A LIMITED SURVEY or RESEARCH STUDIES
AND PERTIN-ENT MATERIAL BEARING
UPON THE PROBLEMS OF THE
CARDIAC HOMEMAKER

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I‘lIIIII‘IIII‘t‘

A Limited Survey of Research Studies and Pertinent material
Bearing Upon the Problems of the
Cardiac Homemaker

By Ruth Cresswell Kettunen

A Report

Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies
of Michigan State College of Agriculture
and Applied Science

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of Master of Science

Department of Home management and Child Development
School of ome Economics

1952

The writer wishes to express sincere
appreciation to Dr. Irma Gross for her
guidance and encouragement in the preparation
of this paper and to the Michigan Heart
Association which through its initiation of,
and support of, a cardiac homemaker's program
in Michigan suggested to the writer the need
for this kind of material.

INTRODUCTION

A SURVEY OF RESEARCH STUDIES AND PERTINENT MATERIAL

BEARING UPON THE PROBLEMS OF THE CARDIAC HOMEMAKER

In submitting the material tendered in this paper, the
writer has in mind giving some practical help to the person
who is interested in teaching the woman with heart disease
simplified ways of doing her housework. The systematic,
practical yet scientific approach to methods of performing
housekeeping tasks, is comparatively new. This approach
received its impetus from Dr. Lillian Gilbreth, who with
her husband, the late Frank Gilbreth, were pioneers in the
movement in industry. The American Heart Association can
be proud that Dr. Gilbreth chairmaned the subcommittee that
developed the plan for the application of the principles
of work simplification to the particular needs of the
cardiac homemaker. It is haped that those who teach these
precepts will teach in such a way as to emphasize that
techniques and improved methods are a means to an end. The
end result desired for the cardiac homemaker is available
strength and energy and time for her important Job of
homemaking. Dr. Gilbreth expressed this philosophy in the
opening sentence of her book, The Homemaker and Her Job,
when she stated "Homemaking is the greatest job in the
world".

The idea for this survey developed as the writer was
preparing to teach cardiac homemaker's classes in Michigan.

In setting up the class program and selecting recommended

2
practices to teach and demonstrate, it seemed that such
teaching could only be done with confidence if more were
known as to how such information had been ascertained.
As the writer obtained such knowledge she found that she
was teaching with more confidence and enthusiasm. It was

felt that a comprehensive view of literature related to this
problem.would benefit the person making such a study, and it

in turn might also be of great help, and a saver of time, to
others planning to do similar teaching.

In starting, the first step was to consult faculty
members in several departments at Michigan State College.
Staff members in both the men's and women's physical education
departments, the physiology, psychology, industrial
engineering, and home management departments were interviewed.
These interviews proved most helpful. Suggestions were given
about studies in their particular fields that could be used
and also information as to sources for finding such reports.

A day spent at the United States Department of
Agriculture's Experimental Center at Beltsville, Maryland
gave first hand information as to the research being carried
on there in home economics projects. The personal inter-
views with the research workers at this center, as well as
with members of the Home Economics Extension Staff in
'washington, proved to be most helpful. Conferences with some
doctors of medicine provided further useful information.

Letters were written to individuals through the nation

and even to some in European countries who were known to be

3
authorities on some phases of the subjects being surveyed.
Response from.these letters provided a variety of useful
suggestions.

The main sources used for finding suitable research
studies and other published material were bibliographies
supplied or suggested by those authorities contacted, and
such publications as The Journal of Physiology, The Journgl
2; Home Economics, The Quartggl;TCumulative Index Medicus,
Notes on Graduate Studies in Home Economics and Home
Economics Education, and the gpublished lists in Doctoral
Dissertations, were also used. Twelve unpublished master's
thesis were reviewed, as well as reports of others found in
professional journals and other publications. It was found
that there was a very limited number of these research
studies that could be used for this survey but other
published articles and bulletins seemed to have a place in
such a report.

As an attempt was made to use only recent publications,
most of the material reported on has been published since
l9hO, exceptions were made when the material had special
significance to the problem.

The studies and articles reviewed have been categorized
into nine sections with the publications listed chronologi-
cally in each section. The research studies and other
published articles are classified as follows:

1. werk simplification, the principles and their

application to housework.

2. Energy expenditure in various household activities.

 

I: .4. 2‘ ENNIJL .-

h
3. Posture and correct body mechanics in relation to
housework.
A. Fatigue with reference to the cardiac homemaker.
5. Vision and its bearing on the problems of the
cardiac homemaker.
6. Research studies of specific household activities.
7. Kitchen planning.
8. Publications with reference to handicapped and
cardiac homemaker's problems.
9. The heart, heart diseases, and treatment.
No attempt has been made to balance the quantity in the
different sections. The writer reported on material she
found available and thus some sections have much more than
others. In some cases the articles reported here are
similar, but by doing this the reader will have a variety of
sources to refer to. The writer does not feel that these
condensations submitted are complete in this particular
field. They are offered as one possible source of help to the
person who is interested in teaching work simplification. It
is hoped that this material will be used as a point of
departure in gaining greater interest in the fields of
research that have significance in teaching work simplification

to women who have heart disease, or to other homemakers.

5
SECTION I
WORK SIMPLIFICATION THE PRINCIPLES AND THEIR
APPLICATION TO Housswonx

'Work simplification has been defined as a more effective
way of doing a job that results in the use of less effort,
less time or both. The principles of work simplification
have for more than half a century been applied to the
problems of industry. The present trend of the "American
'Way of Life" has been influenced by the industrial producti-
vity resulting from the application of these principles. Yet
it has only been for half that time that these scientific
principles have been applied at all to housework. The
precepts of work simplification used in industry and in the
home are identical. It is only the goals that are different.
In industry the primary aim of time and motion study has been
to increase productivity for the sake of profit. In the
home the ultimate goal is homemaking. As the homemaker
applies these principles to housekeeping tasks and developes
new and better techniques, the job becomes more interesting
and time and energy are made available for her overall job
of homemaking. The cardiac homemaker has still another goal.
As she puts into practice these energy saving methods of
doing her work, she learns how to meet the demands made upon
her in her home in such a way as not to overtax her incapaci-
tated heart and this change can.mean life itself to her.

For the reader who wishes more complete information

than the articles in this section give, the texts listed

below are suggested.

6

Mundel, ‘Marvin E., Motion and Time Stud
Prentice-Hall, Inc., New York, 1950.

Gross, Irma H. and Crandall, Elizabeth Halbert,
an ro ts an ompany,
New York, 191+7.
NickelL Paulena and Dorsey, Jean.Muir
Mana ement in Dail Livin , Ch. 11 lé and 13,
M New York,1950.

There are six abstracts in this section. Four of these
came from research done at Purdue University. One of the
Purdue publications, Easier Homemakin , brings together
the results of much of the work done there in a practical
presentation. An additional article gives a brief general
view of work simplification. Finally, there is included in
this section a bulletin, Household Cleaning.

It is not the purpose of this survey to include subject
matter bulletins that give instructions for doing special
jobs because state colleges, the educational divisions of
many commercial companies and the United States Department
of Agriculture provide a wide variety of such information.
This bulletin, however, is included as an illustration of
presenting such material in a way that stresses that the
prhme.factor in cleaning is to save energy for the homemaker.
Gross, Irma H., The Theory of_Work Simplification, Kelvinator

Kitchen, Detroit, l9hh.

During the period of'World War II, farm management and
home management specialists followed the lead made by
industry of utilizing easier and quicker methods of work.
The name of the movement toward decreasing effort went

through various changes, finally evolving the title of work

7
simplification. In research in work simplification the
worker on the job is observed and then improvements are
sought in the detailed elements of the job. Special process
charts, Operation charts, stop watch techniques and a kind
of shorthand symbols called 'therbligs" are employed. A
film.of the job is taken and then the process can be
analyzed in even greater detail. The number of household
and related tasks that have been studied are very limited.
Those known to the author are washing dishes, preparing
lettuce cups, preparing spinach for cooking, preparing mashed
potatoes, peeling tomatoes under factory conditions and some
analysis of janitors' cleaning tasks. The homemaker can use
the results of these studies to find easier methods of doing
a particular task and can apply the principles of work
simplification to her own job. It is necessary to know these
principles. Time is lessened on a task by reducing the
number of motions, having more effective motions or both.
There are five classes of changes possible: changes of body
motions and position, changes in tools and equipment, changes
in production sequence, changes in finished product and
changes in raw material. Some searching questions chiefly I
in relation to class I changes are: can you cut down on the
number of motions; can you combine motions by prepositioning;
can you simplify work by changing the direction of your
motions; can you change the kind of motions used; and can
you reduce work by using both hands at once? In adopting a
program of work simplification for one's self the first step
is to see some reason for so doing. Second, it is necessary

to recognize that changing old habits is not a quick nor a

8
particularly easy process. Attack the new habit boldly
and keep with it until it becomes an old friend. After this,
ask why do I do the job; can I do it in a more convenient
place; can I get better tools; am I using the best tools I
now have; is my body position comfortable; or could I use my
hands more effectively? Accepting such suggestions points
the way to becoming more motion-minded. This state of mind
is not a goal in itself but a constant incentive to newer,
more interesting and more effective ways of accomplishing

everyday tasks.

Goble, Eva L., Techni ues of Work Sim lification, Kelvinator
Kitchen , DetrfifiW

Techniques of work simplification are important in home
economics because they offer a scientific means of studying
household tasks. The productivity of the homemaker's labor
is best measured in terms of her contributions to family
living and work simplification becomes of major importance
in terms of her productivity.

The first step in work simplification is to become
motion conscious. Six guides to apply to make a job easier
are to ask: is the job necessary; can it be combined with
some other task or the two done at once; can the task be
done while seated; are the tools to use within easy reach;
is it possible to use both hands to work; and is this the
best tool for the job?

The second tool of work simplification is the use of
special charts. The process chart is a step by step
description of the procedure used in doing a task. The
process chart teaches the user to think in terms of the "flow"

9

or movement of work. As a tool for analysis, it is one of
the most useful for rough screening of excess travel and
repeated effort.’ Further screening of waste motion can be
obtained by the use of an operation chart. In this, the
movements of the operator are broken into the activities of
the right and the left hand. In the final analysis micro-
motion techniques are used. This works best when the task
can be localized and a motion picture taken. The picture is
then studied and analyzed. A special clock provides a device
to have time readings for the movements recorded in the film.
Each motion is analyzed from this film and the motions are
described in terms of therbligs, a system of terms developed
by the Gilbreths, pioneers in motion study. After this
analysis the elements are transferred to a simo-chart on
which each therblig is given an identifying color. This simo-
chart is an aid to spotting places in a process or operation
where movement is excessive or where ”delay" needs study.
Micromotion is exacting and requires elaborate equipment but
the process and operation charts are simple to use and require
no special materials. Therefore the latter are good devices
for use to promote more efficient kitchen operation.
Holbert, Helen Elizabeth, W-

cation Methods to Househo ct t es, aster 8 es 8,

us University, a ayette, 9 .

The introduction of this study provides a thorough and
scientific discussion of work simplification in its relation
to homemaking. The body is the most effective tool for
effecting work. Since the body is a standard tool, then the

problem in the home consists in finding the movements best

lO
suited to accomplish work. The study of and the under-
standing of body mechanics is necessary. The author uses
charts and drawings as aids in providing this understanding.
The common techniques of motion and time studies are not
extensive enough for the study of household activities which
involve much body movement with changes of position and
place. Since the available means were not adequate, the
author worked out further methods of work analysis and these
were applied to the task of bedmaking. The new method of
bedmaking resulting necessitated a change of bedmaking method,
changes of bed height, and of working techniques. This method
is illustrated by photographs, drawings and detailed process
charts. The author concludes that because of the common bed
design a great deal more energy is utilized in bedmaking.

This new method may not be practical under conditions
other than those she established for the study but the
working techniques (use of human tool methods) are easily
applied under most conditions. The purpose of the study has
been to shift from the objective outcome of industry; that is,
increased production and time saving, to the objective outcome
of effort saving. Engineers have designed machinery and tools
that work effectively and efficiently but much work output
necessitates the addition of the human tool so it is
important to consider it with the machine.

Mundel, Marvin E. §g§i§§_ggg§gkggpigg, Life magazine,
September 9, 19A6.

This article, Reported Research of Janet.Arm§§gggg_ggdg§

the Direction of Marvin E. Mundgl, shows the basic principles

ll
of work simplification applied to kitchen tools, kitchen
arrangements, cleaning and bedmaking. To help visualize the
researcher's findings, multiple-exposure photographs were
taken of experimenters doing household tasks with small light
bulbs attached to their hands. This process traced the
pattern of the working motions in streaks of light. By
showing the poor and the improved methods, the reduction in
streaks of light in the improved method shows dramatically
the economy of movement. Six rules for efficiency in the
home are given. These rules are: eliminate all unnecessary
' parts of a job, keep everything within easy reach, use the
best tool for the job, use both hands to work, combine two
jobs into one, and sit down to work. Six steps are given for
making a bed in an improved way; A photograph illustrates
each step. Essential kitchen tools are pictured, grouped
around each basic piece of equipment (range, refrigerator
and sink) where they are most used and near which they should
be stored. Nine pictures illustrate a selection of gadgets
that are rated as a good choice and similar ones considered
poor. Four questions are given that should be asked when
evaluating a gadget: is it easy to operate; does it require
a. special skill; does it save time, counting the time
necessary to get it out, clean it and put it away; can it be
used for more than one job; does it warrant the space it
takes up? Rules for ironing a shirt are given that can save
50 percent of ironing time (as Worked out at Cornell
University). It was recommended that the worker sit with

the underside of the ironing board two inches above the

12

thighs. The board should be covered with asbestos and should
be approximately two feet wide. Life Magazine asked the
Mbtion and Time Study Laboratory of Purdue University to do
this piece of research reported here, believing that a
housewife's work can be simplified through scientific analysis.
Mundel, Marvin E., Easier Homemakin , Experiment Station

Bulletin No. 529, Purdue University, Lafayette, 19A8.

The purpose of the project reported was to apply work
simplification principles to various aspects of kitchen
arrangement, house cleaning methods and bedmaking procedures.
This publication approached the problem from the practical
viewpoint, realizing that each home is individual and must
be treated as such. However, there are six principles that
can be applied to any house and to any worker. Basic
suggestions are given for making housework easy. There are
various ways of recording original and improved methods of
doing a job and in this study, process chart-man analysis,
flow diagram, right and left hand Operation chart and micro-
motion study were used. Kitchen shapes and arrangements show
that the "U" shaped kitchen is the best plan for economy of
time and economy of distance traveled. As a result of
research, a list of essential kitchen tools and small equip-
ment are given that should be placed convenient to each
kitchen work center. Various tasks have been studied and
improved methods are given for ironing, making a bed, washing
‘woodwork, cleaning a bedroom, waxing floors, dusting, mopping
and dishwashing. Household gadgets were evaluated and a
check list given. Gadgets were classified according to their
efficiency. A floor plan is given for "The Kitchen of

13
Tomorrow". Process charts were used in an analysis of meal
preparation and these results showed that a person would
walk only 116 feet in preparing a meal in this kitchen and
the same preparation would require 4A8 feet of walking if done
in the conventional "U" shaped kitchen.
MacDonald, Jessie Freeman and Williamson Lucille Household
Cleani Extension Bulletin No. 790, Cornell UniWIthaca
ugust 95 . ‘ ’
This bulletin outlines the problems of household
cleaning and then gives a variety of special and specific
directions for care of special surfaces. The authors'
approach to the problem of housecleaning is that help should
be given to the homemaker to aid in reducing the amount of
cleaning and the effort necessary to do it. The amount of
cleaning a homemaker does will be determined by her own and
her family's standards as well as other responsibilities,
help available from other family members, her health and
various resources available to her, such as money, equipment
and commercial services. As these conditions change, so will
her care of the house change. Each homemaker must decide for
herself how much cleaning she will do, when, how frequently
and what methods she will use. 'A flexible plan for cleaning
best meets the needs of most households but one should look
ahead and plan to make the job easier and more interesting.
The annual cleaning often leaves the homemaker physically
and emotionally exhausted, so it is suggested that the special
cleaning jobs be distributed over a period of time. To make
cleaning easier, plan ways of keeping dirt out of the house,

plan for adequate storage spaces, select suitable supplies

14

and equipment and select surfaces that are easy to clean.

Preventing excessive fatigue is a primary consideration
and since all cleaning involves muscular activity, the best
possible use of muscles is important. Frequent short rest
periods between heavy jobs prevents excessive fatigue and it
is also a good plan to alternate easy and hard jobs. The
care of specific surfaces given in the bulletin give a wide
variety of aids to better housekeeping.

15
SECTION II
ENERGY EXPENDITURES IN VARIOUS HOUSEHOLD ACTIVITIES

A very limited number of research studies are available
that give specific information that can be applied to the
problem of saving energy when performing household tasks. In
the other sections of this survey, in most cases only the
most recent studies and publications have been included, but
in this section reports of the first studies reported are
included. This has been done because of the fact that the
work of the more recent research workers used these original
studies as a basis and then carried on their investigations
from the point where the first studies ended. All articles in
this section are research findings. There are ten articles
condensed and they indicate the progress of research in this
field.

The important fact to remember when considering the
results reported is that regardless of the scope and accuracy
of the research, energy measurements cannot be taken as a
positive measurement that applies to everyone. There is a
great variation between persons, and thus there are different
energy costs for different individuals doing the same tasks.
Even the same individual uses different amounts of energy to
perform the same task at different times. Changed emotional
factors, fatigue, and changed environmental factors are the
cause of such differences. For this reason energy measure-
ments should be used with discretion. If one uses such
information, accepting the possibility of rather wide
variations due to these factors, then energy measurements

become an excellent tool for pointing out the importance of

16
effective body motions as a way of saving energy.

Energy research can be much better understood and inter-
preted if one has a thorough knowledge of the methods used
and equipment necessary for doing this type of research.

The texts listed below provide such information.
Rose, Mary Swartz, Foundations of Nutrition,
pp. 7-19, The mom,
Revision 1944.
Chaney” margaret S. and Ahlborn, Margaret,

Nutrition pp. 34-49 Houghton Mifflin
Company, New York, l9h9.

Benedict, Francis G. and Johnson, Alice Energf Loss of
Ioggg'Women During‘the‘Muscular Activit o 1 ousework,
American Philosophical Society Proceedings, Vol. 53, 1919.

The authors state that it is generally considered that

 

 

the muscular activity of the average woman is less than that
of the average man. However, housework in some form still
remains a not inconsiderable factor in the muscular activity
of most women and exact information as to the energy needs
for the performance of duties of the household is essential
for computing the daily requirements of the average woman.
Their experiment to provide this information was done with 200
young women undergraduates from Simmons college as subjects.
The number of women tested in each experiment varied from 1A
to 25. A respiration chamber was used that was large enough
to seat from.30 to A0 persons. The standard value or base
line was' established with the subject sitting quietly reading
and this was estimated to be not far from 10 percent higher
than the true basal. The percent of increase over this base
line was as follows: for reading aloud, three percent;

standing quietly, nine percent; hemming, 13 percent;

l7
singing, 22 percent; dusting, 134 percent; and sweeping,
150 percent. One experiment on walking indicated that when
walking at 1.08 miles per hour the energy cost was 62 calories
per mile. Many of their observations with slightly faster
rates gave values from 40 to 60 calories per mile. The
authors feel, however, that too little evidence is available
to indicate whether walking at a slow rate of speed is
uneconomical. This figure (62 calories) compares with the
value commonly quoted from German sources for wa lking one

mile at moderate rate.

Langworthy C.F. and Barott, H.G., Ener E enditure in

Household Tasks, American Journal-BT"§Ey§¥%I3EyC—_—-—'

The office of Home Economics, United States Department

of Agriculture investigated various factors affecting men
and women in the expenditure ofenergy. This article presents
the results of some of those studies of energy requirements
for the performance of several household tasks. The
respiration calorimeter was used to measure energy and one
22 year old woman was the subject. IMeasurements of energy
expended while resting, sewing, dressing an infant (model),
sweeping a floor, washing a floor, washing and ironing towels,
and dishwashing were measured. The dishwashing was done at
three heights and thecorresponding variation of energy
expenditures were noted. A variation of 15 percent in height
of table caused an energy expenditure of from 20 to A0 percent
increase, the low table requiring a higher percent of energy
from its user. The observed increase of heat elimination

well illustrates the importance of choosing equipment to

18
"fit" the worker. Of the 53 tasks performed, light tasks
such as sewing, crocheting and knitting required an average of
nine calories per hour more than sitting. Harder work such
as sweeping and washing towels by hand increased energy

expenditure AC to 50 calories per hour over sitting.

Langworthy C.F. and Barott, H.G., Ener Ex enditure in

Sewin , American Journal of Phys13I3g%¥'V3I7_59:-I§§I7

For a number of years the office of Home Economics,

United States Department of Agriculture included the use of
the respiration calorimeter for investigations of energy
required in the performance of household tasks. This article
reported the results of a special study of hand sewing and
machine sewing. This series consisted of 43 experiments made
with one subject. The subject was a woman 28 years old.
Little variation was found in the energy required for hand
hemming of fine handkerchiefs, cotton sheets and 8-inch
cotton duck. The amount of energy used was from.5.5 to 5.8
and L.3 calories per hour was the surprisingly low figure
for hemming army blankets. ‘When the sewing machine was used
it took six times as much energy per hour as doing the same
.work by hand but the energy per meter of sewing was hardly
one-half as great. Sewing on a motor driven machine required
about one-fifth the amount of energy as compared with the
energy used with a foot driven machine. The tests showed
that the size and weight of the material sewed had little
effect on the energy used. In respect to the accomplishment
and economy of energy, the motor driven machine appears

several times more economical than the foot power machine.

l9

Benedict, Francis and Parmenter, Hazeltene Stedman, The
Ener Metabolism of Women While Ascendin or Des endin
SEairs, The Ifierican UournaI of PHysIoIogy, VoI. EH, 19§8.

The authors felt that knowledge of energy requirements

 

for ascending and descending stairs had a practical value for
the use of physicians and the physiologist. To obtain this
knowledge the authors used a respiration apparatus that could,
in a large part, be carried by the operator rather than by
the subject. The experiment was conducted at Mount Holyoke
College, South Hadley, Massachusetts. Twelve young college
women were the subjects. The amount of energy consumed was
measured. Oxygen consumption during horizontal walking and
during ascent and descent of stairs was measured. For
practical purposes the findings of this study can be expressed
as follows: in walking up one flight of steps (15 steps each
20 cm. high) the average person expends the same amount of
energy as he does in walking fifteen times the distance on
the level. The average person uses five times as much

energy to descend stairs as to walk on the level the same
distance. In measuring horizontal walking it was found that
walking at 3A meters per minute used 0.64 calories per
horizontal kilometer, walking at 65 meters used 0.52 calories
and walking at 89 meters per minute used 0.67 calories. In
these figures the calories used for standing have been
deducted. These values indicate that the optimum.rate of
walking is about 65 meters per minute and sauntering is

uneconomical of energy use.

Swartz, VeNona, Human Costs of 0 erati a Vacuum Cleaner at
Different Speeds, Journal of Home Economics, June I929.

The purpose of this study was to increase the meager

 

20
knowledge in the field of human energy costs of household
tasks and to find specifically the speed of operation for the
Hoover vacuum cleaner most efficient from the point of view
of expenditure of human energy. Indirect calorimetry was
employed and a Douglas bag was used to determine energy cost.
The study included intensive study on one subject and a con-
firmatory series on nine other subjects. Results show that
total energy cost increases with increased speed when
operating a vacuum cleaner. A speed of not more than one foot
per second was judged to be the most economical for operation
of a cleaner of this type.

The review of literature pertaining to energy costs
indicated that 1919 was the earliest that any study has been
made on energy expenditure in household tasks. Studies
reviewed classified housework as light, moderate and
strenuous. In light work were grouped reading, singing and

sewing. These increased metabolism over sitting about
2A calories per hour. Strenuous work included washing,

scrubbing and sweeping. These increased energy expenditure

about 50 calories per hour. Besides the economy of energy

at slow speed, the author concludes with the information that
previous research in the Hoover laboratories showed the
cleaning efficiency was as good or better at the slow speed
of Operation.

Pa O Richard M3, Measuring Human Energy Costs in Industgy:
i6 General Guide 0 t e terature, enet c syc o ogy
Menographs, Vol. II, Clark University Press, WOrcester,
Massachusetts, 1932.

This work represents a careful and thorough review of

the literature pertaining to measuring energy costs. It is

21
directed toward enlarging one's information on effects of
muscular activity, recovery from such activity, and fatigue
factors on energy consumption of individuals. Because there
was no general manual in English available that gave infor-
mation on.methods of measuring energy costs, apparatus used
or results in the field of measuring energy costs of human
work, this work was prepared to provide such information to
industrial engineers and industrial psychologists. This
monograph is only a guide to the literature in this field
but it includes information on equipment and apparatus used
in measuring energy and covers application and results.
Research in energy costs for body actions and household tasks
are included. Studies in fatigue are also included. The
accompanying bibliography is complete and points to the fact
that research in this area is not extensive.

Swartz, VeNona‘W., The Human Energy Cost of Certain Household
Tasks, Agricultura aI Experiment tat on O. ,
State College of'Washington, Pullman, June 1933.

 

The purpose of this study was to extend the work
previously done by other research workers in measuring energy
costs of housework. Oxygen consumption was measured with.a
Benedict knapsack apparatus and the results reported in
calories per square meter of body area per hour. A variety
of household tasks were measured and summarized in a graphic
statement. Energy costs were also expressed in percents
above energy used when resting. NO measurements were made
of fatigue arising from the tasks but the author feels that
such would probably be roughly prOportional to the energy
expended. From 2 to 7 women subjects were used in each.test.

Laundry tasks consumed the most energy. Hanging clothes

22
from the floor used 184 percent above resting, rinsing
clothes 161 percent, hanging clothes from a table 118 percent,
wringing clothes with electrical extractor 125 percent,
wringing with an electric wringer 99 percent, ironing
standing 79 percent, ironing sitting in a chair 62 percent,
ironing using a rotary electric ironer A5 percent, kneading
dough at high table 116 percent above resting, and at low
table 133 percent. Mixing batter was 50 percent above resting
and the table level did not affect the energy used. Peeling
potatoes used 45 Percent over resting when standing, A3 per-
cent sitting in a chair and 5A percent sitting in an uncomfor-
table position on a high stool. Tests indicated that weight
of the iron used when ironing had little bearing on the
energy used. The study showed that there was much variation
between persons in the amount of energy they used to perform
the same task. In the test for ironing while seated, the
surface had to be relatively higher than when standing and
the author felt that a lower surface would have further
reduced energy consumption.

IMorey, Nancy Booker, The Energy Requirement of Farm WOmen,
Journal of Home Economics, January 1936.

 

The purpose of this study was to secure data on the
energy intake of farm women. In doing this all available
data from known sources were collected that gave energy costs
for household tasks. The figures given all allow for the
energy required for maintenance and effect of food in
addition to the energy required for the activity itself.

When the original study from which the author uses such
findings was stated in different terms, the data were

23

recalculated. Material from 10 different energy cost studies
was assembled and was expressed in energy expenditure Of
average calories per kilogram.per hour for different house-
hold tasks. This summary of energy costs indicates that body
motions and activities and household tasks vary widely in
energy costs. The author used the known energy costs of
different single operations and then from these estimated the
energy costs of larger operations and activities. By this
method, she found that clearing away and washing dishes used
2.95 calories per kilogram per hour, washing clothes 2.9A,
care Of children 2.93, preparing meals 2.48 and care of
house 2.A6 calories per kilogram per hour. The activity
reported that was the most costly in energy use was sweeping
a rug with a broom. This used 4.38 calories per kilogram per
hour.
Hoover, James Edward, Analysis of Variations of Human Energy

ster s eels, u ue n vers ty, ayette, .

The introduction of this thesis gives the viewpoint that
it has been known that different tasks require different
amounts of human energy and that energy expenditure could be
measured by the oxygen consumption of the person doing the
task. This is not enough. We need to determine the differences
in energy expenditures for differences of performance on the
same job. It is known thAt a person may increase his rate Of
speed but still this does not show what relation this rate of
speed has to the energy expenditure. The main purpose of
this study was to prove valid or invalid the supposition that
pace of work is related to the amount of energy expended in

doing the work and that energy expenditure will increase

2A

proportionately to pace. A reasonable sample pace that had

been determined in previous work by Mundel was selected. A

full arm movement was selected to measure. Nine male students

at Purdue University were selected as operators and nine tests
were made on each operator. The Sandborn Metabolator was used
to measure oxygen consumption. The results of the study prove
valid the supposition that pace is directly related to the
amount of human energy expenditure in doing work, with the
increase Of rate increasing the amount of energy used. Pace
is defined as the Observed rate of acceleration. This finding
of the author holds forth many possibilities for comparing the
activity of two or more people doing the same job and aids in
establishing the rate of a person for doing a job.

Bratton, Esther Crew' O en Consumed in Household Tasks.
Agricultural Experimegggmmell
University, Ithaca, 1951.

' The purpose of the study reported was to determine the
energy expenditure in activities common to the performance of
household tasks. Eight activities were selected and nine
young women (homemakers) were selected as subjects. Energy
was measured in terms of the amount of oxygen consumed. Some
significant findings were that in comparing reaching at a
level of A6 inches to reaching at a level of 56 inches, the
latter required twice as much energy. Reaching 72 inches
required four times as much energy as reaching A6 inches and
reaching 3 inches from the floor required nineteen times as
much energy as reaching at the A6 inch height. The ”knee bend"
position of stooping to the floor consumed 5A7 cc. of oxygen
as compared with 312 cc. for the trunk bend action. The energy
cost of each tested activity was comparatively small but

25
because these activities are the type commonly used in work
centers and with appliances and commonly used for several
hours each day, they deserve consideration as a possible way
of saving energy. The importance of energy cost does not
imply that the use of energy is detrimental to the body.
Energy costs must be weighed against other costs, as in the
trunk bend, that compresses internal organs and distorts back
alignment. In comparison, the "knee bend" uses more energy
but this action is still recommended by specialists because
it involves the large strong muscles of legs and thighs and
permits the trunk to be held straight. Women do not realize
how much they lift when they pick up a small Object. It is
the lifting of a large portion of the body that makes the
effort. The information contained in this study has many
practical implications for homemakers in their use of equip-
ment of traditional design.

26
SECTION III
POSTURE AND CORRECT BODY MECHANICS IN RELATION TO HOUSEWORK

Body posture and effective body actions are closely
related. In teaching work simplification a challenge lies in
this area. It is very easy for too much emphasis to be placed
on such.things as "model kitchens", automatic equipment and
special tools and gadgets. There is a dramatic appeal in the
use of new mechanical appliances and writers, advertisers and
manufacturers are constantly keeping them in the foreground.
The teacher must be aware of the possible harm Of such an
approach. Planning of kitchen units and the use of new
equipment and tools should be considered as to their impor-
tance in providing the homemaker with ways Of using her body
that saves energy and employs good postural practices.

Physiologists, medical doctors and physical education
authorities are generally agreed that the first step in
effective use of the body is correct body posture.

The first bulletin in this section is distinctive in
that the writer found it to be the first comprehensive
publication that applied correct posture to household activi-
ties. It is the original bulletin used in developing the
charts used in the United States Department of Agriculture
bulletin, Posture in Housework.

The material condensed in this section is varied in
content. Of the nine abstracts, three are reports of research
and four are publications that give important facts about
posture. One of these is the German bulletin mentioned above.
There are, in addition, two articles included that are

presented from a "popular” standpoint because they may

27
stimulate general interest in the importance of good posture.

Villwock, G., Hausarbeit Leicht Gemacht, (Housework Made
Light - EnglIsH transIatIon), Hauswirtschaftlicher Lehrdienst
des Reichskuratoriums fur‘Wirtschaftlichlfeit, I. Vortrag,
Ath Edition, Berlin, NW 70, 50 RM, 193A.

 

This German publication is a practical presentation to
housewives of the fact that it is their duty to use their
bodies wisely. Warnings are given as to what not to do in
the use of the body when performing various body actions and
household tasks. The author warns one to avoid stooping and
bending and then contributes this practical application, "To
those who find bending very difficult, namely, Older women
who suffer with rush of blood to the head, it can safely be
advised to drop to one knee. When only short work times are
involved, one need not fear harm to the knee..... Young
women and girls will naturally scarcely be inclined to kneel
since it is less difficult for them to bend over quickly
once". This bulletin contains 20 sketches or charts that
illustrate the body positions such as: lying down, sitting,
standing and stooping to the floor. The comparative efforts
are given as follows: sitting requires four times the effort
of lying down; standing twelve times the effort of lying
‘down; and stooping fifty-five times the effort of lying down.
Practices of good posture are applied to care of floors,
hanging clothes, thorough cleaning and dusting. Sitting at
housework and correct work levels for sitting and standing

are’stressed as well as safety practices when doing housework.

Knowles, Eleanor Elaine, Relation of Posture to Fati e in
Ironin , Journal Of Home‘Economics,NOvenEer I9E5.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the causes

 

28

and effects of fatigue in the performance of household tasks.
Ironing was selected because it involved repetitive processes
and therefore seemed to lend itself more favorably to inten-
sive study. Twenty-three homemakers were observed in their
homes during one or more ironing periods. Through watching
these women poor posture was Observed to be as a result of
ironing boards that were too low; The metabolic, respiratory
and heart rates, her postural balance and force she exerted on
the ironing board were measured for each of the women. Mbtion
picture analysis was also used to ShOW’the effects of poor
ironing board heights on posture. All tests showed a marked
rate of increase in responses when they ironed at a board too
low as compared with a board of the preferred height. The
author consulted physiologists to establish the fact that
work done in the home is not sufficiently strenuous to bring
out changes in the character of products of metabolism.

Ironing is classified as light moderate work but this study
showed that certain body processes were noticeably higher

when they worked at heights that caused poor posture. This
study shows that a desirable height for the ironing board
cannot be established by any rule of thumb method. iMore
fundamental than body height are such factors as fullness of
upper arm and of vision. Efficient performance of any major
household task makes necessary equipment which is either
adjustable or with wide variety of measurements and some
understanding on the part of the homemaker Of the importance

of the need of equipment suited to her body proportions.

29
MoCordic, Margaret P. and Denniston Helen, Make Work Easier,
Extensmn Service Circular NO. 365, Univerm,
Madison, November 19A5.

Efficiency engineers and factory workers have studied
motions and improved jobs. In the same way women can study
their motions and improve their methods, avoid strain and
develop and keep good carriage. Some of the basic principles
about movement and posture that apply to all work and that
are listed in this bulletin are: work while standing is best
done with feet apart for a broad base and easy shift of weight

to allow for a wide range of movement; point the toes straight
ahead to prevent strain on the ankle and instep; pull the
abdomen up and hips down to hold the pelvis steady as a base
for the spine and lift the breast bone to allow heart and
lungs plenty Of room. A circular arrangement of equipment
and supplies makes them easier to reach when reaching is
necessary. Energy and time can be saved by taking one long
step instead of several shuffling steps. Fifty photographs
apply and illustrate these stated principles to a variety of
household activities and farm and garden activities as well.
Such body actions as standing, climbing stairs, sitting in a
chair, bending, pushing, lifting and relaxing are shown.
Detailed description of the best way to relax suggests
that one should relax in a quiet room.with a dim.light, all
clothing should be loose, anxieties must be forgotten and
pleasant thoughts deliberately chosen. Learn to relax in a
back-lying position. Draw the muscles of the abdomen so that
they feel hard to the fingers, then let them soften. Repeat
this to achieve a feeling of relaxation. This ability to

relax can be practiced until one is able to keep parts of the
body relaxed while other parts work.

30

Kain, Ida Jean, Sitting Pretty on the Job, Kelvinator
Kitchen, Detroit, February 19A9.

 

The author, a newspaper columnist, approaches the problem
of improving posture in housework. The only way to lessen
fatigue is to apply scientific principles of body mechanics
not only to housework but also to all everyday movements.
Housework can be turned into good exercise with the right body
mechanics. In applying correct body mechanics, the strain of
a task is distributed over several sets of muscles. Correct
bending saves your back. Stand and sit as ”tall" as possible
without strain and that points to the importance of correct
working surface heights. Sitting takes far less energy than
standing. Scrubbing floors is good exercise but takes a
considerable amount of energy so the busy housewife had best
save her strength. Housework done in perfect posture affords
exercise and saves the figure but as prolonging housework to
streamline the figure, that is a roundabout way to clean the
house or fix the figure. I
Posture in Housework, Extension Service Bulletin AIS No. 83,
_-EE_EE—Department of Agriculture, May 1949.

This publication uses material assembled from a variety
Of sources. It includes tables and diagrams to ShOW’the
energy expenditure per hour under different conditions of
muscular activity. Energy used is stated in terms of calOries
per hour for each pound of body weight. The energy used for
each form of activity is expressed in terms of percent over
the energy used in lying still. Sitting requires 30 percent
more energy than lying down. Standing requires 38 percent more.
'Walking at 3.75 miles per hour gives an increase of 290 percent.

Correct body use and posture are emphasized by the use Of

31

fourteen drawings that ShOW’the right and wrong posture of

activities performed in the home. Two drawings show maximum

and "easy" reach and one chart illustrates the recommended
practice of resting 10 minutes out of every hour. The posture
charts are based on research findings.

Grady, Ethyl Rathbun, Illustrative Material for Correct Working
Arrangements and Good POstural Practices in Homemaking TESks,
MasterTS'ThEEIETIKEnsas StatefiC01lege onAgriculture and.
Applied Science, manhattan, 1950.

The author found as a home economics extension worker
that homemakers seemed unaware that fatigue and minor ailments
often result from poor postural practices and frequently are
induced by incorrect working arrangements. Adequate
illustrative material was not available to develop this
subject with rural homemakers who were or will be building or
remodeling their kitchens. This study was aimed to fill this
need. Research literature was reviewed to find women's
preference in heights of working areas and for working
arrangements.. Energy and fatigue reactions were also obtained.
These data were checked against findings Obtained from 135
young women enrolled in the "House" course at Kansas State
College. Literature was reviewed and then conferences were
held with physical education faculty from Kansas State College
and Columbia University School of Nursing, New York. These
conferences were held to assure accurate interpretation of
correct postural practices and correct body mechanics.
Thirty-eight plates, 21 of which are photographs, are provided.
Five plates illustrate the correct working heights for
various household tasks. The other photographs illustrate
correct posture, working levels, comfortable reaches, points

to consider in cupboard storage and arrangement and correct

32

body alignment for stooping, lifting, pushing and relaxing.
The author summarizes that home economists and physical
education specialists have demonstrated that there is a
relationship between correct working arrangements and correct
body mechanics and both contribute to lessening fatigue in
homemaking tasks. Personal experiments with various arrange-
ments are the only successful guides to correct choices of
working arrangements. The author found that the preferences
Of the Kansas State College women were similar to those of a
previous Oregon4Washington study in preferences for working
arrangements. Incorrect postures and incorrect body mechanics
are factors in producing strain and tension, resulting in
fatigue.
Seidelin, Gerda 1M.D., Pathologyland Hygiene of Housework,

A Symposium. Part I, JOurnal of the American Medical‘wamen's

Association, Vol.#6, January 1951.

The author makes this report from material received in
answer to questionnaires, original surveys and articles. The
questionnaires were concerned with the diseases common to
domestic workers and with means of prevention. Thirteen
countries contributed answers. The answers were submitted by
doctors of medicine. .The answers indicate a definite relation
of disease in women to too much standing, walking and inade-
quate kitchen structure, with work being dOne at work levels
Of incorrect height. Psychological trouble was felt to be
caused by a feeling Of incompetence, hence a need for teaching
improved methods of doing housework. Unnecessary work also
gives cause to frustration and dissatisfaction and this leads
to feelings of tension and fatiguability. Several of the
doctors stressed the importance of sitting when doing

33

housework. Dr. Seidelin lives in Denmark.

Muse, Marianne, Seatin Housewives at Their Ironing
Experiment StatIon BEIIetIE NO. 559 University of Vermont
and State Agricultural College, Burlington, February 1951.

 

This publication reports an investigation conducted with
the aim in mind Of finding out about the best equipment to use
for the seated worker and to study posture, types of motions
and classes of muscles for the best results and satisfactions
for the seated worker. Twenty-five housewives cooperated in
the study. The results of the study showed that all of the
women, after they had completed the experiment, would rather
sit than stand while ironing. They were more comfortable,
expended less effort, became less tired and ironed fully as
well as when they stood. The author names ironing as the most
tiring task of many housewives and feels that women stand
while ironing because they do not realize the importance of
conserving their energy and preventing unnecessary fatigue,
nor do they understand the extent to which sitting can accom-
plish this. They do not sit too because their equipment is
unsuitable for sitting. It is necessary for the worker to have
a suitable chair, ironing board and a well designed light
weight iron. The chair and the board should be correctly
related to each other in height. This bulletin gives the
necessary information needed to select the correct equipment
for seating housewives at their ironing.

Bratton, Esther Crew, Let Your Body WOrk for You, Kelvinator
Kitchen, Detroit, May 1951.
This article deals with the importance of good posture

and prOper use of the body in housework. Your own body

3A
constitutes your most important item in household equipment.
It is well to acquire understanding of hOW'the body functions
in work and to develop skill in using the body effectively.
Good posture is the basis for effective use of the body in
housework. The alignment of the major body weights is good
posture from the appearance aspect but it is also good body
mechanics. we can make work easier if we keep the main body
section, the head, the chest and the pelvic or hip sections,
in alignment as much as possible. A second rule for comfor-
table performance is to hold any object you lift or carry as
close to the body as possible. The energy costs of lifting
parts of the body are high. An example is that it requires
19 times as much energy to reach three inches from the floor
as to reach to a A6 inch height. 'We can take some of the work
out of housework and at.the same time make it better exercise
if we keep the three body weights in as straight a line as
possible. Use the large muscles and bones in preference to

the small ones when possible and work rhythmically.

 

35
SECTION IV
‘WITH REFERENCE TO FATIGUE AND THE CARDIAC HOMEMAKER

Fatigue is so much a part of every aspect of work
simplification that it may seem that this special classifi-
cation is not justified. However, it is because of the
special importance that fatigue has for the person with heart
disease that all the understanding possible should be
Obtained. The doctor warns the patient to be alert to signals
of fatigue. She is given definite activity restrictions. In
turn these restrictions can easily result in emotional
tensions, feelings of futility and even fear. ‘With an under-
standing of the many aspects Of fatigue one can better
understand the problems of these cardiac homemakers.

The most usual viewpoint concerning fatigue has been
the one commonly considered in industry; that is, that
fatigue results from physical effort. Two of the group Of
the five abstracts in this section touch on this prevailing
concept. The other three reports deal with the newer concept,
that fatigue is an expression of disorganization of the whole
person. Two of these articles report on different aspects
of one study conducted at Michigan State College where this
hypothesis was tested in its relation to housework.

Ryan, Thomas Arthur, WOrk and Effort, The Ronald Press
Company, New York, 1947.

This book provides a systematic survey of psychological
investigations concerned with productivity of men and women
at work. Among the problems treated are: training and
learning, control of accidents, establishment of pay levels

for various jobs and the design of efficient methods of work.

36

IMotivation of the worker is considered in its relation to
problems of efficiency. The book presents conclusions drawn
from research in various fields and also attempts to acquaint
the reader with methods of research that lead to the findings
set forth. This publication is written for supervisors,
managers of industry, teachers and workers who have interest
in the productivity Of man. In the chapter on measuring the
cost Of work, the author concludes that as for measuring
fatigue as an element in the cost of muscular work, decrement
of performance in highly motivated workers is still the only
useful indicator. This has its drawbacks when applied to a
practical setting because of the variation Of motivation.
But research has not yet provided any adequate bodily test
for determining the degree of fatigue resulting from.a given
task. He uses the term sedentary work instead of the common
term.mental and in his chapter "Fatigue in Sedentary‘Work”
he stresses the need for research and the need for new
procedures for testing fatigue.
Bartley, 8. Howard and Chute, Eloise, Fati e and Impairment

_i_n___M_a_n_, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Nam.

This work grew out of the recognition of the need for a
consistent and comprehensive view of fatigue. Fatigue and
impairment are not identical. Impairment refers to specific
tissue conditions of the individual. It is a physiological
change in the individual which reduces his ability to function
organically. Fatigue is an experience of the whole person.
Fatigue must be considered in terms of the whole person and
does not depend crucially on energy expenditure. Neither

fatigue nor impairment can be measured in terms Of work output.

37

The critical determination of fatigue is organization. The
authors discuss personal factors in the work situation such
as visual performance, sleep, conflict, frustration and
others, to point out that fatigue is an over-all state of
the person. The book reviews the kind of formal studies that
have already been done under the name of fatigue, discusses
general methods and procedures for finding the things that
we need to know about fatigue. In the past no clear cut
distinction has been made between fatigue and impairment. To
study fatigue we should utilize common experience as a
starting point.
Ries, Estelle H., The Conquest of Fatigue, Hygeia,

February 1950.

Fortunately the most trifling readjustments can often
eliminate much fatigue from daily life. New equipment does
not mean it is right for you. Such things as feet not
touching the floor when sitting, having a work table the
wrong height for comfort, poor light, stale air, noise,
unsuitable clothing and poor organization of materials and
equipment are causes of fatigue for the housewife. Repetition
Of motion, overeating, undereating and overindulgence in
stimulants and narcotics are other causes of fatigue. Another
factor is too mmoh.haste. In physical fatigue a by-product
lactic acid cannot be removed as fast as it is produced.

This brings about a toxic condition known as fatigue.

Rest periods are valuable during the day as they give
the body a chance to remove these poisons. Frequent rest even
before you feel tired will enable you to accomplish far more.

Physical fatigue is healthy and is seldom.dangerous but

38
emotional fatigue is generally regarded as insidious. we
do not generally distinguish from psychologic and physical
fatigue. An important part of one's treatment for fatigue
is frankly psychological. Rest will cure physical fatigue
but in psychologic mind cure is needed. we must consider our
individual ups and downs in energy and plan work accordingly.
The author feels that the methods of conquering fatigue are
extremely varied and it is part of wisdom to consider them all.
Gross, Irma H., Fatigge in Relation to House Care, Journal
of Home Economics, December 19592

The author states that one of the Objectives of home
management has been the avoidance or lessening of fatigue in
homemaking activities. The universal assumption has been
that it is desirable to cut down energy output because it was
accepted that fatigue accumulated in the body perhaps quan-
titatively in relation to output of energy. ‘Within the last
few years a newer interpretation of fatigue has developed,
that fatigue is different from.body impairment and that it is
an outcome of certain forms of personal disorganization in
the same category with anxiety. There is also confusion in
popular thinking between local muscle discomfort and either
fatigue or impairment. A research study was developed at
Michigan State College in 19A9 with 20 homemakers in the
community. The specific purpose of this study was to inves-
tigate the development Of fatigue during a two-hour period
of related house care activities centered around weekly
cleaning. Because Of the small number of cases, little
attempt was made to present statistical data but the sub-
jective findings point to certain indications. Researchers

39

found only a few indications of relationships between
cleaning procedures and the state of fatigue. There were
more indications of lack of routine and indecision in the
group that felt great fatigue. The study points to the con-
clusion that orderly procedure with relatively few delays
is linked with lack Of fatigue. A similarity Of the fatigue
pattern in individuals indicates that each person may
establish habits of fatigue in relation to specific jobs.
The patterns showed no consistent development Of fatigue from
beginning to the end of the work period nor could the re-
duction in fatigue after short rest periods be explained on
the basis of energy renewal. This study that gives the
fatigue patterns of 20 cases links them with a few variables
and then Obtains the worker's expressions of feeling of
fatigue, supports the view that relatively few household tasks
expend enough energy to cause a high degree of fatigue and
there must be some other explanation of tiredness.
Gross, Irma H. and Bartley, 3. Howard, Fati e and House Care,

Journal Of Applied Psychology, Vol. 3 , o. , une .

This article is a report of a study conducted at

iMichigan State College with a group of 20 homemakers. The
aim of the study was to determine the occurrence of fatigue
when doing weekly cleaning. The study was based on suppo-
sitions supporting recent conclusions of certain students of
fatigue that fatigue is an expression of certain forms of
disorganization with reference to activity rather than a
result of physical effort. This interpretation implies a
personalistic viewpoint. The results of the study showed
that there was a positive relation between fatigue and other

A0
factors that were suggested by finding the subjects' atti-
tudes. Those who became bewildered by clutter, those who
found making decisions difficult regarding what to do next
and those who had a general distaste for the job were the
ones who became tired. The authors feel that it is practical
to study fatigue from a nonenergetic viewpoint.

Al
SECTION V
VISION AND ITS BEARING ON THE PROBLEMS OF THE
CARDIAC HOMEMAKER

Household equipment texts, educational divisions of
public utility companies, manufacturing companies and college
extension services have stressed the importance of adequate
lighting as it relates to the well-being of the individual.
As a result of these educational programs and the stress
these programs have placed on the relation of the act of
seeing to fatigue and the use of energy, questions are Often
asked about this. Few reports of research were found and, of
those found, only three seemed to fit into this type of a
study. In a college text book, Hgggehold Equipmgg§_by Louise
Peet and Lenore Sater Thye, this quotation by Dr. I.B. Metzger,
former president of the Pennsylvania State Board Of Medical
Education, is given: “Twenty-five percent of our energy is
consumed in seeing with normal eyesight and proper
illumination". An effort was made to find the research ad
which this statement was based but no such research that
measured energy used in seeing could be found. Many references
to the relation Of fatigue and seeing were found and there
seems to be little doubt that quantity and quality of light
have a direct bearing on fatigue. For this reason the impor-
tance of good or adequate light should be the concern of
those working with cardiac homemakers.

The first article in this section is given in full as
it is an unpublished statement by Dr. 8. Howard Bartley, an
authority on the psychological aspects of vision. Two other
articles are included that are typical Of the type of

A2
literature being made available by commercial research

organizations as a part of their educational lighting programs.

Bartley, 6. Howard, Vision and Fati e, Unpublished Statement
Professor, PsycholM Michigan, February 1952.

All task activity leads eventually to results which we
wish to avoid. Tensions develop and interfere with the most
efficient and most comfortable performance. Activity is
more surely to bring about these results if prolonged,
because effects of disorganization of performance are cumu-
lative. The same total of activity of a given sort will lead
to less of the undesirable if broken into short periods than
if continued in one stretch. Rest or change of task is thus
primarily for the purpose Of the reduction of tension and
for the dispelling of the disharmony. The change, whether
it be rest or the shift to another form of activity, thus
reverses certain processes and gets rid of more or less dis-
organization. Breaking task activity up into short periods
provides for the body processes that are working toward
tension and disharmony to become reversed before proceeding
very far.

The activity of restricted mechanisms within the body,
such as that of the visual apparatus, does not remain well
localized, particularly in prolonged tasks. It begins by
involving the strictly local mechanisms but gradually comes
to include others. The muscles of face, neck, back, etc.
eventually become involved as is evidenced in the marked
tensions that are set up in these areas. These ”secondary
involvements" are not only useless in accomplishing the task

at hand but definitely contribute to the disorganization we

A3
call fatigue.

Whatever involves the uncomfortable use of skeletal
musculature includes, to some extent, the autonomic nervous
system and circulation. This involvement is often of a
kind that is disadvantageous to individuals for whom it is
necessary to keep circulatory function at an even keel and
for whom.the minimization of effort is imperative.

Seeing, as represented in the mere activity of the
visual apparatus; that is, the eyes, and the neural pathways
to the brain, involves the expenditure of little energy.

The use of the eyes leads one into so much else that is
energy consuming that often times advice is given regarding
vision as a strenuous activity. It seems simpler and more
effective to advise regarding the limited use of the eyes
in certain kinds of tasks than to say "don't" to the un-
favorable behavior that is set up in the visual performance.
For purposes of clarity, however, it behooves the sophisti-
cated person to distinguish between vision itself and all
that becomes initiated and guided and maintained by sight.

Emotional reactions are Often part of visual observation.
In this way, activity of the autonomic nervous system is
altered or heightened, and with this goes changes in circu-
latory activity. Blood pressure elevation and vasocon-
striction are common. When these results are to be avoided,
it is Obvious that visual tasks or situations inducing them
should be avoided.

AA

Luckiesh, Mathew, Important Concepts Underlying Lighting

gigcgiigicgipgfigingiegigggénglgzgearch Laboratory, General

C , e
The material published in this leaflet was presented in

a paper to the conference of the Illumination Engineering
Society, Boston, Massachusetts, September l9A8. The aim Of
the author in this paper was to isolate and clarify certain
concepts upon which adequate lighting practices must be
founded. Light and vision are tools for the performance of
seeing. Vision deals only secondarily with light, strictly
it is confined to the visual sense which can be considered
as a tool just as light is a tool. It can be sharpened with
eye-glasses if necessary. Eyesight specialists care for the
eyes and determine visual efficiency just as a tool-maker
sharpens and repairs his tools. However, people with normal
vision when performing many tasks under prevailing levels of
illumination have subnormal vision. This type of subnormal
vision is just as real as the kind treated by the eyesight
specialist. Because of this fact in countless tasks light
and lighting can contribute much by increasing the brightness-
level of the task which in turn elevates the visibility-
level. Putting this in terms of the concept of industry,
good lighting eliminates useless work, even if it is less
Obvious to measure as it is represented in terms of friction
and internal loss. Visibility-level can readily be measured
and light can then be provided to raise the visual object or
task to a reasonable visibility-level. As knowledge
progresses, measurements of visibility-level will probably
be correlated more and more with the degree of ease of

seeing. Lighting specialists have been greatly enriched by

45
advances in efficiency of light-production, efficiency of
light control and by a variety of new light-sources. If
they will apply these tools with adequate comprehension of
the basic concepts and utilization of knowledge already
available, they have great opportunity to promote human
efficiency, comfort, welfare and happiness.

Luckiesh, M. and Moss, Frank K., The Effegt_of Visual Effort
W, Journal of General Psychology,

Since the heart responds to numerous physiological and
psychological stimuli, it is possible that the expenditure
of human energy in critical seeing may be revealed or indi-
cated by changes in the heart rate. The research reported
in this publication involved an investigavpion of this phase
of physiology by means of direct quantitative measurements
of heart-rate. The specific objectives of the research were
to determine the relationships, if any, between the heart-
rate and (l) the duration of visual effort and (2) the inten-
sity of illumination under which the task was performed.
Although respiration or basal metabolism.may be considered
more directly interpretable, the simplicity of heart-rate
favors the use of this criterion. Reading was selected as a
task because of its advantage as a universal and uniform
problem. The reading matter chosen was The Outline of Histoyy
by Wells. Seven male students, varying in age from 25 to 35
years, were the subjects. Each subject was instructed to
read at his normal rate, begin at the first of the book and
progress steadily through it. During the test period the
reader was alone in the room.separate from any recording

apparatus. Physically, the conditions under which the reading

46
was done were as comfortable as possible. All subjects
were in good health and possessed normal vision. Each
subject completed a series Of twenty l-hour tests. The tests
were conducted at intensities of illumination of l and 100
footcandles respectively. The heart-beat was recorded by
means of a cardiotachometer adjusted to Operate only upon
the R phase of the pulse-curve. The important facts
revealed by these data were (1) that the heart-rate progres-
sively decreased as the duration of the visual task increased
and (2) that this decrement in heart-rate was much greater
under 1 footcandle than it was under 100 footcandles.
Three charts showed graphically these results. Interpre-
tations and explanations supplement this statistical material.
The fact that a relatively large depression in heart-rate
was observed under the lower intensity of illumination, but
not under the higher, can be interpreted as indicating that
the sensory processes were abnormally taxed in the former
case. Emphasis is placed on the sensory rather than the
mental phase. This is done as it is reasonable to assume
that the latter is not a variable in this study. In general,
the purpose of this study was to extend knowledge of the
physiological effects of critical seeing and to aid in deter-
mining the Optimum conditions for seeing but the results may
also have significance when interpreted for anomalous

pathological cases.

47
SECTION VI

RESEARCH STUDIES OF SPECIFIC HOUSEHOLD ACTIVITIES

Homemaking is made up of a highly varied combination
of activities that are usually carried out in an inter-
related pattern of procedure. Hence, it is difficult to
find single household activities that are concise enough in
their limits to be studied as single units. For this reason
few such studies have been done. Those that lend themselves
well to this type of consideration are dishwashing, bed-
making and ironing. The type of research study reported in
this section should point out the fact to the teacher that
there is no ”one best way” to perform any household task.
Class members should be trained to receive suggestions and
recommended techniques with this in mind and should be
encouraged to be constantly alert, looking for improved
methods that will work best for them with their particular
set of conditions. The teacher who uses this approach will
find that a valuable part Of the class program will be
sharing by the class members of the improved work methods
that they have been able to develop.

The four research studies reported in this section
show a variety of methods of job analysis that can be used
in developing improved techniques for housekeeping tasks.
Three of these studies deal with dishwashing and the other
study reports on two improved methods Of bedmaking.

Heiner, Mary K011 and Vedder N. Maude, Studies in Dishwashing
IMethodp: An Attempt to Apoly Methods O 0 na ys s to a

Household Procepg, Journal of Home Economics, VOl. 22, 1930.

 

 

The authors apply the methods of industrial job

48
analysis to dishwashing. They first attempted by inter-
viewing one hundred homemakers to set up a standard for the
usual method. Then to make an analysis they used stop—
watch timing under carefully controlled conditions. Six
units of Operation were observed and from these observations
195A motions requiring 38 minutes and eight seconds were
established as an average for handwashing. By working out
an improved method, without changing equipment, motions
were reduced to 1008 motions and 22 minutes, 38 seconds of
time. By washing in a stationary dishwashing machine once
a day, motions were reduced to 1015 with.22 minutes, 31
seconds time. Some of the improvements used to reduce the
motions and time for handwashing were: washing dishes once
a day instead of three times, allowing dishes to air dry
instead of drying by wiping with a towel, and adoption of
"convenient storage". In the comparison of handwashing and
machine washing, the authors feel that the results they
obtained do not give a complete answer. Measurements of
fatigue and psychological reactions should be included. A
fundamental requirement in arriving at methods of least waste
Of energy and time is willingness to break with traditional

methods of work.

Nelson, Gladys, A Study Of DishwashinfiiMethods from Right to
Lgft and Left to Rig t y eans o cromot on ma ys s
:tate College of as ington, Pullman, 1947.

Master's Thesis, 5

 

This study was set up to determine whether the direction
of working had significant effect on the efficiency of dish-
washing measured in terms of time and motions. Techniques

of dishwashing were studied to determine the acceptable

49
methods to use for this study. Process charts, micromotion
and simO-charts were used. These results plus findings of
past research were considered by'a committee of specialists
and the most accepta ble methods were selected. Some of the
selected techniques were: when washing glasses allow the
left hand to rotate the glass while the right hand mani-
pulates the dishcloth; five pieces of silver were the best
number of pieces tO manipulate and yet wash thoroughly at
one time; plates were turned over by wrist action to wash
underside without changing position of fingers; a smooth
round swipe was the movement accepted for washing the plates;
and a large mesh dishcloth was selected for this method
instead of a mop. Immersion in water of 170 degrees
fahrenheit for 2 minutes was selected for even drying and
an effective measure of sterilization. Spray rinse was
eliminated because of resulting streaks. Silver and glasses
were washed, rinsed and dried before other dishes to alleviate
overcrowding the drainer. Silver and glasses were dried by
a towel; all other dishes were air dried. Final recommen-
dations are: glasses and silver should be placed in water at
same time, using left hand for glasses, right hand for silver;
establish a definite pattern of routine for washing and
'drying silver and glasses and washing china, then practice
this until it becomes a habit; use both hands whenever
possible. Dishwashing saves more time and motion when dishes
are washed from right to left so sink units should be planned
with this in mind. Sinks combining a shallow and a deep
tray would be desirable as dishes are rinsed more efficiently

in a deep rinse. The best method to rinse is to place dishes

50
in a drainer and dip the drainer in the hot water, removing
it with the dishes remaining in the drainer. From the
results of this study an improved method of dishwashing should
be developed.
Goble, Eva Lenora 'Work Simplification in Dishwashing Master's
Thesis, Purdue university, Lanyette, June 1947? ’

The purpose of this study was to determine methods most
commonly used in dishwashing and to find ways of improving
these methods. From a survey of 278 women, five most commonly
used methods were selected. Films were made of these methods
and micromotion analysis and time studies used to study
these methods. From these, two new methods were evolved, one
for a sinkless kitchen and one for a sink equipped kitchen.
All motions that had shown themselves economical in any of
the methods Observed were incorporated into these new
methods. These new methods were observed and analyzed.
Principles of motion economy that were developed for dish-
washing were: wash dishes at level of water to eliminate
carrying water on cloth to the dish; wash dishes with a
circular movement; keep dishcloth in the right hand except
when reaching for soiled dishes; and preposition the next
item to be washed by hand, holding the cloth while the other
hand is returning from.depositing the last dish washed. The
author concludes that actual handling of dishes by the sink
method is not superior to the two-pan method used in a
sinkless kitchen but time is saved by the sink method
(23 percent) in the collecting and putting away equipment
and in getting the water. The fewer pieces of dishwashing
equipment used in the sink, the less time is used. The design

51
of the sink, the depth of the basin and the height of the
cabinet in relation to the worker affect the motions used.
Bacteriological examination showed that a hot pour-over rinse
of 192 degrees fahrenheit yielded dishes within the United
States Health standard four times out of four. ‘When dishes
were rinsed under the faucet with water 120 to 122 degrees
Fahrenheit, the dishes met the above mentioned standard one
time out of four. There was no germicidal difference found
between dishes washed with soap and those washed with a
wetting agent. Some further conclusions quoted from previous
studies are: dishes washed once a day and air dried save
30 percent of motions, 19 percent of the time (Heiner and
Veddar); one worker is most efficient (Cushman); with
limited space it is a little quicker to use an immersion
rinse (Fitzsimmons).
Muse, Marianne, Savin Time and Ste s in Bedmakin ,Experi-

ment Station B_Iletin o. nlverslty o ermont and
State Agricultural College, Burlington, March l9A9.

 

In this study the process chart, time measurements and
measurements of distances walked were used to find an
improved method of making a bed that will require the minimum
of moves, operations, steps and time. Three subjects, who
were housewives, cooperated in the study. Six methods of
bedmaking were compared. Each of two housewives made the
bed in their usual way and these were called method I and
II. Method III, IV, V and VI were the new methods tried.
iMethods IV and VI were acceptable. The three subjects did
not agree on the same method they would rather use.
method IV required only one trip around the bed whereas
method VI required two trips, but took less time, and the

52
total elements in the process Of method VI were less. In
method IV all the bedding was placed in position on the bed
and each corner was completely made before proceeding to the
next. In method VI the bottom sheet was placed in position
first and then the rest of the process was the same as for
method IV. The time was about the same but the steps were
fewer when two made the bed. There were more total elements
'with two working but the va lue and pleasure of members of a
family working together must be considered. The sheets were
folded lengthwise and then in quarters lengthwise as they
came from the laundry and were used in this form in all
methods. The author feels that there is no best way to make
a bed but that a person should try several methods and then
select the one best suited to her conditions. This report
ShOWS‘WaYS of saving time and steps and it also shows how
methods of doing any household job can be analyzed and
improved.

53
SECTION VII

KITCHEN PLANNING

In the development of the Cardiac Homemakeris Program,
a kitchen unit was planned that demonstrated the appli-
cation of the principles of work simplification to kitchen
planning. This has lead some persons to believe that the
Cardiac Homemakerds program is one that is essentially
kitchen planning. This is erroneous as kitchen planning is
only a part of the program and the kitchen is used as a
point of departure for teaching the principles Of work
simplification. The fact that the homemaker spends more
time doing tasks in the kitchen than elsewhere makes this a
logical procedure.

Popular magazines, architectural publications and
college bulletins provide a wealth of material pertaining to
kitchen problems. In this connection kitchen storage has
been given special stress. In the work simplification
section of this report, Section I, the bulletin Easier
Homemaking by Mundel, is reviewed. This has an excellent
section on kitchen plans and arrangements. New types of
kitchen equipment create the need for studies such as the one
reported in this section. Separate oven and cooking units
for ranges suggest the need for studies to determine the best
location of such units but the writer could not find any
such studies. Three publications are surveyed in this
group. One bulletin on kitchen planning is included because
it was prepared and published after much research and, as a
United States Department of Agriculture bulletin, it is

easily Obtained. The other two are reports of research done

54

at Hashington State College and show the application of

time and motion techniques to the problem of location of

basic kitchen equipment.

A_§pgp SavinggU Kitchen, Bureau of Human Nutrition and Home
Economics, Miscellaneous Publication No. 6A6, U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Revised, April l9A9.

This bulletin provides a floor plan, gives a description,
photographs and drawings of the "U" step saving kitchen
designed by J. Robert Dodge, architect. In most states the
working drawings can be obtained from the extension engineer
or the county extension agent. The department of Housing
and Households, Bureau of Human Nutrition and Home Economics,
Beltsville, Maryland, will assist in directing one to a
department within the state that handles these working
drawings. In the plan offered in the bulletin, the three key
pieces of equipment, range, sink and refrigerator, are
brought within easy reach of each other. This plan is
designed to out walking, stooping, stretching, and to provide
a production line going from right tO left. Comfortable
working heights, handy storage, adequate light and air are
all given consideration. The kitchen is planned with a
definite location for a mixing center, a vegetable preparation
center, dishwashing center, cooking center, serving center
and dining center. The main points essential are listed for
each center and special features are described and pictured.
The pull-out lapboard in the food preparation center is given
special emphasis. This board is planned low enough to allow
the worker to sit to work with a regulation height kitchen
chair. This allows the worker to sit comfortably with both

feet on the floor.

55
Wiley, Elizabeth.Weeks, A_Mppion Study of Kitchen Arrange-
ments, Experiment Station Bulletin NO. 518, The State
College of‘Washington, Pullman, September 1950.

The purpose of this investigation was to compare the
following arrangements of equipment as measured by the number
of trips and steps required in preparation of the meal -
serving, clearing away and dishwashing:

1. Placing of refrigerator adjacent to the food

preparation counter vs. placing on an adjacent or
Opposite wall from the mixing unit.

2. Placing the sink unit adjacent to the mixing unit
vs. placing on opposite wall.

3. Placing the sink unit adjacent to the mixing unit
with the range on the adjacent or opposite wall vs.
having the range adjacent to the mixing unit with
the sink on the adjacent or opposite wall.

An improved method was arrived at by use of process-chart
techniques and this was used in the preparation of a typical
menu in six different kitchens. These kitchens were laid out
according to plans perfected at the State College of
Washington. They were classified as U-shape, broken U-shape
and two-wall. This bulletin gives the floor plans of the
six kitchens used and lists the supplies and equipment
located in each of the similar units planned in each kitchen;
sink unit, mixing unit, cooking unit and refrigerator. The
results of the investigation were given in a series of
graphic charts and tables. The conclusions drawn are:

A. It was found that there were many trips between the
sink and mixing unit in all kitchens. The fewest steps per
trip between these units were in the U-type, indicating good

arrangement.

56

B. Mere trips were made between the range and the sink
than between the range and any other unit. Thus the range
should be located near the sink.

C. There was some traffic between the sink and the
refrigerator when putting away left-over foods and setting
the table. However, the relationship was not sufficient to
conclude that these should be adjacent.

D. Mere steps were taken in fewer trips between the
sink and table than between the sink and any other unit. In
each kitchen most of the trips were taken when setting table
and removing dishes to sink for washing. Therefore the sink,
with stacking center to the right, should be located close
to dining area.

E. There was an average of only six trips between the
range and mixing unit. Therefore any arrangement Of mixing
center and range would seem satisfactory as long as they
are only A to 6 feet apart.

F. In all kitchens two or three trips were made from
mixing center to dining table and these few trips indicate
this unit could be farthest from the dining table.

G. There was little relationship between the location
of the range and refrigerator. There was a definite relation-
ship between the dining table and range. The trips were
taken while serving food. The broken U-type kitchen
averaged the least number of steps. A serving counter
adjacent to range and between it and dining area saved
confusion and steps.

H. There was little traffic between the table and the
refrigerator so the latter could be placed farthest from

the dining area.

57
Wood, Anna L., Ribelin, Shirley and Lange, Fay Location
and Counter Area Re uirements Of a Mechanicalm s was er
Experiment Station BulIetin NO. 526, The State COllege of

Washington, Pullman, June 1951.

 

The increased demand for the mechanical dishwasher had
introduced new problems in kitchen planning. The purpose
of this study was to answer the question "should the dish-
washer be located to the left or right of the sink and how
much counter was required for stacking dishes in loading and
unloading?" The study was divided into parts I and II. In
part I the front-opening and the top opening dishwasher,
representing two general types of construction, were used.
Time and motion techniques were employed in studying the
location in relation to the sink, using a tape recorder to
record the data. Two observers were used and nine college
girls were chosen as Operators. Process charts were made
from the recordings. Findings did not indicate that one
location was wholly better than another but location of the
dishwasher at the left of the sink has some advantages as
this reduced arm motions and steps. There was no appreciable
difference in time and body motion. NO decided advantage of
one type of dishwasher was indicated. However, the front
opening required fewer body motions for loading while the
tOp Opening required fewer arm motions for this process.
Part II had, as its purpose, to determine the length of a
standard 2A-inch depth work counter required for stacking
prior to loading a dishwasher and required for unloading.
Plastic forms to represent dishes were cut and used instead
of actual dishes and these were placed on the different sized

counters in an effort to find the needed counter area. It

58
was found that when dishes were stored in the vicinity of
the dishwasher 18 to 21 inches of counter space were needed
when the counter was 2A inches deep. The top of a front
Opening dishwasher could be used if the operator did not
have to reach over the Open dishwasher. 'When dishes were

stored in some other area, 33 to 36 inches of space were

needed.

59
SECTION VIII

PUBLICATIONS WITH REFERENCE TO HANDICAPPED AND CARDIAC
HOMEMAKER'S PROBLEMS

In the other sections of this report the research and
other publications reported were selected from the field of
home economics and other related areas. The selections
were made with the idea that they were applicable to the
various aspects of the problem of teaching work simplifi-
cation to homemakers. Besides these there was a variety of
publications that were found, touching in one way or
another on the subject of the handicapped homemaker or
providing some kind of information about the cardiac heme-
makeris classes. These are grouped together in this
section for convenience rather than because they are similar
in subject matter.

NO publication was found that included an outline or
course of study for cardiac homemaker's classes. Brief
mimeographed or typed outlines were obtained that had been
used for such classes of the St. Louis, Missouri Heart
Association, the washington State Heart Association and
those used by the Michigan Heart Association in cooperation
with Wayne University and Michigan State College. Reports
from the published news bulletins Of heart associations and
the parent heart association, the American Heart Association,
is the authority for the statement of the fact that Michigan
is the only state where the Cardiac Homemakeris classes have
been carried on through the facilities Of a university or
college. In Michigan, Wayne University Home Economics
Department offers classes to cardiac women in the metro-

politan Detroit area and for those in the surrounding

60

communities. Michigan State College has set up the program
as a special project within the School of Home Economics
through the Cooperative Extension Service Of Michigan State
College. These classes are offered as one Of the home manage-
ment projects that are available for the county home
demonstration agent to select as part of the county home
economics program.

There are seven articles surveyed in this section.
Three of these deal with the cardiac homemaker's classes
that are a part of the Michigan Heart Association's
educational program. Two other articles are aids to teaching
cardiac homemaker classes and are available through the
American Heart Association. The same person is the author
of the other two articles but each deals with a different

phase of the problem of the handicapped homemaker.

Heart of the Home, American Heart Association, New York, l9A8.
In 19A8 a "Heart" kitchen was constructed according to
plans worked out by a sub-committee headed by Dr. Lillian
Gilbreth. This pamphlet gives the floor plan for this
kitchen. All features are listed and shown in a series of
photographs. The aim of this publication is to encourage
the homemaker to apply the practical suggestions in her own
kitchen to help her save time and energy. This kitchen is
not designed as a "model" kitchen but as a demonstration
kitchen. Other information is included in the publication
that deals with body mechanics, mental hygiene, the impor-
tance of moderate pace and general rules for persons with
physical limitations to follow. The principles of work

simplification are given with practical suggestions for their

61

application to household tasks. Line drawings illustrate

the different points covered. A motion study check list

is included as an aid to applying work simplification to
household tasks. This booklet was designed to help the person
find easier ways of doing housework. The easier way is more
pleasant and efficient and gives deep satisfaction. The
emphasis of applying work simplification in the home and
kitchen is put not on expensive gadgets or elaborate re-
modeling jobs but on applying the principles of work simpli-

fication to develop better work methods.

Heart of the Home Program Kit, American Heart Association,
9V! or): , 9 e

The purpose of this kit is to provide material that
will help heart associations to set up and carry through a
community service program. The material is assembled in a
convenient loose-leaf folder type of manila envelope. In
the loose-leaf section are given steps for the setting up
of the program, a fact sheet with a supplement, a list of
program material that may be ordered from the national Office,
with prices and a list of supplementary, inexpensive
teaching materials and the place to find them. A biblio-
graphy is also included. The front pocket of the kit
contains: picture edition of Heart of the Home Bulletin,
Heart of the Home film flyer, Posture in Housework bulletin,
suggested form letters, report forms, teaching plans of
study and a work simplification report. The back pocket of
the kit gives script for Heart of the Home slide film, an

order form and a list of the State Extension Directors.

62
Judson, Julia, Home Management Aids for Women with Physical
Limitations, Master's Thesis, Ohio State University,
C6Iumbus, I9A9.

The author selected 50 handicapped women; four were
cardiac patients. These women were questioned to find out
what jobs in the home they found most difficult and what
body motions and actions they considered most difficult. The
author then gives suggestions for improved methods that
would save effort and reduce unnecessary motions for the
handicapped. From the findings of the questioning, it was
found that climbing stairs, stooping and reaching were con-
sidered most difficult for the heart patients and their
greatest need was felt to be a one-floor house and a
rearranged kitchen. The conclusion drawn from the study was
that there was no positive indication of a definite relation-
ship between a woman's disability and the activities she
felt were difficult. Time, motion and energy saving
techniques can be applied to specific cases or general
conditions. Handicapped persons must understand their limi-
tations, evaluate present practices, weigh family values,
make changes they can afford to make in tools and equipment
and experiment with new methods and practice them. Rehabili-
tation programs should recognize the problems of the handi-
capped homemaker. There is a need for coordination of
doctors, social workers, design engineers and architects in
making a contribution to the needs of the handicapped homemaker.
Judson, Julia, The Physically Handicapped and Kitchgn

Operation, Kelvinator Kitchen, Detroit, January 1950.

The wide variation in the extent of disability or

63
limitation, plus the individual's personal reaction makes
each case different but the approach to the problem is
similar to that of any home management problem with emphasis
on the limitations imposed by the disability. Analyze the
situation by asking what tasks or activities can be done
safely; what should be avoided; what are the essential needs
of the family for health and happiness; where does the
family need the homemaker’most; what jobs can be eliminated;
who else can do them; what methods, equipment or working areas
can be altered or adapted; and how much money is available
for equipment or construction?

Kitchen Operation is the area of homemaking that
occupies more time and energy than any other except child
care. Size of the kitchen, storage arrangements and working
heights should all be given consideration in relation to the
patient's disability. The foremost consideration is that
the person should be comfortable. For sitting, the low chair
is more satisfactory than perching on a high stool. Special
care should be given to the relationship between the working
surface and the seated worker. There is a need for adequate
back support on all chairs and need for foot support when
the high chair is used. 'Weight of cooking pans and mixing
bowls should be kept in mind. Tables on wheels are indispen-
sable for the handicapped. Careful planning of work to
distribute heavy tasks throughout the week or day, as well
as planning of individual tasks, is important. The saving
of energy by using of short cuts in kitchen procedure should
be tried and practiced. Techniques in manipulation of tools

should be developed. The gross arm movements should be used

64
when possible instead of fine finger motions. The foregoing
suggestions only touch the high spots of working with handi-
capped in kitchen Operation. Suggestions for time and
energy management need special emphasis for the handicapped.

Bielawski John G., M.D., The Cardiac Housewife Program of
he Michigan Heart Association, TheIJOurnal o t e Mic igan

-:

State‘Medical.Society,‘Vol. A9, December 1950.

As executive director of the section on Occupational
Cardiology, Michigan Heart Association, the author reports
the development of the cardiac housewife program in Michigan.
The cardiac housewife program is designed to be of aid to
the physician in the management of his cardiac housewife
patients. One of the very important factors in the treatment
of ambulatory cardiac patients is teaching them to limit
their activities. For the housewife, the physical effort
expended can be greatly reduced by application of work
simplification methods. Practical courses teaching these
work saving methods are now Offered as a community service
by the Michigan Heart Association. The first classes were
offered to cardiac women in the Detroit area and were taught
at Mayne University in cooperation with the Home Economics
Department. Classes are now being organized for presen-
tation throughout the state in cooperation with the School
of Home Economics at Michigan State College.

Sanderson, Frances G., Improving‘Wogk Habits of the Capgigg
Homemakers, Kelvinator Kitchen, Detroit, June 1951.
This report tells of the cooperative program developed
cooperatively between‘Wayne University and the Michigan
Heart Association. The interest in this program developed

when Dr. J.C. Bielawski, occupational cardiologist for the

65
Michigan Heart Association, attended a convention in New
York. He became familiar with the "Heart Kitchen" developed
for the New York Heart Association under the direction of
Dr. Lillian Gilbreth. ‘When Dr. Bielawski returned to Detroit
he contacted.Mrs. Sanderson, Chairman Of the Department of
Home Economics,'Wayne University, Detroit, and the first
step of their plan was worked out. This was a trial study
on one cardiac patient. Many visits were made to this
patient and results of this study were recorded by photo-
graphs and diagrams. A six-month pilot study to investigate
habits of the cardiac homemaker were set up and two more
patients were obtained to cooperate. The results of this
study brought about the establishment of classes for cardiac
homemakers. These classes were conducted in the home
economics laboratory at Wayne University. These classes were
financed by the Michigan Heart Association so were free to
the women attending. Each patient attended three class
meetings and the class group numbered from 16 to 20. The
program of the three classes included: getting acquainted,
demonstrations of easier methods of doing some tasks and
sharing of experiences by class members. The class members
worked in small groups and reported on the progress they had
made. The class members have reported that laundry work is
one of their most tiring activities. The aim.of the class
teaching is to provide the patient with the "know how" to
take it easy. The goal is to help each cardiac to live a
more normal satisfying life by learning new habits of work.

66

Houts, Marion Tate, A lication of WOrk Sim lifigation
Methods to Specificillowed.Activipies O the Cardiac
Homemaker, Master's Thesis, Wayne University, Detroit, 1951.

 

This thesis describes the cardiac homemaker's program
initiated in Michigan in 1950. The Michigan Heart
Association cooperated with the Home Economics Department
at Wayne University. The basic principles of work simpli-
fication and methods of applying them were selected from
literature. A report was made of the pilot study done with
three cardiac homemakers. This study included observations
of the old methods the homemakers used in doing their work
with time recordings, estimated energy consumed and audio-
video recordings. Judged subjectively, the new methods used
resulted in increasingly better health, reduction Of fatigue,
improved morale and new allowed activities. Classes for
cardiac homemakers followed this pilot study and the class
outlines of the subject matter taught and the class pro-
cedures were outlined in this report. The author concludes
that teaching of work simplification is not only of benefit
to the physically handicapped homemaker but to all home-
makers. Changes can be effected with minimum cost. NO
homemaker is aware of the great energy saving possible until
she subjects her habits to critical examination. Then she

must possess a positive approach to change.

67
SECTION Ix
THE HEART, HEART DISEASES AND TREATMENT

This material is chosen from the current or popular
field because it seems only necessary to be informed in a
general way on this subject. This area of information is
definitely the subject matter for the doctor only to discuss
in any way whatsoever with the cardiac patient. The work
simplification representative, however, should be informed
as to the function of the heart, how it works and should
have some basic information concerning the general problems
of heart disease. She should know something concerning the
various types of heart disease and the prevalence Of each
as well as the symptoms and general methods of treatment.
From.this section of reading, the most significant points
for the teacher to absorb are the general Optimism that is
shared by doctors working with heart patients as to the many
possibilities for reducing suffering and deaths from heart
disease and the viewpoint that limited activity is not only
permissible for many persons suffering from heart disease
but in some cases even beneficial. This knowledge gives
the teacher a positive and confident approach in her teaching.
Her problem then becomes how to teach the cardiac homemaker,
the best way of using this allowed activity so that it will
give the patient the greatest amount of value to herself
and to the members of her family. A

In this final section there are seven articles surveyed.
With the exception of one article that is an explanation
of how the heart functions and one other brief quotation

from the Science Digest, all the material was made available

68

through the Michigan Heart Association. For this reason,
the writer feels that it expresses the viewpoint commonly
Shared by those who are best informed about heart disease
and its treatment.

Bay, Emmet B., M5D., Some As ects of the Non-medicinal

WEALTH? THREE 3‘? “Affirm °i cm°ag°
, , .

This paper is part of a special supplement on heart
disease. The author discusses psychosomatic medicine in
relation to the heart patient and the early ambulation or
activity of convalescent patients. He states that while it
is desirable that patients with serious heart trouble
refrain from activity producing serious symptoms, it is
increasingly evident that patients with all forms of heart
trouble should be active almost to the limits of their
capacity. This amount of physical activity should be
prescribed by a competent physician on the judicious evalua-
tion of several factors. 0n the whole it is better to err
on the side of optimism rather than pessimism when giving
advice about exercise. There is an interrelationship of
greater or less importance between the physical and mental
activities of patients with heart disease and many patients
have been largely disabled by virtue of cardiac neurosis.
Dr. Bay concludes that in the care of patients with heart
disease, detailed attention must be given to their schedule

of physical activities and their emotional responses to

their illness.

69

Blakeslee, Howard, Know Your Heart, Public Affairs Pamphlet
No. 137, The American Heart Association, New York, l9A8.

This pamphlet gives the trend of heart disease as a
cause of death, with the present rate of 600,000 deaths per
year and the possible increase to 1,200,000 by 1960. This
rise is related to the present rise in age of American
population but emotional and mental strain of modern living
also contribute to this high death rate. The author
describes the heart as the strongest and toughest Of all
vital organs. Its functioning is described and drawings are
used to aid in this description. Heart diseases are listed.
There are 21 varieties but the major forms of heart trouble
are rheumatic heart disease, high blood pressure and
coronary heart disease. Each is described. Then the author
lists another type that he calls "functional” heart disorder.
This is possibly the most widespread but with this there is
nothing wrong with the heart machinery and it never kills.
The fear Of heart disease is a disease in its own right
because of the worry and suffering it can cause. Evidence
indicates that there is no occupation or trade that is a
dominant factor in causing heart disease but the way of life
seems to be an important influence. The two lines of
attack in dealing with the problem of heart disease are
treatment and prevention. A completely restored heart does
not happen Often but partial recovery in the sense that a
person can Often live a comfortable, happy, useful and Often
a long life is frequent. Prevention of certain heart
troubles is moving ahead. In high blood pressure and

coronary heart trouble, the prevention does not reach the

70
original causes but only the after effects; Hyperthyroidism
and syphilis can be prevented. Heart disease is a tough
nut to crack but in the last 30 years the medical
profession's scientific organization has developed an inter-
national, medical, social, public, legislative, state and

federal drive to lengthen life.

Katz, Louis, M.D., A Survey of Recent Developments Concerning
the Conce ts of Corona Disease and its Mana ement,
UniverSlty of Chicago Round TaEIe NO. 5I7, CHIcago,
February 15, l9A8.

This paper is part of a special supplement and discusses
the various kinds of coronary disease, symptoms and treat-
ment. The treatment of coronary diseases involves more than
medication. ‘Ne should view with grave suspicion any
tendencies to impose on the patient undue prohibitions. The
patient should keep himself fit by a program of graded exer-
cise. Exercise should be indulged in up to the point of
tolerence. Inactivity even makes a healthy person
physically unfit. Rest is an important item (or even a nap)
as it breaks the tension of the patient. The patient should
be moderate in his work or undertakings. He should learn to
sl w up, how to cut down and avoid peak loads and develop a
carefree attitude. He should keep his weight down to normal.
There is a psychological fear that all lay people and too
many physicians attach to coronary episodes. 'Ne should
practice the psychology of hope.

Robinson, Henry Morton, The HeartggWOndrous and Courageous
nggp, Readers Digest,_February l9A8.

The author describes the action of the heart in a very

understandable way with an accompaning diagram to aid the

71
reader to visualize the way the heart functions. The heart
is described as a pressure pump which forces the blood with
its freight of oxygen, food or waste through the vessels of
the body. Driven by the heart, the five or six quarts of
blood make a roundtrip about once every minute. In 2A hours
the heart receives and pumps out again some 10,000 quarts
of blood and expends enough energy to raise a 150 pound man
to the height of the Empire State Building. The rest for
this muscle is only the brief pause between the "dub" and
the next "lub" but by this method it spends twice as much
time relaxing as it does at work. The heart is about the
size of the fist of the person and a kind of electrical
timing apparatus called the pacemaker normally generates

70 times a minute a tiny electrical impulse that causes the

muscle fibers to contract. In this article the author traces

the course Of the blood through the body, describing the
function and action of each part of the heart.

White, Paul D., MQD., Good News About Your Heart, Reprinted
from This Week magazmsociation,
New York, l9A9.

This article discuSses heart disease with the idea of
preventing unnecessary worry and fear for those who have

a heart condition. The author discusses new techniques in

treating heart patients and says that when a heart does

behave abnormally, it is not always dangerous but when a,

patient does have a major heart disease he has to modify

some of his habits, the amount depending on what he is
suffering from. The idea that a person has to stop all work

is wrong. ‘Moderate activity is just as necessary for a

heart patient as for anyone else. The dread of climbing

72

stairs is another fallacy. Actually, walking upstairs is
not harmful so long as you do not run and as long as you
do not place such a strain on your heart that failure might
occur. For the healthy person who wishes to avoid heart
disease, a moderate amount of activity is always important
but that does not mean overdoing it. MOderation and
relaxing are stressed and keeping the weight normal.
White, Paul D., M3D., Facts and Fancies About the Heart, Life

and Health, Part I, NONEEEEF_I950?—Parf_II,_December 1950.

The author states that the heart is the most efficient

muscle in the body. It is practically impossible to
exhaust a healthy heart as muscular and nervous fatigue and
collapse occur first and protect the heart. There is much
apprehension concerning the heart that needs to be dispelled.
The usual pulse rate is from 50 to 90 per minute but a heart
can function for years at as rapid a rate as 120 to 150
beats. Low blood pressure as low as 90 to 110 in an adult
should not cause concern as it can actually lengthen life.
Heart disease is not one disease but several. Less frequent
but more complicated is congenital heart disease. The
second important disease is rheumatic heart disease. This
usually allows recovery with some permanent heart damage,
variable in degree. Important new advances have been made
in the treatment of rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart
disease. Hypertensive heart disease seems related to our
modern way of life. Heredity may play a role as well as
kidney disease in some cases. Reduction in weight, slowing
Of pace, as well as treatment with new drugs are used as

treatment. A type of nerve surgery is sometimes used as

73

well as a low fat and salt-free diet. Coronary heart
disease comprises one-fourth of all heart disease. It often
starts with brief attacks of angina pectoris which may
radiate down the left arm. These first attacks start with
over exertion and later attacks occur when the patient is
at rest. Narrowing of coronary arteries ultimately leads
to a blockage and clotting of blood in the small artery.
This may end with sudden death. Early hardening of the
arteries is responsible for coronary heart disease. Once
the heart is affected with heart disease it does not mean
permanent trouble ahead. Heart symptoms do not mean heart
disease always. I-ray and electrocardiogram are not
conclusive but they are valuable tests. Heart murmurs must
be analyzed with care. Usually the loud murmurs are the
least important. Leisurely climbing of stairs can be
undertaken except when there is heart failure.
Leaman, William G. Jr., M.D. Normal Life for Heart

Patients, Science Digest, Februaryfil951.

This article republished a report appearing in the
Philadelphia Bulletin. Dr. Leaman Jr. spoke before the
Interstate Postgraduate Medical Association of North America.
He said that complete inactivity is as dangerous as doing
too much for the heart patient. It has been shown that
over 7 0 percent of patients attending heart clinics can

perform useful and productive work.

74
BIBLIOGRAPHY

SECTION I
Goble, Eva L., Techni ues of Work Sim lification,
Kelvinator Kitchen, Detroit, Novemher I9A5.

Gross, Irma H. The Theoyy of Work Simplification,

Kelvinator Kitchen, Detroit, 19AA.

Holbert, Helen Elizabeth, The Adaptation Of‘Work Simpli-
ficationgMethods to Household Activities Master's
Thesis, Purdue University, Lafayette, 19A5.

MacDonald, Jessie and Williamson, Lucille, Household
Cleanin , Extension Bulletin NO. 790, Cornell
University, Ithaca, June 19A5.

Mundel, Marvin E., Easier Homemakin , Experiment Station
Bulletin NO. 529, Purdue University, Lafayette, l9A8.

Mundel, Marvin E.' Easier Housekeeping, Life Magazine,
September 9, 1946.

SECTION II

Benedict, Francis G. and Johnson, Alice Energy Loss of
Young Women.During the Muscular Activity O Light
HOusework American Philosophical Society Pioceédings,

VSTT‘3B75i9l9.

Benedict, Francis and Parmenter, Hazeltene Stedman, The
Ener Metabolism of Women‘Whlle Ascendin or Descendin
StaIrs, The Imerican JournaI OT PhysioIogy, VOI. BA, I9g8.

Bratton, Esther Crew 0 en Consumed in Household Tasks,

Agricultural Experiment tation Bulletin NO. 73,
Cornell University, Ithaca, 1951.

Hoover, James Edward, Analysis of Variatipns of Human
Energy Consumption th Lengph 0 ‘Movement n er gual
ace, ster 5 es s, r ue nlvers ty, ayette, 950.
(Langworthy, C.F. and Barott, H.G., Energy Egpenditure in
Household Tasks, American Journal 0* P ysiology,
o O , O
Langworthy C.F. and Barott, H.G., Ener E enditure in
Sewin , American Journal of PhysioIogy, Vol. 59, I921.
IMorey, Nancy Booker, The Enepgy Requirgment of Farm/Women,
Journal of Home Economies, January 1936.

75

Pa e Richard M5, Measuring Human Energy Costs in
n ustry: A Genera e to t e terature, enetic
Psychology Monographs, Vol. II, Clark University Press,
WOrcester, Massachusetts, 1932.

 

Swartz, VeNona‘W., Human Costs of Operatingga vacuum
Cleaner at Different Speeds, Journal of HOme Economics,
June 1929.

r"

Swartz, VeNona H., The Human Energy Cost of Certain
Household Tasks, grlc tura xper ment tation Bulletin

No. 232, State College of Hashington, Pullman, June 1933.

SECTION III

Bratton, Esther Crew, Let‘Your Bod ‘WOrk for You,
Kelvinator Kitchen, DetroIt, Mhy I95I.

Grady, Ethyl Rathbun, Illustrative Material for Correct
Working Arrangements and 5003 PosturaI Practices in

' _pmemaking,Task§, Master's Thesis, Kansas State CoIlege
of Agriculture and Applied Science Library, Manhattan, 1950.

Kain, Ida Jean, Sittin Prett on the Job, Kelvinator
Kitchen, Detroit, Fehruary I9A9.

Knowles, Eleanor Elaine, Relation of Posture to Fati e in
Ironin , Journal of Home Economies, Novemher I9E5.

IMcCordic, Margaret P. and Denniston, Helenfi Make‘Work

Easier, Extension Service Circular No. 365, University
of Wisconsin, madison, November 1945.

 

 

 

Muse, Marianne, Seating Housewives at Their Ironipg
Experiment Station BulIetin NO. 559, nivers ty of Vermont

and Sta te Agricultural College, Burlington, February 1951.

Posture in Housework Extension Service Bulletin AIS NO. 83,
U. S. Department of Agriculture, May 1949.

Seidelin, Gerda .M.D., Pathology and Hygiene of Housework,
A Symposium; Part I, ourna O t e mer can e lcaI

‘Women's Association, Vol. 6, January 1951.

 

Villwock, G., Hausarbeit Leicht Gemacht, (Housework Made
Light - English translation) Hauswirtschaftlicher
Lehrdienst des Reichskuratoriums fur‘Wirtschaftlichlseit,
I. Vortrag, Ath Edition, Berlin, NW 70, 50 RM, 193A.

76
SECTION IV

Bartley S. Howard and Chute, Eloise, Fatigue and Impaiy-
ment in Man, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New‘York, 1947.

Gross, Irma H., Fatigue in Relation to House Care,
Journal of Home Economics, December 1950.

Gross, Irma H. and Bartley, 8. Howard, Fatigpe and ngee
Care, Journal of Applied Psychology, 01. 35,No. 3,
June 1951.

 

Ries, Estelle H., The Conquest of Fatigue, Hygeia,
February 1950.

Ryan, Thomas Arthur, Work and Effort, The Ronald Press

Company, New York, 19A7.
SECTION V

Bartley, S. Howard, Vision and Fatigue, Unpublished
Statement, Professor,‘PsyChOlogy, East Lansing,
Michigan, February 1952.

Luckiesh ZMathew, Important Concepts Underlying Lighting
for Critical Seeifi,Lighting Research LaBOratory,
GeneraI Electric Company, Cleveland, l9A8.

Luckiesh, M. and Moss, Frank H., The Effect of Visual

Effort U on the Heart-Rate JournaI of GeneraI
PsychoIogy, VOI. XIII, I955.

SECTION VI
Goble, Eva Lenora,‘Work Sim lification in Dishwashing,
Master's Thesis, Purdue University, Lafayette, June 1947.
Heiner IMary K011 and Vedder, N. Maude, Studies in Dish-
washinggMethOds: An Attempt to Apply'Methodp of Job

Analysis to a HouseholdIProcess, Journal of HOme
EEOnomics, Vol. 22, 1930.

 

.Muse, Marianne, Saving Time and Steps in Bedmaking,
Experiment Station Bulletin NO. 551, University of
Vermont and State Agricultural College, Burlington,
March 19A9.

Nelson, Gladys, A Study of Dishwashing Methods from Right
to Left and Le t to Rigt by Means o Micromotion
Analysis, MasterrshThesis, StateColIege of Hashington,

1947.
’

77
SECTION VII

A Step Saving_U Kitchen Bureau of Human Nutrition and
Home‘EConomlcs, ‘Miscellaneous Publication NO. 6A6
U. S. Department of Agriculture, Revised, April 19A9.

Wiley, Elizabeth'Weeks, A MOtion Stud of Kitchen
Arran ements Experiment Station BhIIetin NO. 518,
The State Coll

ege of Washington, Pullman, September 1950.

Wood Anna L., Ribelin, Shirley and Lange, Fay Location
and Counter Area Requirements of a Mechanicalm s was er,
Experiment Station‘Bulletin‘No._526, ‘The State COllege
of Washington, Pullman, June 1951.

SECTION VIII

Bielawski, John G. 2M. D., The Cardiac Housewife Program
of the Michigan:Heart Association, The Journal of the
Nfiihigan StateIMedicaI Society,‘Vol. A9, December 1950.

Heart of the Home, American Heart Association, New York,
l9A8.

Heart of the Home Program Kit, American Heart Association,
New‘York,1949-

Houts, Marion Tate, Application of Work Simplification
ZMethods to Specific Allowed‘ActiVlties of the Cardiac
Homemaker, Master's Thesis, Mayne University, Detroit, 1951.

 

Judson, Julia, HomeiManagement Aids for‘Women with
PhySlcal Limitations, ‘MasterTsfiThesis, Ohio State
Uhiversity, Columbus, 19A9.

Judson, Julia, The Ph sicall Handica ed and Kitchen
Operation, Kerinator KItchen, DetroIt, January I950.

Sanderson, Frances G., Im rovin ‘Work Habits of the Cardiac
Homemakers, Kelvinator Eihchen, DetroIE, June I95I.

SECTION IX

Bay, Emmet B., M. D., §pme Aspects of the Non-medicinal
iManagement of Heart Disease, The University of Chicago
Round Table No. 517 ,Fe 5m ary 15,19A8.

Blakeslee, Howard, KnOW'Your Heart, Public Affairs
Pamphlet No. 137, The Imerican Heart Association,

NeW'York, l9A8.

78
Katz, Louis, MI.D., A Survey of Recent Developments
Concerningpthe Concepts of Corona Disease and its
Mana ement, University of’Chicago hound TahIe No. 517,
Chicago, February 15, 1948.

Leaman, William G. Jr., M Normal Life for Heart
Patients, Science Digest, Fehruary 1951.

 

Robinson, Henry M The Heart ‘Wondrous and
Courageous Organ, Readers Digest, February l9A8.

White, Paul D. , Facts and Fancies About the Heart,
°Life and Health, DPart—I, November 1950; Part II,
December 1950.

White, Paul D., MZ.D., Good News About Your Heart,
Reprinted from This week magazine, The American Heart
Association, NeW'York, 1949.

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