Injection of Oxytetracycline in Hogs," Kntibiotics Annual, 1955q1956 (New'York: Medical Encyclo- Peaia. 1553), pp. 73 - . ‘ 6Downing, Hclahan, and Baker, 22, cit., p. 738. 34 all rounds infused with chlortetracycline were sound. Seven of the ten untreated rounds exhibited some off-color at some point.7 Some beef rounds have been held for as long as nine days at room temperature without spoiling.8 Perhaps more significant were the results of experiments by the same group of workers on whole animals infused with chlortetracycline. The carcasses were split, and one side was immediately chilled whereas the other was allowed to stay at room temperature for forty-eight hours prior to chilling. Steaks from the sides kept at room temperature for forty-eight hours and then chilled were as tender at five days post-mortem as the others were at two weeks post-mortem and from a taster's point of view, indistinguishable from normal meat.9 ‘ The storage life of fresh ground beef held at 10°C (50°F) was extended to nine days by the addition of one- half to two parts per million of chloraphenicol, chlortetra- cycline, and oxytetracycline. Controls, and penicillin-, bacitarin- and streptomycin-treated samplesxspoiled in 13. H. Weiser, H. S. Goldberg, V. R. Cahill, L. E. Kunkle, and F. E. Deatherage, Observations on Fresh Meat Processed by the Infusion of Antibiotics,” Food Technology VI (1953), p. 496. 8"Antibiotic Prolongs Meat Storage Life," The National Provisioner CXXXIII:22 (November_26, 19557? p. 105. 9. Weiser, 3.3.". 3., gpfcit” p. 498. 35’ five days.10 camaguey, Cuba was the site of an experiment carried out by American scientists exploring the possibilities of the use of antibiotic-treatment in warm climates. Thirty freshly slaughtered steers, fifteen of which had been infused with antibiotics prior to slaughter, were sent by refrigerated truck over a 300 mile journey. The truck broke down enroute and the beef stayed under the hot sun for two days while repairs were made. When the beef finally reached its destination, it was carefully examined by the researchers. The fifteen untreated carcasses were completely spoiled while the other fifteen were "surpris- ingly fresh."11 Fresh pork sausage treated with two parts per million of chlortetracycline could be stored at 5°C (41°F) for thirteen days whereas untreated sausage was spoiled at seven days.12 Ten parts per million of the same drug added to hamburger increased refrigerated shelf-life of this highly perishable commodity from approximately four 108. S. Goldberg, H. H.-Weiser, and F. E. Deatherage, "Studies of Meat. IV. Use of Antibiotics in Preservation of Fresh Beef,” Food Technology VI (1953), p. 166. 11SilvermanLgp. cit., p. 71. 12Frank Gerard, finest," Food Manufacture XXII:2 (February 1, 1957), p. 62. _ . 66 days to at least ten days.13 Commercial Application agg.Advantaggs In December, 1956, the government of Brazil adepted antibiotic treatment of beef.14 Shortly thereafter, the government of Costa Rica permitted commercial treatment of beef with antibiotics. The advantages to be gained from the use of antibiotics in tronical climates are much greater thathhose which could be gained in a temperate area like the United States, or where refrigeration facilities are readily available. The principal advantage to be gained from the use of antibiotics in preservation of beef in this country is the more rapid tenderization of beef because of the possible use of higher initial storage temperatures. Since” meat treated with antibiotics can be stored at temperatures of seventy or eighty degrees for up to nine days without spoiling, the tenderization process is speeded up. Treated meat after five days of storage proved to be as tender as untreated meat after two weeks of refrigerated storage.15 13"Antibiotic-Burgers’ May Be On The way," Science News Letter LXVIII:18 (October 29, 1955), p. 280. 14"Food Antibiotics: Market Meteor,” Chemical and Engineeringlews XXXIV250 (December 10, 19565, p. 6108. 15mm», _e_t_ 2., 93. cit., p. 498. 37 The rapid tenderization of meat can help the packinghouse Operator move his stock faster and may allow for the use of lower grade cattle without long aging periods. In areas like Columbia, South.America, where an estimated forty per cent of beef production is wasted through.shipment delays and spoilage, antibiotics could be a tremendous aid.16 Live animals would not have to be taken to the consumption point for slaughter, but could be killed up to five hundred miles away and shipped by truck.17 The long distances over which some animals must be driven on hoof to slaughter causes a loss in body_ weight and a loss in any "finish" which the animal may have had before it started. It may also be "economical to fly meat 1,500 miles or more to market."18 Sgoilage of Fish Fish is one of the most difficult foods to keep fresh. The temperature of storage of fresh fish must be rigidly controlled, for fish flesh will spoil twice as fast at 4°C (39°F) than it .111 at 0°C (32°F).19 or the three lanOOd AfltibiOticB' Market Meteor”. 10¢. Cite 17"New Tricks with Antibiotics,” Business Week No. 1571 (December 10,1955), 0. 88. lelbid. 19"Antibiotics Use and Quality Assessment highlights Fish-Processing Technologists Meeting,” Commercial Fisheries Review XVIII: 8 (August, 1956), p. 58. ‘"‘ ' 38 main types of fish spoilage - bacterial, oxidative, and" enzymatic - bacterial is the most important in terms‘ of economic loss. Fish flesh provides an excellent medium for the growth of bacteria. Drying, smoking, and methods of cooking devised to prevent bacterial spoilage change the flavor and consistency of the fish. Freezing is a success- ful method of preservation but this is expensive and not always feasible. Refrigeration or storage with ice, the most common methods of keeping fish, can only be used for a limited period of time. The fishing industry is as yet in a black eddy in regard to sanitation, and it is extremely doubt- ful whether the sanitary conditions in any fish plant would ever rem Sely approach those found in a modern milk plant. There is little application of Pure Food regulations in the fishing industry. This is due to the rare spread of communicable diseases directly attributable to fish and to the seasonal character of the fishing industry.21 The fishing industry is widely scattered, consists of many large and small businesses, and uses a great deal of transient labor. The "fishing industry is at least two decades behind the dairy industry" as far as sanitary __‘ A L__ ww— 20H. L. A. Tarr, "Present Status of Antibiotics in the Preservation of Food,” A panel discussion, Antibiotics Annual, 195671957 (New Yerk: Medical Encyclopedia, I957), p. 1115. , 21Ibid. 39 conditions are concerned.22 Because these conditions exist, antibiotics, used prOperly, could help to keep fish fresh for longer periods of time, and also help to improve the sanitary conditions in the fishing industry. A Application 22.:EPEB}°t19§.£3 Fish For maximum effectiveness, antibiotics must be applied to fish immediately after the catch. At this time the fish flesh is almost bacteriologically sterile. (Fax Contamination comes from the viscera of the fish and the unsanitary storage places on the ship.“ Antibiotics may be applied to fish by spraying, dipping, or by incorporation in the ice used to hold fish while at sea. On shipboard, the two most practical means would be either spraying or the use of antibiotic ice, the latter being the most economical and the easiest to apply. Antibiotics may be applied at the processing plant by dipping either the fillets or the eviscerated fish into an antibiotic brine prior to shipment. Dipping might also be accomplished prior to freezing to provide insurance ‘ against loss due to accidental thawing during shipment or w 22J. W. Boyd, H. M. Bluhm, C. R. Muirhead, and H. L. A. Tarr, "Use of Antibiotics for the Preservation of Fish.and Sea Foods," American Journal of Public Health XLVI: 12 (December, 1956), p. l 4O storage. Ices containing four parts per million of chlortetra- cycline or five parts per million of oxytetracycline have been effectively used both on shipboard and dockside for storing fish.23 Sprays containing one hundred to two hundred parts per million oxytetracycline and dips varying from ten to twenty-five parts per million concentration have proven effective in extending storage life. Results 2: APP1193£¥2§.22.§1£E Experiments have been carried out to determine the effectiveness of antibiotics on the keeping quality of fresh salmon prior to canning. The salmon canning industry is unique in that the fish can be caught only during very shert periods of the year, varying from one week to one‘ month in a particular location. The average pack for sock- eye (or red) salmon for the years 1945 to 1955 was slightly greater than 1,750,000 standard cases of forty-eight pounds each with a total value of approximately $50,000,000.OO.24 Because of the short period during which the fish can be. caught, canning facilities are under terrific pressure to k A‘ —_ 23H. L. A. Tarr, John w. Boyd, and H. M. Bissett, "Antibiotics in Food Processing. Experimental Preservation of Fish and Beef with.Antibiotics," Agricultural and Food Chemistg 11 (March :51, 1954), p. 3-72. . """ """"" 2‘Pacific Fisherman LIV:L (January, 1956). Do 85. 41 process the fish before spoilage begins. Any extension of the storage period over which the fresh salmon can be held prior to canning onId be welcomed by the salmon canning industry. . Organoleptic taste tests of fresh salmon treated with antibiotics indicated the fish so treated were considered good until the twenty-fourth to the twenty- seventh day of storage. This compares with a storage life of eighteen days for untreated salmon.25 In other instances, fish fillets treated with anti- biotics were held for eight to thirteen days in satisfactory condition while untreated samples could be held for only four days.26 Haddock treated with antibiotics on board ship were found to remain at too quality one week longer than untreated fish.27 Shucked oysters packed in half-pint cans could be stored in crushed ice for seventeen to twenty days after treatment with chlortetracycline. The normal 25Joseph A. Stern, Harmon L. Liebman, Robert E. Munkelt and Byron Hatherell, "The Potential Application of Antibiotics in the Salmon Canning Industry. 1. Organoleptic Evaluations," Antibiotics Annual, 1956-1957 (New York: Ak“ _— Medical Encyclopedia, 1957), p."981. 26"Antibiotics Use and Quality Assessment High- lights Fish-Processing Technologists Meet," pp. 58-590 27"Antibiotic Prolongs Meat Storage Life," loc. cit. 42 storage life is approximately six days.28 Experiments with other fish indicate a two to three-fold extension of refrigerated shelf-life. Storage of round herring in sea water containing ten parts per million Chlortetracycline on board ship and in 196 containing five parts per million of the antibiotic after landing, prolonged the storage life approximately ninety per cent at 59°F to 68°F and approx- imately forty per cent,at near-freezing temperatures.29 Two methods have also been devised to prevent deterioration of whale meat. One involves the use of an antibiotic-dipped harpoon used to catch the whales.30 The other consists of injecting the antibiotic into the peritoneal cavity of'the whale.31 Crab meat, peeled shrimp, and shucked clams have also responded well to antibiotic treatment for extension of shelf-life. 28Anthony Abbey, A. Richard Kohler, and Sidney D. Upham, "Effect of Aureomycin Chlortetracycline in the Pro- cessing and Storage of Freshly Shucked Oysters,".Food Tgchn01quIXI (1957), p. 270. 29T. Tomiyama, S. Kuroki, D. Maeda, S. Ramada, and A. Honda, "A Study of the Effects of Aureomycin-containing Sea Water and loss Upon the Storage Life of Round Herring," Food Technology x (1956), p. 218. 3O"Terramycin Tested on Whale Meat ” Commercial Fisheries Review XVIII:12 (December, 1956 , p. . 31"Antibiotics Tested on Whale Carcasses,” commercial Fisheries Review XVIII:7 (July, 1956), p. 76. Advantages 22 Antibiotic Treatment 22 Fresh Fish "It was announced on October 1, 1956, that the Canadian Department of National Health and welfare approved the use of antibiotics in the preservation of freshly caught fish."32 This process is "expected to re- duce sharply Canada's fish-spoilage losses, estimated at some 15% of its million ton annual catch."33- In addition, the five parts per million which Canada allows on any part of the fresh fish, is expected to upgrade the quality of fish which reaches the ultimate consumer.34 A recent survey by the Fisheries Research Board of Canada showed that forty per cent of the ocean fish reaching consumers in Ottowa, Montreal, and Toronto had lost its original fresh taste and appearance, although it was still edible.35 There are a great many people in the world who de- pend for their economic and nutritional sustenance on whale meat. Since this is an extremely perishable product, and ___A __.—. 32"Antibiotics Approved for Fish Preservation,” Commercial.f}sheries Review XVIII:11 (November, 1956), p. i73. 35"Canada Eats 'Acronized' Fish,” Food Manufactugg xx11125 (May 1, 1957), p. 245. “ 34R. A. Bottomley, "Food Additives-oPreservatives, .Antioxidants and Antibiotics," Food Technolggy in Australia Xe2 (February, 1958), p. 75. "’ 35”Antihiotics Approved for Fish Preservation," p. 740 44 very difficult to chill because of its size, antibiotics could prevent a great deal of loss. The Norwegian fishing industry would benefit from the application of antibiotics to fresh fish by an expansion of.the shipment of fresh cod to the large British market. Dr. Fred Deatherage of the Ohio Agricultural Ex- periment Station has observed'a fringe about ten.miles deep along the coast of India inhabited by people who are better nourished than the people living further inland. This is the result of plentiful fish supply on the coast. Antibiotics could provide the means for extending this area to one hundred miles from the coast with little added cost.36 Other advantages to the entire fishing industry have been listed by Jacle. Langlois of the Chas. Pfizer Company: 1. An extension of fishing areas. allowing for a larger load of higher quality fish per trips 2. A leveling of production by mcre normal scheduling of canning operations. 3. Increased protection against spoilage during storage and in transit to the consumer and to the freezing plant. 4. Expansion of the selling area of fresh fish to markets presently out of reach. 5. A better quality product will result in —— 36Fred E. Deatherage‘, "Present Status of Antibiotics . in the Preservation of Food, A panel discussion, Antibiotics Annual, 1956- 1957 (New York: Medical Encyclopedia, ,p. l s 45 better consumer acgeptance and a possible increase in salesw'7 Summary Experiments with antibiotic preservation in beef and other meats have shown that the presence of small amounts of antibiotics will allow meat to be stored for as long as nineteen days at room temperature without spoiling. The advantages of this treatment are that it will allow for more rapid tenderization of meats in countries where refrigeration facilities are available, and antibiotics can provide protection against spoilage so that fresh meat can be provided to people great distances from the point of slaughter. Proper nutrition can thus be provided to persons who do not receive sufficient pretein in their diets at a cost which, in some cases, would be less than the cost of the power necessary to refrigerate the meat. Brazil and Costa Rica have already adapted the use of antibiotics in beef on a commercial scale, and it appears to be a matter of time before other tropical countries and perhaps the United States will adOpt this method. The spoilage of fish creates important economic loss in many countries of the world. Antibiotics have been AAA- —— — v , 37"Pfizer Fishing New Antibiotic Pool," Oil, Paint and 2225 Reporter CLXIX:16 (April 16, 1956), pJ'ZE} 46 shown to add one week to the storage life of many types of fresh fish and to provide the consumer with.a higher quality fish than that to which she is presently accustomed. The frozen and canned fish industries can also benefit from the use of antibiotics by giving added insurance against spoilage during transportation and storage. Fresh fish could provide an economical source of high quality protein to many peeple of the world'now deprived of this type of nutrition due to distance from fishing areas. CHAPTER IV . APPLICATION OF ANTIBIOTICS T0 POULTRY PROCESSING Poultry is the first food product treated with antibiotics on a commercial scale in the United States. A study of its effects and benefits is therefore the only guide available for determining the future possibilities for antibiotic preservation in other foods.. Antibiotics, because of their bactericidal action, cannot make spoiled poultry fresh. Their use on poultry with.an-initially high bacterial load (due to poor sanitary conditions in the processing plant) may permit the same shelf-life as untreated poultry processed under sanitary conditions. A system of inspection of processing plants Which use antibiotics is therefore essential to prevent their use as substitution for proper santiation. - With proper sanitation and refrigeration, however, antibiotics may allow for prepackaging poultry at the pro- cessing level, with resulting economies for retailer and consumer alike. _Qbsergatigng_gg Poultry £233 Spoilage The spoilage of fresh, chilled poultry meat presents a considerable problem to the producer, the processor, the distributor, and the consumer. "The yearly economic loss due to the spoilage of poultry meat in this country is estimated at more than $132,000,000."1 Under normal refrig- erated storage conditions, untreated poultry meat will develop slime and odors and may become sour sometime during the second week of storage. With the growing trend of selling pro-packaged cut-up poultry at the retail level, the problem of spoilage is further increased because of extra handling. The tendency for centralized growing and processing of broilers in a few areas of the country (the Delmarva Peninsula, Georgia, Missouri,and California) in- creases the distance over which killed poultry must be shipped before it reaches the ultimate consumer. Central pro-packaging of cut-up poultry at the processor level increases the exposed area upon which bacteria can grow. Since bacteria appear to be the prime causative agents of slime and off-odors in poultry,2 the first consideration in preservation should be the destruction of these organisms. Methods such as refrigeration, freezing, and canning have helped to increase the storage life of poultry, but each has its disadvantages. Refrigeration is 1H. P. Broquist, A. R. Kohler, and W. H. Miller, "Retardation of Poultry spoilage by Processing with Chlortetracycline,” A ricultural and Food Chemistry, IV:12 (December, 1956), p. O. ......... . 2.7. c. Ayres, w. s. Ogilvy, and G. r. Stewart "Post Hortem Changes in Sta'ed Meats. I. Microorganisms Associated with Development of Slime on Eviscerated Cut- Up Poultry," Food Techgglggy, IV (1950), p. 199. flcwfiillui T -" ‘4- -‘ — U capable of retarding bacterial spoilage for only seven or eight days. Freezing requires the use of expensive equip- ment and requires that poultry be kept frozen until the time of use. Canning changes the flavor of poultry considerably and limits the number of ways in which the housewife can serve the poultry meat. ‘Erigf History 23 Experiments The first experiment with.antibiotics as a preserv- ative for fresh poultry meat was carried on by three members of the Research Division of the American Cyanamid Company in 1954. A. R. Kohler, w. H. Miller, and H. P. Broquist found that the use of chlortetracycline (the trade name of the American Cyanamid Company for chlortetracycline is Aureomycin) significantly extended the shelf-life of poultry meat both in the laboratory and under commercial conditions.3 In early 1955, Frank Zeigler and W. J. Stadelman of the Washington State College staff reported approximately the same results--poultry shelf-life was "increased from 8.7 to about fourteen days by this treatment."4 5A. R. Kohler, W. H. Miller, and H. P. Broquist, "Aureomycin, Chlortetracycline and the Gentrol of Poultry Spoilage," Food Technology, IX (1955), p. 153. 4Frank Zeigler and W. J.Stade1man, "The Effect of Aureomycin on the Shelf Life of Fresh Poultry Meat, ” Food Technology, IX (1955), p. 108._ 50 Throughout 1955, reports from various universities and drug companies substantiated the facts first published in the above references. The climax to these experiments came on November 30, 1955, when tolerances for the residues of chlortetracycline in uncooked poultry were published in the Federal Register.6 Approximately one year later, the tolerances for residues on uncooked poultry of another antibiotic, oxytetracycline (the trade name of the Chas. Pfizer Company fox'oxytetracycline is Terramycin) were published.6 Commercial Application 23 Antibiotics £2 Egggh Poultgy £232 Two drug companies have produced antibiotics capable of extending the refrigerated storage life of fresh poultry meat from fifty to one hundred per cent. , The American Cyanamid Company has developed Acronize PD (Poultry Dip) chlortetracycline which is a formulation containing a food grade aureomycin (approximately 10 per cent), salt, and citric acid. Citric acid is used to 5Federal Re ister, The National archives of the .United States, XX Was ngton: Government.Printing Office, November 30, 1955), p. 8776. , 6Federal Register, The National Archives of the United States, XXI (Washington: Government‘PrIntIfig Office, October 23, 1956), p. 8104. cl g. l stabilize the antibiotic and salt is used as a dilutentfi7 The solution is added to the slush tank at the time the birds are chilled after killing to remove body heat. The birds remain in this tank for approximately two hours, or until the internal body temperature is 40° F or below. During this time the birds absorb about six per cent of their body weight in water. As this water is absorbed, the dissolved Acronize penetrates into the tissues of the bird and remains attatched to the tissue protein.8 On November 30, 1955, the Food and Drug Administra- tion established a tolerance of seven parts per million of chlortetracycline in or on any part of the uncooked poultry.9 This paved the way for the first full scale commercial use I of antibiotics as an aid to food preservation in the United States. The tolerance of seven parts per million in or on any part of the uncooked poultry was established by The Food and Drug Administration after extensive tests by the American Cyanamid Company proved that the normal methods of cooking (boiling, broiling, frying,or baking) destroyed the antibiotic. — A- A AA rfi-————~— 7"Antibiotics and Food," Chemical and Engineering News, xxxlixzso (December 12, 195377'5T‘BSEE; 8Melvin C. Firman, Director of Technical Service of the Farm and Home Division of the American Cyanamid Company,” New York, New York, (January 3, 1958), Personal Correspondence. 9Federal Register, November 30, 1955, 32. cit. The second drug company to produce a poultry dip for the reduction of bacterial spoilage was Chas. Pfizer and Company. Their commercial product, Biostat-PA, is a combination of oxytetracycline and citric acid. It is applied in the same manner as Acronize, and does not re- quire changes in the normal processing procedure. The tolerance for oxytetracycline on or in uncooked poultry was established by the Food and Drug Administration on October 23, l956,at seven parts per million on any part of the carcass. Application 2f Antibiotics £3 Turkeys. The pro- cedure for applying antibiotics to turkey carcasses is the same as for chickens. The only exception being that the larger turkey carcass must be left in the chill tank for a longer period of time. This did not appear'to increase the amount of antibiotic absorbed by the turkey meat, and the same beneficial results were obtained.10 fLabeling‘gg.Antibiotic-treated Poultry Section 403K of the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act states the following in reference to the use of 10H. Windlan et al., "An Investigation of the Process Using Food erase CElOrtetracycline as Applied to 'Purkeys," Antibigtics Annual, 1956-1957 (New York: medical Encyclopedia, I957), p. 853. 53 chemical preservatives in foods which are produced for human consumption: A food shall be deemed to be misbranded if it bears or contains any artificial flavoring, artificial coloring, or chemical preservative, unless it bears labeling stating that fact.... A section of the franchise agreements of both the American Cyanamid Company and the Chas. Pfizer Campany, Incorpora- ted, specify that each chicken which.has been treated with an antibiotic shall be labeled "Acronized---Chlortetracy- cline added to retard spoilage" or’bxytetracycline added to retard spoilage,’ respectively. Commercial Versus Laboratory Results Although the original research on the possible use of antibiotics in the preservation of poultry meat was done both in the laboratory and under commercial conditions, the majority of evidence supporting claims for extension of poultry shelf-life from fifty to one hundred per cent have some from laboratories. Obviously, sanitary conditions are much easier to control in a laboratory capable of processing only a few hundred birds per day than in a commercial plant,_processing many thousands of birds per day. 11Federal Food, Drug and Cesmetic Act and General Regulation for £33 Enforcemefitt'fi. 5. UepEFFmEHF of HeaIth, Education and Welfare, Food and Drug Administration, Service and Regulatory Announcements, Food Drug, and Cosmetic No. l, Revisidn 4, with Addenda, (Washington: Government Printing Office, April, 1955), p. 17. 54 Such factors as size of plant, number of employees, variation in source of live birds, and number of birds cooled in one slush tank will tend to increase bacterial contamdnation. There exists, then, the possibility that antibiotic treat- ment would not materially increase the shelf-life of poultry meat processed under commercial conditions. There is at least one study which indicates the aforementioned. This test, conducted in only one commercial processing plant, indicated that: Fresh chicken meat treated commercially with chlortetracycline in a single processing plant was no more effective in eXtending shelf-l ife than un- treated birds from the same plant...Chlortetracycline- treated commercial birds were considered unacceptable from seven to eight days sooner than similarly treated laboratory birds according to results of a raw odor pane1.12 Because chlortetracycline and oxytetracycline are' bacterial inhibitors only, there exists a possibility that. the balance of nature would be upset as a result of this inhibition, and molds and yeasts would grow rapidly. However, when this question was Posed to a panel of experts on the uses of antibiotics in food preservation, the reply was:”We have not seen any evidence of an increase in the yeast and mold spoilage in poultry treated with antibiotics A AA AAA 7 — 12Robert James McVicker, "The Effect of Certain Bacterial Inhibitors on Shelf-life of Fresh Poultry neat, " (unpublished Master's thesis, Michigan State University, East Lansing, 1957), pp. 69 70. 55 as compared with controls."1:5 'It appears that refrigeration sufficiently retards the growth of yeasts and molds through- out even the extended shelf—life offered by antibiotics. Promotional Efforts 31: American Cyanamid In January, 1956, nobody outside of American Cyanamid knew of Acronize. By December, 1956, about one-half of the fifty leading chain store organizations were selling Acronized poultry. "One, Grand Union, has adapted the preservation plan 100%."14 . Following basic marketing techniques, the American Cyanamid Company tested their product in the cities of Memphis, Tennessee; Richmond, Virginia; and Jacksonville, Florida. ,These areas were chosen because of their geograph- ical proximity to the processing area. If the process could gain acceptance, which it did, in these areas where commercial poultry could be obtained at its freshest, it would prObably also be successful in areas further from the producing and processing centers. lsDr. Jukes, "Present Status of Antibiotics in the Preservation of Food, A panel discussion," Antibiotics Annual, 1956-1957 (New York: Medical EncycIOpedia, 1957}, p. 1119. 14"Food Antibiotics: Market Meteor, " Chemical andE ineering News, XXXIV: 50 (December 10,1956), ' p. “6 56 The promotion campaign for Acronize has been aimed at the processor, at the retailer, and directly at the consumer. Advertising in Poultry Processing and Market- ing and in Poultry and Eggs‘Weekly was centered on "testimonial copy and the big news of our Acronize consumer promotion."15 Chain Store Age, Progressive Grocer, and Supermarket_§ews are used to reach the overall market potential of some 500,000 retail stores. These ads feature testimonials and consumer promotion plans. Free promotional materials are supplied to retail markets to be used at their discretion. These include plastic meat case cards, and a 2229 Housekeeping Fact Plack containing interesting material on the antibiotic preservation process. A comparison between Acronized chicken and pasteurized milk will be made in all consumer promotions for 1958. The prime target for consumer advertising is the local market. Don McNeill, radio personality, heard over 606 ABC Radio Network stations, will advertise Acronize to American housewives every morning, before they go shopping. Such a promotion campaign has paid well for American Cyanamid. They claim that at least twenty out of every 15JimN. Burton, assistant Advertising Manager, Farm and House Division, American. Cyanamid Company, New York 20, New'York, February 20, 1958, Personal Correspondence. 57 one hundred housewives.had a specific consciousness of 16 Acronize in late 1957. Only two years vork were required to build a twenty per cent awareness of their process. 2?. Franchise Program Because antibiotics are primarily bacteriostatic in nature, they cannot make spoiled poultry fresh.' The drug manufacturers recognize this and have established their sales program on a franchise basis. Biostat and Acronize can be sold only to those processors who sign a contract stating that certain sanitary standards will be met. "The maintenance of freshness means keeping the bacterial life in food as nearly as possible at the same level as when life left the healthy fish, bird or animal."17 The quality control section of American Cyanamid's staff specifies to the processor the level of antibiotics to be used, the preparation and handling of solution, period of processing, kind of poultry to be processed, refrigeration requirements, packaging, and sanitation practices.18 161bid. 17Wilbur H. Killer, "Comprehensive Studies of the Use of the Food Grade of Chlortetracycline in Poultry Processing. 1. The Franchise Program in Action," Antibiotics Annual 1956-195”, (New Yerk: Medical 'EhcycIODEHIa, I§S”S, p. 817. lelbid., 819. 58 A technical representative visits the plant to determine if these basic requirements are met. He then works with plant personnel to insure that they understand the process, and makes occasional follow-up visits to verify that quality control standards are met. This extensive inspection procedure insures that processors are not failing in some sanitation procedure aid covering it up with the use'of antibiotics. Since anti- biotics do rot kill bacteria but merely stop their growth at a certain point, there is no danger of spoiled poultry getting by undetected. There is danger, however, of selling poultry under the Acronize or Biostat labels which is no fresher than non-treated poultry. This is the danger which the drug companies wish to avoid. Advantages _o_§ Antibiotic Preservation 2;“. Poultry M; The benefits to be derived from the use of antibiotics in poultry meat hinge upon the premise that under commercial conditions of processing, the same extension of shelf-life can be obtained as is done in the laboratory. The extension of shelf-life of poultry has been reported to be from the normal refrigerated case life of seven days to as high as 19 twenty-nine days. A conservative estimate would probably “— w 190. L. Wrenshall and J. R. McMahan, "How Newly OK'd Antibiotic Boosts Poultry Shelf-life," Food Engineering 59 place the shelf-life of treated poultry at about fourteen days. The possibilities that extended shelf-life offer to the producer, the processor, the retailer, and the consumer are far-reaching. One of the principal advantages offered by antibiotic preservation is that a higher quality, tastier poultry will be available to many more people. Quality of poultry as defined from.a marketing point of view is very closely correlated with freshness. If anti- biotics can keep poultry fresh for a longer period of time, consumers in areas which lie great distances from poultry. raising and processing centers may be served with a product that is of higher quality than that to which they are presently accustomed. The quantity of fresh poultry which XXVIII:12 (December, 1956), D. 56: Windlan, £2 ‘33,. 30%. 23-20, I). 854; ":0 Jo Stadelman, W. We MapiOn' and Ms L. ler, "Antibiotic Preservation of Fresh Poultry Meat," Antibiotics Annual, 1956-195? (New York: Medical Encyclopedia, ‘195W), p. 84I:,KSHler, EiIIer, and Broquist 33. cit., p. 154; Broquist, Kohler, and {iller, o . cit., pTIUSI; . J. V. Spencer, Frank Ziegler, and W. JTBStidelman, Recent Studies of Factors Affectin the Shelf-life of Chicken Meat, WashingtEE KgriculturaI EiperTEEnE Station, THsEItuEe of agricultural Sciences, Station Circular 254 (Spokane: State College of Washington, September, 1954), p. 5; Frank Zeigler and W. J. Stadelman, "The Effect of Aureomycin Treatment on the Shelf-life of Fresh Poultry Meat,' Food Technolog IX (1955), p. 108; w. H. Miller, "Antibiotic Prolongs§eat Storage Life," The National Provisioner cxxx‘nn22 (November 26, lessTTpp. ICE-10W: ew r cks With Antibiotics," Business Week No. 1371 (December 10, 1955), p. 80; John Harms,‘”IfitTETBtIEE~Enter Poultry Meat Field," Poultry Processing 329 Marketing LXI:12 (December, 1955), p. e 60 was shipped over one thousand miles from the processing plants to market in 1952 amounted to only two per cent of total. In 1956-1957, the quantity had risen to seven per 20 Whether or not antibiotic ‘cent of marketed poultry. preservation had anything to do with this increase is difficult to determine, but it seems possible that extended shelf-life might allow processors to ship more poultry over these long distances. This fact could easily lead to greater volume of sales and increased turnover of fresh poultry meat. The poultry processor would benefit from the use of antibiotics in at least two ways., The normal processing of poultry in a dressing plant includes a dip into hot water to loosen the feathers before they are removed by an automatic picking machine. The normal temperature of the water used 21 Temperatures in these dips ranges from 138° to 1400 F. above this level have not been used because of damage to the outer layer of skin of the bird and a subsequent reduction of the bacterial resistance of the carcass. Anti- biotics could supplant this natural bacteria barrier and A ZQMarketing Research Division, Interstate Truckin' of Fresh and Frozen Poultgy Under A ricuIturaIExEfiftibfié Igricultural Earketing Service, Unified States DeparEment of Agriculture, Marketing Research Report No. 224 (Washington: Government Printing Office, March, 1958), p. 22. ZISpencer, Zeigler, and Stadelman, 22. cit., p. l. 61 allow the use of higher scald temperatures (148°F) which would create a great saving in pinning labor.22 The second advantage to the processor would be a leveling of work loads enabling orderly, unrushed operation which would result 23 in a better looking carcass with fewer bruises. Inventories at the retail level would be easier to maintain because of a longer shelf-life. There would be no need to sell out all poultry prior to the weekend to eliminate the possibility of spoilage. Because of an up- grading of quality, processors and retailers will be able to sell more fresh poultry under their own brand names, with less danger of returns. An advantage to the processor, retailer, and the consumer would arise from central pre-packaging of cut-up poultry. Antibiotics would: Make possible further shift of packing and wrapp-_ ing Operations back through distribution channels to the processing plant... Some indication of such economies was shown in a limited study carried out by our sales department (American Cyanamid). It was found that the cost of cutting up and packaging poultry in a large North Carolina supermarket, handling 1,500 birds a week, was about 5% cents a bird. But in one of the large processing plants of Virginia, handling 22"Antibiotics and Food," 22. cit. 25Advertisement, "Three Profitable Reasons Why Your Poultry Should Be Acronized," Poultry Processing and marketing LXIV:5 (May, 1958), p.‘231 O} N) many thousands of birds a dag4 the labor cost was calculated at e cent a bird. The American Cyanamid Company has outlined a pro- cedure by which poultry can be cut-up, packaged, and shipped dry from a central processing plant. Because.the poultry is not packed in ice, the principal danger in such an Operation is an increase in the temperature of the bird. Provided rigid sanitation controls are established, poultry can be processed in this manner, and shipped to the retail level in a saleable condition. The total shelf-life of pre-packaged poultry held at temperatures no higher than 40° would be approximately five days. This time includes storage time at the processor level, at the distributor level, and would allow a two day case life at the retail level.25 The advantages of this process are Obvious: 1. Less expensive. 2. Tray-packed poultry require less space in delivery truck. 5. Not necessary to ship ice along with poultry. 4. Frees store help for other tasks. 5. Easier handling. 6. More uniform packages. 7. Less storage space required at retail level. , L...— A‘_ 2 Vilbur H. Miller, "Antibiotic Introduced as Spoilage Inhibitor for Fresh Poultry," Food Epgineerirgg XXVIII:1 (January, 1956), p. 47. ' zségronized Tray-packed Poult (New York: The American CyanamidFCompany, 7 , pp. 1-6. An example of the ways in which antibiotics have aided the food chains can be seen from the following remarks made by Mr. J. D. Hughes, General Manager of Merchandising for the New York Region of the Grand Union Company: Acronized poultry was first tried in our Central Division in the early summer of 1956'on a three week basis. Generally speaking, the tests proved quite satisfactory and we then introduced the acronized poultry into our Metro, Suburban and Northern Divisions in July, 1956. We were supplied and continued to be supplied with what we cared to use of their in-store promotional material. The term acronized poultry was used from time to time in our newspaper advertising. We have had no important customer reaction of either a complimentary or adverse nature to speak of. Actually it is our feeling that the Acronizing process provides a longer keeping time for the customer. We have not extended the tolerance case life of poultry in our stores because of this pro- tective process, preferring to give the additional time to the housewife. As you are probably aware, we have a backed by bond guarantee on all of our meat products...and we do know that our complaints on poultry have considerably lessened since the advent of acronizing this merchandise. We therefore feel that we can absorb the additional acroniz rg cost for reason of better customer satisfaction. 6 ‘ Application £2 Frozen Poultgy One of the characteristics of the two antibiotics presently being applied to poultry is that they are capable A‘— —— 26J. D. Hughes, General Manager, Merchandising, New York Region, The Grand Union Company, 365 North Bedford Road, Mount Kisco, New York, May 28, 1959. Personal Correspondence. - 64 of lying dormant while in the frozen state and exerting their bacteriostatic properties upon thawing. Since exist- ing laws allow frozen poultry to be thawed and sold as 27 this quality could provide additional protection fresh, against deterioration. Antibiotic treatment of poultry prior to freezing also provides protection against spoilage due to refrigeration failure or excessive storage periods at above freezing temperatures. That thawed frozen poultry will deteriorate more rapidly than iced poultry is a fiairly well established feet .28 Antibiotics might therefore be of greater benefit in frozen poultry than in fresh poultry, particularly during the holiday seasons of Thanksgiving and Christmas when a large percentage of turkeys sold are frozen. The benefits derived from this application would benefit both the retailer and the consumer. Summagy The commercial application of broad spectrum antibiotics to poultry meat is well established. Experi- ments in the laboratory and under commercial conditions 27"Antibiotics Provin Value as Food Freezing Ally," Quick Frozen Foods XVIII:12 fJuly, 1956), p. 60. 28"Acronize Chlortetracycline For Use in Processing of Turkeys! (New York: American Cyanamid Company, n.d.). p. 2. (Mimeographed.) - 65 have proven that the application of small amounts (ten parts per million) of either Chlortetracycline or oxytetra- cycline can extend the refrigerated shelf-life of fresh chicken and turkey meat fifty to one-hundred per cent. Although there are no indications that some proces- sors are not obtaining full benefit from the use of these- substances, a more rigidly controlled franchise program would insure that plant sanitation met required standards. Federal inspection of poultry processing plants could also further this end. The extension of shelf-life of refrigerated poultry meat has been the principal advantage of the use of anti- biotics in processing. Future developments resulting from their use might include packaging of both cut-up poultry and of poultry parts at the processor level; more widespread use of brand names on fresh poultry; wider distribution of fresh poultry meat from fewer centralized processing areas; and finally, delivering a better quality product to the ultimate consumer. This last advantage is the one which appears to be most important to the retailer. By passing on whatever extension in shelf-life antibiotics can give to the house- wife, the retailer can be assured of fewer returns because the housewife kept the bird in her home refrigerator for a 'week or more. CHAPTE. V SHELF-LIFE EXTENSION OF FRESH FRUITS AND VEGETABLES Considerable loss is experienced each year in the marketing of fresh fruits and vegetables. These foods are {a perhaps the most perishable of any handled in the markets | of the world, some having a market life of only a few days, even when held under refrigeration. The principal causes F of deterioration are poor handling practices and bacterial U spoilage. Antibiotics are presently being used in agricultural sprays to reduce disease. The bactericidal effects of some\ of these sprays are carried over to the picked fruit or' vegetable, providing protection against post-harvest decay. Some of the medical antibiotics have been shown to increase shelf-life of highly perishable produce and may have application commercially in the near future. The dangers of the use of antibiotics to retard spoilage of fresh fruits and vegetables lie primarily in the area of public health hazards. Residual levels of antibiotics must be established and methods developed to eliminate traces of antibiotics prior to consumption. _§poilage Problems Encountered Losses of certain fresh fruits and vegetables in marketing channels have been estimated to be as much as t _- i_‘ 3 KW!“ 67 forty-three per cent of production.1 A recent survey by the United States Department of Agriculture disclosed that vegetable crops perish more readily in marketing channels than do fruits. More than fifteen per cent of the total value of twenty-seven major vegetable crops marketed was lost during transportation and storage.2 Marketing losses in nineteen important fruits amounted to nearly eleven per cent of the total of these fruits marketed.3 In analyzing the results of the United States Department of Agriculture study on losses in marketing fruits and vegetables, the two most common causes of spoilage are rot and mold. 0f the twenty-seven vegetables mentioned in the study, eighteen are either rendered unmarketable or seriously damaged by bacterial soft rot.4 Experiments (which will be discussed in detail later in this chapter), have Shown that certain of the common medical antibiotics are capable of inhibiting the growth of the causative organism of this disease. Of the other types of rot indicated to cause Spoilage of both fruits and #7 1W. Kling, "Food Waste in Distribution and Use," Journal 2f Farm Economigp XXV (November, 1945), p. 865. 2Agricu1tural Research Service, Losses in Agriculture, United States Department of Agriculture, IRS 25:1 (Washington: Government Printing Office, June, 1954), pp. 107-108. 3Ibid., p. 103. 41b1d.. pp. 106-112. 68 vegetables, it is safe to assume that at least some of them can be controlled with antibiotics. I Thirteen of the seventeen fruits, and nine of the twenty-seven vegetables studied were damaged by various types of molds.5 zAlthough the majority of antibiotics known today are primarily bacteriostatic in their action, there are a few which exhibit inhibitory action on the . growth of yeasts and molds. Refrigeration can retard a large percentage of the losses presently encountered in marketing fresh produce. However, refrigeration facilities are not available for all produce presently marketed. If antibiotics could perform the same function as refrigeration on presently unrefrigera- ted produce, and further extend the shelf-life of produce stored and shipped under refrigeration, substantial savings could be realized. Present 1132 2: Antibigtigg a Controlling E313 Diseases To date, the application of certain medical anti- biotics and someantibiotics which exhibit antifungal activity to the control of plant diseases has been confined to tree fruits and certain vegetable crops. In order to eliminate the possibilities of residues of antibiotics K remaining on the produce after harvesting, the applications g — 5Ibid., pp. 102-112. 69 must be made either after harvesting or a long time before harvest. In some cases, the antibiotics are applied before the seed sends its shoot through the ground. Some of the fruits which have responded well to treat- ment with antibiotics are the stone fruits, apples, pears, and cherries. Actidone,the only commercial antibiotic with sntifungal prOperties, "is used primarily as a postharvest spraysgainst cherry leaf,spot...."6 This treatment has limited application at present because of the high toxicity of the antibiotic. An application of streptomycin to eliminate fire- blight cankers in apple trees involves sealing a capsule in the trunk of the tree. Streptomycin could still be detected in fruit on August 28th (after treatment on May 6th.7 Such applications would be dangerous, even if all the fruit from treated trees were used in commercial processes such as the making of applesauce or pies because cooking does not destroy streptomycin as it does the broad spectrum anti- biotics, chlortetracycline and oxytetracycline. A combina- tion of streptomycin and oxytetracycline was found to be ____‘_ 6"For Antibiotics, Uses Galore," Chemical and Engineering News XXXII:4V (November 19, TUEETT'EJ-IE41. ”a. N. Goodman and n. n. Johnston, "Stability of Streptdmycin in Apple and Potato Tissue, Antibiotics Annual, 1956-1957 (New York: Medical Encyclopedia, 195"), p. 1507. ”0 more effective than either alone on certain diseases of apples, pears, and stone fruits.8 Another antifungal antibiotic, anisomycin, has been found to protect beans from powdery mildew.9 Some other vegetable and field crops which have responded to a treat- ment ofga combination of streptomycin and oxytetracycline are beans, corn, tomatoes, peppers, castor beans, and sesame.10 Research has shown, however, that a number of anti- biotics are able to penetrate the epidermal or outside layers of plants and can be absorbed by the roots.11 Finding such as this tend to minimize the chances of early field applications of antibiotics in plant disease preven- tion and treatment because of the public health hazard of residues of medical antibiotics on or in the food parts of the plant. A 3F. c. Visor, I. J. Carroll, and E. F..O'Neill, "Use of Antibiotics Against Agricultural Plant Pathogens," Antibiotics Annual 1954-1955 (New York: Medical EEcycIOpedia, 1955), p. . 9"Antibiotics Keep Steaks‘Young," Chemicalgand Engineering News XXXIV:45 (November 5, 1956), p. . 10Visor, _e_t_. 31., 100. cit. 11Goodman and Johnston, 22. cit., p. ICOS. 71 Preservation With.Antibiotics Results of experiments on the use of antibiotics in the retardation of post-harvest decay of fresh fruits and vegetables published to date center on the ability of these substances to increase the storage life of fresh vegetables. Most of the experimentation is concerned with the organism causing bacterial soft rot, Erivinia carotovora.12 This is in accordance with the findings of the Department of Agriculture survey which concluded that bacterial soft rot was the most prevalent cause of decay.13 Because green leafy vegetables lack the protective covering that some vegetables have, they are more vulnerable to bacterial attack. Salad Xegetables. Some nine salad vegetables,and eight vegetables that normally require cooking prior to consumption have been found to respond quite satisfactorily to treatment with antibiotics for extension of shelf-life. Included in the salad vegetables are chapped salad greens, cole slaw, radishes, lettuce, escarole, endive, celery, cucumber5and chicory. Lettuce, a highly perishable and ““_A v——.—— 12R. F. Becker, R. N. Goodman, and H. S. Goldberg, "Prolonging the Shelf-life of Refrigerated Prepackaged -Spinach with Antibiotics " Antibiotic Annual, 1957-1958 (New York: Medical Encyclonm)m29. .._...... 13Agricultural Research Service, op. cit., pp. 106- 112. _“ 72 economically important crop, is attacked by two bacterial rots, Slime head and jelly rot. By painting the butts of freshly cut lettuce with a solution containing 250 parts per million of a combination of streptomycin and oxytetra- cycline, decay was reduced from sixty per cent in the controls to approximately four per cent in the treated lettuce.14 The Chas. Pfizer Company found that their antibiotic, terramycin, could extend the refrigerated shelf-life of cut-up raw salad vegetables from three to six days vhen the vegetables were rinsed with a terramycin solution.15 The room temperature shelf-life could be increased by one day, or from two to three days. Rinsing with clear water after the antibiotic treatment reduced the amount of antibiotic remaining on the vegetables, but did not effect the exten- sion in shelf-life. This may indicate that very low levels of antibiotic are all that are necessary to prevent deterioration and that perhaps the initial concentration was too high. A“- ___~ ‘7 14C. L. Wrenshall, "Advances in Food Technology Made Pessible Through the Use of Antibiotics," Antibiotics Annual, 1956-1957 (New York: Medical Encyc10pedia, 1955), p. HIE. 15C. L. Wrenshall, "Can Antibiotics Solve Food Sterilization Problems?," Food in Canada XIII—TNovember, 1955), pp. 26-27. .. tgrlufi...” i J 4 Q i ... 1“ (Humanlalmwit i.| (ll .. Iii!!! I. 73 A ten to fifteen minute wash in water containing thirty parts per million oxytetracycline followed by a distilled water rinse was found to extend the shelf-life of chopped fresh vegetables by thirty to fifty percent.16 The vegetables so tested were cabbage, red cabbage, lettuce, escarole, endive, celery, and spinach. Dr. Wilson L. Smith, Jr., of the United States Department of Agriculture, one of the first scientists to explore the possibilities for extending shelf-life of fresh vegetables with antibiotics, found that a 0.1 per cent solution of streptomycin sulfate extended the shelf-life of packaged cole slaw from one day to three days.17 His research also found that a combination of streptomycin and sodium bicarbonate (NaHC03) or sodium bisulphate (NaHSO4) equaled or exceeded the shelf-life extension of streptomycin alone.18 Streptomycin-treated cole slaw in non-ventilated packages (as it is often sold in super- markets) showed no discoloration, no break-down due to decay, and little or no off-odor after three days. He also 16R. C. Kersey, P. C. Visor, and C. L. wrenshall, "Residual Antibiotic Levels in Food Products During Storage and Processing," Antibiotics Annual, 1955-1954 (NewY York: Medical‘EncyclopeHIET-I95ZTT D. 17w. L. Smith, Jr., and R. E. Hardenburg, "Antibiotics and Other Chemical Dips Reduce Discoloration of Packaged Cole Slaw," PhytOpatholo ogy XLIV (1954), p. 389. lelbid. 74 ciiscovered that terramycin and aureomycin in 0.1 per cent (zoncentrations, controlled decay but caused severe injury tzo the slew.19 Radish nit, a pest-harvest disease which causes 3_esions on radishes three to five days after harvesting, 'vvas partially controlled by treatment;with a solution of c>xytetracycline.20 Approximately fifty per cent of the asymptoms of the disease were prevented with an oxytetra- (:ycline dip. Some other economically important salad vegetables ‘vuere found to remain in saleable condition up to forty- eaight_hours at temperatures of 30°C (86°F) and even longer eat 5°C to 10°C (41° to 52°F). Oxytetracycline controlled sspoilage of cucumbers, chicory, escarole, and lettuce for this period of tirne.21 Vegetables Usually Cooked. Since some of the broad- Sspectrum antibiotics appear to be destroyed during normal C>ooking of poultry and other flesh foods, it seems more Cflbvious that public health authorities might first allow 19Ib1d., p. 590. 20"Radishes -- Antibiotic Treatment, " Food Manufacture XXXII: '7 (July 1,1957), p. 5:59. 21V. J. Carroll, R. A. Benedict, and C. L. Wrenshall, "Delaying Vegetable Spoilage with Antibiotics, " Food Technolog XI (195"), p. 493. 75 the addition of antibiotics to those items of produce which sa.zre usually cooked before eating. The antibiotics which Ikazave been found useful in preventing post-harvest decay of ‘preegetables in this category are streptomycin, filipin, cozcytetracycline, neomycin and polymyxin. At least two days (zsan be added to the shelf-life of fresh, refrigerated pre- packaged spinach by the addition of a 0.1 per cent water 23¢olution of streptomycin sulfate, whether by dip or by spray.22 One day of shelf-life can be added when spinach ‘1.s stored at ”00?. In most cases, a post-harvest dip has 1:»een more effective in extending shelf-life than a pre- harvest spray.2:5 Filipin, a new antibiotic discovered by tzhe Upjohn Company of Kalamazoo, Michigan, has shown good IFGBUIDS in preventing a type of rot of peas.24 An experiment which appears to be particularly sig- rlificant to the supermarket industry involved the use of f‘our different antibiotics on five vegetables.25 The 22"For Antibiotics, Uses Galore." Do 4542' 25"Nonpharmaceutical Uses of Antibiotice," Journal 2: 4‘. ricultural and Food Chemistry 1:18 (November 25, 1953), . ID 1161 fi‘ . 24"Antibiotics Provin (Value as Food Freezing Ally," IELIJick Frozen Foods XVIII:12 July, 1956), p. 140. 25G. Koch and V. J. Carroll, "Prevention of Post- jharvest Decay with Antibiotics," Antibigtics Annual, 1956-195? (New York: Medical Enoyciooedia, 19W“. , Mime . 76 \regetables were purchased from the central produce markets New York City at a time when their storage life would ‘Irepresent the retail store life of the produce. The \regetables, peas, broccoli, lima beans, cauliflower, and espinach,were dipped in the various antibiotic solutions elnd.stored at 30°C (86°F) for forty-eight hours. Inspections vvere made at twenty-four and forty-eight hours, and the (:ondition of the vegetables recorded according to the 1’ollowing scale: 1, 2, 5 - small areas of damage visibile, still marketable. - 4, 5, 6 - all showed some rot, non-marketable. 7, 8 - definite rot present, discoloration, 9,10 - complete rot. Of the four antibiotics tested:(oxytetracycline, streptomycin, neomycin, and polymyxin), oxytetracycline sand neomycin gave the best results. Although the strepto- tnycin-and polymyxin-treated vegetables were better than the (zontrols, they were not marketable after forty-eight hours. Decay of peas, broccoli, cauliflower, and lima beans Vvas slowed down by the addition of minute quantities of (Ixytetracycline and neomycin. At the end of the forty-eight hour storage period, (at conditions of temperature which IEl-«ecelerated decay), the oxytetracycline-treated vegetables ahowed the least decay. Following are the results of a 1?1fteen second dip of solutions containing thirty-five parts ‘Fher million 0? the two antibiotics on the spoilage of fresh 8 p inach : “Wings-u V. s“ v . __..l I .2” ”Hi. ‘ «gulf 77 Scale of; Damage After ' After Treatment 24 Hours 48 Hours Oxytetracycline ‘1.0 2.0 Neomycin . 2.3 5.3 The authors of the preceeding research sum up their findings in the following sentence: "Under the conditions Offered in these tests, oxytetracycline treatment of twenty- fViAve parts per million in a fifteen second solution dip ex- tended the shelf-life of the vegetables."26 I A thirty-minute dip in a solution containing ten parts F>€3r million of streptomycin has been found to be effective ilzi reducing rot caused by black leg and soft rot in slices Elrld seed pieces of white notatoes.2v Reiner Bonds, author (>1? the research, also found that terramycin was less effec- tive than streptomycin in preserving potatoes’and offered t3}1e suggestion that perhaps a combination of several anti- biotics would be more effective than any one alone. Fruits. A German scientist has discovered that the 'leae of small amounts of penicillin in stored grapes \ 261bid., p. 1013. 27Reiner Bonde, "Preliminary Studies on the Control <3"f“ Bacterial Decay of the Potato with Antibiotics," American W 3.99.3183 XXX (1955). p. 147. 78 rnszintained, and even enhanced, the organoleptic qualities c>f‘ the fruit.28 The samples so treated were kept in good czcmndition approximately two months longer than untreated ngmapes. The preservative qualities of antibiotics on other. Ifzruits have been noticed primarily as an aftermath of pre- 11£1rvest treatment to prevent diseases of plants. An ex- Etnaple is the aforementioned treatment of the trunks of €1¥3ple trees.29 .22312 Problem of hesidues Because a great many fruits and vegetables are eaten IPmaw, a certain public health hazard is obvious from the Elgmflication of antibiotics as preservatives. The Food and IEJrug Administration established its position in the use of €1ntibiotics in food preservation when tolerances for'levels (bf chlortetracycline and oxytetracycline on poultry avers set forth. The F. D. A. required proof that normal Inethods of cooking poultry would destroy all or the greatest IDart of the antibiotic. Streptomycin has shown some promise in the retarda- tzion of spoilage of such crops as spinach, cole slaw, ‘ 28"The Use of Germacides (antibiotics and sulphon- filrnides) in the Preservation of Grapes in Cold Storage," ( In German), A. Geron. Indus. Cons. XIX (1954), pp. 32-35, (3:1ted by Pood‘ScIence KBFTFECts XXVII (London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1955}, o. 669. ngoodman and Johnston, loc. ci . '79 lettuce, and. potatoes. Since two of these products are eaten raw, the problem of residues is a serious one. Even the use of streptomycin on vegetables which are to be cooked can present residue problems because streptomycin is only partially heat liable, persisting after a three minute boilingfio In an experiment in which potatoes were dipped in a solution of streptomycin and actidone on July 7th, traces of the antibiotic could still be detected in the potatoes on November 10th.31 Streptomycin could also be detected in apples three and one-half months after treatment of the tree.32 It appears from these experiments that the application of streptomycin to fresh fruits and vegetables does not have commercial significance at this time because of the _ residues remaining for such a long period of time after treatment. If rinses or cooking can eliminate residues of other antibiotics which show promise in the preservation of fresh produce, they may find more rapid application on a commercial scale. Perhaps the concentrations presently being experimented with are too high and much lower concen- trates can be effective without the danger of potentially harmful residues . SOBecker, 22. 23,-,”220 cit., p. 2:54. 31Goodman and Johnston,i_o_p. cit., p. 1008. 321bid., p. 1007. 80 Future of Antibiotic Preservation 23 Fresh Produce A much lower concentration of a combination of antibiotics may be the ansver to the problem of preserva- tion of fresh produce in the future. Because of the nature of fruit and vegetable spoilage, there is a need not only for a bactericidal or bacteriostatic antibiotic to eliminate rot.organisms, but also for a fungicidal or fungistatic antibiotic to control molds and yeasts. Antibiotics, at best, can probably be counted upon 130 add one or two days of shelf-life to fresh fruits and vegetables. This is all that is necessary. In most cases, pronerly handled refrigerated pre- packaged spinach has a shelf-life sufficient for commercial marketing purposes; However, under conditions of heavy natural bacterial soft rot in- fection and high temperatures, which favor bacterial growth, refrigeration alone is insufficient. These adverse conditions frequently become apparent during the summer months and durin spring and fall when temperatures rise abnormally. 5 ESummazz Losses in fruits and vegetables alone amount to more _ than one billion dollars a years“ Most of these losses are (31ae to imprOper handling which causes breaks in the natural protective barrier of the produce, allowing for easier eh try of bacteria and molds. A 55Becker let a1 loc cit - ,—-_O' “.0 “O 34Wrenshall, "Advances in Food Technoloyg Made Possible '5311rough The Use of Antibiotics," p. 812. 81 Antibiotics are presently being used in limited applications for the prevention and treatment of various plant diseases. Absorption of the antibiotic by plant leaves and roots presents certain problems in residues ‘remaining in the fruit for long periods of time. Various experiments have shown that antibiotics ‘such as streptomycin, oxytetracycline, and neomycin can effectively add one to three days to the shelf-life of Edroduce. In combination with refrigeration, antibiotics (could reduce some of the tremendous loss presently encountered in produce marketing. Residues of antibiotics must be eliminated before vvidespread commercial use of this type of preservation can toecome a reality. Perhaps the discovery of new antibiotics VVhich do not have medical significance and have no adverse Eiffects upon the human body can solve some of these toroblems. Antibiotics may find use in preserving fruits 81nd vegetables during transportation and storage prior to i’reezing and canning.- The best used in these two processes ‘rnay be sufficient to destroy existing residues and provide 1ihe consumer with a higher quality product. CHAPTER VI APPLICATION OF ANTIBIOTICS TO THE CANNING INDUSTRY Present methods of canning foods leave something to t>¢5 desired in the nutritional and organoleptic preperties (>1? foods permanently preserved in this manner. Certain tix1tibiotics have shown promise in improving the quality of (:sxnned foods and exhibit potential for the complete automa- ~"Zion of the canning process. Both subtilin and nisin have proven valuable in reducing spoilage in canned foods,but neither has exhibitsdthe ability to either completely (axestroy or permanently inhibit the toxin-producing ability <>f Clostgidium‘potplingg, the organism responsible for' 't>otulism, a food poisoning lethal to man and animals. . Application of antibiotics to fresh produce prior 1:0 canning might reduce losses due to spoilage in storage. flthey might also allow for the permanent preservation of ‘ Ifoods which cannot be canned.with existing techniques. (2anning Technigues "v Present methods of canning foods for preservation Eire based upon the principle of using heat to destroy sspoilage organisms and eliminate pathogens. There are, 1Jovever, certain disadvantages to the use of heat for Ilreservation. C. L.‘Wrenshall defines two of them as q~,b...lnufnm..uH|u.dMl MA'MIiISHIi 8.?) follows: 1. The loss of desirable flavor and some- times texture through prolonged high temperature processing. 2. Partial destruction of some of the vitamins, also due to processing at high temperatures. The majority of products which are canned require high temperatures and some require long-term heating to insure the proper degree of sterilization, (30 to 60 minutes under pressure at temperatures above 212°F).2 Because of this timeotemperatur'e relationship, canning is not, in most cases, adapted to a production-line type of . Processing. Batch cooking is the most accepted type of heat sterilization, and this method is not adapted to automation. Sterilization By Canning . . The first objective of sterilization by canning is the destruction of Clostridium botuli um, a spore-forming Organism which produces a toxin lethal to man. Secondary 013’ Jectives include the control of other heat-resistant 8‘Doilage organisms which are nonpathogenic. k 10. L. Wrenshall‘ "Can Antibiotics 501% Food Sterilization Problems?, Food in Canada mevember, 1953), p. 26. ' I! 2"Use of Antibiotics in Canning Advanced by 0 S. D. A. Research,” Food Industries XXII:2 (February, 1950), p. 32-7. "" ~ 84 The commercial application of a particular method of sterilization depends upon its ability to produce the complete destruction of Clostridium botulinum. In essstablishing a plan for the study of'the use of antibiotics 1n canning, the National Canners Association, in cooperation with the American and Continental Can Companies, placed ‘t><>tulism studies first, ”since the basic requirement would be the ability of the antibiotic to prevent elaboration of the toxin of QEStLLdiE botulinum.”3 ExPerimen_ts with Subtilin and Mild Heat The preservation of foods through the combined action of an antibiotic, subtilin, and mild heat was announced as 'a new principle in food preserva- tion,‘ by Andersen and Michener of the U. S. D. A. Western Regional Research Laboratory in May, 1950.4 The process developed was based on two principles: 1. Destruction of non-spore-forming bacteria, yeasts, fungi and natural enzymes by mild heat treatment. 2. The destruction of spore-forming bacteria with mild heat and subtilin or other antibiotics singly or in combination.5 L 30. w. Bohrer, "N. C. A. Experimental Program "11th Subtilin," Proceedings or the N. c'. A. Technical asion at the 44th Annual Convention, rebruary 19, 1951, Reprinted from Association Information Letter No. 1325 (Washington: National Canner's AssociatiOn, 1951), pp. 21-22. 4'."renshall , 23. c it . 5Ariel A. Andersen and H. David Michener, "Preserva- tion of Foods with Antibiotics. I. The Complementary Action 01‘ Subtilin and mild Heat,” Food Technoiog IV (May, 1950), p- 188. w . 85 The following foods were preserved by this method: peas, asparagus, corn, green beans, peeled potatoes, tomato juice and milk.6 Some of the specific results of the experiments were: all fourteen controls of peas spoiled while no swells occurred in forty-six treated with subtilin over a sixty-four day period; those cans of peas which had been treated with either five parts per million of subtilin and ten minutes heat, or ten parts per million with five or ten minutes heat, or twenty parts per million with five or ten minutes heat, showed no signs of spoilage.7 On June 21, 1950, Dr. K. F. Meyer, a University of California authority on food poisoning, advised the California Cannery Board that a serious health hazard was involved in the use of this method of processing. It was his feeling that there was no assurance of 100 per cent destruction of the toxin-producing ability of ilestridim .bOtulinum organisms. As a result, the Cannery Board issued a- warning to all Canners in the state under their jurisdic- tion, that "no early application of this method of preserva- t1On can. be expected, particularly for products packed under state cannery inspection."8 *1 “M 51b1d., p. 189. 71bid. 8"Subtilin Preservation of Food," National Canners' ‘Beociation Information Letter No. 1301 (Washington: National cal’lner's KssocIaEIon, September 2, 1950), p. 265. 86 In October, 1950, Roy E. Morse published the results of experiments carried Out in the laboratories of the Monsanto Chemical Company. Vegetables successfully canned ané stored for eight months after treatment with five to twenty parts per million subtilin and ten minutes boiling were peas, corn, asparagus, cauliflower, brussels sprouts, broccli, wax beans, and mushrooms. Over '700 cans of vegetables were prepared in this manner. Cooking tempera- -tures of 206° to 212°F were used and "only the controls and samples having minimum subtilin and heat treatments spoiled."9 A A study reported in early 1951 proved beyond doubt that subtilin caused no decline in numbers of Clostridium POtulinum. The Research Division of American Can Company I‘e'ported that "subtilin in concentration as high as eighty parts per million permitted 100 per cent spoilage in 1l'lnoculated lots with both Type A and B toxins found presentfldo Burroughs and Wheaten of the American Can Company, authors of the research, also discovered that other antibiotics (gramicidin, methylol-gramicidin, n .— 9Rov‘E. Merse. "Canning with Antibiotics-- Pro and Con," Food Industries XXII:10 (October, 1950), 10"Antitiotios Not Effective twin-t“ Cloatridium botulinum," Food Engineering XXIII:5 ay’ 1551’, p. 15g. 87 bacitracin, and streptomycin) had no effect at all, not even can the natural bacterial flora of the vegetables.11 In 1951, Cameron and Bohrer of the National Canners' Ikssociation,summarized the work to date by saying that'%here is no early prospect of using antibiotics for the preserva- tion of canned foods which are presently sterilized by high 1temperature processing."12 Studies with subtilin and with other antibiotics luave continued until the present time with no appreciable' 1anrovement in results. To date, antibiotics only inhibit the spores from germinating for.a period of time.' If the antibiotic is removed, the spores will germinate. Most antibiotics decay in potency and allow growth on incubation. Certain antibiotics, such as subtilin, act with heat to destroy the spores. However, to date, none has been found which will reduce the heat process to a point where enough heat processing time would be saved to make the use of these antibiotics economical. 3 Exneriments with N13 in While American scientists have been working with * #A—A‘ ‘— ~ 11J. D. Burroughs and I. E. Wheaten, "Studies on the Preservative Action of Antibiotics in Processed Foods," _The Canner CXII:10 (March 10, 1951), p. 55. *— 123. J. Cameron and C. W. Bohrer, "Food Preserva- tion With Antibiotics: The Problem of Proof," Food W V (August. 1951), p. 540. 130. A. Greenleaf, Associate Director, Washington Reaearch Laboratory, National Canners Association, Washing- ton, D. 0., May 13, 1958, Personal Correspondence. ‘\ 88 subtilin in most of their studies, researchers in England have sought the answers to antibiotic sterilization of canned foods with another antibiotic, nisin. Nisin was found to have preservative properties in cheese manufacture and is being used commercially in Holland for the preserva- tion of Edam cheese.14 Although the majority of the reports are based on rather meager evidence, certain of the theories proposed by British scientists do appear to be of value. Among the most promising qualities that nisin posesses is its inhibitory effect on all clostridia,15 the chief cause of most food poisoning, and of food spoilage. Despite this fact, individual experiments must be carried out with each food substrate because of the possibility of the substrate either destroying or rendering useless, Quantities of the antibiotic necessary for inhibition under commercial conditions in non-food substances. ‘ Some of the possible uses of nisin in the canning industry have been mentioned in the proceeding paragraphs. In all cases, nisin is proposed as a supplement, not a Substitute for normal canning procedures. Nisin may be eSpecially valuable in the canning of tomatoes and tomato ¥ w 14H. B. Hewley, ”Nisin in Food Technology-ml," E393, Manufacture xxxnzs (August 1, 1957), p. 572. 1511' 5' Hawley, "Nisin in Food Technology-~22" W Manufactufi XXXII:9 (September 1, 1957), p. 4.52. 89 products because of the desirability to keep processing temperatures at a minimum to avoid heat damage. There exists the possibility of nisin aiding in the canning of pears and pineapple, gelatins used in meat canning, pickles, and in the reduction 'of flat-sour spoilage in evaporated milk products. The possibilities are logical because of the type of organism causing spoilage and the effect that nisin has shown upon these organisms. however, tests must be made with the actual food pr‘oduct to insure that the inhibitory effect of nisin is not destroyed or masked by the food substrate. The Future 2; Antibiotics in Canning While results with antibiotics have thus far not I>xcoven their worthiness in controllingNClostridium botulinum Eixad other food Spoilage organisms, the search continues. The N. C. A. is constantly looking for a new antibiotic which will destroy the spores of Clostridium botulinum.... The ideal antibiotic would be a cheap one which would destroy the spores and at the same time be destroyed itself by a short heat process. Until such antibiotics can be discovered, the canning industry might benefit from research being done in pre- and post-harvest antibiotic sprays of fresh fruits and Vegetables. A reduction in loss of fresh produce from the time it leaves the field until it reaches the finished \ A- lsGreenleaf, 32. ci . -90 stage, (including transportation to the cannery and storage prior to processing), could provide a substantial savings for the canning industry., The benefits to be derived from use of antibiotics in canning have been listed by Morse: The canner: ‘ 1. Would thus have available a method which could be adapted to automatic processing at a moderate cost. 2. He could eliminate batch processing with its inherent high labor cost. 5. He could reduce processing time, on those packs which require long-time high temperature cooks, with a consequent saving in steam and labor. 4. He could raise considerably the productive capacity, especially where the processing unit is the limiting factor. 5. He could get products of higher quality from the short-time low-temperature cook. 6. The resulting low-cost high-quality canned foods, with potentially higher nutritive value, could prove of tremendous aid to him if he were in the marginal income of canners. There would, of course, be advantages for all others concerned with canning.17 Summary In order to obtain the benefits offered by anti- biotics in canning, the following must be demonstrated: 1. Ability of the process to produce one hundred per cent kill of all pathogenic organisms. 2. Proner time-temperature-antibiotic relationships 1”Horse, 22. cit. 91 must be established to provide maximum protection at minimum cost. 3. No adverse medical efgects of the antibiotic to the consumer. . Certain antibiOtics have demonstrated their ability to reduce the thermal resistance of certain spoilage- producing organisms associated with heat sterilization. I... Further experiments must prove the aforementioned three % facts before commercial utilization of antibiotic-mild : heat treatment can be realized. . w ; To sum it up, the advantages offered by mild ; heat-antibiotic processing of canned foods are ex- tremely tempting. But if the canning industry is to continue the splendid record it has now established, a long and careful look 13 required before plunging into the inviting water. 18Ibid. 19Ibid. CHAPTER VII APPLICATION or ANTIBIOTICS TO DAIRY PRODUCTS, EGGS, AND MISCELLANEOUS FOODS AND BEVERAGES Because of the success of antibiotics in the extension of storage life of perishable meat and vegetable products, food technologists have experimented with many other food and beverage substances. Milk, one of the most important nutrient foods available to mankind, is highly perishable. Children in under developed areas are deprived of this food early in life because of lack of refrigeration facilities. Antibiotics could greatly increase the nutritional level of many countries by reducing bacterial spoilage of fresh and pasteurized milk. Cheese and butter have also been treated with antibiotics for reduction of spoilage. some European countries are now using antibiotics in cheese manufacture on a commercial scale. Other milk products such as custards and milk puddings may be preserved with small amounts of antibiotics. Certain fermentations have been improved by the use of antibiotics. The production of beer and whisky can be increased by the action of certain antibiotics. Dried eggs, subject to bacterial spoilage by salamonella organisms, may be treated with antibiotics to reduce spoilage. ' 95 Antibiotics Ln E33113 M Since the discovery that antibiotic treatment of mastitis in cows would eliminate the disease, milk marketers have been faced with a problem of residues of antibiotics in milk. The Food and Drug Administration has ruled that the label on penicillin intended for treatment of mastitis warn against marketing milk from treated cows for at least seventy-two hours.1 In addition to the public health hazard these residues represent, milk contaminated with antibiotics presents serious economic problems in the production of cheese and other cultured milk products. Residues in one sample of milk could prevent an entire lot from being processed. Recent experiments on preservation of raw fresh milk have shown that storage life could be extended twenty-four hours with the addition of a few parts per million of oxytetracycline.2 In areas where pasteurization and refrigeration facilities are not available, milk could be transported to pepple living outside present delivery areas. _— g—~—_# A 1"Antibiotics in'Food Preservation--Public Health and hegulatory Aspects,’ Science CXXVI:5284 (December 6, 1957), p. 1155. . 20. L. Wrenshall, "Advances in Food Technology Made Possible Through the Use of Antibiotics," Antibiotics Annual, 1956-l9§2 (New York: Medical Encyclopedia, 1957), p. BIZ. v 94 Pasteurized milk can also be prevented from spoiling for ,several weeks beyond normal storage periods with the addition of a broad spectrum antibiotic.3 Antibiotics in_Canned £31k and Puddings The use of antibiotics as an aid in the heat sterilization of canned milk and milk products have thus far not been successful. One experiment with the use of subtilin and mild heat proved that the process was not safe or effective for preserving normally produced whole or concentrated milk.4 H. B. Hawley, a British scientist who has experimented with the use of nisin in many types of foods, has little doubt that much of the flat-sour spoilage of evaporated milk could be prevented with the use of nisin.5 Hewley suggests that nisin might also prevent clotting of canned milk which is caused by certain baccillus.6 SC. L. Wrenshall and J. R. McMahan, "Recent Developments in Food Uses for Antibiotics, " Journal of iMilk and Food Technology,XIX: 4 (April,_1956), p. 155. 4Fred R. Evans and Harold a. curran, ”The Preserving ‘Action of Subtilin and Mild Heat in Normal and Concentrated iMilkz," Journal of Dairy Science XXXV: 12 (December, 1952), p. 1105. 5H. B. Hawley, "Nisin in Food Technology--1, " ]?ood Manufacture XXXII. 8 (August 1,1957), p. 374. 6H. B. Hawley, ”Nisin in Food Technology--2, " Food Manufacture XXXII: 9 {September 1,1957), p. 451. .u—II—I-l' 95 This clotting, which occurs before milk leaves the cannery, caused serious economic loss in Belgium in 1947.7 Subtilin has proven effective in preserving custards used in fillings for baked goods so that they could safely be stored for up to three days.8 ;Subtilin was effective both in reducing spoilage and in retarding food poisoning organisms While chlortetracycline and oxytetracycline were only effective against food poisoning organisms. Perhaps a combination of two of these antibiotics would be more' ”iii 7-»; mm ' Mm 4—1 effective than subtilin alone.’ Nisin might also find application in the preserva- tion of fresh cream in places like Australia where cream and milk are separated at the farm, the cream being sent to butter plants once or twice a week.9 Hydrogen peroxide has been used, but it appears possible that nisin may do better.. The application of nisin to increase the shelf- life of butter may also be possible, but the diverse miCro- flora present may effect antibiotic activity. The practi- cality of these applications would have to be tested. 7%. 8W. J. Godkin and W. H. Cathcart "Effect of D Antibiotics in Retarding the Growth of Micrococcus ro enes var. aureus in Custard Fillings," Food EeafinoIogy VI (June, 1952), p. 229. . 9Hawley, "Nisin in Food Tschnology--2,” p. 452. “S45.” .. .. in 96 Antibiotigg;lg.Cheese Manufacture The existence of residues of antibiotics in milk used for cheese manufacture has presented certain problems to cheese processors. These residues, the result of therapeutic treatment of cows, have an inhibitory effect on the growth and acid production of cheese starter organ- ,isms.10 However, certain non-therapeutic antibiotics such as nisin, have aided in the manufacture of cheese by eliminating organisms which produce side effects during processing. "Already Alpin and Barrett (Alpin and Barrett, Limited, of England) have successfully treated almost 1,000 tons of processed cheese with the antibiotic, nisin."ll Nisin is claimed to completely control the blowing of processed cheese by clostridia.12. "Edam-containing nisin "13 is now being produced commercially in Holland. Parmesan cheese, which may have defects occuring as late as twelve 10Robert Angelotti, "Studies on the Physiological Activities of Terramycin-resistant and Terramycin-susceptible Cultures of Cheese-ripening Strains of Streptococcus lactis," .(unpublished Doctor's thesis,.The Ohio state Universi y, Columbus, 1955), cited by Dissertation Abstracts (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University MicrofiIms, 19555, XV, p. I375. 11"Food Preservation with Antibiotics," Food Manufacture XXX:1 (January 1, 1955), p. 1. 121b1d. 13Haw1ey, "Nisin in Food Technology-~1," p. 372. 97 K . to eighteen months after manufacture, may be preserved with nisin.14 There is abundant evidsrce that nisin is effective in processed cheese only when it is processed and packaged under hygenic conditions. In these respects nisin differs greatly from the broad spectrum antibiotics such as Chlortetracycline and oxytetracycline, which, because of their wide range of antimicrobial activity may mask the effects of poor hygiene and poor-quality raw materials.15 Hiscellaneoug Applications 23 finigbiotice Fresh shell.eggs, subject to rapid quality deterioration, have been dipped in antibiotic solutions to determine effectiveness in retarding spoilage. Three ’ experiments so far have shown no evidence that antibiotics help reduce spoilage of shell eggs. The number of bacteria on the eggs or the number of eggs undergoing spoilage were not affected by various antibiotic treatments.16 One group of researchers found strong evidence that a five minute dip ' in a ten parts per million solution of antibiotics con- siderably increased the rate of spoilage,1’ ‘ -_ —— 14Ib1d. 15Haw1ey, "Nisin in Food Technology-~2," p. 435. 15w. A. Miller, "The Effect of Coating the Shells of Washed Eggs, That Formerly Were Dirty, with Antibiotics, Upon Subsequent Spoilage,' Poultry Science XXV:l (January, 1956), p. 243. ‘”"“““’ """" 17F. J. Schmidt and w. J. Stadelman, "Effects of Antibiotics and Heat Treatment of Shell Eggs on Quality 98 The chief bacterial problem in the preservation of dried eggs are organisms of the salamonella family. Nisin has been shown to have no effect upon these organisms,18 while oxytetracycline exhibits some control but only at very high concentrations.19 Antibiotics have been successful in suppressing the activity of organisms (of the type which cause souring of milk), in the fermentation of whisky and beer. Tyrothricin, oxytetracycline, chlort etracycline, chloromycetin, and penicillin have all been effective in preventing side effects during the production of whisky without harming the yeasts which do the fermenting?O A patent has been issued to the F. and M. Schaefer Company for inhibiting micro- biological growth in beer. The method involves the use of 0 two antibiotics, polymyxin and thiolutin.”1 These A ———— After Storage," Poultry Science XXXVI:5 (September, 1957), p. 1026. 18Hawley, "Nisin in Food Technology--2," p. 430. 193.” u. Kersey, P. C. Visor, and C. L. Wrehshall, "Residual Antibiotic Levels in Food Products During Storage and Processing," Antibiotics Annual, 1955- 1954 (New York: Medical Encyclooeaia, 1954), p. 44 20"Antibiotics Make Better Whisky," Science News Letter LX1V213 (September 26,1955), p. 207. leochelmann and Strandskov, assignors to the F. and M. Schaeffer Brewing Company, United States Patent 2,798,811,,Ju1y 9, 1957. 99 antibiotics stimulate fermentation and keep the yeast free from contamination so that it may be used again. Other miscellaneous uses of antibiotics are in the manufacture of edible and baker's yeast, and in the stabilization of wines. In both of these instances, anti- biotics serve to suppress the activity of bacteria and allow yeasts and molds to grow more rapidly. Summary The use of small amounts of antibiotics in fresh and pasteurized milk could provide the necessary extension in shelf-life needed to supply many people who do not now receive fresh milk. A twenty-four hour extension in the storage life of raw milk could allow distribution in areas where pasteurization and refrigeration are not available. Certain milk custards used in the baking industry are excellent carriers of food poisoning organisms.- These can successfully be preserved for up to three days by the addition of subtilin. Flat-sour spoilage in canned milk will probably be successfully controlled with nisin. This same type of spoilage has been sharply reduced in canned tomatoes and tomato juice. Antibiotics are presently being used commercially in the production of Edam cheese in Holland with very good results. The blowing of cheese, caused by organisms of the 100 clostridia family, can safely be controlled with nisin. This antibiotic is digested by the human_body and is in no way cross-resistant to medical antibiotics. Beer-brewing and whisky-fermenting processes have been improved with antibiotics by a more closely controlled fermentation process. Tyrothricin, oxytetracycline, Chlortetracycline, chloromycetin, penicillin, thiolutin, and polymyxin have all proven effective in preventing side effects and keeping yeast cultures free of contamination. As new antibiotics are developed and tested, there appear to be endless possibilities for their use in food and beverage processing. In addition to the prevention of spoilage, antibiotics have shown to be capable of improving those products produced by controlled fermentation. CHATTER VIII CONCLUSION: A COMBINATION OF METHODS OF PRESERVATION An expected increase in world pepulation of 115 per cent between 1960 and 2000 will place a tremendous burden upon food production and marketing resources. The greatest increase in population is eipected to occur in under deveIOped areas where undernourishment of the pOpulace is a problem. These estimates, plus the fact that enough food is wasted each year to feed almost the entire population of the United States, places a tremendous responsibility upon all phases of the food industry to be as efficient as possible in producing, processing, and marketing food products. ' Throughout this thesis, mention has been made of the fact that antibiotics will probably be used in combination with other methods of preservation to help reduce the tremendous spoilage losses presently being encountered in food marketing. Dr. Joseph A. $tern,'Food Technologist of the School of Fisheries of the University of hashington in Seattle, made the following statement at a recent meeting of antibiotics experts from all parts of the world: Most of the applications and proposed applications of the antibiotics have been at localized points in the production line, avoiding expensive changes, but perhaps failing to utilize fully the antibiotics. 102 To realize the full potential, it probably will be necessary to engineer and integrate the use of the antibiotic compounds into production lines. This will create new problems in packaging, hand- ling, refrigeration, storage, and transportation. In such cases, we have the problem of whether the use of antibiotics will warrant expensive changes. For example, one can possible conceive of the following production line for certain types of Eh foods: (1) The early use of the antibiotics to reduce the bacterial pOpulaticns. Such use in conjunction with refrigeration to lower the rate of. autolytic and chemical reactions and with antimycotic agents to inhibit forms of microbial life other than bacterial; (2) the packaging of the food in a vacuum ; type container, either flexible or rigid, to reduce I oxidative changes, perhaps in conjunction with the k! use of an antioxidant; (3) microwave heating to inactivate enzymes and reduce the rate of autolytic activity; (4) radiation with an extremely low dosage to bring about surface sterilization with or without the inclusion of certain chemicals to reduce possible flavor changes; (5) low temperature storage to reduce autochemical reactions. Such a procedure would produce foods and food products certainly different from those that we are accustomed to today, but with extended storage lives much greater than we now visualize. In such a process line engineered with the over- all objectives and handling procedures in mind, the antibiotics, with their attendant advantages, would certainly play an integral part.1 Another example of the use of antibiotics in conjunction with newer methods of preservation is the series of experiments carried out by two members of the 1Joseph A. Stern, "Present Status of Antibiotics in the Preservation of Food," A panel discussion, Antibiotics Annual, 1956~1957 (New York: Medical EncyclopedTE:_T§5777— pp. 1118-1119. 105 staff of the American Meat Institute Foundation of Chicago. The results of their tests with ionizing radiations of 100,000 rep (roentgen equivalent physical) in combination with ten parts per million of oxytetracycline have been 2 somewhat gratifying. Scorbic acid was also added to the meat to reduce yeast development. The ccmbination of these agents (radiation, oxytetracycline, and scorbic acid) proved to be sufficiently effective so that microbial spoilage would no longer be the determining factor in the shelf-life of fresh meats.... Although it appears fir probable that means are now available to control microbial spoilage of prepackaged fresh meats, many factors must be taken into consideration before such methods will become feasible on a commercial basis. The color of meat as it is displayed is difficult to retain in an appealing form even when microbial growth is controlled. An improved package film to help maintain the desired color probably will be desired.5 Whenever a new method of food preservation is discovered, there is a fear that more established methods will disappear. Vhen frozen foods were introduced, there was a great deal of concern for the future of the canning industry. However, in 1955, more cans and glass containers for processed food were manufactured than in any prior year.4 20. F. Niven and W. R. Chesbro, "Complimentary Action of Antibiotics and Irradiation in the Preservation of Fresh Meats,” Antibiotics Annual, 19567l957 (New York: Medical Encycloneaia, I95"), pp. 8552856. 31b1d., p. 858. 4Bernard E. Proctor, "Food Horizons," Food Technology X (1956), p. 394. 104 The frozen food industry, originally on the defensive when antibiotic preservation was proposed, has decided that 'these substances will prove to be a strong ally to frozen food processing.5 Antibiotics have proven to be one of the most powerful weapons in the therapeutic arsenal available to medical science. In less than fifteen years, the applica- tion of these substances to preservation of food has become a commercial reality, saving an undetermined amount of food from bacterial spoilage. As new and more effective antibiotics are discovered, the possibilities for antibiotic preservation will increase. There will be no danger of any of the presently accepted means of preservation being made obsolete: rather, antibiotics will help food freezers and canners to produce a better product, in greater quantities, to feed an ever-increasing population both in this country, and in the rest of the world. 5Editorial, ”Antibiotics Proving Value as Food Freezing Ally," guick Frozen Foods XVIII:12 (July, 1956), p. 140. BIBLIOGPAPHY 106 BIBLIOGRAPHY_ BOOKS Goresline, Harry E. "Food Spoilage and Deterioration," Handbook of Food and A riculture, Fred C. Blanck, edIEor. ‘NEw York: He n o u lishing Company, 1955. Pp . 389-410 Q \.' w, Robinson, F. A. Antibiotics. New York: Pitnan Publishing Company, 1955. Waksman Selman A. Neom cin. New Brunswick New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1955. ' Annual, 1955-1954. 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