A VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATION:
VARIABLES RELATING TO PERCEEVED AND
DESSRED CONTROL

Thasis for fhe Degree of M. A.
MEWEGAN STATE UNEVERSITY
Frederick A. Brod?

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ABSTRACT

A VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATION:

VARIABLES RELATING TO PERCEIVED AND DESIRED CONTROL
by Frederick A. Brodt

Voluntary organizations in the United States sometimes take the
form of large, complex bureaucratic systems like their profit seeking
counterparts. Many of these voluntary organizations are organized
and operated with a mixed staff of both paid and volunteer workers. The
Red-Cross Blood Program with its structure of 56 regional programs
and their participating local units is such an organization. Within this
voluntary organization, the local units elect volunteer leaders as
chapter representatives on the administrative body known as the
Regional Blood Program Committee. This committee has been as sign-
ed administrative control over certain functions by the parent organi-
zation.

The central concern of the thesis relate to the participating chap-
ters of the regional blood programs, and are threefold:

(1) Relationship of the desire to control certain adminis-
trative functions to the proportionate level of the
chapter's obligation to the system.

(2) Relationship of this same desire to control to the
commuting problem faced by the chapter volunteers.

(3) Relationship of perceived control over the same
functions to the level of goal attainment.

Frederick A. Brodt

The opinions of blood program leaders in the participating chapters
were sought through means of a questionnaire. They were given an
array of 14 items and told which of five groups (National Headquarters,
Area Headquarters, Regional Blood Program Committee, Blood Center
Staff, and Center Chapter) had been delegated administrative responsi-
bility over each of the 14 items. The chapter leaders individually
were asked to indicate which of the five listed groups actually had con-
trol and which group they felt should have control. One of the five
groups was the Regional Blood Program Committee, which consists
entirely of representatives from the participating chapters. The fre-
quency of the responses from each chapter indicating that the Regional
Blood Program Committee did or should control the listed items were
tallied. A simple mean of the frequency divided by the number of re-
spondents from each chapter was made in the case of perceived control.
In the case of an evidence of desire that the Regional Blood Program
Committee have control, the frequencies of each reSpondent were squared
before the chapter mean was computed. This weighting provided a clue
to the intensity of this desire.

Data on the participating. chapter's proportionate share of the blood
goal, its relative productivity, and the commuting time from the partici-
pating chapter(s) to the blood center were obtained by means of another
questionnaire to the administrator of the blood center. The data so

obtained were plotted with the data from the other questionnaire on

Frederick A. Brodt

three scattergrams and then subjected to statistical tests.
The three hypotheses tested were:
(1) The greater the chapter's assigned responsibility,
the stronger is its desire that the chapter represent-
atives constituting the Regional Blood Program
Committee control the regional blood program.
(2) The longer the commuting time between the chapter
and the blood center, the stronger is the desire of
the chapter to control the regional blood program.
(3) The more control a chapter attributes to the Regional
Blood Program Committee, the greater is the chapter's
productivity.
The findings of this study did not support these hypotheses. A
voluntary organization of the type studied seems to be different in response

than other types of organizations. A replication with modification is

strongly suggested.

A VOLUNTARY ORGANI ZATIO N:

VARIABLES RELATING TO PERCEIVED AND DESIRED CONTROL

BY

Frederick A. Brodt

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MAST ER OF ARTS

Department of Sociology

1966

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The writer wishes to express his gratitude to Dr. Sheldon G. Lowry,

thesis advisor, for his counsel and guidance during the preparation

of the thesis, to Dr. Charles Hoffer and Dr. Robert C. Anderson for
their constructive suggestions, and to Dr. Edward O. Moe for his
encouragement in the initiation of this study. Thanks are due to the
American National Red Cross for making the data available. Thanks

are also due to Dr. Dagmar E. Brodt, my wife, for her encourage-
ment and constructive criticism during the preparation of the manu-

script.

ii

TABLE 0 F CONT ENTS

Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . . ii
LISTOFTABLES.................. ...... iv
LIST OF FIGURES .......... . ....... . . . . . v

Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION.................... 1

Voluntary Organizations

The American Red Cross Blood Program
The Blood Program Organization
Statement of the Problem

Operational Definitions

Basic Theoretical Considerations
Hypotheses

II. SOURCEOFDATA ...... 21

Sample
Collection of Data

III. ANALYSISOFTHEDATA............... 24

Level of Assigned Responsibility and
Desire for Control
Commuting Time and The Desire for Control
Index of Productivity and Index of Perceived
Control

IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . 37

Conclusions

Implications for Voluntary Organizations
Recommendations for Further Study
Summary Statement

Appendix
A. QUESTIONNAIRE . . ................. 46
B. LETTER OF INQUIRY ...... . . . . . . . . . . 49
BIBLIOGRAPHY...... ......... 51

iii

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Chapters ranked according to Index of Desire for
Control with their Level of Assigned Responsi-
bility........... .............. 25

2.. Chapters ranked according to Index of Desire for
Control with their corresponding one-way
commuting time ................... Z9

3. Chapters ranked according to the Index of Perceived

control with their corresponding Index of
Productivity . .................... 32

iv

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page

1. Scattergram comparing Index of Desire for

Control with the Level of Assigned Responsibility 27
2. Scattergram comparing Index of Desire for

Control with One-Way Commuting Time ..... 31
3. Scattergram comparing Index of Perceived

Control with Index of Productivity . . . . . . . . 35

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The western world, and particularly the United States, has been
accused of being singularly preoccupied with the pursuit of profits.

In the western world, other than in the communistic block, pursuit of
profits in and of itself is encouraged. Much thought has been devoted
to the structuring of many organizations in such a manner as to maxi-
mize profits. Weber saw in modern bureaucracy the ideal type of
organizational structure to go along with capitalism as we know it in
the western world.

Blau refers to bureaucracy as an efficient administrative
mechanism. 2 Efficiency in this sense is generally equated with the
ability to produce a profit. When the paramount concern of an organi-
zation is the pursuit of maximum profits, the emphasis is apt to be
placed on the efficiency of the mechanism.

Considerable attention has been given to the subject of profits.
It is, therefore, not surprising that much sociological research in

organization and administration has been devoted to various facets of

 

1Max Weber, "Power and Bureaucracy”, Max Weber. Edited by
S.M. Miller, New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1963, p. 72.

 

Peter M. Blau, Bureaucracy in Modern Society, New York;
Random House, Inc., 1963, p. 22.

 

profit seeking organizations. Nevertheless, a substantial segment of
American society possesses a considerable interest in voluntary
organizations .

Voluntary Organizations

 

Voluntary organizations exist to provide services to the com-
munity or to the membership of the organizations. By their nature
they are characterized by the absense of the profit motive. Some
voluntary organizations are organized and operated without any paid
staff. Other voluntary organizations have a mixed staff of both paid
and unpaid workers. The blood program of the American National
Red Cross, a voluntary organization of the second type, provides the

framework for this study.

The American Red Cross Blood Program

 

The Blood Program is one of several nationwide activities con-
ducted by the parent organization, the American National Red Cross.
This organization derives its authority from the Congress of the United
States. A 50 member Board of Governors, none of whom are paid for
this activity, constitute the governing body. An executive committee
is responsible for implementing their policy decisions. This com-
mittee, which consists of the tOp administrative paid staff from
national headquarters and the four area offices, operates through four

area offices. The area offices maintain contact with the chartered

local units known as chapters and with the 56 regional blood centers
which are located in certain selected chapters. A small, field based,
paid national staff helps maintain this contact between the national
organization and the local units.

Each of the 56 regional blood centers is the focal point of a
regional blood program. The vast majority of these regional blood
programs consist of a regional blood center, located in a chapter, and
a number of participating local Red Cross chapters. As a matter of
practice, these participating chapters are generally contiguous with
the center chapter and/or each other. In a few instances, the center
chapter is the sole chapter in that regional blood program. It is still
identified as a regional blood program, even though it has no partici-
pating chapters other than the center chapter. The regional blood pro-
grams receive their authority, guidance, and technical supervision
through one of the area offices or directly from national headquarters.

Written directives for the formation and operation of the regional

blood program are provided in the Blood Program Administrative

 

Manual. This manual stipulates that each regional blood program shall
establish a minimum regional organization consisting of a Regional
Blood Program Committee and a Regional Medical Committee. The
former committee consists of an unpaid representative from each of the

participating chapters including the center chapter. The Regional

Medical Committee consists of a group of volunteer physicians. The
Regional Medical Committee is excluded from this study. In some in-
stances, the representative on the Blood Program Committee may
represent a grouping of chapters rather than a single participating chap-
ter. In addition each chapter has a Blood PrOgram Committee of its own.
Frequently the chairman of the chapter Blood Program Committee is
also a member of the Regional Blood Program Committee.

The Regional Blood Program Committee maintains two standing
subcommittees. -These are the Finance Committee and the Quota and
Scheduling Committee. The Finance Committee is responsible for
reviewing budgets and expenditure reports of the regional program, and
for explaining the plan for financing the regional program to the partici-
pating chapters. The Quota and Scheduling Committee works closely
with the center and administrative staff in developing adequate blood
collection quotas and schedules for the mobile units; and reviews and
adjusts quotas and schedules as necessary to insure that all require-
ments for blood and derivatives are met. 3 The organization of the
regional blood programs requires that paid staff and volunteers share
responsibility for certain aspects of the blood program.

The American Red Cross, including its blood program, is organized

 

3Blood Program Administrative Manual, Washington, D. C.: The
American National Red Cross, 1954, Part 2, Section III, p. 2.

 

5
as a bureaucratic structure. In this regard it is somewhat similar to
the federal civil service system. Implicit in this organization is a
hierarchy of carefully worked out grade classifications and attendant
pay scales, and formal job descriptions. The volunteer is often uncer-
tain of his grade classification, and he may have a problem knowing how
to fit well into this structure. Other factors which influence either the
perception or the fulfillment of the volunteer's responsibility include

the following: (1) The Administrative Manual permits each regional

 

blood program to exercise a high degree of self-determination in the
pattern of organization for a specific region; (2) the different regional
blood programs vary greatly in the extent of the total geographic area
they serve; (3) the population is unequally distributed within the area
served by most of the regional blood programs; (4) a considerable
variation exists in the amount of blood and funds for which the partici-
pating chapters are responsible to their regional blood program.

The factor of self-determination has an influence on the distribution
of authority in the Regional Blood Program Committee and the Blood
Center Staff. This same factor also affects the use and basic role of
the Regional Blood Program Committee. This committee is virtually
the only representation that the participating chapters have in the admin-
istration of the program. Yet in some regional blood programs, this

committee has no voice in how the program is operated.

Geographic area ranges all the way from extremely compact
regional programs with maximum commuting distances between the
chapter headquarters and the blood center where meetings of the
Regional Blood Program Committee take place from under 20 miles to
one having commuting distances up to 400 miles. Commuting distance
has a bearing on such factors as the cost of operating the mobile units,
the representation attained at meetings, and the degree of identity which
participants in the outlying areas may have with the blood center.

There is a positive relationship between blood quotas and the size
of the pOpulation of the jurisdiction of the participating chapter. Blood
quotas are based on the size of pOpulation of the jurisdictional area
served. Each participating chapter pays a share of the cost of the
operation of their regional blood program. The amount is prorated to
each participating chapter according to the size of its population. A
chapter could carry responsibility for a major portion of the regional

total, a mid-range share, or a very small share of the regional total.

The Blood Program Organization

 

A fully staffed regional blood program normally has the following
positions:

(1) Chapter Chairman - a volunteer who is the chief
administrative officer of a Red Cross chapter
board. He and his board make the policy decisions
which affect the kind of programs the chapter
conducts.

(Z)

(3)

(4)

(5)

Normally the chapter chairman appoints the blood
program committee and chairman.

Blood Program Chairman - a volunteer who is
chairman of the Blood Program Committee in each
participating chapter.

He controls the operational aspects of the blood
program in his chapter. Often he also represents
his chapter on the Regional Blood Program
Committee.

Chairman of the Regional Blood Program Committee -
a volunteer who is elected by and from the representa-
tives from the participating chapters and blood center
chapter who make up the Regional Blood Program
Committee.

He chairs the meetings of the Regional Blood Program
Committee when they meet to conduct the business of
the regional program which is the responsibility of
that group. He is the highest ranking volunteer in a
regional blood program.

Chapter Executive - the highest ranked paid staff
member in a chapter employing paid staff. Most Red
Cross chapters are staffed entirely by volunteers.

The executive supervises the implementation of the
decisions of the chapter board. This includes the
chapter's blood program. In the special case of the
center chapter, the executive often supervises the
non-medical staff and the fiscal affairs of the regional
blood program.

Medical Director - a physician who is a member of
the paid staff of the regional blood center. In some
regional programs he serves in the dual capacity as
medical director and administrative director.

He supervises the medical-technical aspects of the
regional blood program.

(6) Administrative Director - a key paid staff member
in a regional blood prOgram. He supervises all
staff not reporting to the medical director.
In most regional programs the administrative director
works closely with the chapter executive and with
the regional blood program committee. Except as
noted above, he is responsible for the administrative
details.

(7) Chief Nurse - a key paid staff member employed by
the regional blood program.

She supervises the staff and volunteer nurse both in
the blood center and on the mobile unit operations.

(8) Other staff — this includes the laboratory technicians,
the professional recruitment staff, the semi-professional
and non-professional paid staff in the blood center and
on the mobile unit runs, and the host of volunteers who
serve side by side with paid staff in many administrative
and operational capacities.

Whether a given regional blood prOgram is fully organized depends
in large measure on the volume of blood handled by the particular
regional program. If volume is relatively small, the chapter executive
frequently performs the functions of the administrative director. On
other occasions the medical director is given or assumes overall admin—
istrative responsibility of the program. In the participating chapters,
there may be only a chapter chairman and a chairman of the blood pro-
gram committee if the chapter is small. The list of other staff (8) is
very flexible in size.

The persons in the positions defined above share responsibility for

the operation of their regional blood program. How clearly each

incumbent of a given position perceives his responsibility obviously
varies from person to person. A bureaucratic organization tends to-
ward formally defined role expectations which allows little deviation.
However, the perceived role expectations held by the incumbents of
the given positions may be at considerable variance with the formal

definition of the role as delineated in the Administrative Manual.

 

Statement of the Problem

 

The central concern of this thesis relate to the participating
chapters of the regional blood programs, and are threefold: (1) Re-
lationship of the desire to control certain functions of the blood program
to the proportionate share which that chapter has of the total blood quotas
of the region; (2) the relationship of the desire to control certain
functions of the blood program to the commuting problem; (3) the re-
lationship of perceived control of these functions to the degree of success

in recruiting blood donors.

Operational Definitions

 

(1) Blood Program Functions - refers to the 14 administrative
activities which have a bearing on the operation of a
regional blood program. These functions and their re-
spective locus of authority are:

 

(a) Establish policies regarding collection and
distribution of whole blood.

(b) Establish policies regarding distribution of
blood derivatives obtained through fraction-
ation.

National
Headquarter s

National
Headquarter s

Area
Headquarters

Regional
Blood Pro-
gram
Committe e

Center
Chapter

(C)

(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)

(1)
(m)

(n)

10

Establish medical-technical standards and
procedures for the operation of Regional Blood
Programs.

Establish professional qualifications of key
blood center personnel.

Have final approval authority over the operating
budget for the Regional Blood Program.

Have authority for determining whether chapter
meets criteria for entry into blood program.
Have authority to remove chapter from Regional
Blood Program.

Have authority to determine whether or not
medical-technical standards are being met.
Establish collection quotas for each participating
chapter.

Take remedial measures when blood quotas and/or
prorate payments are not met.

Establish salary schedules for center staff.
Appoint and discharge blood center staff.
Prepare an estimated budget for the operation
of the Regional Blood Program for fund cam-
paign purposes.

Prepare and submit the operating budget for

the Regional Blood Program.

According to the Administrative Manual, functions (a) through
(e) are under the control of national headquarters; functions
(f) through (h) are under the control of the area headquarters;
functions (i) and (j) are under the control of the regional
blood program committee; and functions (k) through (n) are
under the control of the center chapter. Present practice
varies considerably from the assignements of control as
specified in the Administrative Manual. The respondents
from the participating chapters show considerable difference
of opinion about which group does and should control the var-
ious functions listed above.

 

 

 

filbid.

 

(7-)

(3)

ll

Desire for Control - as used in this study refers to those

 

instances in which the respondents chose the response
"Regional Blood Program Committee" rather than any of
the other four possible alternatives to the question,
"Where do you believe the primary responsibility should
rest for each listed function?"5 There were fourteen
listed functions. The respondents from each participating
chapter were asked to indicate whether they desired the
control of each listed function to be vested in National
Headquarters, Area Headquarters, Regional Blood Pro-
gram Committee, Blood Center Staff, or the Center
Chapter. The Index of Desire for Control was computed
through the following steps:

(a) The frequency with which the respondents from
each chapter chose the Regional Blood Program
Committee to control the 14 listed functions
was tallied.

(b) The frequencies from each chapter were squared
and totalled.

(c) The totalled squared frequencies were divided
by the number of respondents from each partici-
pating chapter. The mean squared frequency for
each participating chapter was its Index of Desire
for Control.

Squaring the frequencies provided a geometric progression

rather than an arithmetic progression, and thus emphasized
the relative strength of the desire that the chapter indicated
favoring control by the Regional Blood Program Committee.

Level of Assigned Responsibility - refers to the percentage

 

of the blood production goal of the regional blood program
which is assigned to each participating chapter.

This figure is computed by dividing the blood production
quota of the participating chapter in the study by the total
blood production goal of their regional blood program. The
percentage figure so derived is used as the measure of the

 

5
Ibid

 

(4)

(5)

(6)

12

level of assigned responsibility. This quota is based on
the size of the population residing in each chapter.

Opportunity to Participate - refers to the relative ease or

 

difficulty experienced by members of the regional blood
program committee to take part in meetings where decisions
are made which are of concern to him.

In order to achieve a rough approximation of the opportunity
to participate, the administrator of each center was asked
to state the average one-way commuting time to the nearest
quarter hour from the blood center to the headquarters of
the participating chapter from his region. Although this is
a rough approximation, it has the advantages of being simple
to measure and common to all members of the regional
blood program committee in each of the chapters included

in the study.

Perceived Control - refers to the frequency with which the

 

chapter in this study indicated that they thought their re-
presentatives on the regional blood program committee

were responsible for the functions listed above. It has
previously been noted that perceived control often deviates
from legitimate control as defined in the mannual. Perceived
control also sometimes deviates significantly from active
control.

Perceived control was measured by adding the frequencies
with which the respondents from a participating chapter
thought that the regional blood program committee had
control of the listed functions and then dividing this sum
by the number of respondents from that chapter.

Productivity - refers to the degree of attainment of the

 

blood quota by the participating chapter in reference to
the degree of attainment of the regional program as a whole.

The index of productivity is computed by first determining
the percentage of goal attainment experienced by the region
as a whole and by the participating chapter. The percentage
figure of the participating chapter is then divided into the
percentage figure of the region. This index indicates the
productivity of the chapter in relation to the region to which
it belongs. If the participating chapter had a rate of

l3

productivity equal to its region, this index would be

1. 00. If it performed better than its region the figure
would be over 1. 00; and if it performed less well than
its region, the figure would be less than 1.00.

Basic Theoretical Considerations

 

A review of the literature reveals that several sociologists have
addressed themselves to the organizational relationships which have
been indicated in the statement of the problem. The regional blood
program is organized as expressed by Gouldner when he speaks of
representative bureaucracies with the characteristic of collaborative

6

rule formation; that is, the volunteer leaders of the program, as
representatives from the participating chapters, share responsibility
with the paid staff in the blood center, the area headquarters, and the
national headquarters for the administrative functions previously
listed.

Likert, in his studies of voluntary organizations, found ”that
when the economic motive is not present in an organization, the
H7

manner in which other motives function stand out much more clearly.

The economic motive is absent only from the volunteer leaders, even

 

6Alvin Gouldner, "Organizational Analysis", in Robert K.Merton,
et al., (eds.), Sociology Today, New York: Basic Books, 1959, p. 400.

 

7Rensis Likert, New Patterns of Management, New York: McGraw-
Hill Book Co., Inc., 1961, p. 140.

 

 

 

14

though the American National Red Cross is a non-profit organization.
For purposes of this study, all respondents from the participating
chapters stand in a volunteer relationship to the regional blood center.
Likert's idea suggests the notion that it might be profitable to look
closely at how the participating chapter leadership views the role of
the regional blood program committee. How much control does chap-
ter leadership think the committee has over administrative functions?
How much control should this committee have? What difference does
it make how the participating chapter leadership feels about the con-
trol of certain aspects of the program through their representatives
on the regional blood program committee?

Likert indicates that members of a voluntary organization can
be expected to feel that they should have more influence (control) than
they now have on matters which directly concern them.8 In the case
of the key chapter leaders who are responsible for a large allocation
of the blood donor recruitment and fiscal requirements of the region,
one may expect that these leaders would want the Regional Blood Pro-
gram Committee to exercise more control. Those chapters which are
responsible for a small allocation may be expected to feel less strong-

ly about control of the program by their representatives on the

 

81bid., p. 146.

15

Regional Blood Program Committee. The relationship between the
level of assigned responsibility and the degree of control is discussed
by Berelson and Steiner. ”When authority and responsibility within

an organization do not at least roughly correspond to the (perceived)
contributions of the members, there is likely to be more than the nor-
mal amount of tension within the organization. ”9 While it is recognized
that resolution of tension may take several forms, it is hypothesized
that in this case it is most likely to take the form of pressure for a
greater voice for the Regional Blood Program Committee in the opera-
tion of the regional blood program. Likert corroborates a relationship
between level of member influence (control) and level of activity. 10
Within the blood program, member activity is directly related to the
amount of blood to be collected which has previously been defined as

the level of assigned responsibility. The above considerations leads one
to hypothesize a relationship between the level of assigned responsibility
and the desire by the chapters that the Regional Blood Program Com-
mittee control the administrative functions of the program.

The regional blood prOgram has been established as the means by

which the participating chapters have a voice in the control of their

 

9B.R. Berelson and I.D. Steiner, Human Behavior, New York:
Harcourt, Brace, & World, 1964, p. 377.

loLikert, Op. cit., p. 148.

16

blood program. The representatives from the participating chapters
must attend the meetings of the regional blood program committee if
this linkage is to be of maximum operational efficiency. It has been
previously noted that the geographic areas served vary considerably
among the regional blood programs. Some of the members of the
regional blood program committee from the outlying participating
chapters experience difficulty in attending meetings of the committee
by reason of extensive commuting distance and time. Compact
regional blood programs, whose participating chapters are less than
an hour commuting time, are generally more accessible to their mem-
bers. Firey defines accessibility ”in terms of savings in time and
cost attendant upon location near major points of pOpulation confluence. "11
Because of these two economies, the representatives of the regional
blood program committee who live close by, as all do in compact
programs, are more likely to attend the meetings of the committee
more regularly than are his colleagues from the distant chapters.
Scaff, in his study on participation in community organizations, dis-
covered that participation rate declines sharply as commuting distance

increases. 12 Hartley and Hartley in their discussion about group

 

11Walter Firey, ”Ecological Consideration in Planning for Rurban
Fringes", in Paul K. Hatt and Albert Reiss Jr. (eds.), Cities and
Society, New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, Inc., 1961, p. 791.

 

lelvin H. Scaff, "The Effect of Commuting on Participation in
Community Organizations", American Sociological Review, 17,
(April, 1952), p. 215.

 

l7

processes stress the relationship between regular participation in the
group and the development of a feeling of security in the group,
identification with the group, and emergence of collective goals. 13
Volunteer leaders from chapters where commuting time to the blood
center is relatively short can form a cohesive group in which the pre-
sent division of administrative control between National Headquarters,
Area Headquarters, Regional Blood Program Committee, Blood

Center Staff, and Center Chapter is accepted as a group norm. One
would have reason to expect that easy accessibility would tend to in-
crease activity. Where a strong identification with the group exists,
the increased activities would likely take forms which are not in con-
flict with the group norms.

In contrast, it would be more difficult for members from distant
participating chapters to attain identity with the regional blood center
and accept the norms of that group. Even though they cannot readily
identify with the group, the volunteer leaders are not likely to withdraw
from the program. The recruitment of sufficient blood donors to
meet their community blood needs is so important that they continue in

the program even though they may feel little identity with the blood

center group. Blood program committee members from distant chapters,

 

13E. L. Hartley and R. E. Hartley, Fundamentals of Social
Psychology, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1955, pp. 391-2.

 

 

18

when given an opportunity to express their opinion on the subject of locus
of control are likely to seek a greater share of control. Directives on
what to do, how to do it, and when to do it most often come from the
blood center to the remote outlying area. The chapters not having face
to face contact when decisions affecting them are made can be expected
to want changes, and the most attractive alternative is to seek greater
control for themselves so as to reduce what appears to be arbitrary
directives.

The basic task of the chapters in the Red Cross blood program is
to insure an adequate blood supply through the recruitment of a suffi-
cient number of acceptable blood donors. Each chapter is assigned a
blood quota which is the production goal based on the size of the popu-
lation in the chapter's jurisdiction. Productivity has been defined in
terms of how well the chapter meets its assigned blood quota in com-
parison with how well the region as a whole attained its goal. Likert
has found that "the more pressure people feel to participate, the more
active they are. ”14 He goes on to point out that members react
negatively to outside pressures, but they react positively to pressures

from within, and, that the more members feel pressure to participate,

 

14Likert, op cit., p. 142.

19

15 Pressures on participating chap-

the greater their level of activity.
ters to produce enough blood donors to meet the assigned blood quota
emanate from several sources. These sources include the blood
center staff, the national field staff, the local doctors and hospitals,
and chapter leadership including the representative on the regional
blood program committee. Chapters who feel that their representative
has considerable control over the administrative functions of the blood
program are likely to be more active and demonstrate greater produc-
tivity. The possibility of a relationship between productivity and
perceived control is supported by Berelson and Steiner. They found
that ”If the small gruup's activities are imposed from the outside, the
norms set by the group are likely to be limited in character; if they
are determined from within, they are more likely to take on the
character of ideal goals, to be constantly enlarged and striven for. "16
Each local chapter blood program committee is a small group which
has linkage to the blood center through its representative on the
regional blood program committee. If the chapter feels that its repre-

sentative and his colleagues on the regional blood program committee

have much influence over the administration of the regional blood

 

ISIbid, Beyond a given point the reverse is true.

16

Berelson and Steiner, op. Cit., p. 336.

20

program, that chapter can be expected to make a greater effort to
achieve greater productivity than if the chapter felt the lack of influen-
tial representation. There seems to be reason to expect a positive
relationship between the degree of control the chapter leaders believe
the regional blood program committee possesses and how adequately

the chapter fulfills its blood production goal.

Hypotheses

 

Considerations of the manner in which the blood program of the
American National Red Cross is organized, and the review of the re-
lated sociological literature suggest the following three hypotheses:

(l) The greater the chapter's assigned responsibility, the
stronger is its desire that the chapter representatives
constituting the Regional Blood Program Committee
control the regional blood program.

(2) The longer the commuting time between the chapter and
the blood center, the stronger is the desire of the
chapter to control the regional blood program.

(3) The more control a chapter attributes to the Regional
Blood Program Committee, the greater is the chapter's
productivity.

CHAPTER II
SOURCE OF DATA

The data for this study were obtained from two primary sources
and by two different methods. Data in the form of opinions by selected
leaders in the participating chapters came from materials collected by
the American National Red Cross in connection with a national study of
its blood program. The organization made these data available for use
in this analysis. Data were collected in 1964.

Data consisting of figures on blood quotas, blood production, and
commuting time were obtained directly from the blood centers which
had one or more participating chapters included in the study. These
data were solicited by letter from the administrators of the regional
blood programs represented in the study. A copy of this letter appears

in Appendix B.

Sample

The sample of participating chapters was selected on a stratified
random basis. The universe of participating chapters was stratified
according to the Red Cross system of chapter grouping. This grouping

is a 8 follows:

21

22

Group I - population of headquarters city over 500, 000

Group II - population of headquarters city 100, 000 to 500, 000.
Group III - population of headquarters city 25, 000 to 100, 000.
Group IV - population of headquarters city 10, 000 to 25, 000.
Group V - population of headquarters city under 10, 000.

The sample included all of the Group I chapters which were not blood
center chapters but which did participate in a regional blood program.
The national Red Cross is geographically divided into the Eastern Area,
the Southeastern Area, the Midwestern Area, and the Western Area.

It was considered desirable to have each area proportionately repre-
sented in the sample. By management determination, all of the

Group I chapters were included first. Then the remaining positions in
the sample were allocated to the areas on the basis of their comparative
size of population. The allocation in each area was further divided
according to chapter groups excluding Group I. This sub-allocation was
on the basis of the relative size of the total population represented by
each group. Once this was accomplished, the individual participating
chapters were chosen by lot. Since this final determination was by

lot, some regional blood programs had none of their participating chap-
ters included, some had one chapter included, and some had more than
one included. The sample included one or more participating chapters
in 31 of the 56 regional blood programs. A total of 100 participating
Chapters were included in the sample and were requested to participate

in the study.

23

Collection of Data

 

A questionnaire was distributed to the following chapter leaders
from each of the chapters in the sample: (a) chapter chairman,

(b) chapter blood program chairman, (c) chapter executive where such
was employed, and (d) chairman of the Regional Blood Program Com-
mittee if he resided in that particular chapter. These are the key
leaders of the chapter's blood program. As such they are the logical
spokesmen for the chapter on blood program matters. Each respon-
dent was instructed to independently complete the questionnaire. The
composite of these independent responses from each chapter was con-
sidered to be a representative chapter response.

A copy of the questionnaire is found in Appendix A. Returns
were secured from 163 individual respondents from 51 different chap-
ters. A total of 53 returns were incomplete in that the relevant
sections of the questionnaire were not answered.

A letter was addressed to the administrators of the 31 regional
blood programs requesting data on the blood goals and production for
their region as a whole and for all of the participating chapters which
had been included in the sample. The administrators were also asked
to supply the one-way commuting time from the Blood Center to each
chapter included in the study. Responses were received from 30 of
the 31 regional programs of whom a request had been made. A copy

of the letter is found in Appendix B.

CHAPTER III

ANALYSIS OF THE DATA

Level of Assigned Responsibility and Desire for Control

 

Data for these two variables, which have been previously defined,
were compared and analyzed to test the hypothesis which states:
"The greater the chapter's assigned responsibility,
the stronger is its desire that the chapters repre-
sentatives constituting the Regional Blood PrOgram
Committee control the program. "
Usable data were obtained from 50 participating chapters. These 50
chapters varied in the percentage of regional blood quotas for which
they were responsible. The range was 0. 36 precent to 22. 36 percent.
This indicates that some participating chapters have a much higher
level of responsibility assigned to them than do others. The mean of
Level of Assigned Responsibility for the sample is 4. 83 percent and
the standard deviation is 3. 76.

Desire for Control was defined in Chapter I in terms of the
weighted frequency with which the respondents from the participating
chapters expressed the opinion that the control of the 14 listed functions
should be controlled by the Regional Blood Program Committee rather

than any of the other four alternatives listed. The weighted scores so

derived provided indices of the intensity of the chapter's desire that the

24

25

Regional Blood Program Committee control the blood program. The
range in the scores of Desire for Control was 2. 5 to 100.0. The mean
of this variable is 19.86 and the standard deviation is 18. 65. Table 1

lists these variables and the chapters included in the study.

Table 1

List of chapters included in this study ranked according to the
Index of Desire for Control with each chapter's corresponding Level
of Assigned Responsibility

 

 

Index of Level of
Name of Chapter Desire for Assigned
Control Responsibility*
Garfield Co. , Kansas 100. 0 4. 07
Arkansas City, Kansas 65.0 1. 43
Hopewell, Va. 61. 3 1.14
Long Beach, California 59. 7 7. 34
Klamath Basin, Oregon 38. 0 2. 96
Macon Co. , Illinois 36. 5 12. 48
Clinton Co. , Iowa 33. 8 3. 78
North Central Kansas 33. 7 4. 21
Marion Co., Oregon 33.0 7.01
Dubois, Pa. 28. 3 1. 62
Gaston Co., N.C. 27.0 6.05
Worchester, Mass. 25.0 6.45
Chester-Wallingford, Pa. 25. 0 3. 86
Summit Co., Ohio 25.0 17.50
Carbon Co. , Utah 25. 0 3. 43
Newport News, Va. 22. 5 4. 82
Tompkins Co., N.Y. 22.5 3.86
Stearns Co. , Minn. 22. 5 3. 93
Pottawattamie Co. , Iowa 21. 7 6. 2 l
Sunbury, Pa. 21.7 1.87
Greensboro, N.C. 20. 5 8.90
Johnson City Washington C0. , N. C. 19. 0 5. 36
Allen Co. , Ohio 18. 0 7.14
Washington Co., Miss. 16.0 3.36

Cleveland Co., N.C. 14.7 2.78

26

 

 

Index of Level of
Name of Chapter Desire for Assigned
Control ReSponsibility=1<

Genesee Co. , Michigan 13 . 7 22. 36
Sheboygan Co. , Wisconsin 13. 0 5. 81
Berkshire Co., Mass. 13.0 3.46
Blue Earth Co. , Minn. 12. 5 2. 27
Anaheim, California 10. 7 2. 29
Cole Co., Missouri 10.0 1.36
South Orange Co. , Calif. 10. 0 4. 33
New Britain, Conn. 10. 0 5. 91
Madison Co. , Alabama 9 . 0 2. 04
Attleboro, Mass. 9. 0 5. 12
Macomb Co. , Michigan 8 . 5 1 1 . 49
Utica, N.Y. 8.0 10.46
Albemarle Co., Va. 4.0 2.41
Kanawha-Clay, W. Va. 4. 0 2. 05
San Saba Co., Texas 4.0 1.64
Greater Brockton, Mass . 4. 0 2. 90
St. Mary' 5 Col, Md. 4. 0 0. 81
St. Clair Co. , Michigan 4. 0 2. 29
Adams Co., Wisconsin 4.0 0.36
Mower Co. , Minn. 4. 0 2. 14
Bannock Co., Idaho 4.0 8.29
Crawford Co. , Ohio 2. 5 1. 21
Lexington-Davison Co. , N. C. 2. 5 2. 52
LaCrosse, Wisconsin 2.5 4.94
Bridgeport, Conn. ** 0. 0 8. 70

r=.05

 

* Expressed as a percent of the total regional blood quota.
** Not included in this part of the study due to lack of response to
inquiry on items pertaining to the Index of Desire for Control.
The above data were plotted on a scattergram to illustrate the re—
lationship. This scattergram appears on Figure l. The distribution of

the plottings suggests the possibility of a slight positive linear relation

between the Index of Desire to Control and the Level of Assigned

27

' A (' ' I ' I I 11
100 .

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

35 ‘

 

30

 

Index of Desire for, Control

25 “

 

20 ' a '

 

15 a . ‘

 

10

 

r
l
1

 

 

l
.‘ 00 .

 

i

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

14345.6 78 91011121314151617

Level of Assigned Responsibility
Figure 1. Scattergram comparing Index of Desire for Control (mean of
squared frequency of response by chapter leaders favoring control of
administrative functions by the Regional Blood Program Committee)
with the Level of Assigned Responsibility (chapter's percent of regional
blood quota).

28

Responsibility. Two of the chapters indicating an unusually high Index

of Desire to Control were found to be in the same regional program.

This is the Wichita Regional Blood Program. The two participating
chapters are also a part of an experimental design for service to chapters
with its headquarters in Wichita. There may be an unusually strong
desire to be independent of the control from Wichita.

On the basis of the relationship suggested by the scattergram, the
data were tested statistically by application of the Pearson product-
moment correlation coefficient.1 Computation of the standard formula
for ”r" resulted in r equals . 05. This computation indicates practically
no statistical relationship between a chapter's assigned responsibility

and its desire to control the regional blood program.

Commuting Time and the Desire for Control

 

Regional programs vary considerably in their size in square miles,
in the number of participating chapters, and in geographic configuration.
In certain parts of the country where p0pulation is especially dense,

there may be several Red Cross chapters in a single county. These

 

17.1%... .il‘iiy
0': 07

 

See: Monroe Calculating Machine Methods General Statistics,

 

Orange, N. J. , Monroe Calculating Machine Company, Inc. , 1960.

29

factors influence commuting time between the participating chapter and
the blood center to attend meetings. The information in Chapter I sug-
gests the possibility of a relationship between commuting time and
desire for control. The 50 chapters comprising the sample possess a
commuting time ranging from one half hour to 7 hours each direction.
The mean commuting time is 2. 03 and the standard deviation is 1.29.
The one-way commuting time required of a participant to attend the
regional blood program meetings and the Index of Desire for Control
for each of the 50 chapters included in the study are recorded in
Table 2.
Table 2.
List of chapters included in this study ranked according to the

Index of Desire for Control with each chapter's corresponding one-way
commuting time.

 

 

Index of One-way
Name of Chapter Desire for Commuting

Control Time
Garfield Co. , Kansas 100. 0 2. 5
Arkansas City, Kansas 65. 0 l . 5
Hopewell, Virginia 61 . 3 2 . 0
Long Beach, California 59. 7 0. 75
Klamath Basin, Oregon 38. 0 6. 0
Macon Co. , Illinois 36. 5 1. 75
Clinton Co. , Iowa 33 . 8 2. 5
North Central Kansas 33. 7 2 . 0
Marion Co., Oregon 33.0 0.75
Dubois, Penn. 28. 3 2 . 5
Gaston Co., N.C. 27.0 0.5
Worchester, Mass. 25.0 0.75
Che ster-Wallingford Penn. 25 . 0 1. 0

30

Table 2 (continued)

 

 

Index of One-way
Name of Chapter Desire for Commuting
Control Time
Summit Co. , Ohio 25.0 . 5
Carbon Co. , Utah 25. 0
Newport News, Virginia 22.5 . 5
Tompkins Co. , N. Y. 22. 5 5
Stearns Co. , Minn. 22.5 . 5
Pottawattamie Co. , Iowa 21. 7
Sunbury, Penn. 21.7 .
Greensboro, N. C. 20. 5 .
Johnson City-Washington Co. , N. C. 19. 0 .
Allen Co. , Ohio 18. 0
Washington Co. , Miss. 16. 0
Cleveland Co. , N. C. 14. 7 . 5
Genesee Co., Michigan 13.7 . 5
Sheboygan Co. , Wisconsin 13. 0 .
Berkshire Co. , Mass. 13. 0 .
Blue Earth Co. , Minn. 12.5 . 5
Anaheim, California 10. 7 5
Cole Co. , Missouri 10. 0
South Orange Co. , California 10. 0

New Britain, Conn.

Madison Co. , Alabama
Attleboro, Mass.

Concord, N.H.

Macomb Co. , Michigan
Utica, N. Y.

Albemarle Co. , Virginia
Kanawha-Clay, West Virginia
San Saba Co. , Texas

Greater Brockton, Mass.

St. Mary's Co. , Maryland

St. Clair Co. , Michigan
Adams Co. , Wisconsin
Mower Co. , Minn.

Bannock Co. , Idaho

Crawford Co. , Ohio
Lexington-Davison Co. , N. C.
LaCrosse, Wisconsin

r = .005

O

y..-
NNNrArhi-khhthrhrhv-PQWOOOOOO
WUTU'IOOOOOOOOOOU'IOOO

...........
U'IUT U1 U1U1

what-'4:NNNHONHNHOOHNOHrAOHAwh-HxlNNNNONt—IOWN
. .. O... O. . . 0
UlU'IU'IUTOOOxlslU'INU'IOxlNOOU‘IOONNOONNOU‘IOU'IOU‘INN-QON

 

31

100 ' + ' 4.
65 f

60;

 

 

 

55

 

50

 

45

 

40

 

35 ‘

 

30

 

 

 

25

 

 

 

Index for Desire for Control

 

 

 

 

 

15
. I
‘
10 .. ~
‘ * 1|
5

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

t 0 Q
o . i. f
4‘ - . »
0.0 0.51.0 1.52.0 2.53.0 3.54.04.5 5.0 5.5 6.06.57.07.5
One-Way Commuting Time

 

 

Figure 2. Scattergram comparing Index of Desire for Control (mean
of squared frequency of response by chapter leaders favoring control
of administrative functions by the Regional Blood Program Committee)
with the one-way commuting time from the participating chapter to the
blood center.

0'.

[‘1‘

A.

d.’

'5.

0--.-

i.

32

The above data were plotted on a scattergram to illustrate the
relationship between these two variables. This scattergram appears
in Figure 2. The distribution of the plotting suggests the possibility
that there is no relationship. Computation of the standard formula
for ”r” resulted in r = . 005. A Pearson product—nioment coefficient of
correlation was computed after eliminating the five most deviant re-
sponses. This resulted in r = .098. This “r", while somewhat strong-
er, also fails to support the hypothesis. Hypothesis two cannot be

supported on the basis of the data available for this study.

Index of Productivity and Index of Perceived Control

 

The concepts used in these two variables have previously been
defined. The relationship of productivity to perceived control is shown
in Table 3.

Table 3
List of chapters included in the study ranked according to the

Index of Perceived Control with each chapter's corresponding Index
of Productivity.

 

 

Index of Index of
Name of Chapter Perceived Productivity

Control (times 10)
Hopewell, Virginia 7. 3 l3. l6
Bridgeport, Conn. 7. 0 6. 62
Clinton Co. , Iowa 6. 0 10.10
Carbon Co., Utah 6.0 6.20
Utica, N.Y. 5.5 10.30
Gaston Co., N.C. 5.0 9.87
Washington Co. , Miss . 5. 0 6. 80

33

Table 3 (continued)

 

 

Index of Index of
Name of Chapter Perceived Productivity

Control (times 10)
Arkansas City, Kansas 4. 5 13. 79
Newport News, Virginia 4. 0 13. 02
Kanawha-Clay, West Virginia 4. 0 11. 24
Concord, N.H. 4.0 7.76
Pottawattamie Co. , Iowa 4. 0 5. 3
Anaheim, California 3. 7 12. 43
Blue Earth Co. , Minn. 3. 5 12. 81
Chester-Wallingford, Penn. 3. 5 10. 69
Macon Co . , Illinois 3. 5 9. 1 1
Attleboro, Mass. 3. 5 7. 5
Long Beach, California 3. 3 10. 59
Berkshire, Mass. 3.0 10.76
South Orange Co. , California 3. 0 9. 71
Marion Co. , Oregon 3. 0 8.12
Sunbury, Penn. 2. 7 9. 76
Genesee Co. , Michigan 2. 7 8. 97
Johnson City-Washington Co. , N. C. 2. 7 8. 39
Worchester, Mass. 2.5 13.85
North Central Kansas 2. 5 10. 48
LaCrosse, Wisconsin 2. 5 9. 8
New Britain, Conn. 2. 5 8. 58
Stearns Co. , Minn. 2. 5 7. 0
Macomb Co. , Michigan 2. 3 11. 06
Cole Co. , Missouri 2. 3 9. 47
Bannock Co., Idaho 2.0 13.91
Mower Co., Minn. 2.0 11.09
St. Mary's Co. , Maryland 2. 0 10. 53
Tompkins Co., N.Y. 2.0 10.15
San Saba Co. , Texas 2. 0 9. 74
Sheboygan Co. , Wisconsin 2. 0 9. 71
Greensboro, N.C. 2.0 9.63
Ablemarle Co. , Virginia 2. 0 9. 68
Summit Co. , Ohio 2. 0 9. 26
Lexington-Davison Co. , N. C. 2. 0 8. 5
St. Clair Co. , Michigan 2. 0 8. 41
Greater Brockton, Mass . 2. 0 5. 96
Allen Co., Ohio 1.7 12.38

3k

34

Table 3 (co ntinued)

 

 

Index of Index of
Name of Chapter Perceived Productivity

Control (times 10)
Cleveland Co., N.C. 1.7 10.9
Crawford Co. , Ohio 1. 5 11. 73
Klamath Basin, Oregon 1.0 11.51
Adams Co . , Wisconsin 1 . 0 9'. 75
Garfield Co. , Kansas 1. 0 7. 01
Madison Co. , Alabama 0. 0 13. 85
Dubois, Penn. 0.0 9.76

r = -.26

 

* Not included in this part of the study due to lack of response.

The section of the questionnaire from which the data on perceived
control were gathered was answered by respondents in 49 chapters. The
Index of Perceived Control, as shown above, ranges from 1.0 to 7. 3.
This index has a mean of 3.05 and a standard deviation of 1. 47.

The Index of Productivity was multiplied by 10 to emphasize the
differences between chapters when compared with their own region.

An index of 10. 0 shows that the chapter did as well as the region as a
whole. Indices less than 10 indicate sub- standard performance within
the region. In contrast indices greater than 10 indicate above average
performance. The Index of Productivity ranges from 5. 3 to 13. 91.
The mean is 10.05 and the standard deviation is 2. 3. The scattergram
in Figure 3 illustrates the relationship between these variables.

An examination of the scattergram fails to suggest a positive relationship

35

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

7.0 r l i r i: r i
.1 —n—-
6.5
1
6.0 g n
5.5 A A
5'0 L l
‘ T
1-4
8405* A
*4 _._
Q
8
"d 4-0 A e e I
o
.3
8 3 5 ‘
a: ‘ . = r r
(1:
H5 3.0 ; 11
5 u
“S -1 ..
H 205‘“ .5 J 3 l A.
' I
4_2._0 A.” .51 l
1.5 ‘, '
1'0 g e e 4 4
0,5 .
1
‘0.0 l t

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

o 24 6 8101214161820‘

Index of Productivity
Figure 3. Scattergram comparing Index of Perceived Control (mean
of frequency of response by chapter leaders perceiving control of
administrative functions by the Regional Blood Program Committee)
with the Index of Productivity (degree of attainment of blood quota by
the chapter in relation to the regional degree of attainment).

36

between the Index of Perceived Control and the Index of Productivity.
In order to verify the findings from the scattergram, a Pearson
product-moment coefficient of correlation was computed. This com-
putation resulted in r = -.26. This negative correlation refutes
hypothesis 3 which states,

"The more control a chapter attributes to the reginnal

blood program committee, the greater is that chapter's
productivity. "

CHAPTER IV
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The data showed that there is no significant statistical relation-
ship (r = . 05) between a chapter's assigned responsibility for recruit-
ment of blood donors and the desire on the part of that chapter's blood
program leaders to have the Regional Blood Program Committee con-
trol the program. The data for this study fail to support Likert's
report of a relationship between the level of member influence (control)
and the level of member activity. 1 It is suggested that perhaps "desire
for control" as used in this study and "influence” as used by Likert have
little in common.

The data failed to support the hypothesis of a relationship between
commuting time to meetings where decisions affecting the blood program
are made and the desire to have the Regional Blood Program Committee
control the program. It was not possible from the available data to
determine the actual effect of commuting distance on participation in

decision making about the blood program. Scaff asserted a relationship

 

lRensis Likert, New Patterns of Management, New York: McGraw-
Hill Book Co., Inc., 1961, p. 148.

 

37

38

between participation (attendance at meetings) and commuting distance. 2

Since the actual attendance at meetings is not known, Scaff's findings
cannot be supported or refuted by the data available for this study.

The available data indicate a weak negative relationship (r = -. 26)
between the amount of control which a chapter attributes to the
Regional Blood Program Committee and that chapter's productivity.
This negative correlation suggests that effective donor recruitment is

not actually a function of the Regional Blood Program Committee.

Conclusions

 

The study suggests that the leadership in participating chapters
expect the volunteer leaders of the blood program to exercise more
control than is usually accorded to the volunteer leadership under a
bureaucratic structure. The intensity of the desire for a change in the
locus of control is reflected by a mean Desire for Control of 19. 86.
Concurrance with the assigned locus of functional responsibility would
yield a mean of 4. 0. The product of this disparity is likely to be an
undesirable level of intra-organizational tension. Achievement of a
closer approximation between assigned responsibility and the expressed

Desire for Control would seem to be desirable. Some redistribution of

 

2Alvin H. Scaff, ”The Effect of Commuting on Participation in

Community Organization", American Sociological Review, 17, (April,
1952), p. 215.

 

39

functional responsibility seems indicated. It is not the purpose of this
study to indicate the nature, degree, or direction of such redistribution.
It has been shown that there is no significant relationship between
the desire to have administrative control in the hands of the Regional
Blood Program Committee and the level of responsibility which a chap-
ter has toward the total blood goal of the region. It has also been shown
that the attainment (perceived) of greater administrative control does
not assure Operational success in terms of productivity. Some chapters
may be satisfied failures. Indeed, the data shows a negative tendency
(r = -. 26) which indicates that perceived administrative control may
even result in a lessening of production effort. This finding appears
to be inconsistent with Likert's outcome from his study of a different
type of voluntary organization where he reported a relationship between
level of member influence (control) and level of member activity. 3
There may be a type of activity not related to productivity. In this
case the activity under study was blood donor recruitment by means of
a comparison of productivity with perceived administrative control.
This control was that ascribed to the role of a member of the Regional
Blood Program Committee by the administrative leaders of the produc-

ing units. Perhaps the problem arises in the linkage between that

 

3Likert, op. Cit.,. p. 148.

40

leadership and the line operation whose members may be unaware of
the degree of influence ascribed to or actually held by the members
of the Regional Blood Program Committee in their particular blood
program. This study did not examine this linkage in the local parti-
cipating chapters.

The sample in this study was skewed in favor of one-way com-
muting times of two hours or less. Out of the universe of .50, a total
of 34 were in the category of two hours or less. The 16 in the sample
having a one-way commuting time greater than two hours had to spend
an average of six hours and 45 minutes on the round trip from their
home city to the committee meeting and back home again. Neverthe-
less, the average score of this group on the Index of Desire for Con-
trol was only22. 03 compared to an overall mean of 19. 86 with a
standard deviation of 18. 65. It must be concluded that commuting dis-
tance by itself does not have any significant relationship to desire for
control. A larger and less skewed sample along with the actual
records of participation at meetings and the nature of the meetings
would provide more adequate data for assessing the differential effects
from various commuting times. It might be conjectured that other
factors such as the nature of the meeting (purpose, content, etc.) would

be found to effectively negate the deterrent effects which Scaff leads

41

one to anticipate as commuting distance increases. 4 One may find
that the commuting time barrier moves according to the priority the
potential participant accords the activity which he is supposed to
attend. The intensity of dedication to a cause, as in the case of many
religious persons, may overcome the normal reluctance to spend much
time behind the wheel of a car. The blood program is known to have
an extremely strong appeal to many volunteers.

Sociologists and others interested in voluntary organizations may
wonder why the Blood Program of the American Red Cross failed to
provide data which would support hypotheses drawn from the literature.
Much of this theoretical basis was drawn from previous studies of
voluntary organizations, but, for some reason, the theories from the
sources used did not subsume the blood program on any of the three
hypotheses. The serious student will want to differentiate between
those voluntary organizations whose goals are considered very import-
ant and those whose goals are more casual. The mixture of paid and
volunteer staff in a bureaucratic organization may be different from
those organizations treated in other studies. These may be the basic

reasons why the hypotheses in this study were not validated by the data.

 

4Alvin H. Scaff, ”The Effect of Commuting on Participation in

Community Organizations", American Sociological Review, 17, (April,
1952), p. 215.

 

42

Implications for Voluntary Organizations

 

The management of a voluntary organization employing both paid
and volunteer staff should be especially careful to realistically define
the roles and role relationships of both staffs. The guide-lines should
be sufficiently specific to avoid the broad range (1. 0 - 7. 3) which
showed up in the Index of Perceived Control.

Evidently a generalized permissiveness was viewed in some parti-
cipating chapters as a license to have most any kind of administrative
structure that they desired. As previously noted, perception and
practice may not coincide. Nevertheless, voluntary organizations must
be aware of factors such as perceived control if there is to be effective
organization.

The Index of Desire for Control reveals a broad dissatisfaction
with the administration of many of the regional blood programs. Many
want the Regional Blood Program to have more control than they now
possess. Just giving the chapters more representation does not seem
to be the answer. As previously discussed pressure for a greater voice
in the control of the program is evident from the mean of 19. 86 which
contrasts sharply with the legitimate mean of 4. 0 for the Index of
Desire for Control. Some method of providing more meaningful involve-
ment for the participating units is indicated.

Since there was no relationship between perceived control of the

administrative functions and productivity, the organization must either

43

establish a strong linkage between the administrative unit and the
production unit or use completely different channels to insure adequate
production.

An organization with a very worthwhile goal can be somewhat
reassured that the factor of distance of itself does not interfere with
the feelings of the participants toward the way the program is admin-
istered. The management of a voluntary organization would do well
to evaluate the reason for region-wide meetings and the adequacy of
the announcements and timing of the meetings. The commuting factor,
when the stakes are high and the purpose of the meeting clear to the
volunteer, appears to have little bearing on attendance. Identification
with a goal like meeting the need for blood is not diluted by the relative
difficulty in getting to a meeting where matters important to the
achievement of that goal are discussed. This study indicates no
special advantage to the compact region in regard to the satisfaction of

the participating chapters with the administration of the program.

Limitations of the Study

 

The sample was well designed, but it was not designed to provide
sufficient cases for analysis in depth. There were several reasons for
the sample design which was used. Among the primary reasons were
time limitations, economic limitations, a desire to cover a wide

number of topics, and the desire to have maximum variety of Red Cross

44
positions represented in the study. As a result the sample was
broad but quite shallow. A further limitation to the study was the
fairly poor response to that section of the questionnaire which pertained
to this study. The combination of inadequate sample size and poor
response placed a heavy limitation on the study.

As a result of management decision, clue marks were included
in one section of the questionnaire (see the "m" clues in Appendix A).

It is quite likely that these guides produced some bias in the replies.
In the pre-test in the absence of these clues, there was much more
frequent and extensive deviation from the norms established by the
Administrative Manual. A greater freedom of response in this
section would have been valuable to the study.

It now seems that measurement of Desire for Control should be
made directly in reference to the individual chapters rather than
indirectly through their representatives on the Regional Blood Program
Committee. This representative becomes part of another group, and,
as such, he may or may not share his chapter's viewPoint about control
of the program. Representation on the committee does not insure
greater control by a given chapter, because one person only has one vote.

Lack of positive findings may be due to lack of a relationship
between the variables tested; or it may be due to imprecise definitions
of the variables, the poor reSponse, or to a combination of two or all
of these factors. Further refinement of the data are needed to provide

more conclusive evidence.

45
Further research should take these limitations into account. An
effort should be made to produce a larger sample with questions going
to greater depth. The instrument of choice should not contain an
inhibiting or limiting factor, such as the clue marks indicating the
official position. The inclusion of these design changes should make
possible the further extension of knowledge about voluntary organizations

like the Red Cross Blood Program.

APPENDIX A

QU ES TIO NNAIRE

46

LISTED BELOW ARE A SERIES OF STATEMENTS REGARDING
BLOOD PROGRAM FUNCTIONS WHICH ARE THE PRIMARY
RESPONSIBILITY OF ONE OR MORE OF THE GROUPS IDENTIFIED
IN THE HEADINGS. AN "m" HAS BEEN PLACED IN THE BOX
DEFINED IN THE ADMINISTRATIVE MANUAL AS THE POINT OF
PRIMARY RESPONSIBILITY. THIS MAY VARY SIGNIFICANTLY

APPENDIX A

FROM CURRENT LOCAL PRACTICE.

Place an ”X" where you see the focus of
primary responsibility for each listed
function as it now exists.

Place an ”0" where you believe the pri-
mary responsibility should rest for each
listed function. It is possible for these
marks (m-X-O) to be in any one box or
disPersed in several boxes.

(3)

(b)

(C)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

Functions

Establish policies regarding collection
and distribution of whole blood ---------

 

 

 

 

Establish policies regarding distribution
of blood derivatives obtained through
fractionation -------------------------

 

Establish medical-technical standards
and procedures for the operation of
Regional Blood Programs -------------

0

 

Establish professional qualifications of
key blood center personnel ------------

 

Have final approval authority over the
operating budget for the Regional
Blood Program ----------------------

 

Have authority for determining whether
chapter meets criteria for entry into
blood program -----------------------

 

Have authority to remove chapter from
Regional Blood Program ..............

 

47

 

 

 

 

 

 

. -2. - .a -_ I
.
u
..- i. ,
. -a- o .. .-.. ev
_ .-. I _ ..

 

(h)

(i)

(j)

(k)

(1)

(n0)

(n)

Have authority to determine whether or not
medical-technical standards are being met-

 

 

Establish collection quotas for each par-
ticipating chapter---—-——-——__.._- .........

 

Take remedial measures when blood quotas
and/or pro-rate payments are not met -----

(1) (2) (3) (4) (51
m
m
m

 

Establish salary schedules for center
staff ...................................

 

Appoint and discharge blood center staff---

 

Prepare an estimated budget for the opera-
tion of the Regional Blood Program for
fund campaign purposes ------------------

 

Prepare and submit the operating budget
for the Regional Blood Program ---------- .1

 

 

 

 

 

 

48

 

APPENDIX B

LETTER OF INQUIRY

49

APPENDIX B

The American National Red Cross
Midwestern Area

February 24, 1966

Dear Blood Program Administrator:

I need your help in order to complete my work on a thesis which

is based in part on data from the 1964 study of the Red Cross Blood
Program. Bob Shea approved the project and my use of the data.

Your prompt provision of the data requested below will enable me

to get my M. A. degree in sociology this summer. A stamped, addressed
envelope is enclosed for your use.

Concerning the Regional Blood Program as a whole:

(1) Blood goal 1963-64 fiscal year? units
(2) Bloods collected during same period? units

Concerning the listed participating chapter(s) during same period:
*Commuting Time
Blood Center to
' Blood QuOta Blood Collected PartiCipatinggChapter

Chapter

 

 

 

Chapter

 

 

 

Chapter

 

 

 

Chapter

 

 

 

. *Average time to nearest quarter hour to travel from
blood center to headquarters of the listed chapter.

Thanks for your help.
Sincerely,
Frederick A. Brodt

Assistant Regional Manager
Midwestern Area

50

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52

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY IB

L RARIES
3

 

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