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THE DESCRIPTION OF THE BRONZED GRACKLE
AND

ITS GENERAL OSTEOLOGY AND MYOLOGY

THESIS

Submitted to the Faculty
of the
Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science
in partial fulfillment of the requirement:
for the degree of

Master of Science.

by
Sister nary Geraldine ggnney

1929

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .

This study was done under the direction of'Doctor Chamberlain
and Ir. Stack of liichigan State College, to whom I am most
grateful for their encouragement, help, and deep interest.
In addition, the writer wishes to thank Doctor mm of Michi-

gan State College for reading the manuscript and offering

many helpful suggestions.

 

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Introduction...............

Materials

Morphology of the Exterior Parts of Birds

Osteology--The Gaseous System or Skeleton

The Skull of the Bronzed Grackle . .

Bones of the Cranium . . .
The Vertebral Column . . .
The Compound Sacrum . . .
The Anterior Appendages .
Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . .
Superficial Muscles of the
Superficial muscles of the
Superficial Muscles of the

Superficial Muscles of the

Hbad and Neck

Fore Limb . .

Hind Limb . .

Upper Extremity

and

Trunk

BibliogaPWO O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

12
13
15
20
21
22

32

35
37

39

INTRODUCTION.

From an economic standpoint the Bronzed Crackle possesses
unusual interest to the ornithologist, therefore any information con?
cerning this bird is of value. Since no one has, as far as could be
learned, heretofore made a study of the anatomy of this bird, it has
been selected as the subject of this thesis. The discussion will in-
clude, first, the description of the bird itself, and secondly, its

general osteology and mwology.

The Bronzed Crackle ( uiscalus iscula aeneus).

This "refined crow”, which is really no crow'at all except
in appearance, is the largest of our blackbirds, and is readily dis-
tinguished by the purplish-blue-green color of the head, neck, and
upper breast and the bronze or brassy color of the entire body. The
feathers of the hack and belly are devoid of the iridescent bars which
characterize the Purple Crackle (ggigcalus guiscula) found only in the
Atlantic states fromjuassachusetts south and east of the Alleghenies.
The male and female are similar, except that the latter is smaller and
its feathers decidedly duller.

The bird is found in the Allegheny region and southern New
England, north of Newfoundland and Great Slave Lake, west to the east-
ern base of the Rocky Mountains, and south to Louisiana and Texas. In
fall migration it visits the southeastern states except Florida and the

Atlantic Coast district south of Virginia.

 

 

 

-2-

A short time ago, February 14, 1929, while traveling in the
East, where the snow drifts still lingered in places, I saw a flock of
birds whirl into the top of a lone leafless tree. I could not identify
them, but soon a sound like the scrape of a bow on a fiddle string
floated on the air, and than I knew they were grackles. Their advent
seemed rather early, as I had left my home in Michigan banked in snow,
but then i recalled that low York was feeling the balmy air of spring
at least for a few days. Be that as it may, llichigan does not see
this bird until the latter part of February or early in March. They
have been known to remain in a protected cedar swamp all winter, but
these are only exceptions. October finds the meJority departing for a
veneer clime. A few may be found in November or December.

Thq are gregarious birds of the first order, invariably
traveling in flocks and nesting in large groups. They seem to hold
aloof from mankind except when their young are in danger, and then
they have been known to strike their wings with great force in the
face of the intruder.

Annually they have come to nest in the trees'of a nearby
yard. Harch 20 found two of these birds strutting about on the lawn.
The day was perfect, for it was in the full glory of springtime. The
dripping of the tiny fountain, tinkling like a bit of familiar music,
and the swelling tones of the birds' voices drifted over the flowers
that were clustered on the lawn. It seemed as though all Nature was
in tune until the coarse voice of the grackle was heard. The irides-
cent plumage of the male flashed in the sun and glittered as polished
steel and metallic bronze. It was mating season. Nevertheless, with

all the display of color and song, the courtship was not inspiring.

-U-

The male puffed out his feathers to their fullest extent, depressed the
central feathers of the tail, and sang his song of love. Though his
song sounded like an iron gate creaking on rusty hinges, the grackle's
mate seemed to appreciate his efforts as he poured forth his craven soul
to her through a disjointed syrinx. Evidently when Nature's orchestra
was tuning for the Spring Symphony, the grackle failed to adjust his
vocal membranes to the proper pitch. It has been said of grackles.
”They are as devoted lovers as turtle doves".

Crackles are interesting birds, ranking like the crow in in-
telligence. They have come into our cities, but seem more at home where
the wind speaks of freedom or where the river whispers peace. The
favorite nesting place is in the thick top of the evergreens. The nest
is compact (Plate V) and built of coarse grasses, lined with finer
grasses and a few'feathers or any other soft substance. The number of
eggs varies from.four to six and sometimes seven. They are oval in
shape and vary in color from a bluish white or greenish to a grayish
brown ground color more or less blotched and streaked with brown and
purple (Plate V). The young seem to be led or spirited away as quickly
as possible after the eggs are hatched, and often as early as June 15
not a one is to be seen in the yard. They gradually gather into flocks
and spend the time foraging about the country wherever food is most
abundant. When the day is far spent and the night closes in upon then,
they seek:a resting place in marshes that are covered with small bushes.
Here their harsh conversational chattering may be likened to a veritable
bedlam.

Like the crow, grackles are more or less omnivorous. Profes-

sor Baal lists their food as 50.3% animal and 69.7% vegetable matter.

 

 

 

 

‘«

 

 

-4—

Spring finds them devouring noxious insects, but in autumn fruits and
seeds attract their attention.

is ornithologists differ regarding the place of the bronzed
grackle in the economic scale, the conclusions of Professors Barrows
and Beal are here submitted.

Professor Barrows is of the opinion that the crow blackbird
is a serious foe to the farmer whenever it occurs in large numbers,
but taken all in all, the facts seem to show conclusively that the
bronsed grackle is a valuable bird which does considerably more good
than harm. The good done is widely distributed, but the harm is often
concentrated on a few acres. Professor Beal says that these birds do
a good share of the work of keeping insect life down to a proper level
and are, therefore, most emphatically useful birds, but he also states

that when over abundant their numbers should be reduced.

Materials.

The bronsed grackles, trapped by Professor Stack at the Bird-
Banding Station on the Michigan State College campus, were the chief
source of material for this study. The birds were trapped and killed
in 1928; fixed in 10% formalin solution. The feathers were next plucked,
the vicera and skin removed, and as much as possible of the muscle; then
the specimen was immersed in a liter of boiling water to which had been
added 70 grams of cakite and 140 cc. of concentrated ammonia. After
the greater part of the muscle had been removed, the specimen was allowed
to stand over night in a solution of pepsin and water, about 7.08 grams
of pepsin to 250 cc. of distilled water. This seemed to bleach the

specimen.considerably. The skeleton was then placed for about two hours

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on a pen in an oven heated to a temperature of 80°. The skeleton, then
dry, was mounted on a cardboard and the parts labeled (Plate II). Sev-
eral skeletons were thus prepared.

To get an exact outline, another plucked specimen was mounted
on a cardboard. After the outline had been completed, this specimen
was removed from the cardboard, the vicera taken out, and its skin care-
fully removed lest a mscle might be torn. Next a large dissecting tray,
a pair of forceps, and three scalpels of different sizes were procured,
and the task of removing the muscles began. This done, they were named
as seen on the outline (Plate I). Separate plates were then made show-
ing some of the muscles of the head and neck (Plate IA), of the trunk
(Plate 13), of the upper extremity (Plate 10), of the lower extremity

(Plate ID). A drawing was then made of the bronzed grackle showing the

names applied to the parts cf its body (Plate IV).

 

 

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-7-

MDRPBDLOGY OF THE EXTERIOR PARTS OF BIRDS (PLATE IV).
(Greek, morpho, form; logos, discourse)

The student of ornithology must not only know the divisions
of the body, 1. e. head, neck, trunk, and members, but must become ac-
quainted with the specific parts of the bird as well.

The head is well developed, the neck long and flexible, the
trunk short and plump, the tail long and graceful, the body covered

*with feathers, the most characteristic feature of all birds.

The Head.

The head terminates in an elongated beak, consisting of an
upper and lower Jaw, encased in horny sheaths, and known as the upper
and lower mandibles. The nostrils, two in number, are in the upper
mandible. The forehead or frontal region (Latin, frons), includes all
that slopes upward from the bill to a point opposite the anterior
border cf the eyes. The crown (Latin, corona) includes the tap of the
head, or the highest part, and extends from the rise of the forehead
to the fall of the hindhead. The lores (Latin, lorum, a strap or space
of color) extend anteriorly from the eye along the side of the head to
the base of the upper mandible. It is an important area because it is,
in many species, the seat of specially colored feathers. The hindhead
(Latin, occiput) is the slope on the back of the head extending to the
neck. The neck (Latin, cervix) is that part of the neck next to the
back; it is the ”hind neck" proper, or "scruff of the neck?. ”The nape
of the neck” (Latin, nucha) is the upper portion of the neck, adjoining
the hind-head. It is known as the cervical and nuchal region. The

auricular (Latin, auris, auriculum, ear) is the region around the ex-

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ternal Opening of the ear. The position varies in different species.
The malar region (Latin, mala, upper Jaw) runs into the chin along the
lower lateral region of the head. The Jugulum is the portion of the
throat lower than the gula (Latin, gulla or Jugulum). The Jugular por-
tion is lowermost, disappearing in the breast, the gular uppermost, run-

ning into the chin along the under surface of the head.

The Mandibles (Latin, mandere, to chew).

The upper mandible is the upper profile of the bill, beginning
where the feathers end on the forehead and extending to the tip of the
upper mandible. The bill may be concave, convex, or straight. The
framework of the under mandible is a compound bone called the inferior
maxillary. It is V-shaped, with the point in front and the prongs
running to either side of the base of the skull behind. Here they are

hinged and movable. Both Jaws in birds are moveable.

The Gastraeum (Greek, gaster, belly).

The gastraeum includes the breast (Latin, pectus), the belly
(Latin, abdomen), and the sides of the body (Latin, pleurae). The
breast begins over the clavicles where the jugulum ands. It is the
swollen anterior part of the gastraeum, flatter than the abdomen.

The Abdomen (Latin, abdomen, belly) is behind the posterior
edge of the sternum, bounded externally and posterially by the pubes.

The Notaeum (Greek, notes, back) begins at the ending 0f the
neck and extends to the beginning of the tail coverts. This part of
the bird is subdivided into the back (Latin, dorsum) and the rump

(Latin, urOpygium). Three-fourths of the notaeum we call the back, and

the remaining portion the rump.

 

 

 

 

 

-9-

The Scapularies or Scapulars (Latin, scapula, shoulder blade).

The scapulars, or shoulder feathers, are always associated
with the back. These are the feathers on the pterlae humerales (Greek,
pteron, a plume; and humerales, Latin, humerus, the shoulder). The
part of the notaeum.they represent is called the scapulars, and the
part between them the interscapulars. The flanks (Latin, ilia, or hypo-
cbondria) are the sides of the rump, the part of the body between the

ribs and the thigh.

The Greater Wing Coverts (Cooperire, Latin, to cover).
The greater wing coverts are the first, outermost, and longest

row of feathers reaching nearest the tips or the flight feathers.

The Median or Middle coverts.
The next row of feathers are the middle coverts; they are

shorter and less exposed.

The Lesser Coverts.
The lesser coverts are the remaining upper secondary coverts.
The Alula or Ala Spuria (Latin, alula, little wing, diminutive of ale,
wing; Spuria, Latin, spuria, spurious, bastard) is a small number cf

feathers which grow'upon the second digit.

The Primaries.
The primaries or remiges (Latin, remix, remigis, an oarsman)

are the flight feathers which grow upon the pinion and finger bones.

The Secondaries.

The secondaries are those remiges which are on the forearm.

 

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The Tertiaries.
The tertiaries are the remiges upon the upper arm.
The Tail Coverts.

There are two sets of tail coverts, an over or upper and an
under or lower set (Latin, tetrices, superiores tetrices, inferiores).
The tail coverts are a number of very small feathers which are over and
under the retrices (Latin, retrix, plural, retrices, guider) covering

their bases and adding strength to the tail.

The Retrices.
The retrices are the true tail feathers and are as a rule
stiff. They are always in pairs, having an equal number of feathers

on the right and the left side of the tail.

The Digits.

The hand-bone consists of three bones fused in one, and these
correspond to the digits or fingers of the bird. The digits of the
toes consist of a number of small bones and like those of the fingers,
we call them phalanges (Latin, phalanx, rank.or series). They are the
first, second, third, and fourth. Nb bird is said to possess a fifth
toe.

The vent or cloacal aperture is a large transverse cleft

situated on the ventral surface of the hinder end of the trunk.

 

 

 

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OSTEOLOGY--THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM OR SKELETON.

Osteology is a word of Greek origin (osteon, a bone; logus, a
discourse). It is therefore a scientific discussion on bone in general
and bones in particular. Bone, being a derivitive of the mesoderm, \
represents the most highly differentiated of the connective tissues. It
consists of cells and intercelhular substances, the latter being hard and
resistant, yet very elastic. Taken collectively the bones constitute
the osseous system, known as the skeleton (Greek, skello, make dry).

The primordal skeleton has its origin in the sclerotome of the somite,
while the covering bones of the head originate in the dermotome of the
somite. The skeleton is divided into the endoskeleton (Greek, endo,
within, consisting of bones inside the body) and the exoskeleton (Greek
exo, out of or those upon the surface of the body). As birds do not
possess an exoskeleton, unless we consider the feathers on the greater
part of the bow, scales and claws on the feet, and the horny beak, we
are concerned only with the internal or endoskeleton. All of these
structures are of epidermal origin, formed from.the stratum germinati-
vum. There are no dermal elements of the exoskeleton of birds. The
bony framework of the bird holds a prominent place in anatomical study.

Belon.seems to have been.the first to institute a.direct com-
parison of the skeleton of the bird with that of man, but in this re-
spect he only anticipated by a few'years the more precise researches of
Volcher Goiter, a Frisian, who in 1573 published at Ruremberg two treati-
ses, in one of which the internal structure of birds is described, while
in the other, the osteclegy and myology of certain forms are given.

The endoskeleton is derived chiefly'fromxthe medial wall of

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the somite and constitutes a support and framework for the body and a
place for attachment of the voluntary muscles. It may be divided into
the bones cf the axial skeleton, so named because they lie in the axis
of the body, and those of the skull, back-bone, and chest, and of the

appendicular skeleton, including the bones of the limbs.

The Skull of a Bird.

A bird's skull, the most birdlike structure of the whole
skeleton, has been called a ”poem.in bone”; its architecture, "the
frozen music of morphology". we marvel at its lightness, not only
because its walls are so very thin, but because of the great number
of its air cavities. To realize the utmost importance of lightness in
this particular structure we have only to glance at the length of the
neck, and ask ourselves how such a heavy head could be supported at
the end of so long a neck. At the first glance the skull of a bird
seems to be composed of a solid bone. It is a very good example of
the fusion or ankylosing of bones, as it resembles a shell almost

without a suture.

The Skull of the Bronzed Grackle.

The large rounded portion of the skull proper is a bony case,
the cranium, which protects the brain (Plate 2A). The brain lies
between the occipital, the ethmoidal, the sphenoidals, squamosals, the

parietals, and a portion of the frontals. On either side of the skull
~ about the center is a large cavity, the orbit, the socket for the eye.
At the back of the eye case is an irregular depression, the tympanic

cavity (Plate 2B). The parts of the beak, covered by a horny substance,

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-14—

are the premaxillary, nasal and dentry (Plate 2A). In the base of the
beak are paired apertures, the nares, (Plate 2A). The quadrate is a
short stout bone in the temporal region. The palatines are two bones
extending from the anterior ends of the ptergoids (Plate 2D). The Vomer
is a fragile bone lying between the palatine bones and the orbits (Plate
2D). The rostrum forms the central axis of the base of the skull. The
lachrymal is a small bone forming the anterior wall of each orbit, near
the nasal Opening'and behind the nasal bone. The sygoma or jugal is a
slender bone lying between the premaxillary and the quadrate. The
sphenoid consists of a basisphenoid in front of the basi-occipital, the
alisphenoid, a pair of bones on either side of the basisphenoid, and
the presphenoidal lig§_above and in front of the basisphenoid. The
orbitosphenoids are the bones on either side of the presphenoid. The
hyoid apparatus is an arrow shaped bone in the base of the tongue. (Plate
IC). The pterygoids are a pair of bones on the base of the skull. The
foramen magnum is a large aperature on the posterior surface of the
brain case. The occipital condyle is an elevation on the anterior'mar-
gin of the foramen.magnum. The lamboidal ridge is a little above the
foreman.magnum. (Plate 2). The squamosal is bounded by the frontal and
parietal above and before. The interoibital septum.(vomer) is a plate
of bone separating the orbits from one another (Plate 2).

Having exendned the general.morphology of the skull, the

structure of the principal bones are here given in detail.

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-15..

Bones of the Cranium.
The Doc ipital Bone.

Occipital (Latin, occiput, back of head). The occipital bone
is situated at the back of the base of the skull. Located on the pos-
terior surface of the brain caseftsurrounds the foramen magnum (fm)
(Plate 2B) (Latin, an opening for the spinal cord as it passes to the
brain). Not in this specimen but in the young bird, the foramen magnum
is bounded by the supraoccipital above (Supra, Latin prefix above and
occipital Latin, occiput, head.), the basioccipital below, and the ex-
occipital on either side. Above the supraoccipital is the lamboidal
suture (Greek, Lambda, letter A, sides, form or shape). This bone,
becoming'the lamboidal ridge in the adult, looks smooth but under a
magnifying glass has a pitted surface. This ridge separates the supra-
occipital from the parietals. On the lower margin of the foramen.mag-
num is a very small elevation, the occipital congyle (Latin, occiput,
back of head, the condylus, knuckles). The cranial surface is concave

conforming to the surface of the cerebrum and cerebellum.

The‘Parietals.

The parietals (Latin, paries, a wall) form.the greater part
of the sides and roof of the skull and lie between the occipital, be-
hind the frontal, before the sumamosal laterally. They are a pair of
slightly arched bones, separated from one another by a saggital suture
(Latin, saggitta, arrow and suture, to sew) and from the inter-parietal
by a transverse suture. The external surface is convex and smooth, the
internal surface concave and presents eminences and depressions for

lodging the convultions of the brain, and numerous furrows for the rami-

-15-

fication of the arteries which supply the brain with blood.

The Frontals.

The frontals (Latin, frons, brow) (Plate 2) resemble a cockle
shell and are paired in the young bird, but soon fuse together along the
middle line by a frontal suture. These bones not only furnish all the
anterior part of the brain case, but enter into the formation of the
roof of the orbits. The frontal surface presents two convex smooth
lateral areas separated by a saggital depression, anteriorally the sur-
face is narrowed between the orbits. The cranial surface is concave
conforming ‘to the surface of the brain. The orbits are concave; pierced
postero-medially by the cptic foramen, they are separated from the fron-

tal surface by the orbital rim.

Sphenoid Bone.

The Sphenoid (Greek, ephen, a wedge, eidos, form) (Plate 2)
is a compound bone and consists of the main part of the bone or basi-
sphenoid lying between the bouoccipitals and the pterygoids, a pair of
alisphenoids (Greek, sphenoid, Latin prefix ala) on either side, the
presphenoid (Latin prefix pre, before; sphenoid) above the basisphenoid,
and the orbitosphenoids (Latin, orbits, orbit) on either side of the
presphenoid. The sphenoid region is anterior to the occipital region
and forms the floor of the cavity occupied by the brain. Much of the
basisphenoid is concealed from view by the ptergoids and the quadrates,
but its anterior end projects as a thin blunt process, the rostrum,
into the space between the two orbits. A cavity in the exterior of the

skull extending from the foramen magnum to the alisphenoid bone during

life contained the brain.

-"-

The Premaxillae.

The premaxillae are bones forming the greater part of the
beak. The free ends form the strong pointed extremity of the beak,
fran which three processes are given Off on each side; the first is
the nasal process, passing upward and backwards on the dorsal aspect
of the beak; the second is a palatine process which extends along the
middle of the palate to the palatine bones; and the third the maxil-
lary process which passes backward forming the greater part of the
margin of the beak, uniting with the maxillae. The maxilla is a slen-
,der rod-like bone, articulating in front with the premaxillae and be-
hind by the Jugals. A thin bone, a maxillo-palatine process scale-

like in form, extends from the rod-like portion into the palate.

The Squamosal.

The squamosal bone (Latin, squama, a scale) forms a part of
the cranial wall just above the tympanum and is united to the petrous
or anchylosed bones. It is bounded by the frontal and parietal above
and behind, by the exoccipital below, and by the alisphenoid in front.
Some of these bones, as the exoccipital and the alisphenoid, do not
appear in the skull of the adult, but can be seen in that of a very
young bird. In the specimen before me, the squamosal has developed a
spur, called the squamosal process, which extends downward over the

quadrate bone to be united with the postorbital process of the frontal.

The Quadrate Bone.
The quadrate bone (Latin, quadratus, squared) is a stout,

irregular four-cornered bone fencing the suspensorium of the lower jaw

-13-

(Suspensory, Latin, suspensorius, a bone holding up a part); a bone by
which the mandible articulates with the skull.

The head of the quadrate articulates with the squamosal in
front of the tympanic cavity and the foot of the quadrate forms the free
hinge of the lower jaw. The middle of its ventral surface forms a
hemispherical knob with which the mandible articulates, while its dorso
anterior border is drawn out into a point which extends to the inter-
orbital septum.

The palatines (Latin, roof of the mouth) are cylindrical,
curved, paired bones passing from the anterior ends of the pterygoids
and uniting with the premaxillae by anchylosis. Their posterior ends
resemble a scroll and unite with the pterygoids. The palatines di-
verge from the rostrum by the ends of the vomer.

The Eyoid apparatus has an arrow shaped body with a short
pair of anterior cornua derived from the hyoid arch and a pair of pos-
terior cornua, slender rods, spring from the first branchial. Plate
20 shows all the parts: (a) the basi-hyal, (b) the uro-hyal, and (c)
the basibranchial. The basi-hyal is in front and the uro-hyal is
behind. At the posterior end is a pair of long posterior cornua, each
consisting of two pieces, the longer known as the basibranchial and
the shorter carats-branchial.

The tympanic cavity is an irregular depression bounded by

the exoccipital behind and by the basitemporal beneath.

-19-

   

 

-20-

The Vertebral Column.

The vertebral column (Latin, verto, I turn, so called from
the flexibility of the chain of vertebrae) (Plate 2 and 2J), the second
division of the vertebral column, is formed by a series of bones called
vertebrae. The column may be divided into the cervical vertebrae, or
those of the neck; the four anterior thoracic vertebrae; the compound
sacrum; the caudal vertebrae and the pygostyle, forming the posterior
termination of the vertebral column.

A vertebra consists of a solid body or centrum, and neura-
pophyses, an upward plate-like process on either side of the centrum,
meeting in the center and forming the neural arch enclosing the neural
canal through which passes the neural spine. On either side of the
vertebrae are the transverse processes; these are called diapophyses
(Greek, dea, across, apophyses, apo, from; phusis, growth). The obli-
que processes, coming from the sides of the same arches and serving
to fasten them together, are called sygapophyses (Greek, sugan, yoke).
Those on the anterior side are called prezygophysis, and those on the
posterior surface areknown as post-sygapOphysis. Each articulates with
the preceding vertebra.

The first region of the vertebral column is the cervical;
the cervical vertebrae are those of the neck and bear a striking resemp
blance to one another except the first two, the atlas and the axis verte-
brae. The Atlas vertebrae without a centrum, the lower one being cupped
t0 rOceive the occipital condyle, is a simple ring of bone, so called
b°callse it bears up the head as the giant Atlas was supposed to have

8“I’I’Cu‘ted the firmanent. The axis vertebra has a toothlike process

-21-

odontoid (Greek, odons, odontos, tooth) upon the anterior surface of
its body about which the atlas revolves like a wheel. The last two of
the cervical vertebrae bear ribs which do not unite with the sternum.

The Thoracic Vertebrae are defined as those which have ribs
attached to them. Ribs are curved bones and sometimes defined as the
pleuraphysial elements of the vertebrae with which they articulate one
on each side. They unite with the sternum, which extends from.the cer-
vical to the pelvic region of the spine. Each thoracic rib is divided
into two parts by a transverse process, a dorsal part, called the ver-
tebral rib, resembling the last cervical rib, and the ventral part,
called the eternal rib. The first dorsal is the one bearing the first
rib, which is Jointed, and reaches the sternum by its lower haema-
pophysial (Greek, half).

A notable feature of the dorsal region is its stiffness, due
to the fact that the vertebrae have become ancylosed together, this
being an advantage in flight. The bird’s back bone bends at a point
just in front of the pelvis, allowing freedom to either side. Some of
the doreals bear hypaphophyses (Greek, hypo, under) which divide into

two laminae.

The Compound Sacrum.

The compound sacrum consists of several vertebrae ankylosed
together and forming an attachment for the pelvis. There are the lumbar
vertebrae immediately following the thoracic which have a neural spine
but no hypophyses. next follows the sacral vertebrae resembling the
lumbar but having plates coming from the neural arches, these fusing

with the 1113a

 

 

- 22-

The Caudal Vertebrae, or terminal vertebrae, are fused to-
gether into an upturned, compressed bone, the pygostyle. It supports
the tail feathers, there being one pair to each retrix-bearing verte-
bra; the numher of tail feathers may be equal to the number of the

vertebrae.

The Anterior Appendages.

The pectoral arch (Latin, pectus, the breast) Plate 2 and
Plate 2F, consists of three bones, the_scapula, the corocoid forming
the scapular arch, and the clavicle or collar bone. These bones are
often known by the name of pectoral-girdle trio. The scapula may be
defined as that bony structure by which the wings are borne upon the
axial skeleton. In birds, this bone is called the blade bone due to
the fact of its being shaped like a sabre. In the grackle there seems
to be more of a curve to this bone than in the same bone found in
other birds. The head is thick and expands outward into a glenoid
cavity (glc, Plate 2F) and inward to form an acromial process (Greek,
akromion, point on the shoulder) for articulation with the clavicle.
The scapula tapers to a point which rests close to the spine to which
it is attached by muscles.

The Corocoid (Greek, kcracoides; korax, a crow, and eidos,
form). In the human, the corocoid process of the scapula has been
likened to a crow's beak, but in the case of the bird it is not appli—
cable. The corocoid is rather stout, straight, and somewhat cylindri-
cal in shape. Extending from.the shoulder Joint to the forepart of
the sternum, it expands at both ends. At the shoulder Joint it meets
the clavicle and scapula, forming a socket, the glenoid cavity (Greek,

glene, a shallow pit or cavity) which is the socket for the humerus.

 

 

 

Plate II showing sue e! the bones of the Bronzed Crackle. .......

   
 

3.7. ......... nu Vertebrate "" ' .d ”I. "h Ulna
e..- U." .- - 9

11‘1”. 44.777” Ml

    
 

to
,3
J

20 ......... the Elna, IIncline,msuiiale, Ulnarc, Caz-pals, Hetacappals and Di 11:3

‘Zi

l

..--<;MWMJWW

‘40%°‘4’r¢7{2/ ..I

-24—

The head of this bone is somewhat expanded and has a demifacet which
indicates its part in the formation of the glenoid cavity. It is a very
characteristic bone of birds, the writer having found it in the several
skeletons examined.

The Clavicles (Latin, clavicula, a little key) or Furculum
(Lat in, a little fork) (Plate 2) form what is known as the clavicular
arch, and are the pair of bones which unite to form the wishbone and
correspond to our collar bone. In the bronzed grackle they are V-shaped,
although the point of the V is not so decided. The V-shaped clavicle
denotes volitorial (Latin, volitare, to fly) power of wings and the U-
shaped the natatorial (Latin, swimsing), therefore the bronzed grackle
would be a flying bird. They lie in front of the breast across the
middle line of the body; the upper ends articulate with the scapula
and corocoid, in this bird but not in all birds, the clavicles being
lacking in some birds. At the union of the two bones below, there is
a process called the hypoclidium (Greek, hypo, under). The writer has
also found this process in the chicken (Plate 11", hpc.). Cotgrave, in
his dictionary of 1660, calls it the forked craw bone of a bird which
was used in sport to put over our noses. The name wishbone comes from
the practice of two children each holding one prong of furcula and ex-
pressing a wish before breaking it asunder, the one carrying off the
greater portion expecting the fulfillment of his wish.

The humerus (Latin for shoulder) Plate 2k, in comparison
with other bones .of the grackle my be considered a large strong bone
somewhat of the italic f shape. It has a rounded head which articu-

and
lates and fits into the socket of the glenoid cavity. two tuberosit ies

(in!

 

 

-25-

the larger having below it a deep cavity, the pneumatic foramen (Plate

2!, pnf) which leads to an air cavity in the shaft of the bone; the

small tuberosity being continued by a small triangular ridge, the deltoid,
which extends for a short distance down the shaft. The lower extre-

mity of the bone has also a pulleyblike surface or trochlea, this bear-
ing two elevated surfaces, one on the radial tubercle and the other on
the ulnar tubercle (Plate 211). Proximal to the radial tubercle is an
elevation called the radial condyle, and the ulnar bears a similar
elevation, called the ulnar condyle.

Of the long bones the humerus is the most pneumatic. Having
read about an experiment where the windpipe of a dead bird was tied and
the humerus broken and then air forced down the humerus and the air
sacks at once becoming inflated, the writer tried it with the grackle
and it proved successful. "Wounded birds, having their windpipes
filled with blood, have been known to breathe through a broken humerus
that had pierced the skin."

The Radius, Plate ED (Latin, for staff, or red) of the bronzed '
grackle is a straight slender bone (r) articulating with the humerus.

It is the more slender'and straighter of the two bones cf the forearm.
Its proximal and forms a shallow cup for the articulation of the lateral
condyle (Latin condylus, prominence on a bone) of the humerus. At the
other end is a knob which fits into the radial bone cf the carpus,
called radiale (r), (Plate 20). Having taken a cross section of the
bone, it was found to be solid, therefore not pneumatic (Greek, pneunia
breath of air). The‘Ulna (Latin for elbow) (Plate 20) is a much thicker
bone than the radius and in this specimen slightly curved but not as

much as in some other species. Its proximal end has a concave surface

 

-25...

the sigmoid cavity, for articulating with the humerus. The large proxi-
mal extremity cf the ulna is called the olecranon (Greek, olene, ulna
krancon, skull) head of the elbow (Plate 20). The small bone at the end
of the Ulna is called the ulnare (u).

I Plate 2K shows the sigmoid cavity, the olecranon, and the sty-
loid of the Ulna, also the points of attachment for the secondaries.
The menus includes the carpus or wrist and the hand. The carpus
(Greek, karpos, wrist) consists cf two short bones, the smaller the
radiale, articulating with the radius, and the larger the ulnare,
articulating with the ulna. It is deeply notched to receive the carpo-
1metacarpus. The hand, in the adult bird, is greatly modified, having
only the secdnd, third, and fourth digits, and the metacarpals all
fused with one another and with the distal carpals to form the carpo-
metacarpus. Articulating with the second metacarpal is a single
pointed phalanx. The third metacarpal bears two phalanges, and the
fourth metacarpal bears one pointed phalanx (Plate 20).

The Sternum (Greek, sterno, the breast) is a very important
structure in birds, offering two leading types of eternal structure,
the ratite (Latin, ratis, a raft) and the carinate (Latin, carina, a
keel), raft-like or boat-like according as the bone is flat or keeled.
The grackle having a keel must belong to the carinate. In all the
flying birds including the grackle and robin examined by the writer,
the sternum.is keeled and develOps from a median center of ossifica-
tion as well as from lateral paired centers. The sternum gives attach-
ment for five pairs of thoracic ribs and one pair of floating ribs.
The sternum of the grackle is concavo-convex; rectangular in

shape, that is, longer than broad. The external surface of the sternum

and keel are ridged in places showing the attachment of the different

 

-27-

 

-.—. _-‘

 

    

I

w U 3 . . . w s t
'..)‘..'.T‘..: the clavicles n . ~.o.- Jbor‘l.

.‘ln
L‘lntegl ’1 31;o"'ln;; the sternum, the kcrl, 3. t1": scapula"
" UnnL ‘.i~.... .-, “.,\ ~0-
V 5‘ v .- L s..M. , Le. H.

Plate; H showing the iliun, the iscl‘ium , ‘12...) p11; ,

I'latel I showing the hind leg.
of

Bronzed Trucklo.

 

 

-28-

 

”ideas. \
\

 
  
 
   
     
 
  
 
  
  

' Atlas Vertebra

f

' 5.431s Vertebra

Corocoid( co) ,‘ ,
‘ \ pcapula(sc) "1°81 Sp ins Carpo-metacarpus
‘, seam Carpal ,
Claviclehl) ‘ , . ' ‘, ,
- ‘ ‘3‘ ' - 'Digits
Keel of: ' ,";

Stem ‘ t .

Sternum ,(fit ‘

1'
O‘-

T.“ r""lptacarpals
- . ... Ulnar Carpal

Upcinate ‘ , ~
Process(up),, v ' Uh.“
‘S,ternal Piece" ’ I _ .

Of_ Rib (Br) .0-.. ..... I 11m
Vertebral , ’ I - ‘ r - . etabulun
Rib(vr) -M

. ' ‘ Pygostyle
\
Tibia Term... - - -- \ '\
' Pubic ,
\\ ‘ Isohium
\ , \ '
Femur (1'9
’ \
\
Tafso-cnetatarsus

First metatarsal

'0
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351531"

0.00.? L

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COOOOeeeeoo a“ . ... .. . .. ' L
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-29..

pectoral muscles. The writer examined very young birds, namely, the
crow, the pigeon, the robin, and the grackle, also chickens and found
the keel to be mere gristle. The flying power of a bird can be deterb
mined by the size of the keel, and in birds that have lost the power
of flight the keel has entirely disappeared, a condition, as some
orinthologists state, found in the cassowary. It is merely a second—
ary outgrowth from the lower side of the breast-plate to give attach-
ment for the great muscles of flight, as, the uncinate process (Latin
uncinatus, a book). The true ribs of the grackle as many others are
furnished with hooked processes to increase the stability of the
thoracic side walls. Springing from.the middle of the upper part of A
the ribs, they slope upwards and backwards. Plate 2 shows the ribs
cf the grackle with uncinate processes.

The pelvic limb (Plates 2 and 21) consists of the femur, the
tibiotarsus, the fibula, the tarso—metatarsus, and the four digits.

The femur is a comparatively short bone, bearing at its
proximal extremity a trochanter (tr) and a round head (hd). The distal
end has pulleyblike condyles, two in number. On the extensor side of
the knee Joint is a small bone, the tibia-tarsus, having on its proxi-
mal and a enemial process, the tibialcfiePsltate 2 and 21) for the attach-
ment 0f the extensor muscle of the thigh. Its proximal articular sur-
face has a slight hollow for the condyle of the femur and its distal
end is somewhat like a.pulley.

The fibula is a very slender bone attached to the outer
side of the tibo-tarsus and tapers to a point at the distal end; so

small does this become that we can say it fuses into the tibio—tarsus

and articulates with the lateral condyle of the femur.

 

-30..

The terse-meta tarsus follows the tibio-tarsus. It is a
cylindrical bone bearing at its proximal end a concave surface for the
condyles of the tibia-tarsus, and at its distal end, three distinct
trochlea for the articulation of the toes. The first metatarsal is
reduced to the distal end, which tapers to a point and is attached to
the posterior surface of the tarso-metatarsus near the distal end.

. The digits consist of a number of small bones. Like those of the
fingers, we call them phalanges (Latin, phalanx, rank or series).
They are the first, second, third, and fourth. The great toe has two
phalanges, the second three, the third four, and the fourth five. Nb
bird is said to possess a fifth toe.

The pelvic girdle or pelvic arch of each side (pelus, Latin,
a basin) consists of three bones, the ilium, the ischium, and the
pubes (Plates 1 and in). All three of these bones are fused on each
side to form.the innominate bone (Latin, inneminatus, without a name).
The ilium is the largest and most dorsal part of the innominate bone,
uniting with the back bone and extending backward and foreward along
the whole extent of the sacrum. It unites with a number or vertebrae
before and behind the hip Joint, fusing or ankylosing with them and
making this part of the back bone rigid. This union was found in
all birds examined but not in the mammalian skeleton. The ischium
(Greek, ischion, haunch bone) Plates 1 and 13, is a thin plate-like
bone composing the greater part of the side wall of the pelvic, and
. uniting with the ilium at only two points, the acetabulum and a point
Just behind it. For a greater part of their length the two bones are

separated by the long narrow obturator foramen.

-31-

The pubis is a long slender bone resembling a rod and extending
along the entire lower border of the ischium. Posterior to the ischium
the pubis is produced into a long slender curved process, and in front
of the acetabulum it bears the pre-pubis process for the attachment of
origin of the ambiens.

The acetabulum (Latin, a vinegar cruet) is a rounded cavity
on the outer surface of each os, innominatum, perforated by an aperture,
and serves for the articulation of the leg.

The posterior caudal vertebrae are united together to form the
pygostyle (Greek pygr, rump, stylos, column). It is shaped like the
share of a plough in the grackle (Plates 1 and 1H). Fusing together
‘with the true sacrum, they are known as urosacral or false bones. It

is a compound bone consisting of several stunted coccygeal bones.

-32-

HUSGLES.

If Insoles are defined as instruments of motion, the same is
true of birds, because they exhibit a greater degree of activity than
any other class of animals, either in hopping, climbing, fluttering,
.running, or swimming. This activity is the result of one or several
muscles. fluscles constitute what is known as the flesh, each having
its own function whether it be in the movement of the feathers, the
wing, the tail, or even the eyelids, it matters little, it all being
muscular power. It has been said that the actions of birds speak loud-
er than words, this being brought about by the muscles aided by the
skeleton and nerves. Of this triple union, the muscles constitute the
greatest bulk. The skeleton gives the form, but the muscles add the
grace and beauty of outline to the form.

The Cutaneous (Latin, cutie, skin, pertaining to the skin)
muscles of this bird, and others examined, are well develOped and form
broad sheets in various parts of the body. Bundles of muscular fibres
pass to the great quill feathers of the tail and wings, others to the
patagium. The muscdes of the neck and tail are well developed, while
those of the abdomen.are small; this is due to the large sternum. The
diaphragm, consisting of handles of muscular fibres, is well developed.
A pecularity of the muscles of birds is the great length of their
tendon of insertion; this is well exemplified in the muscles of the
leg.

As the nmenclature of muscles has always been difficult, it
is impossible to name all the muscles of the bronsed grackle, much less
to describe them in a work of this length. Therefore the writer has

arranged them according to the usual division of the body, as those of

‘4

‘
|-. I

 

s
1

«UJ

-33-

the cutaneous system, those of the head and neck, those of the trunk,
and those of the upper and lower extremity. After dissection, some of
the most important were taken from each group and shown on the different
plates. Plate I shows the mscles of the bronze grackle; Plate IA of
the head and neck; Plate 13, of the trunk; Plate IO those of the upper

extremity; and Plate 1]) those of the lower extremity.

Superficial Muscles 0f the Head and Neck (Plates I and IA).

The temporal (Latin, tempus, temple). Having removed the
skin from the side of the head, a large muscle covered by a glistening
fascia was found occupying the temporal fossa of the skull. It was
divided into two parts-~a superficial arising from the whole temporal
tease and extending to, the outer surface of the lower Jaw, and a deeper
part, a pyramid shaped mscle having its origin in the superorbital
process of the temporal fans and ending in a stout tendon which is
inserted in the quadrate, upon the raminal margin of the mandible.

The lasseter (Greek, master, to chew) is a large thick
muscle situated in front of the submaxillary and parotid glands and
covered by a shining fascia. It arises by a broad thin tendon in the
sygomatic process. Passing downward and forward and uniting with the
temporal muscle, it is inserted on the lateral surface of the reams of
the mandible. Its action is to close the mouth and draw the mndibles
forward. This action seems to be the result of the united contraction
of its auxiliary, the temporal.

The Complexus (Latin, woven together, complicated, not sim-
ple) is a very prominent fleshy muscle having its origin in the lower
cervical and upper dorsal vertebrae, and is inserted between the

curved lines of the occipital bone as a thin tendinous sheet. Its

 

action.is that of an extensor and may be an auxiliary of some of the
more powerful extensors found in the back of the neck.

The lylo Hyoidens, the mylohyoid (Greek, hyoid, U shaped,
shaped like the Greek letter Upsilion and mylo, Greek; myle, mill) is
a thin sheet of muscle arising on the inner side of the mandible Just
below the lower border of the bill. The fibres are very delicate,
taking the aspect of a tendon, and are inserted in the hyoid bone and
middle raphe. Its action is to lift the tongue against the roof of
the mouth.

The intertransversales (Latin, between and transversales,
between the transverse process of the contiguous vertebrae). These
‘muscles are visible from the neck to the ilium, having their origin
between the transverse processes of the vertebrae, and their insertion
in the lateral surface and transverse process of the preceding verte-
brae. Their action is to support and flex the spinal column, and offer
a protection to the nerves and blood vessels as they pass out from the
canal.

The rectus capitis ventrales (Latin, rectus, straight; capita,
the head) has its origin in the transverse processes of the third,
fourth, fifth, and sixth cervical vertebrae, and is inserted in the
basilar process of the occipital bone. Its action is to flex, rotate,
and assist in supporting the head.

The league colli (Latin, long; and colli plural, colla, neck)
is a fleshy muscle having its origin in the ventral surface body of the
vertebrae of the lower cervical and first few thoracic vertebrae as a

tendon, and extends the entire length of the neck by a. series of tendnns

   

-35-

and is inserted in.the ventral surface of the axis. Its action is to
lower the head.

The Semispinales Capitis (Latin semi, half, and spinalis,
spinal) has its origin in the lateral surface of the dorsal spines of
the thoracic vertebrae and is inserted on the occipital crest. Its
action is to elevate the head.

The Semispinales Cervicis (Latin cervicis, pertaining to the
neck.and spine) has its origin, as did the semispinales capitis, in
the lateral surface of the dorsal spines of the thoracic vertebrae.

It is inserted in the dorsal spines of all the cervical vertebrae ex-

cept the first, and its action is to elevate the head.

Superficial Muscles of the Fore Limb (Plates I and IC).

The patagialis (patagium, plural patagia, a wing membrane)
a muscle concerned with the folding of the patagial membrane, is found
in the grackle, as well as in all birds having a keel, so called carina
birds. It arises as a single muscle, which divides into two tendons--
the tensor patagii longus and the tensor patagii brevis. As we are
concerned with the patagiilongus, its description is here given. It
arises as a tendon but takes on the aspect of a spindle-shaped muscle
after leaving its origin, the cranial surface of the lateral and of
the corcoid. but ends in a tendon which runs along the anterior margin
of the patagium, and is inserted in the cranial surface of the carpus.
Its action is to flex the elbow'and tense the pre-patagium.

The deltoid (Greek, deltoides, triangular in shape) is a
triangular shaped muscle, large in the grackle, a powerful flexor of

the forearm, and attached for nearly its entire length to the triceps.

 

 

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-35-

It has its origin as a tendon in the proximal extremity of the clavicle,
and these fibres pass around the back of the shoulder Joint and have
their insertion in the proximal lateral half of the humerus to the del-
toid tuberosity. Its action is to flex the shoulder and rotate the wing
upward .

The biceps brachii (Latin bi, two, caput, head), as indicated
by its name, consists of two heads. The longer arises from a tendon,
the corocoid, and the shorter, from the head of the humerus. It is inr
sorted on the radius and ulna. Its action is to extend the shoulder
and flex the elbow.

The pectoralis (Latin, pectus, breast) is very large and
thick, taking its origin from the entire length and the greater part of
the depth of the keel of the sternum. This is well marked on the
skeleton of the sternum (Plate 2).

The coracobrachialis is a spindle shaped muscle arising by
tendon from.the corocoid, passing upward, and again becomnng tendonous
as it approaches the humerus where it is inserted.

The triceps brachii (Latin tri, three, caput, head), as its
name indicates, is divided into three parts, a medial, a lateral head,
and a long'tendon. It has its origin in the lateral neck of the
scapula and humerus and its insertion as a tendon in the olecranon of
the ulna. Its action is to flex the shoulder and extend the elbow.

It is the great extensor of the antibrachium.

The flexor carpi ulnaris lateralis (Latin flexor, any muscle

that flexes a Joint; carpi, carpalis, of or pertaining'to the carpus

or wrist; ulnaris, pertaining to the ulna) arises from the medial

..Js

-37..

epicondyle of the humerus by a tendon, am is inserted on the medial
surface of the distil extremity of the metacarpus. Its action is to
supinate the menus, flex the elbow and carpus, and erect the secondar-
ies. The flexor carpi ulnaris makes up the fleshy mass on the under
side of the forearm.

The extensor of the first and second digit arises from the
lateral epicondyle of the humerus. It divides on the hand into two
tendons; one is inserted on the basis of the first phalanx.“ the first
digit and the other on the phalanx of the second digit.

Extensor metacarpi radialis has its origin in the medial con-
dyle of humerus and ends in a tendon on the metacarpal bone of the in-
dex digit at the base. It extends and adducts the corpus and flexes

the forearm.

Superficial Muscles of the Rind Limb (Plates 2 and ZD).

The Sartorius (Latin, sartor, tailor) is a well developed
mscle constituting the most anterior group of superficial nmscles upon
the outerpart of the thigh. It crosses the thigh obliquely from its
origin on the lumbar dorsal spines by a tendon leading to the lateral
angle of the ilium and is inserted by a tendon on the tibial crest. In
the human it was supposed to be the muscle principally concerned in
producing the posture assumed by the tailor in sitting cross-legged,
hence its name.

The Semimembranosus (Latin, semi, half; membranosus, membranous)
is a long, narrow muscle having its origin in the dorsal caudal point
of the sacrum aid the caudal surface of the ischium. From its origin it

passes downward, and when it arrives at the mscles of the leg, it takes

-38-

the form of a tendon which, passing between the muscles of the leg,
reaches the medial surface of the femur Where it is inserted. It ro-
tates the leg forward, extends the hip, and flexes the knee.

The Semitendinosus (Latin, in part composed of tendinous
matter) is an accessory of the semimembranosus, lying in the same plane,
and composed of coarser fibers. It has its origin in the lateral crest
of the ilium.and so inserted by a fascia to the middle part of the leg
and to the plantar surface of the tibia. It extends the hip, flexes
the knee, and rotates the leg inward.

The Gastrocnemius (Greek, gaster, stomach, keme, shank) occu-
pies the greater part of the back of the leg, having its origin on the
epicondyles of the femur'and is inserted in the heel by a fascia in the
metatarsus. It flexes the knee and extends the tarsus.

The Graclis (Latin, slender and graceful), as its name indi-
cates, is a slender bone, having its origin in the caudal ventral border
of the ischium and pubis, and its insertion in the proximal extremity
of the tibia. It flexes and adducts the leg and thigh.

The flexor digitorium perforatis (Latin, flexor, a.mmscle that
flexes a Joint; perforati, pierced with holes; digitorium, deep) is deep-
er than the other flexors and is situated directly on the posterior and
lateral surfaces of the tibia, where it has its origin, where it is
flattened and covered with a strong fascia. Ending in a large tendon
which separates and extends at the distal phalanges of the second, third,
and fourth digits, it flexes the digits.

The extensor longus digitorum (Latin, extensor, a muscle which

extends; longus, long; digitorium, deep) is a fleshy muscle arising from

-39-

the under edge of cnemial ridge or outer tuberosity of the tibia and the
shaft of the fibula and is inserted on the second and third phalanges
of the three lesser toes. It extends the toes, flexes the foot, and

turns it out.

Superficial Muscles of the Upper Extremity and Trunk.

The latisumus dorsi (latisumus, Latin, the hardest; dorsi,
Latin, dorsum, back) is one of the most superficial muscles of the dor-
sum. It is well develOped in the grackle. It is divided into two
parts, one part having its origin in the vertebral spines and the other
a little distance farther down but on the vertebral spines. They
unite and pass to the upper part of the humerus. It draws the arm
(wing) downward and backward and rotates it.

The Trapesius is found beneath the latisumus dorsi and cone
sists of a flat layer of fibers, having its origin in the supraspineus
ligament and the space from the first to the sixth thoracic spines.
From here the fibers pass across to the scapula'Where they are inserted
on its dorsal border. It raises the scapula.

The gluteus maximus (Greek glautos, rwmp; maximus, Latin,
the largest) has its origin in the superior curved line and crest of
the ilium, sacrum, and coscyx and is inserted on the great trachanter
of the femur. Its action is to extend and rotate the thigh.

The levator coccigeus (a Greek word pertaining to the coccyx)
arises on the dorsal surface of the ischium and sacrum and is inserted
on the dorsal surface of the uropygium. It elevates the uropygium.

The depressor coccygeus rises from the ventral surface of the
ischium and pelvic fascia and is inserted as a tendon on the ventral

surface of the urOpigium. Its action is to depress the uropigium.

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The ischiococcygeus has its origin on the spines of the
ischium and pelvic fascia and is inserted on the coccyx and median
raphe. It raises the floor of the pelvis.

The pubococcygeus (Latin, pubes, hair) is the most posterior
muscle of the tail, arising from the medial caudal border of the is-
chium and is inserted in the clones and coccyx. It elevates the anus.

The iliococcygeus is a fleshy muscle having two parts, both
arising from the ilio-sacral ligament and inserted on the outer rec-

trix.

-41-

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BIBLIOGRAPHY.

1. Allen, Glover 11. Birds and their attributes. 1925.
Marshall Jones 00., Boston, Mass.
2. Barrows. Michigan Bird Life._1912. East Lansing.
s. Blanchen, s. Bird neighbors. 1905.
4.. Chamberlain, Dr. The anatomy of the fowl. 1928. Not published.
5. Porbush, E. Birds of Hassachusetts and other \New England States.
1927.
6. Headley, F. W. The'structure and life of birds. 1895.
7. Heilmann, G. The origin of birds. D. Appleton 5. Co. New York. 1927.
8. Hymn, L. B. A laboratory manual for comparative vertebrate
anatomy. 1922. U. of Chicago Press, Chicago, Ill.
9. Kingsley, J. 8. Comparative anatomy of vertebrates. 1926.
P. Blakiston's Co., Philadelphia.

10. Newman, H. H. Outlines of general zoology. 1925. ‘Macmllan Co.
Chicago, Ill.

11. ,Newton, A. The dictionary of birds. 1896.

12. Patten, B. M. The embryology of the chick. '1920. P. Blakiston's
Son 8: Co., Philadelphia.

13. Shulfeldt, R. W. Osteology of the herodiones. 1901.

14. Shull, A. H. Principles of animal biology (birds). McGraw Hill
Book Co. New York. 1920.

15. Thompson, J. A. The biology of birds. 1923. llacMillan.

16. Walters, H. E. Biology of vertebrates. 1929. Machillan.

 

 

 

 

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