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' 1 THE EFFECTS OF A DEPRESSED EXPRESSWAY-- A DETROIT CASE STUDY BY RICHARD DE LA. BARRE DUKE .- A THESIS Submitted to the College of Agriculture of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER IN URBAN PLANNING Department of Landscape Architecture and Urban Flaming 1956 THESIS AB STR AC T Detroit has proposed a system of depressed expressways as a partial solution to its severe traffic problem. These unconven- tional roadways were certain to affect the land use and property values of the areas through which they passed, but the degree and extent of these effects were unknown. The purposes of this study were twofold: to measure the degree and extent of change induced by the Edsel B. Ford Express- way, and to develop a technique whereby similar studies could be conducted. The study area, located in southwestern Detroit was selected because it contained the oldest completed section of a typical de- pressed expressway and because it contained a diversity of land uses which facilitated the simultaneous investigation of any effects on residential, commercial, and industrial properties. The selection of an exceedingly large study area enabled those properties most distant from the expressway to serve as control. Land value and assessment statistics for 1,149 property sales were obtained from the Detroit Board of Assessors. Land use changes were determined through an examination of building ii permits and the Detroit City Plan Commission's studies. Land value and assessment data were placed on IBM cards, and all values were computed on the basis of dollars per square foot, land value only. Having established comparable values for each property, the IBM cards were tabulated on the basis of their location in each of nine zones paralleling the expressway. Land use data were compiled manually in a similar fashion. The extent of the expressway's influence was generally limited to within 1,000 feet north or south of the expressway. However, the degree of expressway-induced change varied considerably among the various types of land use: slight land use changes among residential properties were a direct result of the construction; commercial properties adjacent to the expressway experienced building activity over 300 percent higher than the control properties; and industrial properties had negligible land use changes. Property values also 'varied considerably: residential properties adjacent to the express- way lost up to 50 percent of their value; commercial properties in- creased by 100 percent; and industrial properties showed a 33 per- cent increase over the control areas. The aggregate effect of the expressway on these property values was beneficial--pr0perties within 1,000 feet of the expressway have maintained or increased their iii values, reversing the pre-expressway trend, while values in the control area have continued to fall. In addition to the results summarized above, some less evi- dent long-run effects may have far-reaching consequences. The alignment of this expressway has created new problems which will be quite difficult to solve--a strip commercial development over 3/4 mile in length has been forced into permanent existence, and a small residential area has been isolated. Due to the peculiar shape and small size of the severed portion, it will be very difficult to utilize this area as a neighborhood unit as proposed by the Detroit Master Plan. The permanence and inflexibility of the depressed expressway provides an exceptional opportunity to buffer inharmonious land uses. This quality enhances the possibility of utilizing expressways for purposes in addition to their traffic-carrying function. To insure that all potential advantages are attained, the ”buffer ability" as well as the traffic-carrying function of these roadways should be carefully considered in future route determinations. iv .‘e :-.5':u.~..0 v“... f ,' u. '. . _ - . ,, & ‘ . ‘ . o ' ' . . . t' ‘ ' .3. - . . ' . . a", - .(.. ‘f ' ' I . ‘1‘" ". . . v-_.‘v - t ' ‘ , ~ , . r '. :wwwrmsu;Le»«~v.wv M» . ‘ ‘0 0 o -0; < ‘ a . Ho V v ‘ - . o - \ . _ , ‘. _ . 331'- $4” -‘Nv ‘8’}: 1“ , J. . . - . ‘ ',.‘_ . _ .1. ~ . , \ . . 3 ‘. . ' . .._ -_ ~Q. . ‘ a ‘_ - ~ ~ L ' ‘ § _ .p. ' ‘1 \‘fifil > . ‘fi; " .. ~‘S‘Elfi'R‘i’ ‘5“ -: fr ' g . .sai'x .‘ ..'. ...» .. ‘ 7' .' 3'3.in I .1 o 3' ,- ‘.' .' ~.’ - ~ . .- ‘. " _ ~ . -' . . , __' ' " A‘ '. ‘ I: ' ‘ ' ~ ' . y.‘ ‘ :- ‘-A- ‘Wffi' l‘ .\.g:‘l’.'l.‘{0'."{: I ' . . I: 7o‘m.J A . _ :T;¢‘.‘o.—t¢”:, ". - {S ' ' 'fi‘ "' ‘ . ‘ - ,. o v('"" ' - ‘ _’: 4 ' l ' ~-' ~. . b AERIAL VIEW OF THE STUDY AREA SOURCE. DETROIT METROPOLITAN AREA TRAFF'C STUDY PLATE l FRONTISPIECE ACKNOW LEDG MENTS The writer wishes to express his gratitude to Professor Charles W. Barr for his assistance in the preparation of this manu— script, to John K. Wilkinson for his assistance with the IBM tabula- tions, to the Detroit City Plan Commission for its wholehearted coop— eration in this undertaking, and to the Detroit Board of Assessors for granting access to confidential pr0perty sales records. He is also deeply appreciative of the financial support of the Land Economics Foundation which made it possible for him to com- plete this investigation. The author is especially indebted to his wife for her con- tinued assistance and enduring patience, and to his colleague, Robert J. Werner, for a critical reading of the text and for many valuable suggestions. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM .............. ' ..... METHODOLOGY ................................ Method of Control ............................ Source and Collection of Data .................... Land use ................................. Land value ............................... Assessments .............................. Processing of Data ............................ Land use . ................................ Land value and assessments ................... Explanation of Charts .......................... THE STUDY AREA ............................... Location ................................... Basis for Selection ............................ Description ................................. POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS ................... ECONOMIC SITUATION ........................... EFFECTS OF THE EXPRESSWAY ................... vii ll l3 l3 13 15 17 22 25 R e sidential Prope rtie s ......................... R esidential land us e ......................... Commercial P roperties ......................... Commercial land use ........................ Industrial Prope rtie s .......................... Industrial Industrial land use .......................... land values and assessments ............ Aggregate Land Values and Assessments ............ Aggregate Land Values as Indicated by Repeat Sales CONCLUSIONS 1 OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII viii 30 34 34 38 4O 40 46 50 52 57 59 61 LIST OF TABL ES TABLE Page 1. Population Composition-4946 and 1950 ......... 18 II. Housing Types--1950 ..................... 26 III. Age of Housing ......................... 26 IV. Housing Characteristics--1950 ............... 28 V. 24-Hour Traffic Counts on Michigan Avenue ..... 35 VI. Building Permits Issued Along Michigan Avenue-~1940-1955 ....................... 35 VII. Percent of Increase or Decrease in Total Commercial Building Permits Over Period 1940-1943 ............................. 36 VIII. Characteristics of Industry—-1954 ............. 42 IX. Satisfaction Expressed by Plant Owners ........ 43 X. Percent of Total Plants by Year Built ......... 44 XI. Percent of Total Plants Having Additions ....... 45 ix LIST OF PLATES PLATE Page 1. Aerial View of the Study Area . . -. ............ v 2. Property Sales (Approximate Locations) ........ 6 3. Location Map ........................... l4 4. Generalized Land Use ..................... 16 5. Polish Population--l940 ................... 20 6. Building Cost Index ...................... 23 7. New Location of Houses Removed from Expressway ............................ 29 CHAR T 10. 11. LIST OF CHAR TS Estimated Average Number of Building Permits--Residential Conversions or Alte rations ........................... Average Sales Value Per Square Foot--All R esidential Sale 3 ....................... Average Assessed Value Per Square Foot-~All R esidential Sales ....................... Average Sales Value Per Square Foot-~All Comme rcial Sale 5 ...................... Average Assessed Value Per Square Foot--A11 Commercial Sales ...................... Average Sales Value Per Square Foot--All Industrial Sale 3 ........................ Average Assessed Value Per Square Foot--A11 Industrial Sales ........................ Average Sales Value Per Square Foot--All Sales ............................... Average Assessed Value Per Square Foot--AII Sales ............................... Average Sales Value Per Square Foot-~All R epeat Sale 3 .......................... Average Assessed Values Per Square Foot--All Repeat Sales .......................... xi Page 21 31 33 39 41 47 49 51 53 54 56 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Detroit, like all large cities, is suffering from a major traffic problem. Traffic, has increased 45 percent since 1941, when its strangulating effects had already become apparent.1 Detroit's Master Plan incorporates a system of depressed expressways as a partial solution to this problem. These expressways differ greatly from conventional roadways in that they deny direct access to abutting properties and serve motor vehicles only, pedestrian and other nonmotor traffic being pro- hibited. These depressed roadways, with widths from 300 to 350 feet, are being constructed in new rights-of—way which cut great swathes through the city. Detroit proposes 127 miles of these expressways. To date 11.8 miles have been built at an average cost of éight and one-half 2 million dollars per mile. Due to the permanence and high cost of 1 Detroit Department of Streets and Traffic. City-wide Ve- hicular Traffic Index. Based on a continuous compilation of traffic counts taken at various separate points throughout the city, selected to reflect annual increases. 2 Automobile Safety Foundation. Modern Highways for Mich- igan. A Report to the Michigan Legislative Highway Study Committee, Lansing, Michigan (October, 1955), p. 50. these structures, it is pertinent that any effects of existing express- ways be known to insure proper location of future routes. Research in other cities which have experienced construction of similar road- ways indicates increased values and building activity among adjacent and nearby properties. The purposes of this study were twofold: to measure the degree and horizontal extent of changes which may be attributed to the Edsel B. Ford Expressway, and to develop a technique whereby similar studies may be conducted. 3 Westchester County Department of Planning. Traffic Impact. White Plains, New York (1954), pp. 2, 5, 6, 12, 17, 18, 23, 24. Westchester County Department of Planning. Changes in Westchester and How People Feel About Them. White Plains, New York (January, 1955). pp. 14-16. J. C. Young. Economic Effects of Expressways on Business and Land Values. Traffic Quarterly (1951), pp. 353-368. B. D. Tallamy. Economic Effects of N.Y. Thruway. Traffic Quarterly (April, 1955): PP. 220-228. L. V. Norris Engineering Company. A. Study of Land Values and Land Use Along the Gulf Freeway in the City of Houston, Texas. Reproduced by Operations Division, Texas Highway Department, Austin, Texas (1951), pp. 15-17. ME T HODOLOG Y Method of Control In order to pr0per1y study an area, a method' of control must be established. This is necessary to determine which changes oc- curred as a result of the expressway. Two methods of control were considered for this study. The first alternative was the selection of an area similar in all respects to the study area, but lacking the presence of an expressway. Be- cause of the difficulties inherent in the selection of such an area and because of the possibility of unknown variables affecting the control area, this method was not considered feasible. The second possi- bility was the selection of an exceedingly large study area, the por- tions farthest removed from the expressway serving as the control. It was conceivable that the expressway might have affected the value or land use of distant prOperties, but any effect would have been relatively insignificant. The control area, therefore, served to aid in determining the relative degree of change over a period of years between the properties both adjacent to and removed from the ex- pressway. Source and Collection of Data Land use. Most of the propertiesgwithin the study area were developed before the advent of the expressway. Therefore, most changes induced by this expressway would probably occur in the more subtle form of alterations of existing buildings. Building permits were exam- ined to determine if any alterations or new construction occurred. Upon examination, building permits were found to be filed alpha- betically by streets and by house numbers within a street without regard to the year of the transaction. As a result, building permits for a pe- riod of fifty years (1906-1956) were intermingled. Due to the large number of permits within the study area (estimated twenty thousand permits), it was deemed inadvisable to examine each permit. Because of the volume and condition of the source material, a sample technique was applied. To be successful, a sample must be taken from a homogeneous group. The 1940 and 1950 United States Decennial Censuses were examined for factors which would serve as guiding cri- teria. The following were selected: 1. Average value of homes. 2. Average rent. 3. Percentage of total properties for sale or rent. 4. Percentage of dwelling units owner occupied. 5. Percentage of dwelling units with central heat. These data were recorded for the 28 census tracts within the study area and significant homogeneity was noted. Having determined an acceptable degree of homogeneity for the area, a sample size of 600 cases (allowing 95 percent accuracy) was se- cured by selecting street addresses at random from the Sanbo rn Atlas. These randomly selected street addresses were compared with the building permit file, and the following information was recorded: 1. Date of the permit by year. 2. Reason for which the permit was issued. 3. Census tract and block in which the address was located. 4. Distance by air from the expressway to the block in which located. Land value. Probably the most feasible criteria for determining true land value are actual property sales. Such sales reflect all the factors of supply and demand for the time and place of the sales and eliminate the bias of values determined through any process employing formula, theory, or Opinion. Land value statistics were obtained from 1,149 sales of prOperty occurring between 1945 and 1954 within the study area (see Plate 2). These data were taken from records of the city assessor's office. Here, property sales occurring in the city are systematically recorded to as- sist in determining assessed values for properties. SALES (APPROXIMATE LOCATI O N S) Y T R E P O R D. 0 BEFORE EXPRESSWAY DURING CONSTRUCTION COMPLETION AFTER IN FEET SCALE sounce: uuos owmou, DETROIT assessons orncc uoveuaea, l955 DATE. 4&000 2,000 3,000 1,000 O PLATE 2 witty; .V N Am.....././\ . \ SALES 0 BEFORE EXPRESSWAY I (APPROXIMATE LOCATI O N S) PROPERTY .ygt/ ' ND .0V 1‘ ' Fla/c.2212; J _ w- ” “32 .533.) UL : W :1: 2 J: ,c J \ V is .3 2 E - -o_l._. J. U ‘ 3 r1 DURING CONSTRUCTION AFTER -- --—.~ ._ -_ COMPLETION IN FEET SCALE SOURCE: LANDS DIVISION, DETROIT Assessoas orrnce - DATE! uoveussn,isgs_.__¥_;_im..-.-i - 4,000 I000 2,000 3,000 O °d~ rmr" ' PLATE 7 Each property deed transfer (indicating a property sale) within the City of Detroit is taxed at the rate of $1.10 per $1,000 of sales price. The total amount of this tax is registered on each deed by the device of revenue stamps. A. copy of each deed is forwarded from the register of deeds' office to the assessor, giving a record of each property sale. These deeds are then processed, each sale being field-checked through the previous owner, purchaser, or agent to determine the validity of the sales price as indicated by the revenue stamps. Sales for which prices cannot be verified or corrected are not recorded. From these records the following information was tabulated for each sale occurring within the study area for the period 1945 to 1954: 1. Date of sale by year. 2. Location and identity of property by subdivision, lot, and ward. 3. Land use at the time of sale. 6 4. Repeat sales. 5. The price for which the prOperty was sold. Dimensions of the property examined were secured from base maps of the City Plan Commission. After these data had been collected, individual sales were keyed on a base map (scale 400 feet equals 1 inch) and the following distances were measured and recorded: from the property to the expressway by air; and by street from the property to the expressway access (functional distance). Assessments. City tax rolls were examined to determine the assessed value of the properties for those sales recorded for this study. Land, building, and total assessments were recorded for the year in which the property sale occurred. Processing of Data Land use. Building permits were tabulated with the aid of a tally sheet. Total permits, permits issued for wrecking or moving residential structures, and permits issued for altering or converting residential struc- tures were separated by distance north or south of the expressway as follows. 1. Over 2,300 feet north. 2. 1,001 to 2,300 feet north. 3. 1301 to 1,000 feet north. 4. Adjacent (300 feet north to 300 feet south). 5. 301 to 1,000 feet south. 6. 1,001 to 2,300 feet south. 7. Over 2,300 feet south. Since these data were recorded by block, it was not possible to determine the exact location of properties for which permits were issued. Because the distance zones encompassed areas of varying widths, it was necessary to adjust the data for all zones, except the fourth, to the num- ber of permits per 600 feet. Land value and assessments. All data recorded concerning land values or assessments were transferred to IBM cards. One card was allocated to each property for which a sale or resale had occurred during the period of study. For example, a property which sold four times dur- ing the study period was given four IBM cards. Each property was identi- fied by a code number, and the following information was placed on each card: 1. Date of the sale by year. 2. Type of land use. 3. Repeat sales, numbered to indicate chronological sequence of sales. 4. Revenue stamp value. 5. Land, building, and total assessments. 6. Size in square feet. 7. . Distance to the expressway by air. 8. Functional distance (i.e., distance by street) to the expressway. To establish a common basis of comparison, all sales values and assessed values for each sale or resale were transformed into dollars per square foot, land value only. This was done by first converting the revenue stamp values to equivalent sales prices. The ratio of assessment for land to buildings was then computed for each sale or resale. The resultant figure was applied to the total sales price to determine the sales price of the land. In the same operation the sales and assessed values were divided by the number of square feet in each property. The resultant sales and 10 assessed values per square foot were punched into each card. This operation was completed for each card representing a sale or resale. After establishing comparable values on each card in the above manner, tabulations were computed on the basis of distance from the expressway for the following pr0perty classes: 1. All pr0perties. 2. Repeat sales. 3. Residential properties. 4. Commercial properties. 5. Industrial properties. The procedure was as follows: 1. The IBM cards were sorted into each of the above prop— erty classes. 2. After isolation, each group of cards was sorted by distance from the expressway as follows: a. Over 2,500 feet north. b. 1,000 to 2,499 feet north. c. 400 to 999 feet north. (1. 100 to 399 feet north. e. Adjacent. f. 100 to 399 feet south. g. 400 to 999 feet south. h. 1,000 to 2,499 feet south. 11 i. Over 2,500 feet south. Having separated the cards by distance and type, an average was computed with the aid of the calculating punch. The resultant figure was placed on a distinctive key card. The key cards were then isolated and printed. These data were plotted in the form of bar graphs dis- played herein. The above procedure was performed twice, using the air and functional distance measurements. Since the results were nearly identical, only the data computed on air distance will be referred to throughout the remainder of the study. Explanation of Charts The general format is consistent in all charts and will be ex- plained here to avoid repetition. The charts graphically present data concerning sales or as- sessed values, or land use, as indicated by sheet titles. Each chart portrays, in four graphs, the following data: 1 . The uppermost graph indicates pre-expressway values. The second graph reflects values for the period of ex— pressway construction. The third graph shows values occurring after the express- way was placed in operation. The last graph compares values of the “during" and "after" periods with the pre-expressway values. The dotted lines and bars refer to the "before to during” change; the solid lines and bars refer to the "before to after" change. 12 Each bar within a graph expresses the average value for the distance interval noted at the top of each chart. The center bar rep- resents values for those cases adjacent to the expressway. The bars on the extreme left and right indicate» values for a band parallel to the expressway and approximately 1 mile in width. These serve as control for the study. THE STUDY AR EA Location The study area is located in the southwestern portion of Detroit and is bounded generally by Joy Road, Grand River Avenue, West Grand Boulevard, the Michigan Central Railroad, and the Detroit city limits. This area is approximately 4 miles northwestbf Detroit's central business district (see Plate 3). Basis for Selection There were three prime reasons for selecting this area for study: 1. The area contains the oldest completed section of a de- pressed expressway in Detroit, thereby providing the longest time period during which any aftereffects may be studied. 2. The expressway passing through this area is typical of the system pr0posed for Detroit. Therefore, techniques developed in this study would be applicable to the re— mainder of the expressway system. 3. A. diversity of land use exists in the area. This facili- tates simultaneous investigation of any effects on resi- dential, commercial, and industrial properties. 13 003.20 0.... one..¢uozm>0znuh03hw XI (ZKPWDO —.:°¢FUO ( ‘ d4! 20:4004 009t- Coednncnli .ql l/\.\‘ L . _|| _... . . I .30ch . . —ll|| .14 3 . . I I I- .. E / T . . I . II ..._ P IL. . 23015.. . 4 I I II I. _ l— I I . r I I. u. I u o m. t A ' O N o l . c ’\ / m a V .33.. s n n m m. 1. 4“. $94, a .u .u n s i] 0 3 1 O I o o _' I n ”I / IUVI>0 k n H a I III E I I .It . TI I IA J 30.6.28. m i 0 “imm- I I /’ / —‘ ’T ON'WI'O toast Fact 024 mzmiunu h, or an “.3 o» IR -LLWI . r «I253 p.053 “.0 5.0 .3.- ts; 15 Description Plate 4 shows the land use within the study area before the advent of the expressway. Construction of the area occurred be- tween the turn of the century and 1930, most of the land having been utilized for residential purposes. Major traffic arteries (Michigan, Grand River, Livernois, and Warren Avenues) were developed in typical ribbon commercial fashion. Michigan Avenue has three com- mercial core sections within the boundaries of the study area--at its intersection with Junction, Chopin, and Central streets. One- and two-story structures with offices or apartments on the second floor comprise the majority of the commercial structures. An industrial belt approximately 1/2 mile in width straddles the length of the western and southern boundaries. Because the study area was limited to the city proper, only a portion ot the industrial belt to the south and west was. included. Another industrial corridor 1/4 mile in width lies parallel and adjacent to Livernois Avenue, dividing the study area from north to south. Before the advent of the expressway, the traffic of the area was served by two major arteries, Grand River on the north, and Michigan Avenue bisecting the southern half of the study area. Both roads give direct access to the central business district. PLATE 4 POPULATION CHAR AC TERISTICS A knowledge of the inhabitants of the study area, including unusual variations of nationality, race, or trends indicating internal change, is helpful in analyzing the effects of the expressway. Table 1 establishes the population composition and trends within the study area as compared with Detroit. - f In 1950 the study area as compared to Detroit contained: 1. 9 percent less native-white residents. 2. 6 percent more nonwhite residents. 3. 3 percent more foreign-born residents. 4. 10 percent more residents born in Poland. During the 10-year period between 1940 and 1950 the study area: 1. Lost 15 percent of its population, while Detroit gained 14 percent. 2. Lost 3 percent of its native-white population, as did the city. 3. Gained 38 percent of its nonwhite population (half the city increase). 4. Lost 16 percent of its foreign-born population (half the city decrease). 17 18 TABLE 1 POPULATION COMPOSITION--1940 AND 1950 Change Study Area Detroit 1940-1950 Population 1 40 1 50 1 40 9 9 9 1950 Study Detroit Area Total population 101,163 85,857 1,623,452 1,849,568 -15% +14% Native white 62% 60% 71% 69% - 3% - 3% Nonwhite 16% 22% 9% 1 6% + 38% + 78% Foreign born 21% 18% 20% 15% -14% -25% Born in Poland 14% 12% 3% 2% -16% -38% A l ' ___4_ Source; 1940 and 1950 United States Censuses of Population. Of special significance is the fact that the study area's total population decreased by 15 percent while that of the city increased 14 percent. This difference can be attributed to two factors: there was a general decrease in family size in both the study area and the city; and the study area lost dwelling units, while the city gained dwelling units. A general decrease in family size in both areas was more than compensated for in the city by an increase in dwelling units. In other words, although there were less persons per family, there were more families in the city. However, a similar reduction in 19 family size, coupled with a small loss of dwelling units, resulted in a reduced population for the study area. In this case, there were fewer families as well as a smaller number of persons per family. The comparatively high ratio of residents born in Poland indicates the presence of an ethnic group (see Plate 5). The pres- ence of this group may account for the high volume of alterations and conversions occurring near the expressway during the construc- tion period (see Chart 1). Even though expressway construction has destroyed their homes, the families are reluctant to move from the vicinity. Instead, they have preferred to move in with nearby fam- ilies. Their acceptance into these homes indicates the existence of a close-knit group. 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'2' 'i" 2' '2' 'Z' 'I': 3%}: I':' I'ZII'I‘Z'I""‘ —_ BUR EA U OF LABO R S TATI ST l C S I ' O 2-: :.:-2 2-: -:<:-:- -:«: :«:-:- -:-I:- ~2-1»:-:-:-1 """""' ENGIN EERING N EWS R E c 0 R D 0.0 ..: .0 ... 0.0 0.0“ .09 .091... .0.1 ’ . ‘31.: .0. 0 01I. 0 0 ....".‘....'...A......‘ SOURCE:ADAPTED FROM GRAPH BY sulTH. loo II-I'Z- {-32 31's}: . 1 2-2 2-2 I-I tit-.1}: H I N c HMAN AND GRYLLSI mo. ' :.:.ZI: :.‘33. .:..:.: .'I .:.:..: .'.‘ I. .2: DATE ; N OVEN BER ’ (95 5 0 0 04000000 0 0000b0000000 ' 9 0 I944 I945 I946 l I947 I I948 l I949 1950 l '95! I952 l953 l954 PLATE 6 fl 24 An analysis of the economic situation reveals three factors of impo rtanc e: 1. There has been an appreciable rise in construction costs during the study period. 2. There was a reversal of this trend during the period of expressway construction. 3. Total assessed values have increased. EFFECTS OF THE EXPRESSWAY R e sidential Prope rtie 5 Residential land use. The composition of housing types within the study area as compared to Detroit is indicated in Table II. Within the study area as compared to Detroit, there are more two-family homes, and there are relatively few multifamily dwelling units. The high percentage of two-family dwelling units within the study area is significant in that the majority of the homes were originally designed as single-family units. Attempts to retain property income have resulted in an increasing number of tenants. In the last twenty years approximately 40 percent of these homes have been con— verted to two-family units, with a resultant blighting influence on the area. Table III compares the study area's housing age with that of Detroit. Within the study area over 50 percent of the dwelling units were built prior to 1920, and 95 percent of the housing was built prior to 1930. Total dwelling units within the study area have decreased 2.1 percent since 1940. (Detroit increased by 18.3 percent during the 25 26 TABLE II HOUSING TYPES-- l 950 Housing Type Percent in Study Area Percent in Detroit Single family 44.8 48.3 Two-family 39.3 23.6 Multifamily 1 4 .6 25 .7 Total* 98.7 97.6 Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1950 United States Cen— sus of Population, Bulletin P-D17, Table 3, U.S. Department of Commerce. * Exclusion of census category, “1 and 2 dwelling unit, semi- detached,” accounts for the failure of totals to reach 100 percent. TABLE III AGE OF HOUSING J —k i I w 4‘ I Year Built Percent in Study Area Percent in Detroit 1940-1949 1 17 1930-1939 4 11 1920-1929 42 37 Before 1920 53 35 __.I._:—v— “H m Source: U.S. Bureau of Census. 1950 United States Census of Population, Bulletin P-Dl7, Table 3, U.S. Department of Commerce. 27 same period.) Only a portion of the dwelling units lost by the study area were as a direct result of expressway construction. Industrial expansion, in one instance, accounted for the demolition of an entire block of housing. An understanding of housing conditions may be derived through comparison of the United States Census data in Table IV. Within the study area as compared to Detroit: 1. Population density is higher. 2. There are fewer dwelling units with central heat. 3. Although below the Detroit percentage, dilapidation is high. There is considerable evidence that the study area is becoming blighted. Population density, age of housing, percentage of dilapida— tion, and lack of central heat within the area all reinforce this con- clusion. Detroit City Plan Commission's studies5 rating blight throughout the city have placed approximately 75 percent of the study area in need of major improvement, the remaining 25 percent re- quiring the more severe treatment of redevelopment. The greatest change in residential land use occurred during the construction of the expressway. Those homes within the route Detroit City Plan Commission. Neighborhood Conservation Map No. 2, Generalized Planning Areas (August, 1954). Detroit City Plan Commission. Redevelopment. Master Plan Technical Report, Second Series (June, 1954), p. 10b. 28 TABLE IV HOUSING CHARACTERISTICS-- 1950 Characteristics of Dwelling Units Stud; Are: Detroit Population per dwelling unit 3.4 3.1 Owner occupancy 56% 53% Dwelling units with central heat 72% 82% No bath--dilapidated 8.0% 8.7% No water-odilapidated 2.8% 4.1% Source: U.S. Bureau of Census, 1950 United States Census of Population, Bulletin P-D17, Table 3, U.S. Department of Com- merce. had to be wrecked or moved to make way for the facility. The de- cision to wreck or move was made by a city survey group. To insure compatability in its new location, no house could be moved until the proposed site was examined. Only 27.5 percent of the homes examined were allowed to be moved. Due to the cost and difficulty inherent in moving these struc- tures, the majority were relocated within the study area (see Plate 7). A comparipsion with the land use map reveals that these were Harold Raymond, Member of the Inspection Team, Detroit City Plan Commission. Oral communication (December, 1955). SCALE IN FEET 0 I,ooo 2,000 3,000 4,000 o O ‘ PLATE 7 NEW LOCATIONS OF HOUSES REMOVED FROM EXPRESSWAY ---------------- 3w EXPRESSWAY —0— CITY LIMITS 0 RELOCATED HOUSE souace: cmr PLAN coumséuou one: NOVEMBER, l955 3o moved to previously subdivided land which had never been utilized (see Plate 4). Thus, the expressway has aided the study area through the development of vacant properties. An adverse effect of the expressway, not immediately obvious, is the disection of the residential area. The unfortunate placement of the expressway leaves a small triangular-shaped area surrounded by three major arteries-~Michigan Avenue, Livernois Avenue, and the expressway (see Plate 4). This area, proposed for single-family use by the Master Plan, was becoming blighted before the advent of the expressway. Doomed to isolation and too small to be an independent neighborhood, the area will be very difficult to maintain as stable residential property. In addition, its peculiar shape will create prob- lems in any attempt to utilize this area for another land use. Residential land values and assessments. Residential land values are represented by Chart 2. Before the expressway construc- tion, property values ranged from 35 cents per square foot north of the expressway to under 15 cents per square foot in the extreme southern portion of the study area, intermediate values occurring in a somewhat even plane between these two points. The lower graph, indicating increase or decrease in value, demonstrates the adverse effect of the expressway on residential HUI 1.... .4“ -.\U P I-JOO'EI mwbdom NEI’U mw-bt‘t‘OU #3 O 40 I». AVERAGE SALES VALUE PER SQUARE FOOT ALI. RESIDENTIAL SALES DISTANCE NORTH :DISTAIIC“. SOUTH 33% 3 . 2:! § §' 0 <3 N NSTRUCTI CHANGE IN VALUE Before to ing CHARTZ 37$— 32 properties near or adjacent to it. The effects are noticeable during the period of construction, being slightly offset by the generally de- pressed economic situation. The detrimental effects are plainly evi- dent during the after period. A general increase in value, ranging to over 50 percent in the control areas, was noted in all but those properties adjacent to the expressway, where a decrease of over 50 percent occurred. Increasing values are evident in distance zones progressing outward from the expressway, the detrimental effects being limited to within 1,000 feet of the expressway. The long-run effect may prove to be the reverse. In time, the advantages accruing from the expressway may offset the present adverse effects. Typical of these advantages with a possible long-run effect are: increased light and air; reduced travel time; and reduced traffic on those minor streets which were not bridged over the expressway. Chart 3 graphically portrays assessments for the property values last discussed. The trend here is the opposite of that oc- curring in values. Assessments have been falling throughout the area, with the exception of those properties in the extreme southern portion of the study area. However, they have been decreasing less rapidly near the expressway. This may be due to the assessor's incorrect appraisal of the expressway's effects on these preperties. S. .1 %# o $.30 .20 .10 .00 fiHDCDqI EflflibwdlDU) :UEPU annu>rufi<3c: '.QZO .010 .00 -010 -020 AVERAGE ASSESSED VALUE PER SQUARE DURING ALL RESIDENTIAL SALES N STRUCT I OIvIPLETI CHANGE IN VALUE iii!!! Before to During — Before to Afte CHARTB 34 Comme rcial Prope rtie 3 Commercial land use. The majority of commercial land use within the study area is located on Michigan Avenue. It is com- posed of a ribbon type development, the direction of growth being westerly. Plate 4, showing land use, indicates two significant facts: 1. Before the advent of the expressway, the majority of the vacant commercial land on Michigan Avenue was located along its westerly half mile. 2.. This same property is paralleled by the expressway, which abuts the rear line of these properties (see Plate 1, Frontispiece). Traffic counts reveal that the opening of the expressway has lessened congestion on Michigan Avenue, traffic volumes having been reduced about 30 percent (see Table V). Commercial building activity along Michigan Avenue, as de- termined from building permits, is shown in Table VI. Along Michi- gan Avenue within the study area, commercial building activity in- creased considerably during the postwar period. However, increases during the most recent period (1952-1955) were less than either of the two preceding time periods. Table VII, expressing commercial development, indicates the relative growth along sections of Michigan Avenue. (The adjacent properties are those along the western 1/2 mile of Michigan Avenue.) TABLE V 35 24-HOUR TRAFFIC COUNTS ON MICHIGAN AVENUE At Its Intersection With: Before Expressway After Expres sway Date Volume Date Volume Live rnoi 3 Av enue Clark Street Hubbard Street July, 1951 41,243 Aug., 1950 48,000 June, 1951 56,099 Oct.,1955 130,049 Dec., 1954 36,000 Nov., 1955 33,255 fifi I “1 T ' Source: Detroit Department of Streets and Traffic. TABLE VI BUILDING PERMITS ISSUED ALONG MICHIGAN AVENUE-- 1940-1955 Time Period Total Permits Permits for New Structures 1940-1943 104 14 1944-1947 162 35 1948-1951 157 34 1952-1955 125 22 Source: Detroit Department of Safety Engineering (based on 100 percent sample). TABLE VII 36 PERCENT OF INCREASE OR DECREASE IN TOTAL COMMERCIAL BUILDING PERMITS OVER PERIOD 1940-1943 Period of Distance South of the Expressway C i °mpar 8°“ Adjacent 100'-399' 400'-999' 1000'-2499' 2500'-6999' 1944-1947 346 125 0 —23 48 1948—1951 330 50 -20 -30 62 1952-1955 138 25 0 -33 43 Source: Detroit Department of Safety Engineering (based on 100 percent sample). These data demonstrate that commercial activity at a distance greater than 400 feet south of the expressway was negligible, and there was considerable commercial building activity among proper- ties adjacent to the expressway. An inspection of annual building permits showed an exceed— ingly large increase during 1947 in the area adjacent to the express- way. This may indicate Speculation by individuals who assumed that the expressway would pass near their properties. Although the route was not officially established until 1948, it was quite obvious that the expressway would pass through the general vicinity because 37 it was to connect with the completed Industrial Expressway which terminated at the city limits. The decline of building activity among adjacent prOperties during the period 1952-1955 is probably due to the decreased avail- ability of vacant commercial property. Commercial building activity among properties in the area adjacent to the expressway increased upwards of 300 percent during the study period (see Table VII). However, several factors must be taken into account in appraising what effect the expressway has had on this activity: 1. Most of the vacant commercial land remaining on Michigan Avenue was in the area adjacent to the expressway. 2. The westerly direction of commercial growth along Michi- gan Avenue placed these adjacent pr0perties next in line for development. 3. The postwar building boom gave an impetus to the de- velopment of these properties. 4. The construction of the expressway reduced congestion on Michigan Avenue and offered the advantage of time-distance savings. It is not possible to determine the extent of the expressway's influence in this case. However, data indicate that any effect dem— onstrated was beneficial. The location of the expressway in relation to these commer- cial properties will prove to be a detriment in the long run. Placed 38 adjacent to the rear lot line or alley, the expressway permanently blocks commercial expansion. An excellent opportunity to provide parking was missed, and there remains no possibility of efficiently consolidating these properties for commercial use. This unfortu- nate alignment has resulted in a permanent ribbon type commercial area along Michigan Avenue. Highly inefficient and economically unprofitable, this type of development is against all modern prin- ciples of commercial design. Commercial land values and assessments. The expressway's effect on commercial land value is difficult to evaluate because of the heterogeneous nature of these properties. Considerable differ— ence of character is noted along the length of an artery having com- mercial land use. This variance in quality accounts for the range in property values in Chart 4. Commercial properties within 1,000 feet of the expressway have increased in value, those properties just south of the expressway having increased approximately 100 percent. However, the control area. decreased in value, with the exception of those properties 1,000 to 2,500 feet south of the expressway. The increase of values in this zone (1,000 to 2,500 feet south of the expressway) is probably due to local factors as this distance interval includes one of the AVERAGE SAJES VALUE PER SQUARE FOOT ALL COMMERCIAL SALES DISTANCE NORTH DISTANCE SOUTH X) A a 3 ‘ 7) ., ,5 _ O C 0 BEFORE NSTRUCTI 1° DEPLETI I-JOO'd mwbdom 21193.6 (nibbfit‘OU 6’ 0‘ 0 $92. ‘10 CHANGE IN VALUE Before to During _ Before to After GARTH 40 more stable shopping areas along Michigan Avenue. In addition, the expressway is more readily accessible at this point due to the prox- imity of a major traffic artery, Livernois Avenue. Some of the land value increases occurring near the express- way appear to have been speculative, increases noted during the construction period being lost during the next time period. Chart 5 indicates that assessments of commercial properties follow very closely the pattern of sales values. It is interesting to note, however, that the value increases of properties adjacent to the expressway were not followed by assessment increases. Thus, it becomes more strongly evident that the increases were of a specu- lative nature. Industrial Properties Industrial land use. Information obtained from a survey con- ducted by the Detroit City Plan Commission permits the industrial developments within the area to be compared with those of the city (see Table VIII). A comparison of the study area's industry with that of Detroit reveals that: 1. Generally the study area was developed more recently. 2. Density, measured by land coverage and employment, is quite similar. #30053 BMW-C3100) wen-u mtflPHHOU 3’1 0 AVERAGE ASSESSED VAIUE PER SQUARE FOOT ALL COIIERCIAL SALES DISTANCE SOUTH O) '0 - $9 8 0 - O Q BEFORE RESSW NSTRUCTIO E IN VALUE Before to During — Before to After m5 42 TABLE VIII CHARACTERISTICS OF INDUSTR Y - - 1 954 ___ .__L. 4‘ Industrial Factor Study Area Detroit Median age of structures 24 years 28 years Median coverage of lots by structures 58.9% 58.8% Median number employed 32.8 persons 31.8 persons One-story structures 76.0% 71.5% Planning to mOVe 14.1% 17.4% Owner occupied 83.9% 70.9% J _.‘ _z_ A “K Source: Detroit City Plan Commission (unpublished data). Detroit Industrial Questionnaire, 1954. 3. In the study area there are more one-story buildings (the height most desired by industrialists), more owner occupancy, and fewer firms planning to move. Additional information, based on attitudes, indicated the owners' satisfaction with their plants (see Table IX). The existence within the study area of a higher than average percentage of owner occupancy, newer buildings, and one-story buildingslis probably directly correlated with the lower percentage of plants planning to move from the area. These facts suggest that TAB L E IX 43 SATISFACTION EXPRESSED BY PLANT OWNERS Attitude Toward: M Pe rc ent Satisfactory Study Area Detroit Street pattern 74.6 62.3 Section in which located 86.6 84.7 Plant layout 76.9 78.3 Plant conditions 92.0 90.8 Plant size 79.8 77.4 4;. J— LL fi' Source: Detroit City Plan Commission. stability of industry is greater in the study area than in the city. Satisfaction expressed in Table IX further confirms this. To determine what effect the expressway may have had, the number of new plants and additions to existent buildings was obtained. Growth occurring through new plant construction is indicated by Table X. Construction of new industrial plants within the study area was below the city average during 1946-1950 (the period of expressway construction), and was only one-fourth that of the city during the pe- riod 1951-1954 after the expressway had been placed in operation. 44 TABLE X PERCENT OF TOTAL PLANTS BY YEAR BUILT T‘ Percent of Total Plants Built Within Time Period Year Built Study Area Detroit Difference Before 1941 78.8 68.5 +10.3 1941‘1945 8.7 10.3 - 1.6 1946-1950 10.6 13.7 - 3.1 1951-1954 1.9 7.5 - 5.6 Total 100.0 100.0 0.0 Source: Detroit City Plan Commission. Expansion of existent plants is another index of industrial growth. Table XI shows the growth that occurred through additions to existent plants. The number of additions within the study area as compared to Detroit: 1. Were higher for every time period. 2. Were markedly higher between 1946—1950, the period of expressway construction. 3. Had a relative decrease during 1951-1954, after the ex- pressway had been placed in operation. Industry within the study area appears to have had above average vigor (newer buildings, more one-story plants, fewer concerns 45 TABLE XI PERCENT OF TOTAL PLANTS HAVING ADDITIONS Year Added Study Area Detroit Difference Before 1941 46.6 37.7 + 8.9 1941-1945 20.9 13.4 ' + 7.5 1946-1950 40.9 25.0 +15.9 1951-1954 32.4 28.4 + 4.0 L fl Source: Detroit City Plan Commission. planning to move, and higher owner occupancy) but although ample vacant industrial land was available, very little new construction oc- curred. There were significantly more plant additions during the pe- riod of expressway construction. One large plant, located at the intersection of Livernois Avenue and the expressway, bought and demolished an entire block of housing to make room for expansion during this period. Although direct access to the expressway was achieved through this action, the expansion was predicated on other factors; and the existence of the expressway had no influence on 46 this expansion.7 After the expressway was placed in operation, plant additions were just above the city average and there was a decrease in the number of new plants built. The above-average character of the study area's industry along with the existence of vacant land should have induced consider- able growth during the postwar period. Therefore the expressway, coupled with these factors, should have increased growth even more. However, the small amount of growth recorded indicates that the ex- pressway had little effect on the study area's industry. Industrial land values and assessments. Due to the nature of the land use, difficulties were encountered in analyzing industrial sales trends. The scattered location of industry does not facilitate analysis of value trends. The land use map shows the location of the industrial properties within the study area (see Plate 4). Chart 6 indicates the pattern of industrial sales value. Note the marked increase in values of properties adjacent to the express- way. The properties whose sales are reflected in these values are 7 L. E. Dalton, Works Manager, Kelsey-Hayes Wheel Plant. Oral communication. "Plant expansion was planned before the ex- pressway was known . . . the expressway did not enter into the decision. Any effect of the expressway probably was beneficial,” (February 6., 1956.) AVERAGE SALES VALUE PER SQUARE FOOT ALL INDUSTRIAL SALES -..- ‘" NOR .....i.._.._ -l I? 3" 9". ~ 8‘3. .323 f 8% $3? $.60 .ho .20 0 OO STRUCTI $.60 '5 .20 ’33 Hw>d0m NN'U mwbt‘t‘OU '8 $9.30 800 .020 .010 .00 -010 -.20 CHANGE IN VALUE iii!!! Before to During IIIIII Before to After CHART6 48 located at the northeast corner of the intersection of the expressway with Livernois Avenue (see Plate 4). During the construction of the expressway, the large plant to the east bought these homes and ex- panded into this area in accordance with the Detroit Master Plan. The proximity of these properties to this major intersection, coupled with their industrial potential, has resulted in increases upwards of 75 percent of their original value. Similar increases were evident in the southern portion of the study area. It was difficult to determine the exact extent of the ex- pressway's influence on these more distant properties. However, the increases occurring here were probably due to the same factors which caused the general increase of pr0perty values indicated earlier (see Plate 6). Assessments of industrial properties indicated several major dissimilarities (see Chart 7). Properties adjacent to the expressway have decreased in assessed value by over 50 percent, whereas their sales value increased by over 75 percent. Information from the as- sessor's office reveals this to be the result of a time lag. Originally assessed as residential properties, these values dropped as the homes were destroyed for industrial expansion. Current assessment of the property (1955 assessments were not included in the data) is 800W {31:03’CIDUJ were mefiHOU AVERAGE ASSESSED VALUE PER SQUARE FOOT ALL INDUSTRIAL SALES DISTANCE NORTH DISTANCE SOUTH ‘87er ' ' om #8 . 8% -f—-————————- BEFORE IPLBTI CHANGE IN VALUE iii!!! Before to During _ Before to After (BART? 5O commensurate with its new capacity, a reassessment having been made after the completion of the addition. In light of the increasing values reflected by sales, the stable or slightly decreasing level of industrial assessments in the southern control portion of the study area may be an indication of the extent of the expressway's influence. The area had been declining in value (reflected by assessments) but recently began to gain value (indicated by sales). A reappraisal of this property for assessment purposes may be in order. Aggregate Land Values and Assessments Classes of land use have been examined, the effect of the ex- pressway on their respective values being noted. Due to the differing effects on each type of property, and the wide range of values, a similar comparison was made for the aggregate of sales recorded, the results appearing in Chart 8. Several interesting factors were indicated by the data: 1. In general, the "before to during" and ”before to after" values were in alignment, the latter reflecting greater change in most cases. 2. The general trend has been toward lower values. 3. Property within 1,000 feet of the expressway increased slightly, or decreased less than values in general. F300"! manta-doc: SUE'U, mWPHHOU .00 83.00 2.00 1.00 .00 83-00 2.00 1.00 .00 891.00 9.50 .00 ~50 fl.00 -l. 50 AVERAGE SALES VALUE PER SQUARE FOOT ALL SALES CHANGE IN ' VALUE Before to During CHART 8 52 The over-all effect of the expressway has proven to be bene— ficial. Although few total value increases occurred, there has been a general tendency toward stabilization. Pre-expressway values have been maintained near the expressway, while the control areas to the north and south have fallen considerably. Aggregate assessments indicated that in general, assessments have followed the trends established by property sales (see Chart 9). The most noticeable exception occurred between 400 and 1,000 feet south of the expressway. Here, assessments have fallen at about the same rate as properties further to the south, while property sales indicated that values have remained stable. Aggregate Land Values as Indicated by Repeat Sales When the same property was sold more than once during the study period, it provided a very desirable check upon the general trends. Repeat sales were classified as those sales involving more than one transfer of the same property during the study period. These have been included in the previous analysis and are also shown independently in Chart 10. The change in value of repeat sales has followed a pattern similar to that of all sales, with one major exception. PrOperties within 1,000 feet of the expressway #300" 31:35.60!!! 51W“! mwbfit‘OU 81. 81. 1. 902 -.2 -.50 -.7 AVERAGE ASSESSED VALUE PER SQUARE ALL SALES O) 0‘ I“. Ch <20) CHANGE IN ' VALUE Before to During .— Before to After CHART 9 sh.00 2.00 .00 3h.00 2.00 .00 3%.00 2.00 .00 0-300'11 temp-c1300: NM'O mWPHt‘OU th.00 .2000 .00 -2000 AVERAGE SALES VALUE PER SQUARE FOOT ALL REPEAT SALES DI ANCE NORTH DISTANCE SOUTH ’ a 88 '8 m 9” '0 9. *o RESSWAY NSTRUCTI CHAN G E IN VALUE Before to During _ Before to After CHARTIO 55 have increased markedly in value over the general level, reaching a 200 percent increase just south of the expressway. These repeat sales are probably most indicative of the ex- pressway's effects because they indicate trends in pr0perties sold more than once. A review of the assessments for these same properties indi- cated a similar pattern (see Chart 11). An apparent over-assessment of prOperties close to the expressway during the period of construc- tion was corrected before the "after" period. mwbdom wmv mwbvhoo' F300" AVERAGE ASSESSED VALUE PER SQUARE FOOT ALL REPEAT SALES DISTANCE NORTH D S 'm' o» -- . m 3’ 8? 33- 2o 33. N o [.1 o C STRUCTI 0 333. (\J O [-1 Q CHANGE IN VAIUE Before to During _ Before to After MT 11 CONCLUSIONS The purposes of this study were twofold: to measure the de- gree and extent of change induced by the expressway, and to develop a technique whereby similar studies could be conducted. In fulfilling the first purpose, the following discoveries were made: 1. The degree of expressway—induced change varied consid- erably between residential, commercial, and industrial proPerties. ‘ a. R e sidential. (1) Land use changes were limited to movement of homes displaced by the expressway. (2) Properties lost up to 50 percent of their value. b. Commercial. (1) Building activity increased over 300 percent. (2) Properties had value increases of over 100 percent. c. Industrial. (1) Land use changes were slight and occurred through additions to existent plants. (2.) Properties increased in value at the same rate as the control area, but reached levels one—third higher. 57 58 d. The aggregate effect on property values has been beneficial. Properties within 1,000 feet of the ex- pressway have maintained their previous values or increased slightly, while values in the control area have fallen. Z. The extent of the expressway's influence was in most cases limited to within 1,000 feet north or south of the route. The technique developed for this study has proven to be work— able and satisfactory in Detroit. Its basic procedures should be adaptable to other communities for similar research studies. EPILOG UE The results summarized above, while significant, are of minor importance in relation to other less evident but very real long-run effects. The alignment of this expressway has created new problems which will be quite difficult to solve. This placement of the expressway adjacent to the rear of the strip com- mercial properties has forced a most undesirable type of development into permanent existence. ‘The selection of this route for the expressway has isolated a small residential area in opposition to the ”neighborhood theory“ principle. This theory, adopted in the Detroit Master Plan, subdivides residential areas into self-contained units. These various neighbor— hoods are to remain intact, with major traffic arteries surrounding them. In this case, the severed area is too small to be self-sufficient. The primary function of depressed expressways is to move ve- hicular traffic. However, this does not preclude the possibility of these routes serving additional purposes-~as a means of redevelopment and as a buffer between residential and nonresidential properties. In the case at hand, both possibilities existed, yet neither were fully realized. An excellent opportunity to redevelop the marginal strip F 59 60 commercial properties along Michigan Avenue was missed, and the barrier effect of the expressway will work against the isolated resi- dential section. Economic considerations have a direct influence on the loca- tion of such a route; however, false economies resulting from the procurement of the cheapest right-of—way may prove very costly to future generations. In conclusion, it appears that the one most important charac- teristic of the depressed expressway is its sphinx-like permanence. This factor should be carefully considered in the determination of other proposed routes to insure the compatibility of these facilities with their future surroundings. BIBLIOG R A PHY Automobile Safety Foundation. Modern Highways for Michigan. A. report to the Michigan Legislative Highway Study Committee, Lansing, Michigan (October, 1955), 123 pp. Balfour, Frank C. America's Highway Problems and Their Likely Effect on Real Estate Markets. Appfiraifiswal Journal, Vol. 22, No. 4 (October, 1954), pp. 497-524. Dalton, L. E., Works Manager, Kelsey-Hayes Wheel Plant. Oral communication. ”Plant expansion was planned before the ex- pressway was known . . . the expressway did not enter into the decision. Any effect of the expressway probably was beneficial.” (February 6, 1956.) Deger, James E., and Craig McMichen. A. Study of the Effect of Land Acquisition for the Bayshore Freeway on San Francisco Industry (unpublished manuscript). A Coro Foundation Intern Project in Cooperation with San Francisco Department of City Flaming (March, 1954), 7 pp. (mimeographed). Detroit Board of Assessors, Secretary's Office. Oral communication (December, 1955). Ward Totals 1945-1954. Detroit City Plan Commission. Neighborhood Conservation Map No. 2, Generalized Planning Areas (August, 1954). Detroit City Plan Commission. Redevelopment. Master Plan Tech- nical Report, Second Series (June, 1954), 67 pp. Detroit Department of Streets and Traffic. City-wide Vehicular Traffic Index. Based on a continuous compilation of traffic counts taken at various separate points throughout the city, selected to reflect annual increases. ' Elder, H. W. Land Value Along the Gulf Freeway in Houston, Texas. Traffic Quarterly, Vol. 6, No. 4 (October, 1952), pp. 390-401. 61 .l. ....... 62 Gardiner, Lamar W. The Economy of Freeways. Traffic Engineer- ing, Vol. 24, No. 3 (December, 1953), pp. 83-86. Landon, Charles E. Reasons for the Financial Success of the Penn— sylvania Turnpike. Traffic Quarterlj (January, 1955), pp. 5- 23. Norris, L. V. Engineering Company. A. Study of Land Values and Land Use Along the Gulf Freeway in the City of Houston, Texas. Reproduced by Operations Division, Texas Highway Department, Austin, Texas (1951), 190 pp. Providence City Planning Commission. The Effect of Expressway Construction 0n Surrounding Properties. Providence, Rhode Island (December, 1953), 10 pp. Raymond, Harold. Member of the Inspection Team, Detroit City Plan Commission. Oral communication (December, 1955). Stockton, H. P., Jr. Effect of the Gulf Freeway on the Increase in Value of Adjacent Properties Subject to Ad Valorem Taxa- tion by the City of Houston. Texas Highway Planning Survey (February, 1952). 14 pp. Tallamy, B. D. The Development of Expressways in New York State. Traffic Quarterly (July, 1953), pp. 291-302. Tallamy, B. D. Economic Effects of N.Y. Thruway. Traffic Quarterly (April, 1955), pp. 220—228. Westchester County Department of Planning. Traffic Impact. White Plains, New York (1954), 47 pp. Westchester County Department of Planning. Changes in Westchester and How People Feel About Them. White Plains, New York (January, 1955), 28 pp. Willier, Thomas E., and Eugene Maier. Economic Evaluation of the Gulf Freeway. City of Houston, Department of‘ Trafficxpand ‘ Transportation (July, 1949), 26 pp. ' Young, J. C. Economic Effects of Expressways on BusinessandjLand Values. Traffic Quarterly, Vol. 5, No. 4 (October, 1951), pp. 353-368. 1].. iiillll‘ 1 Wm 4 ”i _ 4 .... F CL C.» ‘W..J ‘1 u ..., inl, . 93 ~/"JA KPH JAN.) m6. gemhij. :y...)-, . ~ 9. YM‘ r'-< '11 | DUKE 1 THE EFFECTS OF A . DEPRESSBD HIGHWAY MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY LI 0 3 1293 3011462 BRARIES 4