THREE FILMS FOR TEACHING
TELEVISION PRODUCTION

Thesis {or ”he Degree of 'M. A.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

William L. Biroecker
196-0

  

LIBRARY

Michigan State
University

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THREE FILMS FOR TEACHING

TELEVISION PRODUCTION

By

William L. Broecker

AN ABSTRACT

Submitted to the College of Communication Arts of Michigan
State University in partial fulfillment
of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Radio, Television and Film

1960

I
Approved—Rwan—

2
William L. Broecker

ABSTRACT

This study undertook the production of three motion pictures
to be used as aids in teaching selected aspects of television produc-
tion techniques to students in the Television, Radio and Film Department
at Michigan State University. This thesis describes the creative pro-
cedures employed in the production of the films.

The subjects of the films are, respectively:

The Television Switching Panel
Continuity in Cutting
PotentialifieSfloffMdvement:

The study arose from a need to relieve teaching problems caused
by increasing enrollments and by growing demands upon the facilities of
the University's television station,WSMB, whose studios are used for
laboratory sessions of the television production courses. A discussion
of these problems constitutes Chapter I.

Chapter II reports the method by which subject matter for the
films was selected. The definition of the physical nature of the films
as 16mm black-and-white presentations of about fifteen minutes' length
and the creation of scenarios and shooting scripts are described in
Chapter III.

Chapter IV indicates that in order to facilitate the organiza-
tion and execution of the shooting stage of production, the films were
considered to represent parts of a single, longer motion.picture. The
production procedures and the techniques followed in the subsequent

phases of editing and commentary writing are then described.

3
William L. Broecker

The last chapter recommends uses of the films in the curriculum
and makes suggestions for the evaluation of their effectiveness. The
use of the thesis as a guide to the production of similar motion pictures
is also suggested.

An appendix devoted to each film presents the treatments, scenarios,
shooting scripts, editing notes and commentary scripts created in the‘
course of the study. A glossary of motion picture production terms is:
included.

The project films are deposited with the Television, Radio and

Film Department at Michigan State University.

THREE FILMS FOR TEACHING

TELEVISION PRODUCTION

By

William L . Broecker

A THESIS

Submitted to the College of Communication Arts of Michigan
State University in partial fulfillment
of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Television, Radio and Film

1960

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am indebted to the many persons who assisted as performers
and crew members in the production of the films: Thomas Banks,
Lawrence Baril, John Dunlevy, Donald Dumbrowsky, Jack Hogan, Kay Ingram,
Lawrence Lindberg, Richard Reynolds, James Rice, Robert Rowland, Herman
Rudolph, Helen Shaw, Robert Smith, Janice Somers, Gaye Vela, James Vor-
melker; and, especially, to my wife, Louise.

Patrick Callihan, television station WMSB, and Capital Films,
East Lansing, were particularly generous in offering their services.

There is no way to express my gratitude to Dr. Colby Lewis

for his stimulation, encouragement and guidance.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter
I. THE NATURE OF THE STUDY . . ..
II. THE CONTENT OF THE FILMS. . . . . .
III. THE FORM OF THE FILMS . . . . . . .
IV. THE PRODUCTION OF THE FILMS . . . .

V. THE USES OF THE FILMS . . . . . . .
APPENDIX A; The Television SwitchigggPanel.
APPENDIX B: Continuity in Cutting . . . . .
APPENDIX C: Potentialigies of Movement. . .
APPENDIX D: Glossary of Motion Picture Production

 

 

 

 

 

0

Terms

B IBLIWRAPHY C O O O O I O O P C O O O O O O O O O O O 0

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INTRODUCTION

This thesis project is composed of two related parts.

One part, the core of the project, has consisted in the pro-
duction of three motion pictures for teaching selected aspects of
television production techniques to students of the Television, Radio
and Film.Department at Michigan State University. The subjects of
these films are respectively:

Thefgglevigion Switching:Panel

Continuity in Cutting

Potentialities of Movement.
The negatives and prints of these films are deposited with the depart-
ment. ‘

The other part of the project, represented by this text, des-
cribes the procedures employed in producing these films and presents
recommendations for their use.

This report assumes that the reader is familiar with the term-
inology of television production. It is recognized, on the other hand,
that the reader may not have an equal familiarity with the terminology
of motion picture production. Accordingly, a glossary of motion pic-
ture terms used in this report has been provided.

The text has been organized into the following chapters:

Chapter I, The Nature of the Study, explains the need for such
a project and indicates the method by which the study was carried out.

Chapter II,‘ghe Content of the Films, outlines the method by

which subject matter for the films was selected.

2

Chapter III, The Form of the Films, reports the method employed
to define the physical nature of the films and describes the creative
process by which a scenario and shooting script for each film were
deve10ped.

Chapter IV, The Production of the Films, indicates what prepara-
tions for production were made, describes the production and editing
processes, and reports the creation of a commentary script to accompany
each film.

Chapter V, The Uses of the Films, presents recommendations for
.employing and evaluating the films in the curriculum.

.Appendixes contain actual treatments, scenarios, shooting scripts,
editing notes and commentary scripts.

. A Glossary provides brief explanations of motion picture produc-
tion terms used in the text.1 Other works containing fuller discussions
of each term are indicated.

A Bibliography lists works which have directly contributed to

the authorls background and preparation for completing this project.

 

piTerms included in the glossary are marked with asterisks
wherevem: they are first used in the text.

CHAPTER I
THE NATURE OF THE STUDY

A major problem in teaching television production is the lack
of sufficient class time in the studio laboratory. The purpose of
laboratory class sessions is to offer to each student direct experience
with studio equipment and operations. Many factors combine to reduce
the maximum amount of experience a student might expect to receive.

Laboratory sessions of the television production courses offered
by Michigan State University meet in the studios of the University's
television station, WMSB. ‘The studios were used by the statiOn for
thirty-eight hours of broadcasting each week during the Spring quarter
of 1959. An additional weekly requirement of thirty hours accommodated
special rehearsals, production of regular and special kinescope program
series, staging and lighting set-up, maintenance of equipment, and spa;
cial tests, demonstrations and workshops. The four television.production
courses were allotted a total of only eighteen hours a week. This figure
contrasts with totals of twenty hours a week allotted in 1957 and twenty-
two hours in 1958.2

While the allotment of studio time has fluctuated during recent
years, enrollment in the television courses has risen. Records of the

Speech Department3 and the Television, Radio and Film Department show

 

2Figures gathered from station records. 1958 shows a temporary
increase reflecting a period when the station suspended broadcast activi-
ties to transfer from channel 60 to channel 10. The allotment was reduced
when the station resumed broadcasting.

3Television courses were taught within the Department of Speech
until 1958.

that enrollment in the beginning television course has increased in

the past three years: fifty-one in 1957; sixty-seven in 1958; seventy-
two in 1959. The other courses have experienced increases of about

the same proportions.

There is no indication that this enrollment trend will reverse
itself. On the other hand, the station anticipates the necessity of
further reducing the class time allotment under pressure of increased
rehearsal and video tape production schedules.4

Thus, over the past three years there has been a decrease in
the amomt (of studio class time per student resulting from cutbacks in
studio time allotments and increases in enrollment.

The lack of studio time also seriously affects the quality of
instruction carried out during a laboratory class. It is necessary to
provide demonstrations of equipment operation and examples of production
techniques during studio sessions. Each demonstration reduces the
amount of time available for student practice.

But of greater concern to instructional quality is the amount
of time and rehearsal required to prepare such demonstrations and illus-
trations. There is no time available for studio rehearsal outside of
classes; time within the classes is at a premium. As a consequence,
the instructor is forced to rely upon a minimum of studio preparation.
He tends to favor those examples which require the least rehearsal.
Vividness and completeness of illustration often suffer as a result.

Because the examples presented to the class must exhibit a high

degree of presentational competence to be effective, studio demonstrations

 

4This probability was reported by the WMSB Production and
Facilities Manager.

are weakened by a shortage of experienced performers and production
crew personnel. Class members cannot adequately participate in the
examples because they lack training. Station personnel are not avail—m
able to the classes on a regular basis. Students from advanced courses
cannot be scheduled easily for the necessary rehearsals and performances
to primary courses. For the advanced courses there are noustudent

crews and performers adequate for the demonstrations required except
with long and detailed rehearsals.

The quality and variety of studio demonstrations and examples
is further impaired because the studios are used for daily broadcasts.
In order to accommodate the many studio activities, station personnel
often set and light various programs well before rehearsal time. The
television courses frequently find themselves meeting in preset studios;
they may utilize existing sets and lights, but may not disturb the
arrangement of either. Under these circumstances it is almost impos-
sible to provide a laboratory illustration that hinges on the relation-
ships between performer, camera and set if the illustration requires a
set different from the one already in place.

In some instances studio arrangements may be disturbed tempor-
arily. However, the time required to strike an existing set, erect,
light and strike the example set, and finally to re-erect the original
set takes more of the class period than is reasonable--the relative
value of the example is so sharply reduced that it is often abandoned
or else is presented in makeshift fashion.

It is evident that the laboratory experience of television

production students is being impaired by factors of decreased studio

time, increased enrollments and difficulties in preparing and present-
ing adequate demonstrations and examples.

There is a need for a means to ease some of the time limita-
tions now imposed on studio class sessions. There is an additional
need for a means to improve the quality of demonstrations and examples
presented in connection with such classes.

One means to these ends consists in the use of motion pictures
as teaching aids. Films have earned a welcome place in classrooms as
a result of the many advantages they offer. There are several advan-
tages of particular value for teaching television production.5

The use of films need not be restricted to the studio; portable
screens and projectors can make a viewing room out of any classroom.

The studio is in effect taken wherever it is convenient for the class
to meet, and the direct photographic realism possible in films assures
a precise representation of the equipment or situation under discussion.

The size of the projected image offers a clear view of the
material to all students. This is in direct contrast to the many studio
situations where only a few students at a time have a clear view of a

demonstration. A notable example is a demonstration of the video

switching panel. The compact nature of control rooms and the small

 

_ 5For the demonstrated teaching effectiveness of films see
Charles F. Hoban, Jr. and-Edward B.,van Ormer, Instructional Film Research
191891950.1Rapid,Mass Learning), A.Report on the Pennsylvania State Col-
lege Project jointly sponsored by the Department of the Army and the De-
partment of the Navy [Port Washington, N. Y.: U.S. Navy Special Devices
Center, 1951]. For the employment of films in the curriculum see Max R.
‘Brunstetter, How To Use the Educational Sound Film (Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, 1937): Andrew Buchanan, The Film in Education (London:
Phoenix House, [1951]); and Charles F. Hoban, Jr.,~Movies that Teach
(New York: Dryden Press, [1946]).

size of the panel make it impossible to offer direct instruction
concerning this panel to a large group.

The fixed arrangement of the content in films assures that
the material covered and the quality of presentation are the same
from class to class. This is particularly important in cases of
large enrollments divided into two or more sections of a course:
films help to standardize the level of instruction.

Locally produced films may be closely supervised by course
teachers so that the films may be tailored to fit specific course
requirements or to fill a special need among all the courses. This
is important to television courses because equipment and practices
vary significantly from station to station. The films must reflect
the necessity for courses to adapt to local facilities and standards.

Short motion pictures may be produced relatively inexpensively.
This is especially true when one considers the cost in time and effort
of developing, rehearsing and presenting demonstrations for each new
class. Further savings result if the use of films shortens the teach-
ing time required to cover the same material. A direct reduction of
expense is achieved when the films are made silent: sound track
recording and editing are eliminated.

Silent films offer an additional advantage--adaptability.

The instructor may prepare a commentary specifically designed for the
level of his class; as changes occur in class makeup he may easily
make accommodating changes in his commentary. Furthermore, with alter-
nate commentaries a film may be adapted for other uses. For instance,
a film on camera operation could be adapted to teach cutting techni-

ques, principles of lighting, acting techniques or other subjects.

This method of adaptation also makes it practical to use a film.more
than once in the same course to accomplish different pedagogical pur-
poses. A film might first be shown to illustrate certain production
principles, later to provide a basis for class analysis and discussion
and a third time as a device for summary and review.

A commentary delivered by the instructor provides, in fact,

a sound film without sound film expense.
Motion pictures offer several advantages which may be grouped
under the heading "flexibility."

There is flexibility in the arrangement of the material within
the film. Editing techniques allow the teacher to experiment with
different arrangements until he devises the one that best suits his
purpose. He may choose also from a wide range of filmed examples and
combine several into a unified whole. The result is a concise presen-
tation with a richness of variety impossible to duplicate in the studio.

Additional flexibility is found in combining directly photo-
graphed material with other material prepared by the kinescope recording
process. This permits the insertion of actual program and rehearsal
examples into a presentation.

If the original material has been photographed at twenty-four
frames-per-second (as would be necessary to facilitate inclusion of
kinescoped material) the instructor may present the film at the same,
"normal" speed, or he may slow it to sixteen frames-per-second to permit

more detailed examination.6

 

6Most 16mm projectors provided for classroom use are equipped
to run at both "sound" (24 frames-per-second) and "silent" (16 frames-
per-second) speeds.

When the length of a film is not great, the instructor has
flexibility in developing the subject matter of the course and insert-
ing the film where it will serve the greatest purpose. A long film
has the disadvantage of imposing its presentational organization upon
a sizable area of course content.

Many of these advantages which might be enjoyed by teachers
of television production courses at Michigan State University are not
found in the films presently available.

All but one of the current films about television production
are at least twenty-five minutes long. Immediately, the flexibility
that a short film offers is lost. The exception referred to is a ten-
minute film designed to explain the technical aspects of television
transmission to the layman.7 This subject is of the nature of back-
ground material for the courses under discussion; it is not directly
pertinent to studio production techniques.

Some presentations have been specifically designed to teach
television production. A series of four kinescope recordings produced
by the Educational Television and Radio Center has been made available
to member television stations. Institutions affiliated with such sta-
tions have access to the presentations; other institutions must apply

to the Center.8

 

7"Television: How It Works," produced by the General Electric
Company, is available from Coronet Instructional Films, Coronet Building,
Chicago 1, Illinois.

8Distribution offices of the Center are at 2320 Washtenaw Avenue,
Ann Arbor, Michigan.

10

These kinescopes all have the relative disadvantages of a
length of twenty-five to thirty minutes. This reduces flexibility,
as previously noted. When coupled with an introduction and.a summary
and discussion, films of such length usually take up all of a fifty~
minute class period. However, there are some instances in which this
employment of class time may be valuable.

As an example, the Center's kinescopes Television Directing,
Parts I and II, treat very basic and necessary subject matter. Part I
discusses common patterns for arranging persons appearing in interview
and discussion programs; Part II illustrates typical camera placements
for televising those arrangements. It is not unreasonable to spend
one or two hours on these aspects of production. On the other hand,
the films exhibit the weakness of separating two interdependent tech-
niques into separate topics of study. A presentation which did not
create such a division might be pedagogically preferable.

A third kinescope in this series is Television Lightfgg.
Although it offers a good demonstration of basic lighting techniques,
its half-hour length is devoted to showing both wrong and right ways
of lighting a very few examples. The time might be used more profit-
ably to illustrate the right ways of handling a greater variety of
situations. The value of the film lies in its presentation of an
extremely complex illustration, one which would require many hours of
setting and rehearsal for direct studio presentation. The fourth kine-
scope, dealing with staging techniques, also has this advantage.

Staging for Television presents a great array--drawn from

several stations-~of sets, scenic pieces and properties. It is an

11
array far greater than it would be practical to assemble for a studio
demonstration. The film limits its audience, however, through emphasis
on matters of set layout and design. Television production students
are primarily concerned to understand first the construction and
handling of sets. Although student directors may be concerned with
set layout, matters of design are not within the direct province of
most production personnel and are not usefully made the central empha-
sis of study.

These seeming deficiencies of the Center's kinescopes result
only from an attempt to use the presentations for undergraduate classes.
It must be remembered that the kinescopes were prepared for use by
the professional or semi-professional staffs of television stations.

There are motion pictures about television production available
from other sources, but most such presentations are tailored to meet
the specific requirements of a commercial producing organization. Typi-
cal of this group are the several presentations produced by CBS Televi-
sion for use in training their network and station personnel. Although
these films and kinescopes may be rented for educational use,9 they
have the instructional disadvantage for television courses of being
designed for a highly complex professional operation, one beyond the
himmediate understanding of most students. The films present many illus-
trations of equipment and standards of operation and practice peculiar
to CBS Television; except in a general way, they do not accurately repre-

sent the environment of the studio laboratory.

 

9From the Production Development Department, CBS Television,
485 Madison Avenue, New York 22, N. Y.

12

The author knows of no nationally distributed films or kine-
scopes prepared for use in university courses. All films and kinescopes
available, from whatever source, share a lack of specific reference to
the course orientation and studio situation most familiar to the student.
The films can well serve to illustrate additional techniques and prac-
tices; they can offer a catalog of current practices throughout the tele-
vision industry; they cannot fit directly and specifically, with maximum
usefulness, into the courses taught at Michigan State University.

The foregoing discussionhas demonstrated the need for a means
to alleviate problems of time limitation on studio class sessions and
for a means to improve the quality of studio laboratory instruction.
Although motion pictures could admirably supply the means to both ends,
there are no films available with sufficient particular reference to the
local situation or with enough flexibility to meet those needs.

The purpose of this thesis is to meet the demonstrated needs by
providing three motion pietures for use in teaching television production
techniques at Michigan State University.

These three films furnish a means to illustrate selected produc-
tion techniques without creating an additional demand for studio time
or facilities. When carefully integrated into the courses, the films
may improve the quality of laboratory instruction by furnishing to the
student a wider range of illustrations and examples of practice than he
would otherwise receive. The films free studio time that may then be
used for further student operation and practice. The films also relieve
the teacher of some of the burden of long and involved preparations for
studio demonstrations-~he is free to concentrate more completely on other

problems of instruction in the course.

13'

The thesis films are in the nature of pilot presentations.

They must be integrated into the courses and their usefulness must be
carefully evaluated. If it is demonstrated that they fulfill their
purpose, the procedures for their production may serve as a guide in
the production of similar films to solve related teaching problems.

The method followed in the production of the films was composed
of three phases.10 The first phase determined the content of the films.
A set of criteria was developed for use in evaluating suggested topics.
The criteria were applied to a group of subject matter suggestions with
the result that three were selected, each to be the topic of a single
film. The general content of each film was expressed in written form--
the treatment.*

The second phase determined the form of the films. The general
physical dimensions were decided first, then a comprehensive outline of
each film.was created to determine the range and organization of the
material and the major visual treatment; this was the scenario.* The
scenario formed the basis for writing a shooting script? which was used
as a guide for the production procedures.

Phase three was the production of the films. This included
photographing the material specified in the shooting scripts, editing
the material into succeeding stages of refinement, writing a suggested
commentary for each film, to be used in its presentation, and reviewing
and adjusting the visual and aural materials until the final presenta-

tions were achieved.

 

10Reports of the three phases make up, respectively, Chapters
II,.III,'and:IV.“

Recommendations for the use of the films are included as a

part of this report.11

 

11Chapter V.

14

15

CHAPTER II
THE CONTENT OF THE FILMS

Although the form and the content of a motion picture are
closely interwoven, a discussion of the creation of an instructional
film must separate them in the interests of presenting a comprehensive
report. The scheme adopted follows the sequence of development of the
project films: the present chapter outlines the method by which the
topic of each film was selected and indicates general subject matter
content; the next chapter includes a discussion of the specific devel-
opment of the content into written forms of the filmic statement of
each topic.

This project was designed to provide films specifically tailored
to the instructional requirements of the television production courses
taught at Michigan State University. Four courses provided a base from
which content was selected: Fundamentals of TV Broadcasting I and II
(TRF 352 and 353, respectively), Television Directing (TRF 433), and
Television Program Deve10pment (TRF 437). The first three courses are
offered to students doing their major work within the Television, Radio
and Film Department, the fourth to students from other areas of study.

The teachers of these courses, Associate Professors Colby Lewis
and Arthur Weld and Assistant Professor Gordon Gray, acted as advisors
on film content and organization. The author consulted with them indi-
vidually and as a group during the project.

The first result of such consultations was a set of criteria

for evaluating suggested film topics. The criteria incorporated

16
considerations of the conditions giving rise to the project, the nature
of the instructional medium to be used, the value of flexibility in
using the films, and the desirability of experimenting on all course
levels. The criteria stated:

1. Subject matter must be selected from material that suffers
in studio instruction from limitations of time, space or
facilities.

2. Subject matter must require direct visual illustration for
its best communication.

3. Each film must be of use to more than one course.

4. The films must not all be directed primarily to the same course.

Suggestions of film topics were drawn from the experiences of
the advisors and the author in teaching the production courses.12 Those
suggestions which did not meet all the criteria were immediately dis-
carded. Topics suggested by only one person were eliminated, even
though they satisfied the criteria, in favor of topics suggested by two
or more persons. Discussions of these latter topics showed that the
multiple suggestions arose from a greater need for instructional aid
in these areas.

The final result of the selection process provided that there
should be three films: one to teach the operation of the video switch-
ing panel, one to illustrate some principles for maintaining pictorial
continuity when cutting between camera shots, and one to discuss some of

the‘dramatic effects to be obtained from camera and performer movement.

 

12The author taught TRF 352 in 1957 and 1958.

17

These topics satisfied the established criteria in the following
ways:

The Television Switching Panel is a subject that presents diffi-
cult instructiOnal problems in the studio. The panel is small and is
located in the compact studio control room--conditions which limit the
group which can be instructed effectively to about six, those who can
crowd around the instructor to see clearly. Under these circumstances
the teacher must repeat the instruction two or three times to encompass
a class of usual size. There is also the problem of providing activity
and supervision for the part of the class not being instructed.

Proper demonstration of panel operation requires that various
picture sources be available to illustrate the video effects. This
means that several cameras and the slide and film projection facilities
must be manned and made available to the class. Such a requirement is
difficult to justify when the needs of other classes and rehearsals
occurring at the same time are considered. Even if the necessary
facilities could be obtained, using them for three repetitions of the
same instruction remains unreasonably wasteful.

When, in an effort to solve this problem, various instructional
devices are considered for use out of the studio, most of them are found
to be unsatisfactory. Mock-ups and other scaled models are too complex
and expensive to be useful. In a size sufficient to be seen easily in
the classroom, their bulk and weight prohibit easy transportation and
storage. Charts, diagrams or still photographs may be used to show the
layout of controls on the panel, but their static character makes them
unsuitable for teaching the sequence of operations used to create various

visual effects.

18

In fact, the major problem in teaching the switching panel
outside the studio is the representation of panel operations and
related visual changes as dynamic occurrences. For instance, the
nature of a dissolve or a fade can no more be illustrated effectively
by blackboard diagrams or still photos than can the physical actions
that create them. The teaching aid used must be capable of recreating
a progressive visual change in time so that the student may experience
and understand the element of duration as a major factor in the change.

It is obvious that motion pictures offer the only medium other
than television capable of providing this element. More than that, a
kinescope recording of a video effect offers the event itself rather
than its simulation.

Direct photography of the panel and its operation provides a
representation that does not suffer from lack of detail or realism.
Furthermore, no student suffers from being in an unfavorable position
for viewing the demonstration--his position is identical with that of
the camera.

With regard to its use in the courses, the primary audience
for this film is the Fundamentals II course (TRF 353) where operation
of the panel is taught. It is. also planned for inclusion in a survey
of studio equipment in the Fundamentals I course (TRF 352) and for use
in the Directing course (TRF 433) as a review device (especially useful
with students returning from a summer's interruption of their training).

Each of the two remaining films was chosen because it would
solve problems of presenting examples and illustrative scenes in the

studio.

19

Continuity in Cutting requires a great variety of examples to
show the principles of maintaining pictorial continuity in editing.

As explained in Chapter I, studios and adequate crews are not avail-
able to the instructor for the amount of time required to create and
prepare several illustrations. Although he may dispense with rehearsal
and try to ad lib the crew through their positions as the example pro-
gresses, he finds that this procedure almost doubles the presentation
time. The time is easily tripled if he draws upon his inexperienced
class to provide a crew. Such a choice also demands a repetition of
the lesson for the benefit of the original crew, who could not attend
to a monitor to view the illustration.

If the class accompanies the instructor to the control room,
their attention is diverted by the directing commands that intersperse
his explanations of the principles being shown. The presence of indivi-
dual camera monitors tends to divert attention from the line monitor
where the effects of cutting are to be observed.

When the instructor attempts to circumvent these difficulties
by placing the direction in other hands so that he may accompany the
class to a separate viewing location, he encounters a new set of prob-
lems: a director must be trained to make the presentation; coordination
of the examples with the progress of the lesson is hampered by the sep-
aration; an intercommunication system between instructor and director
introduces an interruptive and diverting factor; and additional class
meeting space must be found in the station or closed-circuit facilities
must be used to reach an outside classroom. All the problems are

severe .

20

Continuity in Cutting obviously must be taught by direct visual
means. Of the three topics, this is the one which might be presented
most easily outside the studio through the use of still photographs.
However, when this method is employed instruction suffers from the lack
of the dynamic element of instantaneous change. There is no substitute
for seeing a picture suddenly lurch as the result of a cut between mis-
matched screen locations of the subject; no still pictures can give an
audience the impact of the displacement felt when disparate camera
positions are joined by a cut; no still pictures can adequately illus-
trate the principle of timing a cut to coincide with subject movement.

Motion pictures offer an obvious solution to the studio problems
and they provide the necessary dynamic elements for an out-of-studio
presentation of the subject. The time invested in preparing a large
number of examples is justifiable in that, once they are photographed,
the time need not be expended on succeeding classes. Proper editing
of the film gives the instructor a set of illustrations that progress
in the order and at a pace suitable to him, and the order may be changed
in only a few minutes. All of the advantages of presenting the effects
on a single screen, as they are seen by the television viewer, are
retained. During the presentation the instructor may devote himself
to the class; he is not required to supervise the work of others while
he is teaching.

The overall result can only be an improved presentation of
the illustrative material; it is reasonable to assume that the quality

of instruction will improve as a consequence.

21

Continuity in Cutting is for use in the directing course and

 

in the course for non-majors (TRF 437). It is also designed for use
in TRF 352 (the beginning course) to illustrate good and poor camera-
work and picture composition.

The title of the third film offers ample testimony to the need
for motion pictures if the subject is to be taught outside the studio:

Potentialities of Movement cannot be demonstrated by static pictures

 

or diagrams.

In-studio instruction in this t0pic faces many of the same prob-
lems discussed in connention with the film on cutting: preparation
time of examples is too great; camerawork required is beyond class
capabilities; instructor-as-director creates a division in class atten-
tion; and other directors present coordination and communication prob-
lems. The need for a large number of examples and illustrations of cut-
ting is here replaced by the need for two or three more complex scenes.
The performers must carry out well-rehearsed, carefully controlled
movements. At the same time the camera crew must demonstrate a high
level of skill in complementing the acting movement. Although crews
might be drawn from the class, the coaching necessary to provide clear
illustration of the points under consideration would consume too much
time.

A film presentation of this material can retain all the dynamic
qualities of movement. The staff of the television stationpcan be
used to provide prpfessional camerawork. And, kinesc0pe recordings of

relevant examples from actual programs can be included easily.

22

Students in the directing course are the major audience for
Potentialities of Movement. It may be used in TRF 437 to acquaint
non-majors with this material. A secondary purpose of the film is to
demonstrate advanced camera techniques to TRF 353, the second funda-
mentals course.

In the above ways the films satisfy the first three criteria.
As a group they satisfy the fourth criterion that they must not all be
directed to the same course level thus: The Television Switching Panel
is for TRF 353, Contingity in Cutting is equally usable in TRF 433 and
352, and Potentialities of Movement is intended for TRF 433. All of
the films are suitable for use in TRF 437.

Of course it was not possible to discuss and select the film
topics without considering their individual subject matter ranges.
Various guidelines for the development of the films' content evolved
in the course of consultations with the instructors.

The TelevigionySwitching Panel was conceived as a film for
teaching skills, in which the student is first familiarized with the
equipment, then instructed in its operation. Accordingly, the content
was chosen to cover three areas: (1) layout and nomenclature of the
panel; (2) purpose of the controls; (3) operation of the controls and
the effects created: "take" (cut), fade out, fade in, dissolve and
superimposure.

As a general topic Continuity in Cutting brought to mind several
principles worthy of treatment. In the interests of brevity, clarity
and directness, the content was limited to four fundamental considera-

tions: (1) location of the center of interest within the frame;

23

(2O orientation of the audience to the overall scene; (3) shot sequences
to preserve orientation; (4) location of cameras around the scene.

Potentialities of Movement embraced the least tangible subject
matter; its purpose was that of illustrating some advantages of movement
as a presentational technique. It was agreed that the student tends to
conceive of television as a series of individual camera views joined
by cuts, fades or dissolves. Therefore, a presentation of a different
conception was welcomed. The film content was charged with three aims:
(1) to show movement used to complement dramatic mood and plot develop-
ment; (2) to show movement used to heighten an audience feeling of parti-
cipation in the scene; (3) to illustrate these principles of using move-
ment: simplicity, dynamic line, selectivity, motivation, and variety.

The outlines which incorporated these requirements were the
first written expressions of the films, the treatments. Each treatment
indicates the general divisions of the content and suggests some visual
techniques. The treatments served as the starting point for the develop-

ment of subsequent scripts.13

 

13Copies of the treatments may be examined in the appendixes.
In professional work, a treatment is a comprehensive prose narrative
which details the content, development and scenic presentation of a
film. The project treatments are less comprehensive than this; the
term has been borrowed and applied to the nearest equivalent form of
the project films.

24

CHAPTER III
THE FORM OF THE FILMS

At this stage in the project, script writing could proceed only
when questions of physical form had been answered. For instance, should
the films be silent or sound? 8-, 16-, or 35mm? Black-and-white or
color? Direct photography, kinescope recording, animation or some
combination of these? The physical dimensions had been considered in
a general way; now they had to be definitely established. The dimensions
chosen and the factors which influenced the choices are reported below.

Following that, the development of the scripts is described.

Physical Form

The major factors which determined the physical nature of the
films were compatability with existing equipment, flexibility of use,
and cost.

In the matter of film size, it was essential that the pictures
be compatible with the equipment available for projection in the class-
rooms and over closedecircuit television systems. All such equipment
at Michigan State University uses 16mm.film. It was also necessary
that directly photographed scenes be compatible with kinescope recorded
scenes; 16mm was satisfactory for this. Finally, 16mm cameras and
editing equipment were readily available for the project.

Camera speed was determined by the plan to incorporate kine-
scope excerpts in the films. The recorder operates at twenty-four

frames-per-second; all other material would have to be photographed at

25
this speed so that upon projection all movement would proceed at the
same rate.

The need for flexibility in using the films influenced decisions
regarding length, processing and sound. As noted previously,14 a long
film tends to impose its organizational scheme upon a lesson. The pro-
ject films are intended to be teaching aids that subordinate themselves
to the instructor's organization of the lesson. Therefore, a relatively
short length was called for. Discussions with the instructors estab-
lished that a running time of approximately fifteen minutes would be
reasonable for each film. The usual class session is fifty or one-
hundred minutes (a double period) long. A fifteen minute film would
allow adequate time for introduction of a film and for subsequent class
discussion. The final length could not be specified exactly, of course,
for that would be a result of the final editing. However, the recom-
mended length provided a valuable guide for script writing.

A concern with flexibility also determined whether the films
would be photographed on stock which gave a negative or a positive image
when developed. A positive image process provides only one copy of each
film; editing must be carried out on the original footage and there is
.no replacement if the film is damaged.15 Although photography on nega-

tive film stock incurs the expense of positive prints, the flexibility

 

14Chapter I, p. 9.

15From the original positive, a duplicating negative can be made
from which additional prints may be obtained. However, some picture
quality is lost by this process for resulting prints are two generations
removed from the original, and film expense is at least doubled over an
original-negative process. See in the Glossary: dupe, negepos, direct
positive, and reversal. .

26
gained is far more important: experimental editing carried out on
workprints* will not damage the original footage; sufficient prints
can be made for two or more classes to use the same film simultane-
ously; additional prints can be made whenever necessary (e.g., to
replace old, worn copies); and alternatively edited prints for experi-
'mental or other teaching purposes can be made without affecting the
master copy of the original film. These advantages combined to make
negative film stock the most desirable choice.

Cost and flexibility were equally determining factors in the
matter of sound. The simplicity and directness of the films are increased
.by limiting the sound portion to an explanatory narration. Adding this
or any sort of sound to the films permanently would increase their cost
by about two-thirds, a wasted expense when it is remembered that each
film is intended for more than one audience: no single sound track
could provide two levels of instruction with maximum effectiveness in
either. As anticipated, the solution decided upon was to make silent
films and to write a suggested commentary for each of them. The in-
structor can deliver the commentary when he shows the film; he has the
advantage of being able to pace his delivery to class reaction and of
being able to adapt the narration to individual class requirements. Of
course, permanent sound tracks may be added later by various recording*
methods, if desired.

Whether the films should be black-and-white or color was decided
by content, production and cost considerations: none of the subject
matter depended upon color for effective presentation; kinescope recorded

scenes could be only black-and-white; problems of sets, costumes, light-

27
ing and makeup would be increased drastically and production time
nearly doubled if color photography were undertaken; color editing
problems would be complex and the inclusion of optical effects* would
be extremely difficult; finally, the cost of color negative stock and
processing would be at least one-and-a-half times that of black-and-
white, and positive prints would be correspondingly as high. ’Clearly,
black-and-white was the only choice.

The question of whether the films might contain animated
sequences was left open at this time although it was recognized that
the subject matter did not seem to require animation,* that facilities
for complex animation were not readily available, and the the cost in
time and money could be great.

In sum, the physical dimensions of the project films were set
at: three black-andewhite, 16mm silent motion pictures of about fifteen
minutes' length, to be photographed and kinescoped on negative film at
twenty-four frames-per-second with animated sequences if necessary.

Once these limiter were established, script writing could

proceed.

Script Development
Three script forms were created for each film: (1) a scenario*
to show the scene-by-scene relation between a comprehensive visual pre-
sentation of the topic and suggested narration; (2) a shooting script*
to provide, in sequence, complete and exact descriptions of every camera
shot required; (3) a narration or commentary script to assist the instruc-
tor in presenting the film. The creation of scenarios and shooting scripts

.is described below. Commentary writing is reported in Chapter IV after a

28
discussion of editing--the process to which it was directly related.
(Copies of these three script forms have been placed, together with
copies of the treatments and editing notes, in the appendixes so that
the progressive development of each film may be studied easilyl)

The creative problems encountered in scenario writing reflected
the diversity of the subject matter. The Television Switching Panel
deals with a demonstrable physical task, a skill; the other two films
deal with principles of presentation, but they differ in this. Contin-
uity in Cutting has reference to presentational principles which can be
shown directly--good and poor shot relationships can be created in the
editing and then experienced firsthand by the audience. Potentialities
of Movement treats a far less tangible subject: the interpretation of
a scene by the director and the expression of that interpretation in the
camera treatment. The word "potentialities" indicates the film's sub-
jective qualities. These differences in content inevitably led to
motion pictures quite different in style, within the limitations estab-
lished.

Although there was no rigid pattern to the creative process
of scenario writing, certain steps were common to all the films. The
steps began with organization of the content. The treatment had sug:
gested major divisions of subject matter; discussions with the advisors
and the author's creative consideration of each topic provided many
ideas for amplifying the content. The first step was the selection and
arrangement of the best of these ideas into a sequence that provided
clear subject development and that could be expressed in visual terms.

As this sequence was evolved, so was a style of filmic expression--a

29
visual manner and technique by which the content could be made explicit;
this was the second step. Third, the content sequence and visual style
were incorporated into a series of specific scenes which by their settings
and action gave particular expression to each subject matter point. And
last, the filmic style was further defined by the arrangement of the
scenes to indicate the editing scheme which would give all sections--
and the film as a whole--pace and rhythm in their development.

These steps were not necessarily taken in the sequence listed
above; creative ideas of treatment and technique arose without regard
for a formal pattern. As a rebult, the steps overlapped and interacted
so that none was done with until the scenario as a whole was completed.
In each case the scenario gave difinitive form to the filmic expression
of the content and in all three cases the writing required a constant
anticipation of production and editing problems and procedures. Ideas
were evaluated not only in terms of how well they conveyed the subject
matter, but whether they were technically feasible as well. .In addition,
the worth of a visual image could be estimated only in terms of those
which would precede and follow it.

The Televigion Switchinnganel required a step-by-step exposi-
tion of the panel's organization and operation. The scenario provides
this by presenting the material in five sections: (1) a brief introduc-
tion (scenes 1-4); (2) basic nomenclature and relation of switches to
cameras (scenes 5—11); (3) operation of the 13 2 bus (scenes 12-32); (4)
operation of the Effects bus (scenes 33-70); (5) summary and review

(scenes 71-86).16

 

16Throughout, scene numbers refer to the appropriate scenario,
shot numbers to the shooting script; see the appendixes.

30

The introduction provokes interest by presenting an unidenti-
fied scene and using it to illustrate the range of effects with which
the film deals: cut, fades and dissolve. (Superimposures will be
treated as a partially completed dissolve.) Thus the "teaser" opening
serves an instructional purpose. Narration is used to present the
general topic: changing between shots;: the title specifies the exact
subject. (The fact that the instructor's preliminary remarks and the
general progress of the course probably have identified the film topic
before the showing does not obviate the need for a formal statement of
subject within the film.)

Physical layout and basic nomenclature are kept to bare essen-
tials in the first major section. The panel as a whole is considered,
its major parts are named and the relationship of the pushbutton switches
to external equipment is established. However, in keeping with the over-
all presentational scheme of moving from general to particular, no attempt
is made to name the other controls or to show internal panel relationships
between the busses, the effects switch and the fader handles. These are
taken up as the need for them arises in subsequent sections.

The next section, which begins to show the operation of the
panel, is faced with the problem of identifying certain shots as being
taken by specified television cameras. The solution used is to show a
TV camera and then pan to reveal the action it is focused on (scenes 12,
13 and 20). Cameras 4 and 5 are shooting the same scene used in the
opening, thus it is already familiar to the audience. Its appearance

here establishes the existence of two levels of reality within the film.

31

The first level of reality is the actuality of the panel and
its operation; the second level is the "play-within-a-play" artifi-
ciality of the demonstration scene. That this second scene is the less
real of the two is evident in the fact that it (iygp, the shots showing
it) undergoes change whenever action in the other scene takes place.

Such a two-level presentation could not be written without
first determining some major production and editing considerations.
To begin with, it was necessary to show the cause-effect relationship
between panel operation and video change. The difficulties of trying
to show both elements in the same shot were great. A TV monitor placed
by the panel would bring cause and effect together, but the picture
could not be photographed properly because of scanning rate differences
between the monitor and the filmcamera.17 Alternatively, the two
elements could be photographed separately and combined in a split-
screen* process during printing but the cost of this technique would
be prohibitive. No matter what technique might be used, there remained
the disadvantage of placing two centers of interest and attention on the
screen at the same time. Such a presentation would require several
repetitions of each action to insure adequate distribution of attention
between the two elements. Clearly, this was not desirable from the
standpoints of directness of communication, economy of means and brevity
of presentation.

If, howeVer, the principle of parallel editing* were utilized,

each line of action (panel and demonstration) could be worked out and

 

17TV monitors scan at 30 frames-per-second, the film camera at
24, with the result that the frame line between two TV pictures is fre-
quently photographed as it moves down the screen.

32
photographed independently. Their relationships would be established
by the editing which would alternate shots from each in the proper
cause-effect pattern. This solution was adopted; it is expressed by
the arrangement of the scenes.

In this way the construction of the film resulted directly
from the anticipation of a later phase of the film-making process.
Essentially the construction is: "When the action is tpig (shot of
panel operation), the result is pp;§_(shot of video effect)." In the
scenario, as soon as the demonstration setting is established (scenes
12-13), the parallel editing technique is brought into use (scenes 14-
15); it is employed consistently throughout the remainder of the film.

A second problem posed by the two levels of reality was that
of providing as many distinctions between them as possible. Although
not a matter of writing, the solution arose during creation of the
scenario when the construction and editing schemes were developed.

It is discussed here as another example of the essential unity of the
creative procedures in all phases of the project.

As noted above, the scanning rate differential prevented photo-
graphing the demonstration scenes from the face of a monitor. If these
scenes were directly photographed, there would be no significant dif-
ference between "actuality" and "artificiality" other than pictorial
content-~a substantial difference, to be sure, but additional cues
were being sought as an aid to the audience.

One such aid could be the simulation of a TV set on which the
examples are seen. Any techniques of photographing the scenes directly

and of providing this simulation with a mask* or matte* were eliminated

33
for being either too complex or too expensive. Furthermore, direct
photography presented a problem in creating the necessary fades, dis-
solves and superimposures. Since the camera was not equipped to accom-
plish these effects with sufficient accuracy while exposing the negative,
they would have to be added during printing—~a process which would com-
plicate the editing18 and would increase the cost considerably.

The answer to these difficulties lay in kinescope recording.
The reduced quality of the kinescoped picture (compressed gray scale,

‘reduced brilliance and increased "graininess"19) would provide addi-
tional differentiation between the demonstration and the directly
phptographed scenes of panel operation. As for the video effects, they
would be accomplished during recording through the use of the panel
itself. The examples would be recorded exactly as seen by the televi-
sion cameras, the effects exactly as the panel created them. And, no
unusual processing or printing expenses would be incurred.

Thus two major techniques in the making of the film, editing
and photography, were determined as scenes 12-32 were being created.
Although the editing scheme chosen had the more direct effect upon the
scenario, the knowledge that roughly half the film would be kinescoped
exerted an influence on the choice of these and subsequent scenes.

In the last part of the section scenes 26, 28 and 30 were also
selected to be kinescoped in order to remain consistent in the use of

a picture of reduced quality to represent the picture taken by a TV

 

.. . . ‘ L8Aj and Beroll editing would have been necessary; see Glossary:
editing.n

. _ I.-.19Actually the enlarged image of phosphor dots on the kinescope
tube face.

34
camera. Of course, the shots taken by cameras 3, 4 and 5 are the
same as previously established. This technique is used again when the
montage* of scene 26 is repeated in the review section (scene 74).

The third section of the scenario (scenes 33-70) takes up
the Effects busses and the fader handles. These are masked off at
first and are slowly revealed (scene 33) to illustrate the idea that
panel flexibility was increased by the addition of duplicate elements
(additional busses). The Effects button and fader handles are ex-
plained simply as switches to facilitate using the extra busses. In
each case the ideas of novelty and complexity are avoided in order to
prevent the audience from feeling that the many details are too dif-
ficult to comprehend easily. Throughout the film every new element is
first labeled, then its function is shown and then the'effect of its
operation is illustrated by the example scenes.

The review section of the scenario uses the titles "Take,"
"913361ve" and "Superimposure" as summary and review devices; they are
integrated into the visual scheme so that the manner in which each
appears illustrates the technique to which it refers. This provides
additional emphasis of the point.

In order to reduce the diversity of attention required from
the student, the scenario uses the same example scenes (demonstration
and test pattern) in each section. The sections are separated from
one another by brief periods of black which act as outline divisions
or organizational landmarks. In order that this technique will not
obtrude as an artificial device, it is incorporated into the flow of
the film to provide pauses that arise naturally from internal motiva-

tion. In scene 11 the narration refers to "black" and its visual

35
occurrence illustrates the reference; in scenes 31-32, 69-70 and 85-86,
black is caused by a panel operation: its visual occurrence is accepted--
within the frame of reference established by the editing scheme-~as the
proper consequence of the action. Shot descriptions in each section
are somewhat general in the knowledge that camera positions and shot
composition will be more explicitly stated in the shooting script.

In its totality the scenario provides a cohesive filmic ex-
_pression of the content called for by the treatment. It permitted
the subsequent creation of a shooting script with ease and it became
the basic point of reference when the commentary was written.

The scenario of Continuity in Cutting posed problems quite
different from those of the switching panel film. From the beginning,
there was no question about the editing style, for editing was the
very subject of the film. And, it was anticipated that direct photo~
graphy would be used because no optical effects or kinescope inserts
were required. Organizationally, the film divided naturally into an
introduction, sections devoted to each of the principles of continuity,
and a review. The order of the sections could follow a simple progres-
sion: first, location of the center of interest, because this is common
to all the principles; next, orientation to the scene; then, the se-
quence of shots that will preserve orientation; last, location of cam-
eras around the scene and how orientation may be lost even with proper
shot sequence. All these matters were easily determined.

It was the manner in which the film was to be experienced
that gave rise to the central problems--clarity and emphasis.

Early in the consideration of the scenario it became evident

that shots showing the ostensible locations of TV cameras in relation

36
to the example scenes would be superfluous: it was the pictures the
camera took that were important, and camera location would be directly
evident in these pictures. (The audience for this film, students in
the directing course, have enough experience to immediately deduce
each camera position without difficulty.) Therefore, the whole film
seemed to require a subjective presentation, one which would place the
audience in the same position as the viewer of a television program--
only the results of cutting would be seen.20 However, a subjective
presentation offered difficulties in conveying the organization of the
material and in stressing each subject matter point. Some method of
objectifying the essence of each principle in the film was required.

The first step toward finding this method was to express each
of the content divisions in a concise identifying phrase. The results
were the names "Screen Location," "Orientation and Sequence" and "View-
point.9 The second name groups two principles together because they
are virtually inseparable: "orientation" has an editing meaning only
in terms of the sequence of shots which reveal a scene and the action
within the scene.

In an early draft of the scenario these names were used as
titles to introduce the individual sections. The content of each sec-
tion included two or more example scenes which first showed violations

of the principle, then showed obedience to it. The examples drew upon

 

20Thus this film demands a single level of participation for,
in effect, it says, "You, the viewer, see this when a cut is made," and
the audience experiences the event subjectively. This contrasts with
The Television Switching Panel which in effect says at one moment, "You
are a class member; observe how you will Operate this panel," and at
the next, "You are the audience; this is what you see when someone at
the panel performs that operation." The audience experiences the first
image objectively, the second subjectively.

37
familiar situations which students encounter in class exercises or which
are readily observable in most television broadcasts. Upon review,
this draft revealed a weakness in the indentification of the three
principles. Despite the fact that the examples illustrated the points
well, there was insufficient stress on the essential meaning of each
section. A further method of emphasizing the content was sought.

It was recognized that additional titles would serve no pur-
pose, for if the problem could be solved verbally, it could be dis-
posed of in the commentary. But such a course of action could only
result in sections of narration that diverged from the pictorial con-
tent or that demanded a static, generally meaningless picture while
the explanation was spoken. Both of these results ran contrary to a
visual use of the film medium; neither was desired.

Accordingly, attention was turned toward the task of finding
a visual objectification of the principles, some image that would con-
trast vividly with the realistic photography of the examples in each
section. Early efforts created individual cartoons to represent each
principle. As this approach was explored the images were continually
revised and refined, and soon a trend toward increasing stylization
became apparent. Carried to its logical extreme, the result of the
trend would be a single abstract symbol for each principle. Seizing
upon this idea, the cartoons were abandoned and a consideration of
various symbolic representations was taken up. The result was a
group of geometric figures which would be presented as mnemonic devices
associated with the central meaning of each principle.

The clarity and familiarity of geometric forms helps to free

them from misinterpretation; they are readily accepted as simple symbols

38
for they do not appear to be attempts to make abstract representations
of objects shown in the realistic scenes. Their nature is so distinct
from all other images in the film that they acquire the desired ob-
jectivity: when a symbol appears it signals the audience that this
is the core of the principle, the essence.

The symbols were chosen on the basis of what was required to
show the operation of each principle. Mismatched screen locations
essentially cause the center point of interest to jump around within
the frame.‘ Exaggeration of a point, a dot, so that it is easily vis-
ible leads directly to a circle or to its three-dimensional equiva-
lent, a sphere.21

Cuts relating to seguence reveal themselves in the changed
size of the subject. Because changes in height are easily seen, a
tall figure-~a cylinder--was chosen. A sphere was added to the top
when consideration of the cylinder showed that it tended to appear
as a flat surface with insufficient visual impact. Size changes are
thus revealed by changes in height and by changes in the diameters of
the sphere and cylinder.

Confusing changes of background behind a constant figure are
common results of improper orientation (meaning anjunderstanding of the
relationships among elements of a scene). Two distuunive backgrounds
were devised to be placed behind the sequence symbol, one a vertical

pattern of alternating bold light and dark stripes, the other a hori-

zontal pattern of the same stripes.

 

21The symbols were originally conceived as three-dimensional
figures; they were changed to their two-dimensional equivalents during
production: see Chapter IV, p. 51.

39

Vieppoint required a symbol that would illustrate displacement
of the camera--and therefore the audience-~up, down, right and left
with regard to a common center of interest. A figure that was clearly
discernible to have three dimensions was needed; it was found in the
cube. Turned with one vertical edge closest to the viewer, three
faces were always visible: two sides and top or bottom. When sketches
showing varying views of the cube were compared, their differences
were not readily apparent. Experiments with identifying marks on each
cube face culminated in the use of large letters, turning the symbol
into an alphabet block--to most people the most familiar example of
the cube.

Many sketches were used in working out the visual elements
of this scenario for it was not possible to develop the film by ver-
bal means alone. Eventually, sketch content was incorporated in the
scene descriptions for the convenience of bringing all relevant mater-
ial into one written form. Shot sketches and floor plans of actor and
camera movement also were used to assist in the development of the
scenario for Potentialities of Movement. On the other hand, The Telev
vision Switching Panel was written without recourse to any but verbal
notation.

Once the symbols were selected for Continuity in Cutting, there
arose the problem of integrating them into the film so that they would
achieve maximum impact. First, it was necessary to establish the exist-
ence and use of the symbols. The scenario does this at the very begin»
ning (scenes 1-5). Next, they had to be worked into the main sections
of the film along with theemampla .scenes. At first they were used

as summary devices placed at the end of each section. This use seemed

ineffectual upon close examination for it required the audience to
think back over a section and recall evidences of the principle the
symbol was now illustrating; the frame of reference came after the
fact rather than before. The final scenario avoids this by coupling
the symbols with the titles used to introduce the sections (scenes 6-7,
30-31 and 52-53). In this usage the principle is identified and then
its essence is illustrated by the symbol to structure the audiencefs
interpretation of the succeeding examples. Whatever other elements 1
may occur in the scene, the audience knows what to watch for and can
attend to it. Furthermore, the combination of title and symbol func-
tions as an introductor device marking the beginning of each new con-
tent section; black is not required for punctuation here as it was in
the switching panel film.

The final scenario retains the introduction of the symbols at
the beginning. of the film (scenes 1-5), as worked out in an earlier
draft. It also utilizes them for a summary at the end (scenes 75-78).

Although different scenes were created to illustrate each prin-
ciple, they all have much in common: each represents a typical program
situation, one familiar to the student, and each has simple, direct
action. These factors enable the student to grasp the situation at
first glance; he is then free to concentrate upon the principle behind
the scene. Making a scene especially interesting or complex would
only have defeated its purpose.

Of the three scenarios, Continuity in Cuttipg required the
greatest amount of revision before the final version was attained and,
as will be seen in Chapter IV, the film was further revised in later

stages of its creation. This need for continuing changes arose from

41
the difficulties of trying to develop in verbal form (albeit with
sketches as an aid) a film which relies entirely upon editing to make
its content manifest. No matter how many written refinements might
be prepared, the clearest, most concise visual statement could be created
only when the photographic raw material was examined and edited. There-
fore, this final scenario must be considered as a more tentative expres-
sion of the film than the scenarios of the other two films.

A major portion of Potentialities of Movement was established
after the treatment was written, but before creation of the scenario
had begun. In discussions with the course instructor about the content
of the film it was decided that dramatic vignettes or excerpts fnam
actual programs would provide the best illustrations. This decision
was based on the need to provide extended scenes which would provide
more complex dramatic material than the examples used in either of the
other films. 0f the many possibilities considered, two were finally
selected, one from each of the suggested categories. The number of
examples was limited by estimations of the time required to present them.

A dramatic vignette came from a directing class exercise which
had been developed from an original student effort. The student's
original handling of the scene in fact had suffered from lack of move-
ment. Because it represented a typical stumbling block in dramatic
programs, the vignette was judged ideal for the purposes of the film.

The second example was drawn from the author's own television

22

activity. His children's program "The Land of Play" utilized camera

and performer movement to increase the audience's feeling of participa-

 

22As a Producer-Director at WMSB.

42
tion. Particularly usable was the opening of the program when each
day a different form of imaginary transportation was used for a trip
through the Land of Play to greet all the familiar residents there.
In the course of the trip all the principles of movement specified
in the treatment were used. This program excerpt was quickly agreed
upon.

Because these major elements of the film were already selected,
scenario writing became a problem of providing a suitable context for
presentation of the examples.

The solution consists in first suggesting the need for move-
ment in various situations. The introduction of the film uses one such
situation to point out the need for movement and, further, to establish
the kinds of movement which may be used (scene 1). Then a second situ-
ation (scenes 3-5) illustrates how cutting may injure a scene by pre-
senting in fragments that which is better perceived through movement.

Presentation of the dramatic vignette begins with illustra-
tions of the "wrong" way to handle the situation (scenes 6 and 7)..
Then scene 9 shows an interpretation using camera and performer move-
ment. Narration supplies the gist of the dialogue to add meaning to
the physical action; actual dialogue is not used because it would
divert attention from the purely visual aspects of the example and from
the inbtructor's commentary.23

In order to show the relationship between the camera and the
performers, this scene is reenacted with the television camera visi-
ble (scene 10). Narration emphasizes the techniques by which the

dramatic effects just seen were achieved. A fade out closes this

 

23And because of the cost of a sound track: see above, p. 26.

43
example smoothly and separates it from the program excerpt which follows.

After the Land of Play setting is established and the purpose
of the opening explained, the excerpt is presented as it might appear
with mishandled and undeveloped movement (scene 12). Then, instead
of a repetition of the scene to point out difficulties of technique,
an animated diagram is used to illustrate the confusion. Corrective
measure are detailed and another diagram shows the simplification of
movement that results (scenes 14-15). Finally, the improved treatment,
the "good" example, is shown.

The concluding portion of the scenario uses repeat shots of
segments of the examples to summarize the principles of movement dis-
cussed in the body of the film.

The dramatic vignette is placed first in the film because the
differences between cutting and movement--the "wrong" and "right"
treatmentsre are easily seen and because certain basic techniques of
movement are carefully shown with the TV camera. These provide a
foundation for understanding the more subtle differences between the
two movement treatments in the "Land of Play" excerpt. Animated dia-
grams are used in the second example because they reveal the differ-
ences between the two movement treatments graphically, whereas seeing
the camera in each case does not reveal as much.

Although this scenario is less complex than the others from
the standpoints of editing scheme and number of scenes, it is fully
as visually varied as they are. Its dramatic content is greater and
its ultimate purpose is more difficult of achievement, for the film
is faced with the task not only of illustrating basic principles of

movement but also of conveying an increased dramatic experience result-

44
ing from well conceived movement. The scenario is intended to organize
and present the explanatory and demonstrative material in the manner
that best contributes to this end.

Just as some production problems were anticipated and:solved
when the other scenarios were written, so a major procedure was
determined during the writing of this scenario: the dramatic vignette
and the program excerpt would be kinescoped rather than directly photo-
graphed. It had been acticipated that kinescopes of program excerpts
might be used in the films; the decision to use them here took into
account technical and presentational considerations.

Technically, it would be difficult to achieve smooth, controlled
movement with the film camera to be used whether it was mounted on a
movie tripod and dolly or on a television pedestal dolly: the camera
was too light and too small to control easily. Secondly, the camera
did not normally carry a film load large enough to permit continuous
photography of the examples, nor did the spring-driven motor have a
sufficient run from a single winding to take in the length of the ex-
amples. Although accessory film magazines and an electric motor could
overcome these difficulties, the movement problem remained. Kinescope
recording offered the advantages of mobile television cameras and the
potentiality of recording continuously for thirty minutes if necessary.

Presentationally, kinescoping would provide picture quality
which implied that the examples were typical programs excerpts because
they would be visually distinct from the other scenes for which direct
flimography would be used.

Upon completion of the scenarios, shooting scripts were written.

In each case these consisted of a detailed listing, in sequence, of

45
_eiery shot required for the film. The shooting scripts contain sev-
eral shots for each of the scenario scenes as a consequence of creating
a specific visual interpretation of each scene. The sequence of shots
was determined by the anticipated editing scheme.

A.major consideration in preparing the shooting scripts was
exactness of detail (e.g., indicator lights and fader handle positions
had to coincide from shot to shot in The Television SwitchinggPanel)
and comprehensiveness of description of the action in each shot. Be-
cause the shooting scripts were to be used only in the preparation of
visual material, no indication of narration was required.

A comparison of each shunting script with its scenario will
show the scenario to be a comprehensive outline of the film, the shoot-

ing script a specific blueprint.

46

.‘CHAPTER IV
THE PRODUCTION OF THE FILMS

Successive stages in the production of the films are discussed
in this chapter in the following sequence: Production Organization
and Preparations; Equipment and Materials; Procedures; Editing; and

Commentaries.

Production Organization and Preparations

In order to achieve the greatest economy of time, effort and
expense, the three films were combined into a single production scheme
in which the shooting scripts were considered to represent sections
of a single long film. Scenic requirements of all the sections were
correlated and each setting or location was assigned an identifying
letter. Titles and other shots requiring no particular setting were
assigned special letters.

Next, all the shots were sorted according to the settings in
which they occurred. Each shot was identified by its number, a letter
indicating the film in which it would be used, and the appropriate
scene letter. An additional code letter denoted those shots which
were to be kinescoped.24

A master floor plan of each scene indicated settings, lighting,
performer positions and movement, and all camera positions and move-

ment. A property list detailed all special requirements of each set-

ting. Performer lists specified how many menpand women were required

 

24For the predetenmination of kinescoped shots see Chapter III,
PP. 32-33 an.d 44o

47
for each scene (the scenarios had only suggested whether men or women
might be used) and included notes on costuming where necessary.

With the appropriate floor plan as a guide, the shots in each
scene were sorted according to camera position and were recorded on
a separate camera card for each position.

Rehearsal and production schedules coordinated studio avail-
ability with set-up, lighting, rehearsal and shooting requirements.

Finally, for every shot a sheet of paper was prepared which
showed its number and code letters large enough to be photographed
easily.

In this way a production packet was created for each scene.
The packet contained a master floor plan,.schedules, property and per-
former lists, camera cards, and shot identification sheets or slates.25

Titles and animated diagrams were also prepared at this time.
A hot-press printing process26 was used to make titles of white letters
on black backgrounds to give maximum contrast for direct photography
and for superimposures in the switching panel film.

It was first attempted to create "strip-tease"* cards for the
animated diagrams required in Potentialities_gfyMovement; however,
the paths of camera and performer crossed each other at too many points
to make this technique feasible. Consequently, it was decided to use

27

a simple animation technique instead. The floor plan diagrams which

 

25The term slate arises from the use of a smell chalkboard; it
is commonly used generically to denote any such identification device
and is so used hereafter.

26Heated type causes colored material to be transferred in the
shape of letters from a celluloid strip to the title card.

27This technique is described below, p. 51.

48
would serve as backgrounds for the animation were drawn in dark ink
on light gray board. This would offer good contrast in a print and
would provide a negative which could be interchanged with the print,
if desired, to achieve a white line diagram on black. (The decision
would be made during editing when the use of positive and negative
images could be compared.)

Upon completion of these preparations, a final check was made
to uncover any inconsistencies among the materials in each production
packet or between those materials and the shooting scripts. One shot
was found to be misnumbered and it appeared that two unrelated scenes
in Continuity in Cutting were to be photographed in the same setting.

A numbering change and the creation of an additional setting--resulting

in another production packet--disposed of the discrepancies.

Equipment and Materials

All direct photography was done with a Bell and Howell model
DL l6mm.motion picture camera equipped with lenses of 10-, 25-, and
60mm focal lengths. The camera was mounted on a tripod with adjust-
able legs and center post.

Negative Plus-X and Tri-X film in lOO-foot rolls was rated
at the manufacturer's (Eastman Kodak) recommended exposure index.

An incident light meter was used to calculate exposure. In-
terior illumination was furnished by standard television incandescent
lighting instruments; exterior illumination was daylight.)

Settings and properties were borrowed from the stock main-
tained by WMSB. In many cases production planning had arranged for

the use of regular program.settings which would have been pre-set in

49
the studios for later broadcast use. Costumes were provided by the
performers.

The studios of WMSB were used for both direct photography and
kinescope recording of all interior scenes. During the latter proce-
dure, other necessary equipment (i.e., image orthicon cameras, projec-
tion equipment and kinescope recorder) were provided and manned by the

station.

Procedures

The general pattern of photography followed this sequence:
the set was erected and the lighting established; camera positions
were marked on the floor; performers were rehearsed in the set and the
the action was checked through the camera viewfinder; after sufficient
rehearsal, lighting adjustments were made and a final meter reading
was taken to determine the correct exposure; finally, the shot was taken.

Photography in each setting proceeded from long shot to medium
to close-up positions so that chances of discrepancies in the action
were kept to a minimum: working from general to particular gave the
performer additional opportunity to standardize his gestures and
smaller actions before significant details were photographed. Of
course, rehearsals had disposed of most possible errors of this kind.

Every shot began with photography of the identifying slate
combined with a second slate indicating the number of the take.* The
action followed. No slate was used at the end of a take. Additional
takes were made when action errors occurred, when performances lacked
the desired quality, when camera positions were shifted slightly to

improve angles of view, and when it appeared that additional footage

50
would be helpful in editing. As each take was finished, notes were
made on the appropriate camera card to show its completion and, if
necessarfh to record changes in sets, lighting or action. In this way
any shot that later had to be rephotographed could be exactly dupli-
cated so that its details would match the details of the other shots
of the same scene without having to rephotograph them as well.

In some instances extra shots not specified on the camera
cards were taken. These were made when it appeared that additional
close-ups or new camera positions would cover details better or would
provide material for greater editing freedom. As an example, during
the kinescoping of the switching panel demonstration scenes, it was
realized that shots l7 and 18 could be improved. The shooting script
called for shots showing a TV camera and a pan to reveal the action
it was focused on. Extra shots were taken by the TV cameras so that
after the pan a cut could be made to a kinescope shot of exactly what
the TV camera was seeing. All extra shots were identified by the
addition of a small letter to the number of the preceding shot; thus
in the above example the extra shots were 17a and 18a. Appropriate
camera card notes recorded these extra shots and indicated for what
reason they were taken.

Photographic procedures were quite straightforward and offered
no special problems except in the cases of the title cards, the symbols
for Continuity in Cuttigg, and the animated diagrams for Potentialities
of Movement.

Titles were photographed at one F-stop smaller than that indi-

cated by the light meter--the white letters received sufficient exposure,

51

but the smaller iris aperture prevented any surface irregularities
in the black background from registering on the film. This insured
a solid black screen with white letters when the titles were projected.

It was first planned to photograph three-dimensional objects
as symbols for Continuity in Cutting. However, difficulties were en-
countered in achieving constant screen location when the objects or
the camera were moved to provide shots from varying angles of view.
The solution consisted in making the symbols two-dimensional and in
preparing different sizes of each symbol to correspond to the differ-
ences that changed angles of view would create. Then the camera and
the background card were kept in fixed positions and the symbols were
changed on the card as necessary while their location was kept constant.

The animated diagrams required that lines seem to draw them-
selves as they traced camera and performer movement paths. This was
accomplished by shooting a feW'frames of the diagram, drawing on a
segment of the line and shooting a few more frames, adding a second
line segment, shooting some more frames, and so on until the paths
were complete. Line segments were l/4-inch long and four frames of
each step were photographed so that upon projection the lines would
develop at the rate of 1 1/2 inches per second. Several extra.frames
were exposed whenever a line reached a point of pause in the path. The
length of the pause would be trimmed during editing to match the corres-
ponding narration.

Titles, symbols and animated diagrams all were placed on an
easel for photography and the camerab longest focal length lens was

used to eliminate parallax* error.

52

The planning and organization of the production process per-
mitted completion of set-up, lighting, rehearsal and photography in
twenty hours: direct photography required one three-hour and two six-
hour sessions; kinescope recording required two two-and-a-half-hour
sessions. The studios were available for these relatively long
periods of time because production was carried out in the late summer
when demands for studio time were light: summer television courses
had ended and the station had reduced the number of live programs
broadcast each day.

The exposed film was turned over to the laboratory28 for devel-
opment. Editing and the writing of commentaries comprised the remain-

ing steps in the creation of the films.

Editing

To facilitate editing, a one-light print* was made by the lab-
oratory from the developed negative. All editing was carried out on
this, the workprint,* to save the negative from unnecessary handling
and possible damage. In addition, the workprint permitted repeated
experimental changes in the editing without loss of original material.29
Editing commenced with a breakdown of the print into individual shots,
for they had not been photographed in sequence. The slates provided
immediate identification of all material.

With shooting scripts and production notes as guides, a first

assembly* of each film was made in which all potentially usable takes

 

28Capital Films, East Lansing, Michigan.

29Each splice in 16mm film destroys one frame because splices
fall within, not between, frames.

53
of every shot and all extra shots were spliced together in sequence.30
The slates were not removed. Each first assembly was revised by the
removal of all material that a viewing of the film showed to be unu-
sable. One take of each shot remained.

.Study of the revised first assembly suggested some rearrange-
ments and gave indications of approximate optimum lengths for some
shots. In the process of making these alterations the slates were
trimmed off and identification was transferred with a china marking
pencil to the first frames of each shot; a parallel written editing
list was kept also. The result of these changes was the rough cut.*

Further editing of each film consisted of successive fine
cuts* to refine the sequence of shots and to eliminate excess footage.
These revisions were based on the visual flow of the images and their
interaction with the developing commentary. The end product of this
process was the final edited workprint.

The last editing stage was comprised of the selection and cut-
ting of the original negative to conform to the final edited workprint
of each film. Edge numbers* printed on the negative by the laboratory
before development also appeared on the prints; they greatly simplified
the task of exactly matching corresponding portions of negative and
print.

Differences between the revised first assembly and the final
edited print may be observed by comparing shooting scripts and editing

notes in the appendixes (with the exception that the shooting script

 

30Production notes and inspection during assembly showed which
takes were completely unusable.

54
does not include the extra shots inserted into the first assembly).
The major editing changes in the development of each film are discussed
below.

The Television Switching Panel required the least complex
editing because the physical sequence of actions in the film demanded
the order established by the scenario and shooting script. Only two
deletions were made. In shot 45, the final action (pushing 4~in the
‘Tpkg bus) was cut out because it reversed the flow of ideas. Scenario
scene 33, in which this shot occurs, introduces the Effects banks and
includes an operation to activate them (pushing the Effects button).

The eliminated operation had directed attention back to the Tpkg bank,
as if to imply that nothing further would take place in the Effects
banks.

Shot 61 was deleted because it slowed the film by reintroducing
an idea adequately treated earlier in the film (accidentally punCHing
up a camera in another studio; pf. shots 29-32). Shots 60 and 62 were
joined and the commentary adjusted to accommodate the deletion.

Some extra shots were inserted in this film,has indicated by
the editing notes, but for the most part editing consisted in adjusting
the length of each shot to create the best rhythm and pace for the
development of the content. However, efforts to achieve this optimum
construction revealed a serious problem: although the fine cuts pro-
duced an overall rhythm that worked well, the pace of the film was too
rapid. Repeated viewings confirmed thezfact that the sequence of actions
moved too rapidly for easy comprehension in one showing. Experimentation

produced a simple but effective solution--a change of projection speed.

55

The desired pace was obtained when the film was projected at sixteen
rather than twenty-four frames-per-second (i.e., at silent rather than
sound speed). This solution offers the advantage of requiring no
changes in the preferred final form of the film. It is technically
acceptable because classroom projectors are equipped to run at both
speeds and because the movement within the film is such that, although
photographed at twenty-four frames-per-second, it does not appear
slowed or unnatural when seen at sixteen. Accordingly, this solution
was adopted.

In its final version, The Television Switching Panel is 389
feet long. At silent speed, one showing takes 16 1/4 minutes.

Continuity in Cutting involved the most complex editing and
the most extensive revision. It had been recognized before production

31 and in

began that this film could take form only through editing,
spite of the fact that the scenario and shooting script were carefully
constructed and were made as explicit as possible, much work remained
to be done.

The revised first assembly immediately revealed a superfluity
of shots in almost every scene, with the result that the film was too
long and was lacking in directness and impact. The attempts to illus-
trate each principle comprehensively had resulted in illustrations that
were too comprehensive: each suffered from visual over-explicitness.

There was no fault in the overall structure of the film, but

each scene required experimental editing to determine the minimum number

of shots required to vividly illustrate its guiding principle. Conse-

 

31See Chapter III, pp. 40-41.

56
quently, the rough cut was much more involved and proceeded at a slower
rate than was the case with either of the other films.

Only one illustration was eliminated completely, that of cutting
between a man and a globe on a stand to show that displacement could
occur between similarly shaped subjects (scene 14; shots 41-47). When
viewed,, it was evident that the point here was extrinsic in that the
techniques of joining two such shots correctly--techniQues involving
methods.of differentiating the subjects while relating them smoothly--
lay outside the content specified for the film. Eliminating this illus-
tration removed a divergence in the development of the subject matter.

Every other scene in the film underwent revisions which dis-
carded many shots and rearranged those which remained. In all cases
these changes increased the economy of expression and resulted in more
direct and vivid statements of the content. A discussion here of the
individual excisions and rearrangements could only amount to a listing
of shot numbers; the changes in the film are clearly evident when a
detailed comparison of the editing notes and shooting script is made.

One important change occurred after the illustrations had been
edited into final form. The scenario called for the appropriate symbol
to be used as an illustrative device at the beginning of each section
to help structure audience interpretation of the examples. However,
the editing changes and the commentary had improved the directness
and clarity of the examples to the point where this use of the symbols
was no longer necessary. On the other hand, the symbols were valuable
still as objectifications of each principle and as mnemonic devices.

An experiment in eliminating them altogether greatly weakened the film.

57
Further experimentation finally determined the most effective arrange-
ment: a single shot of each symbol is used with the title introducing
each section; the sequences using the symbols to illustrate the princi-
ples are placed at the ends of the individual sections for recapitulation;
the introduction of the symbols at the beginning of the film is reduced
to a single shot; and their use in the summary is simplified.

Although many shots were discarded, it must be stressed that
the most effective editing could be achieved only through extensive
experimentation. An abundance of material was prerequisite to editing
freedom and creativity.

The final version of Continuity in Cuttigg is 447 feet long;
presentation time at sound speed is 12 1/2 minutes.

The editing of Poteptiglities of Movement took the least amount
of time and consisted of inserting some extra detail shots in the illus-
trative cutting sequences (scenes 4 and 7) and of eliminating the "bad"
example of the children's program opening. This latter cut also removed
the animated diagrams and the shots of details of set changes (shots
22-25).

The extra detail shots were added to scenes 4 and 7 to improve
their continuity and to heighten their contrast with scenes 5 and 9.

The "Land of Play" "wrong" opening (scene 12) was seen to not
add any appreciable information to the film: both the erOng" and the
"right" examples used movement, and although the diagrams helped to
emphasize the differences between the two, the point was not important
enough to justify the time required to show it. The clarity of this

section was improved by presenting the "right" treatment alone.32

 

nghe erong-rightU presentation of the dramatic vignette was

retained because the contrast isfbetween cutting and movement and it -
makes a different point from the contrast between two kinds of movement.

58

Deleting scene 12 immediately eliminated the need for the
"wrong" animated diagram and for the detail shots of set changes. The
"right" diagram now served no purpose except to show the movement of
the "right" opening. Inasmuch as this movement was directly experienced
when the example was viewed, the diagram added little to an appreciation
of the situation. Accordingly, this too was deleted..

The summary section was rearranged so that the principles are
recapitulated in an order that moves from basic to more complex consi-
derations. Thus, the progressive nature of developing an effective
treatment in movement is better implied.

' Finally, brief pauses between the various sections were created
by the insertion of black to help signal each major change of thought
in the content.

Potentialitiesgof Movement is 514 feet long and runs 14 1/2
minutes at sound speed.

Altogether, about two-and-one-half times as much film was
exposed was was used in the final versions of the films. The discarded
material included the deletions described above, all unusable takes,

test shots and miscellaneous footage given over to leaders* and slates.

Commentaries
The narration written for the scenarios was intended only as
a suggestion of the spoken accompaniment to the films; in terms of the
completed presentations, it was quite diffuse.
The final commentaries, which replaced the scenario narrations,
were created as the visual and spoken presentations were adjusted to

one another in the course of succeeding fine cuts--writing and editing

59
flowed one from the other. Major revisions occurred wherever visual
material was eliminated or significantly rearranged. Equally important
changes were made to increase the specificity of the spoken presentation.

Building from the ideas in the scenario narration, the writing
adjusted word choice and sentence construction so that pictorial content
is exactly referred to and so that there is no divergence in thought
from the point being illustrated by a sequence. Divergences of this
kind are evident in the scenarios.

In most cases, the writing chose the most economical way to
express each idea or principle in order to.focus attention continually
on the visual presentation. Occasionally the strictest economy is
sacrificed to the need for amplifying statements or important comments
on sidelights of the situation. The commentary accompanying each scene
is generally shorter than the visual length of the scene as a result of
concise wording. This brevity has the additional advantage of allowing
the instructor to interpolate his own comments without having to com-
pletely rewrite the commentary.

A comparison of scenarios and commentaries with shooting scripts
and editing notes in the appendixes will reveal the nature of the changes
in emphasis and expression. The function and effectiveness of the com-

mentaries can only be judged from a presentation of the films.

60

CHAPTER V
THE USES OF THE FILMS

Three films--Thg Television Switching Panel, Continuity in
Cutting and Potentialities of Movement-~have been produced for use
as teaching aids in the television production courses offered by
Michigan State University. Final edited workprints and negatives of
these films have been deposited with the Television, Radio and Film
Department. It is recommended that timed prints* be made from the
negatives, to be used in the following ways:33

1. The films should be integrated into the courses to relieve
problems of in-studio instruction. At the discretion of the
instructors they may be used to supplement or to replace studio
presentations of these subjects.

2. Additional commentaries should be created so that the films
may be used with their appropriate secondary audiences.

3. An experimental program should be carried out to evaluate the
above uses of the films. The program should determine whether
studio class problems are lessened when the films are used and
whether the films offer instruction in these subjects at least
equal to in-studio instruction.

4. Sound tracks may be added to the films inexpensively by means

'of the "sound-stripe"* process. It is recommended that this

 

33Although the workprints may be used, they show exposure varia-
tions between scenes, they have been scratched and marked in editing,
and they have many splices--a condition which may cause eventual pro-
jection difficulties.

61
be done and that capies of the film be made available to the
classes for independent study.34
If (4) is carried out, an experimental program.should determine
whether students can give themselves effective instruction in
these subjects by studying the films outside of class. If they
can, an investigation should be undertaken immediately to un-
cover other subjects that might be treated similarly. In this
way the content of the course might be considerably expanded
or eventual large increases in enrollment might be easily absorbed
into the existing course structure.

Creative experiments may be carried out to determine whether
the effectiveness of the films can be improved by (a) changed

commentaries, (b) changed editing of the existing material,

(c) a combination of (a) and (b).

LIf the films prove to be of value as teaching aids, this thesis

should be used as a guide to the selection and production of additional

films for use in teaching television production techniques at Michigan

State University. Furthermore, this thesis and a report describing

the methods of integrating the films into the curriculum and using them

effectively may assist other schools and colleges in solving similar

instructional problems.

 

34Perhaps in much the same manner that students of foreign

languages have access to prepared tape recordings for study and practice.

APPENDIX A

The Television SwitchinLPanel

62

63

TREATMENT: The Television Switching Panel

This will be a skills film showing the operation of the switch-

ing panel. It will be designed for use in place of control instruction

regarding the panel. The content will include:

1.

2.

3.

Layout and nomenclature--banks, busses; Tpkg bank; Effects
banks'A and'B; Effects button; fader handles; indicator lights.
Purpose of the controls--to create instantaneous or gradual
change of one picture (fades) or between two pictures (cuts,
dissolves, supers).

Operation of the controls and the effects created--"take" (cut);
fade out; fade in; dissolve; superimposure.

Action at the panel will be photographed from the Operator's

poing of view so that the student can project himself into the situation

easily.

Panel operations will be illustrated by changes in shots of

various example scenes. In addition to the panel, the equipment shown

will include studio cameras, film and sliHe projection facilities and,

perhaps, camera and line monitors.

1.

2.

In general, the film will proceed thus:

The panel. Names of busses. Relation of buttons to video
chains: 1-6 studio cameras; 7 film chain; 8 slide chain; -
9 spare, remote, network, "black."

Qperationfi9f_the Take bank. Cutting between pictures: firm

push on button; immediate release; indicator lights.

The Effects banks. Arrangement. Effects button. Fader handles:

set in opposition for 100% video (70-30; 50-50; etc.) Operation:

fade out; fade in; dissolve; superimposure.

4- 3.21%.!-
The photography and editing will show the physical actions
of panel Operations and the resulting video changes to have a cause-

effect relationship.

64

65

SCENARIO: The Television Switchigg Panel

Scene Number

 

and Description Narration
l. FADE IN--MS--Man demonstrating with object.

To change from shot to shot. . .
CUT TO--CU--Demonstration object--FADE OUT.
FADE IN--MS--Demonstration (as l)--DISSOLVE TO--CU--Demonstration
object (as 2).
. . .you must be able to operate. .
TITLE--The Television Switching Panel.
. . .the Television Switching Panel.
'MCU--Pane1.
:The various camera chains are connected to pushbutton
switches mounted on the panel. The switches are mounted
in horizontal rows called banks or busses.
PANEL--closer shot.
This is a three-bus switching panel. Other panels may
have only one or two busses; some have five or more. The top
bus is called the . . .
POP ON LABEL-12553.
. . ."take" bus. The lower two busses are called. . .
POP ON LABELS--Effects; _A; _B_.
. . .the "effects" busses. They are individually called
the ”A" bus and the "B" bus. In each bus, every pushbutton
has a numbered indicator light. The numbers correspond to

the video chains. 1 through 6 are studio camera chains.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

66
MONTAGE--Studio cameras with numbers clearly visible.’
PANEL.
7 and 8 are connected to projection room video chains.
PROJECTION ROOM--MS--projector, vidicon side.
Chain 7 is a vidiconuchain into which two film projectors
and two slide projectors feed. It is most often referred to
as the "film chain.“
PROJECTION ROOM--MS--slide projectors, iconoscope side.
Chain 8 is an iconoscope chain receiving feeds from slide
projectors. It is known as the "slide chain."
CU--Pane1 with LABEL at 9--§pg£g.
(Switch 9 is a spare for patching in extra equipment or
the feed from the mobile unit or from a network line. When
it has no signal connected, it is used for "black."
FADE OUT
CUT TO--MS--Camera 4--PAN to see MS of man demonstrating with
‘object (as in scene 1).
To understand the operation of the panel, we need some
pictures. Camera 4 has a medium shot of this demonstration. . .
MS--Camera 5--PAN to see CU of demonstration object (as scene 2).
. . .camera 5 has a close-up.
PANEL.
The take bus provides for cutting to a picture, or ”taking"
it. Starting with no picture, punching button 4. . .

PUSH t4.35

 

35Buttons are identified by bus letter and button number; thus,

£4_is #4 button in the Take bus.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.
22.

23.

67
. . . creates a cut to the shot camera 4 is taking.
DEMONSTRATION--MS--(4's shot).
PANEL.
When a switch is on, the indicator light is on as a remin-
der. To cut to 5, push button 5 in the take bus. . .
PUSH t5.
. . .the light goes on, and the audience sees:
DEMONSTRATION--MS (4's shot)--CUT TO--CU of demonstration object
(5's shot).
PANEL--PUSH t5--PUSH t4--in succession.

Cutting or "taking" between cameras is merely a matter
of pushing the appropriate button.

DEMONSTRATION--CU (5's shot)--CUT TO--MS (4's shot)--CUT TO--
(5's shot)--CUT T0--(4's shot).
‘MS--Camera 3--PAN to see test pattern it is focused on.

You can cut to any camera in the station. You must check
the panel before you push a button, or you can get the wrong
picture--a camera being lined up by the engineers in another
studio, for instance.

PANEL--PUSH t3 and HOLD DOWN.
DEMONSTRATION--MS (4's shot)--CUT T0--CU--test pattern (3's shot).
PANEL--hand HOLDING DOWN t3 (21 continued).

When you push a button, you must immediately release it or

the indicator light will not go on. The cut occurs when the

button goes down, but only when you release the button. . .

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

68
Hand RELEASES t3 (23 continued).
. . . does the light come on. Sitting at the panel holding
down a button can confuse you because no lights will be on.
Hand PUSHES t4--PUSHES t5--with firm movements--then MOVES OUT of
frame (24 continued).
Press firmly, then release.
Hand MOVES into frame.
Obviously, just as you can cut from camera to camera . . .
In succession, PUSH t1, t2, t3, t4, t5, t6.
‘Montage--l's shot--2's shot--3's shot (test pattern)--4's shot
(MS of demonstration)--5's shot (CU of demonstration object)--
6's shot.
PANEL--PUSH E7.
. . . so you can cut to the film chain . . .
FILM CLIP (miscellaneous).
PANEL-:PUSH.E8;'
. . . and to the slide chain . . .
SLIDE (miscellaneous).
PANEL--PUSH t9.
. . . and to black.
CUT TO BLACK.
PANEL--MS--Effects busses MASKED OFF.
The first switching panels consisted of only one bus, for
cutting from chain to chain. In order to accomplish effects
such as fade-in's, fade-out's, dissolves and superimposures,

the panel was expanded.

34.

69
Mask MOVES to reveal effects button with LABEL: Effects.
A switch was added to the take bus--the "effects" switch.
It is connected to the output of the effects busses.
Mask MOVES out of frame, revealing effects busses with ARROWS from
a9 and b9 to effects button (tE).
Pushing the effects button cuts to the A and B busses . . .
PUSH tE.
. . .pushing any other button in the take bus cuts away from
the effects busses.
PUSH t4.
The heart of the effects busses is the set of handles at the
fight.
CU--Fader handles with Fade-in ARROWS and with LABEL: Fader handles.
These are the fader handles or the dissolve levers. They
are like audio pots or volume controls in that they provide
varying signal strengths. However, they control video rather
than audio signals. The handles are set in opposition to one
another so that when one is all the way on, the other is all
the way off.
MOVE handles from A to B.-
The fade-in labels beside each handle are like arrows:
the words are the feathers, the lines are shafts pointing to
the full on position for that handle.
MOVE handles from B to A.

To use the faders, first cut to effects:

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

41.

42.
43.

44.

7O
PANEL-~PUSH tE.
You must have a picture to work with in the effects
busses:
PUSH a5--PUSH b9--MOVE handles A to B.
Now, with 5 up, moving the handles away from A bus fades out
the picture . . .
CU Demonstration object (5's shot)--FADE OUT.
PANEL.
. . . nothing fades in on B because 9 has no signa1--it is
black. Moving the handles back to A . . .
MOVE handles B to A.
CU Demonstration object (5's shot)--FADE IN.
. . . fades in the camera that is punched up in the A bus.
The B bus works in the same way, though the fader handle moves
in the opposite direction.
PANEL--PUSH a9--PUSH b4.
Now there is no picture in A, and 4 1a punched up, waiting,

in B. Moving the handles to B will fade in 4's shot . . .

LPANEL-MOVE handles A to B.

MS Demonstration (4's shot)--FADE IN.
. . . moving away from B will fade it out again.
PANEL-~MOVE handles B to A.
MS Demonstration (4's shot)--FADE OUT.
PANEL--PUSH a5.
Obviously, if you have a camera punched up in each bank,
moving the faders from one bank to the other will fade out one

picture . . .

45.
'\46.

47.

48.
49.
50.

51.

52.

53.

54.

55.

56.

71

PANEL--MOVE handles 1/3 A to B.
CU Demonstration object (5's shot)--FADE OUT about 1/3.
MS Demonstration (4's shot)--FADE IN about 1/3.

. . . while the other picture is fading in at the same time.
PANEL (45 continued)--MOVE handles from 1/3 to B.
CU Demonstration object (5's shot) (46 continued)--FADE OUT from 1/3.
MS Demonstration (4's shot) (47 continued)--FADE IN from 1/3.
PANEL--MOVE handles to A.

Of course, the audience sees the simultaneous fade-out

and fade-in on the screen all at once--what they see is .....
MOVE handles A to B.
CU Demonstration object (5's shot)--DISSOLVE TO--MB Demonstration

(4's shot).

. . . a dissolve.
PANEL--PUSH a3.

When you dissolve, you must watch to see not only what

camera is punched up in the bus where your levers are, but

what is punched up in the bus where your levers are going:
MOVE handles B to A.
MS Demonstration (4's shot)--DISSOLVE TO--TEST PATTERN (3's shot).
PANEL.

.Wherever your levers are, you can cut from camera to camera

just by pushing buttons:
PUSH a4--PUSH a5.
TEST PATTERN (3's shot)--CUT TO--MS Demonstration (4's shot)--

CUT TO--CU Demonstration object (5's shot).

72
57. PANEL.
Dissolving requires that you set up a camera in the other
bus and move the faders.
PUSH b8--MOVE handles A to B.
58. CU Demonstration object (5's shot)--DISSOLVE TO--SLIDE (miscel-
laneous).
59. PANEL--PUSH a9.
Dissolving to an empty chain dissolves to black--a fade out.
MOVE handles B to A.
60. SLIDE (miscellaneous)--FADE OUT.
61. PANEL--PUSH a4.
When you superimpose one picture on another it becomes
obvious why the fader handles work in opposite directions.
There must be 100% of picture signal sent out. At the full
pp_position, 100% does get sent out.
MOVE handles 1/3 Alto B.
Moving the handles together . . . as the A.bus goes 1/3 off,
the B bus comes on 1/3 to maintAin a full 100% of picture
signal--two pictures, of course, but a full signal of the
mixture.
MOVE handles from 1/3 to 1/2.
At the halfway point the mixture between the two pictures is
50-50 to give the necessary 100%. And, visually, a dissolve
halted halfway . . .
62. SUPERIMPOSURE: SLIDE (miscellaneous)--OVER--MS Demonstration
(4's shot).

. . . is a superimposure. Generally it is easiest to super

63.

64.

65.

66.

67.

68.

69.

70.

73
white letters on a black background over another shot. The
letters may be from a slide, or from a card or roll drum in
the studio.

PANEL--MOVE handles B to A.
Reversing the dissolve fades the super out:
SUPERIMPOSURE: SLIDE (miscellaneous)--OVER--MS Demonstration
(4's shot)--FADE OUT SLIDE.
PANEL.
The commands from the director are, "Super!?”--you move
the handles halfway . . .
MOVE handles 1/2 A to B.
MS Demonstration (4's shot)--FADE IN SUPERIMPOSURE--SLIDE (mis-
cellaneous).
PANEL. (65 continued).
. . . and "Lose the super%"--you reverse the move to come
out full on the background shot.
MOVE handles 1/2 to A.
SUPERIMPOSURE: SLIDE (miscellaneous)--OVER--MS Demonstration
(4's shot)--FADE OUT SLIDE.
PANEL-~MOVE handles 1/2 A to B.
When you are in a super, a fade to black is achieved by
splitting the handles so that each moves to its own off position.
SPLIT handles, MOVE each tolpff.
This way, both pictures fade out simultaneously.
SUPERIMPOSURE: SLIDE (miscellaneous)--OVER--MS Demonstration

(4's shot)--FADE OUT.

74
71. FADE IN--MCU--Panel.
A review of the operation of the switching panel will help
you to remember these points: Pushbutton switches connected
to the video chains are arranged in horizontal rows called banks
or busses. This is a three-bus switching panel.
72. TITLE: _T_a_l_<_§_.
The take bus gives its name to the operation of cutting from
one camera to another.
73. PANEL--in succession PUSH t1; t2; t3; t4; t5; t6.
Pushing a button in the take bus accomplishes the cut.
74. MONTAGE--1's shot--2's shot--3's shot (test pattern)--4's shot (MS
of demonstration)--5's shot (CU of demonstration object)--
6's shot.
75. TITLE: Effects.
The effects busses, A and B, allow you to make fades,
dissolves and superimposures.
76. PANEL--PUSH t3.
First, cut to the effects busses by pushing the effects button.
This cuts towwhatever has been set up below.
PUSH a4--PUSH tE.
77. TEST PATTERN (3's shot)--CUT TO--MS Demonstration (4:3 shot).
The fader handles work in opposite directions. Moving from
one bus to the other--with a picture in each . . .
78. PANEL--PUSH b7--MOVE handles A to B.
79. MS Demonstration (4's shot)--DISSOLVE TO--TITLE: Dissolve.
. . . creates a dissolve.‘ Dissolving to an empty chain creates

a fade out.

80.
81.

82.

83.

84.

85.

86.

75
PANEL--PUSH b4--PUSH a9--MOVE handles B to A.
MS Demonstration (4's shot)--FADE OUT.
TITLE: Superimposure.
A super is a dissolve halted halfway:
FADE IN under title-~MS Demonstration (4's shot) for SUPERIMPOSURE.
PANEL--handles AT 1/2.
Coming out of a super is a matter of completing the dissolve
so that you get the desired picture--usually the background--
full strength while the letters or other super material fade
out.
MOVE handles from 1/2 to B.
SUPERIMPOSURE: TITLE Superimposure--OVER--MS Demonstration (4's
shot)--FADE OUT TITLE.
PANEL--MOVE handles B to 1/2.
Going to black from a super could be accompliShed with a cut
to an empty chain:
Hand POINTS to a9.
A fade out from a super requires you to move each fader handle
to.pff.
SPLIT handles, MOVE each to pff.
SUPERIMPOSURE: TITLE The End--OVER--MS Demonstration (4's shot)--

FADE OUT.

76

SHOOTING SCRIPT: The Television Switching Panel

 

 

 

Scene Shot
Number Description
1. l. FADE IN--MS--Man demonstrating with clock on pedestal.
2. 2. CU--Clock on pedEStal, man's hands demonstrating--FADE OUT.
3. 3. FADE IN--MS--Demonstration (as 1)--DISSOLVE TO
3a. CU--Clock (as 2).
4. 4. TITLE: The Television Switching Panel.
5. 5. MB--Panel, from angle--no lights on.
6. 6. CS--Panel from operator's position; no lights on.
-6h. POP ON LABEL: Tpkg at take bus.
6b. POP ON LABELS: Effects;,A; B; at effects busses.
7. 7. MS--Exterior of Camera 1.
. 8. MS--Exterior of Camera 2.
9. MS--Exterior of Camera 3.
10. ‘MS--Exterior of Camera 4.
11. MS--Exterior of Camera 5.
12. ‘MS--Exterior of Camera 6.
8. l3. CS--Panel from operator's position; no lights (as 6).
9. 14.. PROJECTION ROOM--MS--Film projector--PAN TO slide projectors.
10. 15. PROJECTION ROOM--MS--Iconoscope slide projectors.
ll. 16. PANEL--CU--#9 buttons with LABEL: Spare.
12. 17. MS--Side of Camera 4--PAN TO SEE Man demonstrating (as 1).
13. 18. CS--Side of Camera 5--PAN TO SEE CU of clock (as 2).
14. 19. PANEL--CS from Operator's position; no lights (as 6)--PUSH t4.
15. 20. ‘MS--Man demonstrating (as 1).

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.
21.

22.

23.
24.

25.

26.

27.
28.

29.

21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
272
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
30a.
30b.

30c.

33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39'.
40.
41.

77
PANEL--CS (as 6)--light on t4--PUSH t5.
MS--Man demonstrating (as l).
CU--Clodk (as 2).
PANEL--CS (as 6)--1ight on t5--PUSH t4--PUSH t5--PUSH t4.
CU--Clock (as 2).
MS--Man demonstrating (as l).
CU--Clock (as 2).
MS--Man demonstrating (as 1).
MS--Camera 3 from angle to include Test Pattern it is shooting.
PANEL--CS (as 6)--1ight on t4--PUSH t3 and HOLD DOWN.
MS--Man demonstrating (as l).
CU--Test pattern.
(continuation) Hand HOLDING t3.
(continuation) Hahd RELEASES;t3.
(continuation) PUSH t4--PUSH t5--firmly--Hand MOVES OUT.
Then-~Hand MOVES IN--PUSH t1--PUSH t2--PUSH t3--PUSH t4--
PUSH t5--PUSH t6.
WILD SHOT* as if Camera l's shot.
WILD SHOT as if Camera 2's shot.
CU--Tbst pattern (as 32).
MS--Man demonstrating (as l).
CU--Clock (as 2)
WILD SHOT as if Camera 6's shot.
PANEL--CS (as 6)--light on t6--PUSH t7.
FILM CLIP--WILD--as if on projector.

PANEL--CS (as 6)--light on t7--PUSH t8.

78

30. 42. CU--Station identification slide.

31. 43. PANEL--CS (as 6)--(light on t8)--PUSH t9.

32. 44. BLACK--insert slug.*

33. 45. PANEL--CS (as 6)--no lights on--MASK COVERING effects button
and banks. MASK MOVES to REVEAL effects button with LABEL:
Effects--PAUSE--MASK.MOVES to REVEAL effects banks with
ARROWS from a9 and b9 to tE--Handles at A. PAUSE. Hand
MOVES IN--PUSH tE--PAUSE--PUSH t4.

34. 46. PANEL--CU--fader handles with LABEL: Fader Handles and with
ARROWS: Fade in A; Fade in B. ‘PAUSE. Hand MOVES IN--
MOVE handles A to B--PAUSE--MOVE handles B to A.

35. 47. PANEL--CS (as 6)--light on t4; handles at A with arrows--
PUSH tE--PUSH a5--PUSH b9--MOVE handles A to B.

36. 48. CU--Clock (as 2)--FADE OUT.

37.. 49. PANEL--CS (as 6)--lights on tE, a5, b9; handles at B with
arrows--MOVE handles B to A.

38. 50. FADE IN--CU--Clock (as 2).

39. 51. PANEL--CS (as 6)--lights on tE, a5, b9; handles at A with
arrows--PUSH a9--PUSH b4.

40. 51a. (continuation) MOVE handles A to B.

41. 52. FADE IN--MS--Man demonstrating (as l).

42. 53. PANEL--CS (as 6)--lights on tE, a9, b4; handles at B with
arrows--MOVE handles B to A.

43. 54. MS--Man demonstrating (as 1)--FADE OUT.

44. 55. PANEL--CS (as 6)--1ights on tE, a9, b4; handles at A with

arrows--PUSH a5.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

51.

52.

53.

54.

55.

56.

57.

58.

59.

60.

55a.
56.
57.
55b.
56a.
57a.

58.

59.
59a.

60.

61.

61a.

62.

63.
64.
65.

66.

67.

67a.

68.

69.

79

(continuation) MOVE handles 1/3 A to B.

CU--Clock (as 2)--START FADE OUT (about 1/3).

START FADE IN (about l/3)--MS--Man demonstrating (as 1).

(continuation) MOVE handles from 1/3 to B.

(continuation) COMPLETE FADE OUT of CU--Clock (as 2).

(continuation) COMPLETE FADE IN of MS--Man demonstrating (as 1).

PANEL--CS (as 6)--lights on tE, a5, b4; handles at B with
arrows--MOVE (RESET) Handles B to A--MOVE handles A to B.

CU--Clock (as 2)--DISSOLVE TO

‘MS--Man demonstrating (as l).

PANEL--CS (as 6)--lights on tE, a5, b4; handles at B with
arrows--PUSH a3--MOVE handles B to A.

MS--Man demonstrating (as 1)--DISSOLVE TO

CU--Test pattern (as 32).

PANEL--CS (as 6)--lights on tE, a3, b4; handles at A with
arrows--PUSH a4--PUSH a5.

CU--Test pattern (as 32).

MS--Man demonstrating (as l).

CU--Clock (as 2).

PANEL--CS (as 6)--1ights on tE, a5, b4; handles at A with
arrows--PUSH b8--MOVE handles A to B.

CU--C10ck (as 2)--DISSOLVE TO

CU--Station ID slide (as 42).

PANEL--CS (as 6)--lights on tE, a5, b8; handles at B with
arrows--PUSH a9--MOVE handles B to A.

CU--Station ID slide (as 42)--FADE OUT.

61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

66.

67.

68.

69.

70.

71.

72.

73.

74.

70.

74.

75.

76.

77.

78.

83.

84.

80

PANEL--CS (as 6) lights on tE, a9, b8; handles at A.with
arrows--PUSH a4--PAUSE--MOVE handles 1/3 A to B--PAUSE--
MOVE handles from 1/3 to 1/2.

SUPERIMPOSURE of CU--Station ID slide (as 42)--OVER--MS--
Man demonstrating (as 1).

PANEL--CS (as 6)--lights on tE, a4, b8; handles at 1/2 with
arrows--MOVE handles from 1/2 to A.

SUPERIMPOSURE of CU--Station ID card (as 42)--OVER--MS--
Man demonstrating (as 1)--FADE OUT SLIDE.

PANEL--CS (as 6)--lights on tE, a4, b8; handles at A with
arrows--MOVE handles 1/2 A to B.

MS--Man demonstrating (as l)--FADE IN SUPERIMPOSURE-~CU--
Station ID slide (as 42).

PANEL (repeat of 72).

SUPERIMPOSURE (repeat of 73).

PANEL--CS (as 6)--1ights on tE, a4, b8; handles at A with
arrows--MOVE handles 1/2 A to B--PAUSE--SPLIT handles to
22:; positions.

SUPERIMPOSURE of CU--Station ID slide (as 42)--OVER--MS--
Man demonstrating (as 1)--FADE OUT.

FADE IN--PANEL--CS (as in 6)--no lights on; handles at A.

TITLE: Eggs.

PANEL-~CS (as 6)--no lights on--PUSH tl--PUSH t2-—PUSH t3--
PUSH t4--PUSH t5--PUSH t6.

WILD SHOT (repeat 33).

WILD SHOT (repeat 34).

75.

76.

77.

78.

79.

80.

81.

82.

83.

84.

85.

86.

85.
86.
87.
88.
89.

90.

91.
92.

93.

94.

94a.

95.

96.

97.

97a.

98.

99.

100.

101.

81

CU--Test pattern (as 32).

MS--Man demonstrating (as l).

CU--Clock (as 2).

WILD SHOT (repeat 38).

TITLE: Effects.

PANEL--CS (as 6)--light on t6--PUSH t3--PAUSE--PUSH a4--

PUSH tE.

CU--Test pattern (as 32).

MS--Man demonstrating (as 1).

PANEL--CS (as 6)--lights on tE, a4; handles at A--PUSH b7--
MOVE handles A to B.

MS--Man demonstrating (as l)--DISSOLVE TO

TITLE: Dissolve.

PANEL--Cs (as 6)--lights on tE, a4, b7; handles at B--Push b4--
PUSH a9--MOVE handles B to A.

MS--Man demonstrating (as 1)--FADE OUT.

TITLE: Superimposure--FADE IN SUPERIMPOSURE OF:

MS--Man demonstrating (as l).

PANEL--CS (as 6)--lights on tE, a8, b4; handles at l/2--MOVE
handles from 1/2 to B.

SUPERIMPOSURE of TITLE: Superimposure--OVER--MS--Man demon-
strating (as l)--FADE OUT TITLE.

PANEL--CS (as 6)--1ights on tE, a8, b4; handles at B--MOVE
handles from B to l/2--PAUSE--Hand POINTS to a9--PAUSE--
SPLIT handles to pff positions.

SUPERIMPOSURE of TITLE: The End--OVER--MS--Man demonstrating

(as 1)--FADE OUT.

82

EDITING NOTES: The Television Switching Panel

(These notes show the construction and sequence of the final edited
version of the film.)
.sme
1-16 no changes (other than shot length)
insert 2 seconds of black
17 no change
insert 17a: MS of man demonstrating with clock
18 no change
insert 18a: CU of clock in demonstration
insert 2 seconds of black
19-28 no changes
insert 2 seconds of black
29 no change
30 cut at second edge # plus 6—frames
31-32 no changes
insert remainder of 30 (portion after 2nd # plus 6 frames) for timing,
then continue with 30 a, b, c.
33-38 cut to 1 second each; trim in from head of 35, back from tail of
36 to retain kinescoped cut between shots (so action will match)
39 no change
. 40 use clip of car moving (extra take) from Continuity in Cutting
41-44 no changes
45 cut after hand pushes tE (eliminating pushing t4)
insert 45a: CU of labeled effects button with arrows from a9 and b9

46 use take #2 with several repetitions of handle movement

83
are;
47-59 no changes
join 60 and 62; 61 out
63-69 no changes
70 out
insert 70a: angle shot of busses, push a4, pan to fader handles; join
to 70b: CU handles
71-82 no changes
83-88 see notes for 33-38
insert 2 seconds of black
89-97 no changes
insert 98a: CU of fader handles at 1/2

98-101 no changes

Picture

MAN WITH CLOCK--
cut, fades,
dissolve

TITLE

PANEL from angle

PANEL from

r operator's
position
Take LABEL

Effects, _A_, B
LABELS

CAMERAS 1-6

PANEL

FILM PROJECTOR
pan to SLIDE
PROJECTOR

SLIDE PROJECTOR

at icOnoscope

9 BUTTONS with
Spare LABEL

(9 buttons)

BLACK

84

 

- COMMENTARY: The Television Switching Panel
Narration

To change from shot to shot, you must be
able to operate . . .

. . . the Television Switching Panel.

A panel consists of pushbutton switches con-
nected to the camera, or video, chains. Each
horizontal row of buttons is called a‘pgpk or a .
223.

This is a three-bus switching panel.

The top bus is the‘Tgkg bus . . .

. . . the lower two are the Effects busses--A and
B. Each bus has one button from every video chain.
Numbered indicator lights.identify the chains.

1 through 6 are the studio cameras . . .

.1. . 7 and 8 are projection roomcchains:

7 is a vidicon camera for film and slides--the film
chain;.

8 is an iconoscope camera for other slide projectors--
the slide chain.

9 is a spare switch. It can be connected to other
equipment--a remote feed, or a network line.

When no signal is connected to it, 9 is used for

. . . black.

Picture

CAMERA 4

MS Demonstration
CAMERA 5
CU Clock

PANEL
push t4

MS Demonstration

PANEL
push t5
MS cuts to
CU CLOCK
PANEL
push between
4 and 5

Cuts between MS
and Clock

CAMERA 3 & TP

PANEL, push t3
MS, cut to TP

PANEL, hand on t3

85

Narration

To see the panel operate we need some example
shots. Camera 4 has a medium shot of this demon-

stration . . .

. . . Camera 5 has a close-up.

The Take bus is used for "taking" or cutting
to a picture. Starting with no picture, pushing

button 4 creates a cut to camera 4's shot.

The indicator light shows that 4 is on. To
cut from 4 to 5, push 5's button in the Take bus.
The lights change . .

. . . and the pictures change.

Cutting between shots is simply a matter of push-

ing the proper buttons.

Because you can cut to any camera in the sta-
tion, you must check before pushing a button--
you might get a camera being lined up in another

studio.

Whenever you push a button, release it immedi-..

ately. The cut occurs when the button goes down,

(Hand on t3)

Hand releases t3
then pushes
4--5

Push l, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6

SIX SHOTS

PANEL push t7
CAR

PANEL push t8
STATION ID slide
PANEL push t9
BLACK

PANEL with mask

over effects'
busses

Mask moves to show
Effects LABEL

Mask moves to show
effects busses

CU effects button
and handles

LABELS on handles

Handles are moved
several times

86
but the indicator light comes on only when the
button is released.

. and release.

Press firmly . .

Just as you can cut to any camera . . .

. . . so you can cut to the film chain . . .

. . . to the slide chain . . .

. . . and to black.

A single bus allows you only to cut between
shots. To create fades, dissolves and superimpo-
sures we need more busses.

An extra switch, the Effects button, is used

to activate the . . .

. .'. effects busses, A and B.

These busses feed directly into the effect button.
The handles are fader handles or dissolve levers.

Each handle controls one bus. It turns that bus
on and off gradually, much as an audio pot controls
volume. The two handles move in opposite directions.
The fade-in labels are like arrows: the words are

the feathers, the lines are shafts pointing to the

PANEL push tE,
a5, b9

Handles A to B

Clock

FADES OUT

PANEL, handles
move B to A
FADE IN Clock

' PANEL push a9, b4
Handles A to B
FADE IN

Demonstration

PANEL, handles
move B to A

Demonstration
FADES OUT

PANEL, push a5

Handles move
1/3 toward B

Demonstration
FADES SLIGHTLY

Clock
FADES IN SLIGHTLY

87
‘22 position for each handle. The handles work
in opposition so that as one comes on, the other
goes off.
To create effects, first cut to the effects
Of course we need pictures--camera 5's

busses.

closeup in A, 9 or black in B.

Moving the handles away from A fades out the
picture there . . .
. . . nothing comes in from B because we punched
black.
Moving the handles toward A fades in the camera
punched up there.
The B bus works the same way: 9 gives us
nothing in A; 4 is punched up, waiting in B.

Moving the handles to B fades in 4's picture.

Moving them away fades it out.

If you have a picture in each bus--5 in A and 4

in B--moving the handles will . . .

. fade out one picture . . .

. and fade in the other.

PANEL handles move
to B

Demonstration
FADES OUT

Clock FADES IN

PANEL, reset handles

then move A to B

Demonstration DIS-
SOLVES TO Clock

PANEL, push a3,

reset handles to A,

push a4, a5
TP, CUT TO

Demonstration,

CUT TO Clock
PANEL, push b8
Handles move A

to B

Clock DISSOLVES T0
ID slide

PANEL, push a9
move handles
B to A

Slide FADES OUT

PANEL

Handles move 1/3

Handles move
to 1/2

88

On the air this is seen all at once . . .

. . . a dissolve.

Of course you can cut in whatever bus is on
the air--A for instance. You don't have to use

the take bus.

Then, when you want to dissolve--to a slide, for
instance--punch it up in the other bus and move

the handles.

For a fade out, punch up the empty line and . . .

. . . dissolve to black.

The fader handles move in opposite directions
so that a full strength signal is always sent out.
In this position the signal is 100% from A.

As A bus goes off 30%, B comes on 30%--the two

pictures are in a 70-30 mixture to give 100% sig-
nal strength. At the halfway point, the mixture
is 50-50. Visually, a dissolve stOpped in the

middle like this is a . . .

SUPER: ID over
Demonstration

PANEL move handles
to A

SUPER--ID fades
out

PANEL move handles
to 1/2

Demonstration,
SUPER ID

PANEL move handles
to A
SUPER--ID fades

out

PANEL, handles at
1/2

Handles split
SUPER: ID and
Demonstration

FADES TO BLACK

PANEL

TITLE: Take

PANEL, push I,

SIX shots

89
. . . superimposure. Usually a super puts white
letters over a background shot. The letters may
come from a slide, a card, a roll drum or any
similar source.

Moving the handles toward the background shot

fades the supered material out.

Dissolving halfway brings a super in smoothly . . .

. . . reversing the move to come out full on the

background fades it out.

From the middle of a super you can fade to
black by moving each handle to its own off position.
This is called splitting the handles; it fades out

each bus.

In review, remember these points: The
switching panel has pushbutton switches connected
to the video chains. Each horizontal row is a bus.

The top, 5233, has gives its name to the

operation of cutting between cameras.

Push a button firmly and release it to make a cut.

TITLE: Effects

PANEL, push t3, a4,
tE

TP CUTS TO
Demonstration

PANEL, push b7
move handles
A to B
Demonstration
DISSOLVES TO
TITLE: Dissolve.

PANEL, push b4,
a9, handles to A

Demonstration
FADES OUT

CU handles at 1/2

.PANEL, handles move
from 1/2 to B

SUPER: TITLE:
Super over Demon-
stration; TITLE
FADES OUT

PANEL, handles at
1/2

Point at a9

(Panel)
Handles split

SUPER: TITLE: The

End over Demonstr-

tion; FADE OUT

90
The effects busses, A and B, allow you to
create fades, dissolves and superimposures.
Push the effects button to cut to whatever is set

up in the A and B busses.

The fader handles work in opposite directions.

Moving from one bus to another creates a dissolve.

A dissolve to an empty chain is a fade out.

A dissolve stepped halfway through is a super-
imposure.
Completing the dissolve fades out the supered

material.

From the middle of a super you can cut to
black by punching up the empty chain in the £253
bus.
To fade to black from the super, split the handles--

move each to its own off position.

APPENDIX B

Continuity in Cutting

91

92

TREATMENT: continuity in Cutting

f. This filmowilltshow theseiprinciples of maintaining continuity
when cutting from shot to shot:
1. Location of the center of interest within the frame.
2. Audience orientation to the scene.
3. Shot sequence--preserving orientation (LS-MS-CU).
4. Location of cameras around the scene: angles of view.

Although some mention will be made of the manner in which
these principles affect individual shot composition, the emphasis will
be on how they affect sequence of two or more shots joined by cuts.
Thus, the primary concern of the film will be the flow between pictures
rather than individual pictorial content.

Several example scenes will be used to illustrate each princi-
ple. These examples will be drawn from typical program situations
(e.g., interviews, discussions, demonstrations, lectures, commercials).

Either direct photography or kinescope recording,3but not both,
will be used for the examples--they must all have the same picture
quality.

Specific errors to be illustrated include jumping the subject
around in the frame, throwing the subject from one setting to another,
showing unexplained actions and unidentified characters, leaving se-
quences uncompleted, and jumping the audience from viewpoint to view-

point.

93

SCENARIO: Continuity in Cutting

Scene Number
and Description Narration

1.

FADE IN--DIAGRAM--Symbols: Ball; Cylinder & ball; Cube.

These symbols represent three basic principles for achiev-
ing . . .
TITLE--Contingity in Cuttihg.
. . . continuity in cutting.
BALL--CUTS to make it jump around in frame.

The first principle:is screen location.

'MS--CYLINDER & BALL against background A--jump to background B--
to A--to B--then CUT TO--LS--CUT To--CU.

The second principle is“ orientation , . . and sequence.

CUBE--CUT BETWEEN MS from low right and CU from high left.

The third is yieypoint.

EMPTY FRAME.

The frame is a fixed boundary marking off the limits of
the screen. Everything seen within the frame is placed there--
it has location.

TITLE: Screen Location POPS INTO FRAME.
BALL--CUTS to make it jump around in frame.

Because the boundary is fixed, a change in screen location

may appear to be a jump when you cut. I
MCU of‘Man--Cuts to jump him around in frame.

The center of interest must be similarly located from shot

to shot or cuts will be jumps. The man is bobbed around,

instead of . . .

10.

11.
12.

13.

14.

15.

l6.

17.

18.

19.

94
MCU of Man--CUTS to keep him located.
. . . held in a constant location. A constant location pro-
vides continuity from shot to shot.
MS--Man holds up demonstration item.
The center of interest in the shot, the focus of attention,
is what must be held constant. Other things may be displaced
by the cut,dbut not the central interest point.
Jumpy CUTS between'Man and CU of item.
Smooth CUTS between Man and CU of item.
MS--Man.
Jumpiness may occur when the subjects of two shots are
similar in size and shape, even though not exactly the same:
Jumpy CUTS between‘Man and Globe on pedestal.
'Mismatched locations cause a sensation of lurching--the sub-
ject is thrown from one spot to another and so is the audience.
Even with strong motivation for a cut . . .
MAN GLANCES off screen, POINTS to something out of frame.
Jumpy CUT to GLOBE on pedestal.
. . . there will be a jump if location is not held constant.
MAN GLANCES off screen--smooth CUT to Globe.
3-SHOT, People.

Screen location is even more complex and crucial when a
scene involves two or more items. One will be the focus of
interest; it must be in the same place in various shots of
the scene or a jump will occur.

Series of jumpy CUTS between 3-shot and 2-shots.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.
28.

29.

30.

31.

95
3-SHOT, Bottle, Glass, Straws.
The same thing can occur with inanimate objects as well as
with people.
Series of jumpy CUTS between shots~of bottle, glass and straws.
3-SHOT, people as in 18.
A constant screen location provides continuity between shots.
Good CUTS among people.
Bottle, Glass, Straws as in 20--smooth CUTS among them.
l-SHOT--CU--Man looking L, crowded R.
Screen location must be constant, and it must reflect
the reality of the situation.
1-SHOT--CU--Man looking R, crowded L.
CUTS between 24 and 25.
The truth of the scene must be apparent in each shot. Why
make two peOple appear back to back . . .
l-SHOTS (24 and 25)--PAN each to uncrowded framing.
CUTS between 24 and 25 with proper framing.
2-SHOT showing men from 24 and 25 sitting facing one another.'
. . . when in reality they are face to face?
This revealing two-shot leads to the second basic prin-
ciple of continuity in cutting:
TITLE: Qpientation and Sequence.
Ball & Cylinder on BG A--CUTS to jump it between BG's A and B.
It is difficult for the audience to understand what is
going on in a scene and where they are looking if you have

not oriented them . . .

96
32. Ball & Cylinder on A & B joined to make a corner (as of two walls).
. . . to the scene as a whole.
33. MS--Man in living roome-CUTS to jump him between living room and
blackboard.

Are we seeing this man jump from a living room to a
school room?

34. LS--Man in "office"--one wall looks like a living room, adjoining
wall has blackboard.

Or are we seeing him in his study? Perhaps it is his
office; or even a TV setting. The point is, provide an orien-
tation shot before you take shots of details. Establish the
whole scene first . . .

35. CUTS of man against living room and blackboard (as 33).
. . . so that the audience will understand where they are
1ooking--continuity will not be lost.

36. MLS--2 Men, seated, talking.

The orientation shot shows the whole of what we will be
looking at. Generally, it is a long shot, or a "cover" shot.
After using it, you can use medium and close shots without
disrupting continuity, for the audience will know where peeple
and things are.

37. Closer shots of the men in 36.
When the scene changes, you must reorient the audience so they
can see the new places for things. Provide a re-establishing,
or reorientation, shot . . .

38. LS--2 men seated as in 36--one RISES, CROSSES to map in BG.

97
39. Detail shots of man, map and other, seated, man.
. . . then concentrate attention on significant details again.
40. LS--as in 38--third man ENTERS, stands by chair-~then DETAIL SHOTS
of the men and map.
Reorient the audience at every new development.
41. LS--Cylinder & Ball
The other half of the second principle is sequence. Con-
tinuity is disrupted by too extreme a change from shot to shot.
CUT TO--CU
Here the change from long shot to close-up is too extreme.
42. LS--2 Men, seated.
The orientation shot shows the scene; it is a long shot.
43. MS from R angle of 2 men in 42.
The second shot--a medium shot-~shows where we are going to
concentrate; it indicates the direction of development.
44. CU--MMn facing camera in 43,
The close-up completes the sequence by presenting a detail
for examination.
45. LS--Man demonstrating with item.
46. MS--Man and item, from 45.
47. CU--Item, from 45.
This basic sequence provides continuity and smooth flow.
48. LS--Man, as 45--CUTS TO--CU--Item, as 47.
Omitting the middle shot breaks continuity.
49. YMCU--Man (different scene)--CUT TO--CU.
Starting too close prevents orientation; there is no under-

standing of the scene and the action.

51.

52.

53.

54.

55.

56.

57.

58.

59.

98
LS--Man working with small item,;pointing out fine details--
CUT TO--MS.
Leaving out close-ups makes the audience break concentration
with the wish to see important details better.
LS--Cylinder & Ball--CUT TO--MS--CUT TO--CU.

The sequence is the fundamental pattern; the variations
you work around it without breaking continuity are evidence
of a thoughtful, creative approach to the scene.

TITLE: Vieypoint.

After the orientation shot, a medium shot is used to tell
the audience where they stand. Proper viewpoint helps to keep
them on the same axis.

Cube--CUT from MS from low R.to CU from high L.
This is a jumpy way to go from medium shot to close-up.
MS--Man.with card turned to right.
CU--Card from 90° R of 54.
And so is this.
MS--Man with card not turned.
Keep the angle from which you view something consistent . . .
CUT TO--CU of card.
.7. . from shot to shot.
MS--Man seated.
CU--from wide L--of man in 57.
Viewpoint is a matter of horizontal angle .

'MS-4Man seated, as in 57.

61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

66.

67.

68.

99
CU--from R and UP--of man in 57.
. . . and vertical angle. Don't jump from viewpoint to
viewpoint . . .
LS--Man seated, as in 57--CUT TO-eMS--CUT T0--CU--each from dif-
ferent horizontal and vertical angles.
. . . when it is so easy to maintain continuity by keeping
a constant viewpoint.
LS--Man seated, as in 57--CUT TO-6HS--CUT TO--CU--with matched
viewpoints.
LS--2 people, standing, talking.
The long shot orients the audience to the scene.
'MS--pe0ple in 63.
The medium shot shows a base position from whichssomething
will be seen.
CU--mmn in 64.
The close-up must be consistent with that base position.
2-SHOT, people facing, talking.
The base position is established in relation to a
line of action. [The line of action can be physical or psye:
-chologica1. In this scene it is a psychological line running
-from face to face. You must not cut across this line of action.
If you do, you will disrupt continuity.
Bad CUTS across line of people in 66.
REVERSE ANGLE SHOTS across line, as in 66.
Cutting across the line can even make two people appear to

be facing in the same direction. . .

69.

70.

71.

72.

73.

74.

75.

76.

77.

78.

100
CUTS between CU's across line, as in 66.
2-SHDT, as in 66.
. . . when, of course, they are not.
MS--action moving L to R across screen.
When the line of action is one of physical action, all
viewpoints must be on the same side of the line . . .
Action as in 71 from ACROSS LINE.
. . . or the action will reverse direction.
CUTS back and forth across line of action in 71.
CUTS between shots on one side of line of action in 71.
A consistent viewpoint provides continuity and carries the
action forward in a constant direction.
TITLE: Continuity.
Continuity is the continuation of audience interest, under-
standing and involvement from shot to shot. A cut that is
abrupt and jarring breaks audience involvement. Good cutting
continuity can be achieved with . . .
Ball--steady in center of screen.

. . . proper screen location, matched from shot to shot . . .
LS--Cylinder & Ball in front of corner formed by BG's A and B--

CUT TO--MS--CUT TO--CU.

. . . orientation to the scene and good cutting sequence; . .
MS--Cube--CUT T0--CU from matched angle.

. . . and wellvchosen, consistently maintained viewpoints.

FADE OUT.

101

SHOOTING SCRIPT: Continuity in Cutting

 

 

 

 

Scene Shot
Number Description
1. 1. SYMBOLS: Ball; Cylinder & Ball; Cube-~together.
2. 2. TITLE: Continuity in Cutting.
3. 3. SYMBOL: Ball--centered.
4. Ball--new spot.
5. Ba11--new spot.
6. Ba11--new spot.
7. Ba11--new spot
4. 8. MS--SYMBOL: Cylinder & Ball 0N BC A.
9. MS--SYMBOL: Cylinder & Ball ON BC B.
10. (repeat 8)
11. (repeat 9)
12. LS--Cylinder & Ball 0N BG A.
13. CU--Cylinder & Ball 0N BG B.
5. l4. MB--SYMBOL: Cube--from low R.
15. CU--SYMBOL: Cube--from high L.
16. (repeat 14)
17. (repeat 15)
18. (repeat 14)
6. 19. EMPTY FRAME
20. TITLE: Screen Location.
7. 21. SYMBOL: Ba11--centered--(repeat 3).
22. (repeat 4)
23. (repeat 5)

10.

ll.

12.

13.

14.

15.
16.

17.

24.
25.

26.

27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.

33.

34.
35.
34a.
36.
37.
38.

39.

41.
42.

43.

45.
46.

47.

102
(repeat 6)
(repeat 7)
MCU-~Girl holding up cola bottle; table before her with glass
and straws on mat.
MS--Girl--new framing.
CU--Gir1--new framing.
MCU--Gir1--new framing.
MCU--Girl with bottle (as in 26)--properly framed.
MS--Gir1--frame to match 30.
(repeat 30)
MS--Gir1 in setting as in 26--she LIFTS bottle from table to
hold it beside her face.
CU--bottle--misframe.
MS--Gir1 holding up bottle--new framing.. ,
(repeat 34)
(repeat 33)
CU--bottle--match framing to 36.
(repeat 36)
(repeat 37)

MS--Girl as in 26.

’MB-Globe on draped pedestal in LIMBO--frame to mismatch 40.

MS--Gir1--new framing.

MS--Globe--new framing.

MS--Girl, as in 26--she LOOKS, then POINTS 0... of frame.
MS--Globe, as in 41--frame to mismatch 44.

(repeat 44)

MS--Globe--match framing to 46.

18.

48.

19. 49.

21.

22.

23.

24.

50.
51.
52.

53.

55.
56.
57.
58.

59.

61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.

69.

103

LS--3-SHOT--Girl and 2 Men seated around table; girl in center,
1 man on each side.

MLS from R--3-SHOT as in 48.

MS from L--Gir1 and Man on R.

MS from center--Gir1 and Man on L.

MS--Girl from over the shoulder of Man on R.

MS--Girl from over the shoulder of Man on L.

FULL SHOT--LIMBO--Bottle, Glass and Straws on mat on table;
Class at L; Bottle in Center; Straws at R.

MB--items in 54.

‘MS—from L--Bottle and Straws.

‘MS from Rr-Glass and Bottle.

LS--3-SHOT--Gir1 and 2 Men around table, as in 48.

MS from center-~Man on L and Girl-~PAN RIGHT TO-éMS--Girl and
Man on R.

MB--Gir1 from over the shoulder of Man on Rr-PAN LEFT TO--
2-SI-DT--Girl and Man on L.

‘MCU from L--Girl.'

MS from L-~ Girl over the shoulder of Man on L.

3-SHOT--(repeat 58)

FULL SHOTr-LIMBO--Bott1e, Glass and Straws, as in 54.

(repeat 57)

MLS from R--3-SHOT--Bottle, Glass and Straws.

‘MS from L--2-SHOT--Bottle and Straws.

(repeat 64)

CU-4Man in informal discussion setting, facing L--framing crowds

hip-assists: 1L~o¢d890

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

31.

32.

33.

71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.

80.

81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.

-87.

88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.

104

CU-éMan in informal discussion setting, facing R--framing
crowds‘hhm against R edge.

(repeat 69)

(repeat 70)

(repeat 69)

(repeat 70)

CU-éMan, as in 69--PAN L TO proper framing.

CU--Man, as in 70 but properly framed.

CU-éMan, as in 69 but properly framed (as at end of 75).

(repeat 76)

(repeat 77)

MB--2 Men in discussion setting (as in 69, 70) seated facing
each other.

(repeat 77)

(repeat 76)

(repeat 80)

TITLE: Orientation and Seguonce.

us-osnmom cylinder & Ball on so A (repeat 8)

MS--SYMBOL: Cylinder & Ball on 36 B (repeat 9).

(repeat 8)

(repeat 9)

(repeat 8)

LS--SYMBOL: Cylinder a Ball ON coma of BG's A e I: joined.

MS-dMan seated in "living room"--from L.

MS--Man seated in "classroom"--from R.

(repeat 91)

(repeat 92)

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

391

41.

42.

95.

96.
97.

98.

99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.

109.

110.
111.
112.
113.
114.
115.
116.

117.

105

MLS-~Man seated in "office" setting composed of living room
wall as in 91, and classroom wall as in 92.

(repeat 91)

(repeat 92)

MLS-~2-SHOT--Gir1 seated on couch, Man on chair facing her;
Map on wall in background.

MS from R--Gir1 past man.

CU from R--Gir1.

MS--2-SHOT--from side.

MS from L--Man over the shoulder of Girl.

MLS from L--Man RISES and CROSSES TO Map--PAN with cross.

MS--Man at Map .

MS--Gir1.

MCU--Man at Map--he POINTS to detail on map.

CU--finger pointing at detail on map.

MS-dMan at Map, POINTING as in 106.

MLS--2-SHOT--Girl seated on couch, Man at Map-~Second Girl
ENTERS to STAND behind seated girl.

MS--2-SHOT--Girls.

MS-eMan at Map.

(repeat 110)

CU--Girl standing--she LOOKS toward map.

3-SHOT from L--Man at Map seen PAST girls on L.

LS--SYMBOL: Cylinder & Ball.

CU--SYMBOL: Cylinder & Ball.

MLS from center--2 Men seated facing one another.

43.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

51.

52.

53.

54.

55.

56.

118.
119.

120.

121.
122.
123.
124.
125.
126.

127.

128.
129.
130.
131.
132.
133.
134.
135.
136.

137.

138.
139.

140.

106

MS from R-éMan l facing camera, seen PAST Man 2.

CU--Man 1.

LS--LIMBO-~Girl with cola bottle--she LIFTS it to beside face,
POINTS at it.

MS--Gir1 POINTING at bottle, as in 120.

CU-vBottle in Girlds hands, as in 121.

LS--Girl holding up cola bottle.

CU--Bottle in Girl's hands.

'MCU-éMan pointing out elements on traffic instruction poster.

CU--Man in front of poster-~he LIFTS model car into shot.

LS--Man seated at table, working with very small item-~he
POINTS OUT some minute details.

MS--Man as in 127.

LS--SYMBOL: Cylinder & Ball 0N CORNER of BG's A & B (repeat 90).

MS of 129.

CU of 129.

TITLE: Viewpoint.

MS--SYMBOL: Cube-~from low'R. (repeat 14).

CU-«SYMBOLz-Icube--from high L (repeat 15).

(repeat 14)

(repeat 15)

MS--Girl in "Teen Time" program setting with card in hands
turned about 90° from camera.

CU--Card in Girl's hands, as in 137.

MS--Girl as in 137--card turned toward camera.

CU--Card in Girl's hands, as in 139.

57.
58.
59.
60.

61.

62.

63.

64.
65.
66.
67.
68.

69.

70.

71.
72.

73.

74.

141.
142.
143.
144.
145.
146.
147.
148.
149.
150.

151.

152.
153.
154.
155.
156.
157.
158,
159.
160.
161.
162.
163.
164.
165.

166.

107
MS--Man seated in "Late News" program setting.
CU-éMan--from wide L.
(repeat 141)
CU--Man--from R angle and UP.
LS--Man--from eye level, head on.
MS-4Man--frnm R angle and DOWN.
CM‘-Man--from L angle and UP.
(repeat 145)
MS-eMan--match angle of 148.
CUE-Mhn-—match angle of 148.
LS--2 Girls seated facing each other in "Signs of Ideas"
setting--from slightly R of Center.
us--2 Girls~-match angle of' 151. SHOOT EXTRA TAKES
CU-—Gir1 on L.
(repeat 152)
Girl at L from over the shoulder of Girl at R.
REVERSE ANGLE SHOT (across line) of 152. SHOOT EXTRA TAKES.
CU--Girl at R--from across line.
(repeat 153)
(repeat 152).
MLS--Car moving L to R.
REVERSE ANGLE SHOT of 160.
MLS--Car moving L to R (160 continued).
REVERSE ANGLE SHOT (161 continued).
(160 continued).
New angle, 160 action continued; same side of line.

New angle, 165 action continued; same side of line.

75.
76.

77.

78.

167.
168.
169.
170.
171.
172.

173.

108

TITLE: Continuity.

SYMBOL: Ball-~centered.

LS—wSYMBOL:

Cylinder & Ball ON CORNER of BG's A & B (repeat 90).

MS of 169 (repeat 130).

CU of 169 (repeat 131).

MS--SYMBOL:

CU--SYMBOL:

Cube.

Cube--match to 172--FADE OUT.

109

EDITING NOTES: Continuity in Cutting

(These notes show the construction and sequence of the final edited

version of the film,)

insert

 

 

2 TITLE: Continuity;in Cutting
1 3 SYMBOLS together.
3 Ball SYMBOL, centered, steady
20 TITLE: Screen Location
29, 27, 32, 31, 33, 38 Girl with cola bottle jumped around in frame
insert Black
54 Bottle, Glass and Straws
56 Glass and Straws
57 Glass and Bottle
48 LS--Girl and 2 Men around table
60 Girl from OS Man R--PAN L to Girl & Man L
62 Girl from 08 Man L
61 MCU--Girl--from L
insert Black
69-72 no changes (other than shot length)
75 no change
insert 74a Man facing R crowded against R edge--PAN to proper framing
77-78 no change
80-82 no change’
insert Black
3-7 Ball jumping--no changes

Black

Shots
12 Cylinder & Ball SYMBOL
84 TITLE: Orientationfiand Sequence

 

91-95 no changes
97 no change
insert 96a MCS of 91--Man in "living room"
insert Black
98-99 no changes
102 Boy OS Girl
100 CU Girl
insert 103a MS Map

105a Girl past empty chair

107 CU hand on map
113 CU second Girl,
106 MS Man at map
110 2-Shot of Girls

insert 4 seconds of black

101 VMLS Girl and Man

99 Take 2

100 Take 2

102 Take 2

insert 102a CU Man

103 MLS-4Man rises, goes to map
109 . Second girlr walks in

108 Man at map, pointing

107 CU hand on map

110

.8322
113

112

114
insert
117-119
insert
121-122
insert
120 and
124
insert
125

126

125
insert
127-128
insert
85-90
130-131
insert
173

132

145

146

14;

Take 2

2-Shot of Girls

3-Shot--Man from behind Girls
Black

no changes

Black

no changes

Black

123 Combine for longer timing
no change

Black

Man at Traffic poster--Cut in half
CU at poster
second half

Black

no changes

Black

no changes

no changes

Black

CU Cube SYMBOL
TITLE: Viewpoint
LS Man in News set
MS from low R

CU from up L

111

m
141

144

143
insert
148-150
insert
137
139-140
insert
151

156

151

152

153

154

157

155

157

155

157
157a
158
157a
158

159

MS

CU from R, up

MS

Black

no changes

Black

Girl with card at 900 to camera
no changes

Black

L8 2 Girls
REVERSE ANGLE
Take 2

MS

CU Girl on L

MS

CU Girl on R
Girl L OS Girl R
Take 2

Take 2

Take 4

MS Girl on R from across line
CU Girl on L
Take 2

Take 3

MS 2-Shot

112

113

Shots

insert Black

160 Car moving to R
161 Car moving to L
160 continued
161 continued
162 Car moving to R
163 car moving to L

insert Black
164-166 no changes
insert Black

133-136 Cube SYMBOL shots-~no changes

167 TITLE: Continuity

1 3 SYMBOLS together
168 Ball SYMBOL centered, steady
169 Ball & Cylinder on EC A & B corner

172 ' MS Cube

~Black

 

Shots deleted from conggfiuiry in Cutting:

8, 9, 10, 11, 13—-Cylinder & Ball symbol, various views
14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19--Cube symbol, various views

21, 22, 23, 24, 25--Ba11 symbol, various screen locations
26, 28, 30--Girl with cola bottle

34, 35, 36, 37, 39, 40--CU's from cola bottle sequence

41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47--Globe sequence

114
Shots deleted (continued):
49, 50, 51, 52, 53 and 63--Gir1 and 2 Men at table, various views
55, 58, 59 and 64, 65, 66, 67, 68--Bott1e, Glass and Straws, various views
73, 74, 76, 79 and 83--2 men seated facing each other
104 and 111--Man at map
115, 116--Ball & Cylinder symbol
129--Ba11 & Cylinder on EC A & B corner
138--cu card in Girl's hands from 90° angle
146--Man in news set

170, 171--Ba11 & Cylinder symbol

115

COMMENTARY: Continuity in Cutting

Picture Narration
TITLE: Continuity
in Cutting
3 symbols These symbols will help you to remember three

q

.,\.

principles of continuity in cutting.

Ball The ball represents . . .
TITLE: Screen . . . screen location.
Location
Girl with bottle When the center of interest is not in a constant

jumped around
location within the frame from shot to shot, but-
ting bounces the subject all over the screen.
Black When the scene has several elements, loca-
tion is even more important.

Bottle, Glass Here are three items. We'll shoot two at a time:
and Straws

Glass and Straws Watch what happens to the glass when we cut . . .
Bottle and Glass . . . it leaps to the other side of the frame

because screen location was not constant.

3 people at table The effect would be even more pronounced if
Girl 08 Man on R the subjects were people. To avoid this trouble,
PAN L adjust your shots so that when you do make a cut . . .
Girl 08 Man on L . . . the elementsuof the scene are similarly
CU Girl placed in each shot.
Black
Men crowded L Proper screen location also means framing the

and R in frame
subject to show the true situation. Are these men

back-to-back?

116

Picture Narration

PANS to uncrowd Different framing suggests that they are face-
them--then CUTS .
between to-face.

2-shot, men facing Whatever the real situation, cut between shots

Cuts between them that reflect it.

Black
Ball jumps Let the bouncing ball remind you: when screen
around
locations do not match, the subject jumps from
shot-to-shot.
Black
Cylinder & Ball This symbol represents a two-part principle. . .

TITLE: Orientation . . . orientation and sequence.
and.Sequence

Seated man jumps You must show the whole scene to the audience
from "living room”
to "classrohm" before showing them details. For instance, is

this man in a living room. . .or in a classroom?

He seems to jump from one room to the other. Of

course we might guess that the whole scene . . .

Cover shot showing . . . is really this, but why must we guess? We
"office"

should have seen this shot at the very beginning--

we should have been oriented to the set. Only

MS Man in each after proper orientation can closer shots be
set
understood.
Black Orientation is not a one-time thing. Whenever

the elements in a scene shift, the audience must

Man and Girl, be reoriented.
Map in BG

Picture

(Man and Girl)

Man OS Girl
CU Girl
Map

Girl past empty
chair

CU hand on map
CU new Girl
Man at map

2 Girls

Black

Man and Girl
(4 shots)

Man rises, goes
to map

2nd Girl comes in

(Shots of the
scene)

3-shot

Black

117
Narration
For instance, in this scene things start out well:
But watch what

here is the orientation shot.

happens as the scene progresses.

We know where the map is . . .

. . . but how did his chair become empty?

Where did that hand come from?
Who is this? And where is she?
0h--it was-his hand. But how did he get there?
And that's where she is. But when did she come in?
The problem is, we were never reoriented to
the scene as a change.was occurring. The elements
shifted positions significantly, but we never saw it.
watch this scene again. This time there is
proper orientation throughout. First orientation
to the overall situation.
Then, new orientation to show that he moves and
to show where he goes;.

Another new development-~and an orientation shot.
Because we know where all these elements are, the
closer shots do not disturb us. However, even if
these positions remain the same for.several minutes,
we need an occasional long shot to remind us where

everything is.

The key is orientation--and reorientation.

Picture

LS 2 Men

Black

MS Girl with
bottle

CU

Black

LS Girl with

bottle
CU

Black _

Man at Traffic
Poster

CU

MS

Black
Man at table LS

MS

118

Narration

Orientation is only half the story. It can be
maintained only by proper shot sequence. The most
common sequence begins with a longlor "cover"
shot to set the scene and orient the audience.
Then a medium shot selects the area of the scene
that is important.

Finally, a close-up concentrates attention on a

significant detail within that area.

It is not effective to leave out a step. Without
a long shot, we are not sure what the situation is;

medium and close shots are not sufficient.

If the middle of the sequence is omitted--the
medium shot--we are thrown into the thick of
things with a jolt. we didn't know where we were

going.

Here too, the long shot is missing. This medium
shot is quite close; we get ever closer . . .
but we only get this far away. We cannot be

entirely sure that we understand what's going on.

In this case there is a long shot . . .

. . . and a medium shot . . . . and we are left

21.92119.

(Man at table)

Black

Cylinder & Ball
jumps between
horizontal and
vertical stripes

Symbol on corner

of BG's-~LS
MS
CU
Black
Cube
TITLE: Viewpoint

LS Man in news set

MS

CU

MS--CU--MS

Black

LS Man in news set

MS--CU

Black

119

Narration

up in the air. Where is the close-up? This

scene cries out for it. Once started, a sequence

should be made complete.

Here is the symbol to remind you that the
subject will jump from set to set unless you
provide orientation.with a .

. . '.. long shat. Follow that with a
. . . medium shot and a . . .

. . . close-up for proper sequence.

The cube symbolizes the third principle of
continuity . . .
. . . viewpoint.

Viewpoint refers to the angle and place from
which a subject is seen.
Horizontal angle . . .
. . . and vertical angle. The audience is thrown
around when no two viewpoints are the same.

The solution is a consistent angle of view.
The long shot establishes the basic angle.

Medium and close shots should harmonize with that

viewpoint.

Picture

Girl with card at
90°

Girl with card in

corrected position

CU card
Black

LS 2 Girls seated

(Various shots
back and forth
across line)

CU's across line

MS 2-shot

Black

Car moving

(Various shots
back and forth)

Black

Car moving

Black

120
W

The performer may do samething to disrupt
viewpoint. Cutting to a close-up of the card would
throw the audience way over to the left.

Arrange and rehearse movement and the hand-
ling of props so that vieprint will be consise.
tent .

Every scene has a line of action. Camera
viewpoints must stay on one side of that line

to preserve continuity in cutting. In this scene
a psychological line connects the two girls.
Cutting across it causes their positions to
reverse-~they change places with every cut.

In close-ups, if the cameras are on opposite
sides of the line, the girls seem to be facing

in the same direction.

When, of course, they are not..

Cutting across the line of a physical action
is even more disturbing, for the direction of

movement reverses with every cut.

Action issmooth when all camera viewpoints

are on.the same side of the line.

121

Picture Narration
Cube These shots of the cube should remind you

that unmatched viewpoints throw the audience
around.
TITLE: Continuity To provide continuity from shot to shot as

you cut, you must have . . .

Ball . . . constant screen location of the subject . . .
Cylinder & Ball . . . proper orientation and sequence . . .
Cube . . . and a consistent viewpoint.

Black.

122

APPENDIX C

Potentialities offiMovement

123

TREATMENT: Potentialities of Movement

This film will illustrate various principles of using move-
ment as a complement to dramatic mood and plot development and as a
technique for increasing the audience's feeling of participation in
a scene. Specific principles to be shown include:
1. Simplicity of movement for performers and cameras.
2. Dynamic line--movement on diagonals toward and away; from the
camera.
3. Selectivity-~movement to conceal and reveal elements in the
scene.
4. Motivation for movement-~the need for moving must be evident
in the scene.
5. Variety-~movement to provide shifting, flowing pictorial
content.
These names for the principles will not necessarily be used in the film.
Both performer and camera movement will be shown. The emphasis
will be on the interaction of these two elements in a well-developed
interpretation of a scene. Movement and cutting interpretations of
a scene will be contrasted with one another.
Illustrative scenes will be relatively long--about three to
five minutes--in order to develop sufficiently varied movement patterns.

Program excerpts may provide the most useful examples.

124

SCENARIO: Potentialities of Movement

Scene Number
and Description Narration

1.

FADE IN--Bottle alone on table.

How long does it take to tire of a static shot? Life is
filled with movement. Attention wanders away from a shot that
just sits. Movement is essential in television for holding
audience attention. You may use . . .

PAN from Bottle to Glass.
. . . camera movement . . .

Hand REACHES IN with Bottle, POURS into glass . . .
. . . subject movement . . .

PAN UP as Hand lifts glass, other hand POINTS to glass.
. . . or camera and subject movement.

TITLE: Potentialities of Movement 3

Scene with many items or interesting details.

Although it is possible to look at the details of a scene

in this manner . . .

CUTS to details in scene 3.

PAN over details in scene 3.
. . . it is often more pleasing and dramatically useful to
look at them like this--with movement.

LS--2 Men at desk, one seated, one in front facing him.

The point is, often a stationary scene does not offer suffi-
cient motivation for cutting. .Sitting on one shot loses atten-
tion and interest. But the scene may be disconcertingly broken

up . . .

125

CUTS between various shots of men as in 6.

. . by an unharmonious visual treatment.

LS--2 Men as in 6.

MS--

Man

The solution lies in developing movement that will empha-
size and reinforce the dramatic content. Such movement will
contribute to the story as well as hold attention and interest.
2 Men as in 6; Man 1 seated, Man 2 standing.

This scene involves a tense conflict between personalities.
A police inspector is questioning a suspected spy. Watch how
movement can intensify the many moods and feelings that make
up the dramatic action.

1 RISES, CROSSES into full-face CU.

In an apparently casual movement the inspector sizes up
the suspect and selects his line of attack. He quite naturally
conceals his face from the suspect, and in so doing moves to
let us watch him think. At the same time we get a good intro-
duction to him in a close-up.

l TURNS to face Man 2--PAN with turn into COMBINATION SHOT.
His mind made up, he turns to the attack.

The shot develops into a composition that comments on the
relationship between the two men--the inspector large, domin-
ant, in command; the suspect smaller, farther away, subordinate.
1 CROSSES to face Man 2--DOLLY with cross into TIGHT 2-SHOT,
Man 2 over the shoulder of Man 1.

A physical and psychological attack is experienced by

moving with the actor's movement--we feel the lunge. The

126

(9 continued)

Man

Man

Man

mounting intensity is echoed in the uncomfortable closeness of
the men in face-to-face opposition. We see the suspect's face
more clearly. We can watch him cope with this dangerous moment.
We can form an impression of him now and can see his side of
things.

1 CROSSES to filing cabinet in BG--PAN cross into COMBINATION
SHOT-~Man 2 in CU.at R, Man 1 in MLS at L.

As the attack fails the physical tension relaxes. The
inspector moves away to conceal his feelings. We can exper-
ience the suspect's relief and then watch him brace for another
test as the inspector turns to try again.

1 TURNS to face camera.
1 CROSSES UP behind Man 2--PAN cross into 2-SHOT--CU--Man l
on R; Man 2 on L, both facing camera.

The attack begins anew. We feel it in the intensity of
the move toward the camera-~the inspector lunges into promise
nence. 'Again, closeness and tension-awe are mntcmate parti-
cipants. This time the expressions of both men, though con-
cealed from one another, are visible to us. We see the ebb
and flow of confidence and worry. We are on top of the situ-
ation as the inspector gives up.

1 CROSSES behind desk, SITS-—Pan with cross to MS Man 1 seated.

The situation begins to resolve itself. The movement
echoes this develOpment: separation. We keep watching the

antagonist to see the next move. As his resignation becomes

127
(9 continued)
apparent, we are above him, more removed from the scene. He
is defeated and we are looking at him from a superior viewpoint.
The shot develops into a concluding,3ba1anced composition that
could easily lead into a . ...
FADE OUT
. . . fade out.
10. MLS--2 Men at desk, as in 9--TV camera in foreground which PANS
and DOLLIES to follow the movement.

The movement in this scene provides a harmonious, construc-
tive visual treatment because it has a flowing, developing
dramatic purpose. It is simple movement for both performer
and cameraman.

iMan 1 WALKS through movement of scene (as in 9)--Camera FOLLOWS.

The camera pans and booms into the first close-up. It
pans into the combination shot.

There is one short, straight-line dolly with the cross.
Two pans . . . and the scene comes to an end.

As you saw before, this economical combination of simple
moves resulted in an interesting, meaningful visual treatment
that reflected and emphasized the continuously shifting dra-
matic intensity.

FADE OUT
11. LS--"Land of Play" setting.
Movement often provides a sense of participation. At the

same time it can serve to select, reveal and emphasize things

128
(11 continued)
step by step. The opening of this children's program was
designed to capitalize on these aspects of movement.
An imaginary trip is taken each day into the "Land of
Play". . .
PAN across set.
. . . The performer leads the way fromyplace to place; the
camera follows and its movement adds to the feeling of taking
a trip.
Although movement was planned for use from the beginning,
this kinescope clap from an early rehearsal shows many problems
‘ and faults.
12. KINE CLIP: "Bad" opening sequence.
(Write narration from action in clip.)
13. DIAGRAM: Floor Plan #1.
This floor plan of the set will show the main problem to be
movement that is too complicated for both camera and performer.
ANIMATE--Performer's path.
The performer moves in too many tight curves and meaningless
twists and turns . . .
ANIMATE--Camera's path.
. . . and the camera follows too complex a path while trying
to pan, truck and boom all at once.
14. Detail shots of set changes.
The problems were eliminated with a few ‘minor set changes

and the simplification of the movement paths:

129
15. DIAGRAM: Floor Plan #2--ANIMATE Performer and Camera paths.
The result was this new treatment:
16. KINE CLIP: "Good" opening sequence.
(Write narration from action in clip.)
17. TITLE: Potentialities of Movement.

These scenes have shown five principles for exploiting
the potentialities of movement:

18. Desk example, Man 1 in first CU--PAN into COMBINATION SHOT.

Use the shifting composition that results from movement to
create dramatic emphasis and comment.

19. Opening move from "Land of Playt?
20. Desk example, Man 1 at file cabinet, crosses up behind Man 2--
PAN into TIGHT 2-SHOT, CU. 1

Let movement bring the subject toward or away from the
camera rather than across the field of view at a constant
distance.

21. DIAGRAM: Floor Plan #2 ("good" Land of Play treatment) with per-
former and camera paths drawn in.

Simplify the paths of movement, especially for the cameras.

22. "Land of Play" example, DOLLY BACK from hatrack to reveal fishbowl,
the PAN to music box on desk.

Use movement to reveal new material, eliminate old mater-
ial. Move to bring small objects into the foreground, large
objects into the background.

23. MLS--Desk example with TV camera in foreground-~excerpt from middle

showing camera and performer moving.

130
(23 continued)
Let movement arise first from dramatic motivation rein-
forced by physical motivation within the picture--do not
impose movement upon a scene, motivate it.

FADE OUT

131

SHOOTING SCRIPT: Potentialities_of Movement

Scene Shot
Number Description

1. l.

7. ll.
12.
13.
14.

15.

FADE IN--MS-—Bott1e on mat on table-~LIMBO--hold for several
seconds then--PAN R to 2-SHCT--Glass and Straws-~Hand
ENTERS from L with Bottle and POURS into Glass, puts
Bottle down and RAISES Glass--PAN UP with G1ass--other
hand POINTS at Glass.

TITLE--Potentialities of Movement.

FULL SHOT of office used for storage of "Land of Play" prOp-
erties.

CU--Hats on wall in 3.

CU--Masks in 3.

CU--Toy tiger in 3.

CU--Horse on poster on wall in 3.

FS--Poster on wall in 3.

CU--Hats on wall in 3--PAN across other details to end up on
FS--poster on wall.

LS--2 Men at desk; Man 1 seated, Man 2 standing in front, facing
him--file cabinet in L BG--other office details in BG.

MB--2 Men, as in 10.

CU--Man 2.

CU--Man l

2-SHOT-4Man 2 over the shoulder of Man 1.

MS-4Man l.

LS--2 men at desk--(repeat 10).

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.
17.

18.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.
23.
24.
25.

26.

27.
28.

29.

132
(A) MS--2 Men at desk-~(B) PAN into CU--Man l as he RISES and
CROSSES up to camera--(C) PAN into COMBO SHOT of Man 1 on
R, Man 2 in L BG as Man 1 TURNS--(D) Man 1 CROSSES to face
Man 2--DOLLY IN with cross to TIGHT 2-SHOT--Man 2 on R from
over the shoulder of Man l--(E) PAN into COMBO SHOT of Man
2 in CU on R, Man 1 in BG as Man 1 CROSSES back to file--
(F) PAN into TWO TIGHT HEADS-~both facing camera, Man 2
on L--as Man 1 CROSSES behind Man 2 into camera--(G) PAN
into MS--Man 1 seated--as he CROSSES behind desk and SITS.
MLS--2 Men at desk as in l7--TV Camera in FG-AMan 1 WALKS
through action, as in l7--TV Camera FOLLOWS action, as
in 17.
LS--from high angle-~FG, "Land of Play" setting--PAN UP and
L to Door in BG--PAN R across set to Forest--PAN DOWN to FG.
KINESCOPE CLIP--"bad" "Land of Play" opening.
DIAGRAM-~Floor Plan #1--ANIMATE Performer's path-~ANIMATE

Camera's path.

-MS--"Land of Play" Hatrack being moved to new position.

MS--"Land of Play" Fishbowl and stand being moved.

MLS--"Land of Play" Magic Door being moved.

MCS--"Land of Play" model Stairway-~2 steps added.

DIAGRAM-~Floor Plan #2--ANIMATE Performer's path--ANIMATE
Camera's path.

KINESCOPE CLIP--"good" "Land of Play“ opening.

TITLE-~Potentialities of Movement--(repeat 2).

(repeat 17 (C) ).

19. 30.

20. 31.

21. 32.

22. 33.

230 . 340

133
KINE CLIP--CU--"Land of Play" Music Box-~PAN UP to--MS--
Woman as she WALKS into camera.
(repeat 17 (F) ).
DIAGRAM--Floor Plan #2 with paths drawn in--(repeat end of 26).
KINE CLIP--MS--Woman at Stork in "Land of Play"--DOLLY BACK to
reveal Hatrack as she WALKS forward-~DOLLY BACK and PAN L
to 2-SHOT--Woman and Fishbowl on stand--as she WALKS forward--
Pan R to MLS-~Music Box on Desk as Woman CROSSES—~Pan L
to MCS--Fishbowl as Woman CROSSES-~DOLLY IN to CU--Fishbow1.
(repeat 18 from camera DOLLY to end-~as from (D) in l7)--end

with FADE OUT.

134

EDITING NOTES: Potentialities of Movement

(These notes show the construction and sequence of the final edited

version of the film.)

Sacra
1-4 no changes (other than shot length)
4a CU more hats
5-6 no changes
6a CU Carousel music box
7 no change
7a CU poster cow
7b CU poster chicks
7c CU poster bull
7d CU poster pigs
8-10 no changes
11a Man 2 past Man 1
14 no change
llb Man 2 past Man 1
14a Man 1 OS Man 2

15a Man 2 OS Man 1
14b Man 1 08 Man 2
15b Man 2 OS Man 1
14¢ Man 1 OS Man 2
13a CS Man 2
12a 'MCS Man 1
13 no change

12 no change

135
£12.92
insert Black
17 no change
insert Black
18 no change
insert Black
19 no change
(20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26 out)
insert Black
27 add Black to end to extend pause after fade out
28 no change
(30, 32 out)
34 no change
insert Black
31 no change
insert Black
33 no change
insert Black
18a MLS-6Man l walks into TV camera
insert Black
29 no change

add Black

Picture

Bottle on
table

PAN to Class
Hand in, pours
Hand raises glass

TITLE: Potentiali-
ties of Movement

Office with props

CUTS to CU's of
props

PAN across props

LS Men at desk

CUTS between the
men

136

COMMENTARY: Potentialities of Movement

Narration

Life is filled with movement. Movement :
attracts attention. When a shot is without move-
ment, attention will wander. Television attracts
and holds attention with . . .

. . . camera movement . . .
. . . subject movement . . .

. . . and camera and subject movement.

.A very detailed scene can be examined in two
ways.

This is one way; it presents the scene in fragments.

Often it is more pleasing to look at a scene this
way. The camera movement shows the relationships
of the details, it suggests the size of the room
and it provides a continuous experience.

A stationary scene seldom offers sufficient
motivation for cutting. But because sitting on
one shot loses audience attention and interest,

a director may cut just for the sake of variety.
This is unimaginative and ineffective, as you can
see here. No matter how gripping that dialogue

may be, these shots contribute nothing.

Picture

LS Men at desk

MS Men

Inspector walks
into CU

Inspector turns
into OS COMBO

DOLLY IN to
TIGHT CS

137

,Narration

The solution lies in developing movement that
will emphasize and reinforce the dramatic content.
Such movement will contribute to the story as well
as hold attention and create interest.

First the actors must move, then the camera
can move. In this scene a police inspector is
trying to get information out of a juvenile delin-
quent.

In an apparently casual movement the inspector
breaks the formality of the situation by coming
out from behind the desk. He turns away in an
offhand manner as he prepares to ask the first
important question. The moVe lets us watch him
start the attack; it gives us a good introduction
to him in a close-up.

As he turns to fire the question, the shot

develops into a compostion that emphasizes the

relationship between the characters--the inspector
is large, dominant, in command; the suspect smaller,
farther away, subordinate.

" The attack is pressed and we participate in
it as the camera moves; we feel the lunge. The
mounting tension is echoed in the uncomfortable

closeness of the men in face-to-face opposition.

At the same time werare introduced to the suspect.

Picture

(TIGHT OS)

Inspector moves
to file

Inspector turns
fo face camera

Inspector moves
up into TTH

Inspector'moves
and sits

FADE OUT

LS Men and TV
camera

138

Narration
We can form an impression of him.as we watch him
react at this dangerous moment.

The attack fails, the physical tension relaxes.
The movement conveys this as the inspector moves
away, concealing his irritation. We can watch
the suspect's relief, see his brief pleasure.
The changed situation is reflected in the changed
placement of the actors.

Now, he tries again, determined. We feel the
intensity of the attack in the lunge toward us.

Again, closeness and tension--we are-intimate~,

Vparticipants. This time we can see the expressions

of both men; we know more than they do for they
cannot see one another.

Then the inspector gives up--the situation
begins to be resolved and the movement reflects
it by causing a separation. We feel it because
we lose sight of one character, we are directed
to the loser. As he sits down we move down with
him and watch the scene play out.

The movement in this scene provides a con-
structive visual treatment because it has a flow-
ing, developing dramatic purpose. Furthermore,

it is simple.

 

Picture

Inspector*moves
to camera

He turns

He moves to
suspect

He moves to

file

He moves to
suspect

He moves to sit

FADE OUT

PAN Land of Play
set

139
Narration
The camera has a simple pan and a boom to get the
first close-up. The actor has a short, direct
path. A pan converts the shot into a combination
over the shoulder.
This move is covered with a short, straight-line

dolly--nothing difficult or complex.

. A pan gives another combination shot.

Another pan.

One last pan . . . and a brief boom down. One
movement at a time, everything simple and direct.

This treatment is economical and it is effec-
tive for it reflects and emphasizes the contin-
uously shifting dramatic intensity.

Movement can provide-a sense of participa-
tion and it can serve to select, reveal and point
out things step by step. The Opening of this
children's program capitalizes on these aspects
of movement. Each day an.imaginary trip is taken
to greet the familiar inhabitants of the Land of
Play. The camera follows along and its movement
adds to the feeling of taking a trip.

Watch the opening a few minutes and notice
the central role played by performer and camera

movement .

Picture

Land of Play
opening

DB from music box

woman walks in

DOLLY to Forest

PAN & DOLLY to
Door

.Move past Fish
and Desk to
Elephant

Move to Cat and
CUT

Move to Stork

Hat off and

DOLLY BACK to
Hatrack

DOLLY BACK to
Fish

PAN to Music box

PAN back to fish
and DOLLY IN

Hands reach in,
DOLLY BACK to
Stairs on Block

140

Narration

From the first, movement provides a visual
flow.
The camera and the performer move in straight
lines, directly.
In each case, the performer moves first, then
the camera moves--there is motivation for the
movement.
The movement brings one thing at a time into
view.
When absolutely necessary, a cut is used. Here
it is required to maintain a constant closeness
with the performer.
Another cut is needed. It comes on a strong
movement which bridges the two shots; it makes
them continuous. Each new item is revealed by
movement at the time it is needed. Old material
is eliminated, nemeaterial revealed.
Notice that things are placed to call for move-
ment and that incidental items are placed out of
Here the fish are going to have music

the way.

with breakfast.

The movement of the hands brings a new element

into the shot and motivates a camera move to see

Picture

CU toy going
down stairs

Woman
FADE OUT

TITLE: Potential-
ities of Movement

Man and TV camera
(2nd half of
inspector scene)

Black

PAN Inspector
move into TTH

Black

141

Narration

the change. This leads into a larger move which
carries the program into a new activity. Notice
again that the moves are simple, short and direct.
The new item is revealed when needed.

It is not an accident that each activity is
full of movement: this is a program for children.
Wherever the program.goes next, it will go with

smooth—flowing, intriguing movement.

There are some simple principles for using
the potentialities of movement. Yoh have seen
them in these examples.

Simplify movement, especially camera move-
ment. Straight lines are easiest for they let the
cameraman concentrate on problems of focus and
composition rather than on tricky twists and turns.
Pans to follow action-~rather than dollies--
relieve many physical problems. Remember, too,
that a performer is far more maneuverable than a
camera.

Let movement develop toward or away from the
camera. The resulting change in size of the sub-
ject creates emphasis,aadds force. The camera's
stage is a cone pointed at the lens--follow the

lines of a cone, not a cube, when you plan movement.

Picture
Land of Play

DB to hatrack,
fish, etc.

Black

Man walks up
to TV camera

Black

PAN Inspector
CU into COMBO

Black.

142
Narration

As performer movement develops toward or
away from the camera, complement it with camera
movement that reveals new material, eliminates
old, Move to select and emphasize. Bring small
or important elements into the foreground, larger
or less important elements into the background.

Let movement arise within the scene and then
accommodate your cameras to it. When the per-
former moves, ppgp_the camera may move. Do not
ippose movement on a scene, let it develop from
the action and complement it visually.

Combine performer and camera movement to
create a shifting, flowing visual treatment. Use
movement to select, to emphasize the shifting
composition and to reflect and enhance the flow

and meaning of the action.

143

APPENDIX D
GLOSSARY OF MOTION PICTURE TERMS

NOTE: For fuller discussions of these terms the reader is referred to:

Lewis Jacobs, Film WritinggForms: Methods of Preparing a Stogy for
the Screen (New York: Gotham Book Mart, 1934).

W. H. Offenhauser, Jr., 16mm Sound Motion Pictures (2nd ed., New York:
Interscience Publishers, 1958).

Karel Reisz, The Technique of Film Editing: WBasic Principles for T.V.
(3rd ed., New York: Farrar, Strauss and Cudahy,-l955).

Raymond SpOttiswoode, Film and Its Techniques (Berkeley and Los Angeles:
University of California Press, 1952).

A- and B-roll editing (g;X;)--To facilitate the printing of optical
effects (3px;), footage is separated into two rolls. A print
is exposed from roll.A first, then rewound and exposed through
roll 3.1 For example, a dissolve is divided so that the first
shot is on roll A, the second on roll B. The printer light is
faded out as the first shot passes, faded in as the second
passes. Strips of opaque film inserted in each roll give pro-
per spacing to the shots and prevent light from striking the
print wherever the picture is to be printed from the other roll.

Animation-~The giving of apparent life and movement to inanimate objects
or graphic material. Frames of film are exposed one at a time,
each recording a slightly changed position of the subject. When
projected, the changes are fused by the eye to seem continuous,
as if the subject were moving.

Continuity--Another name for a shooting script (g.v,).

144

Direct positive--The film emulsion which, when developed, produces a
positive image without requiring any intermediate exposure
(pf. reversal) or printing (pf. neg-pos): a print made by
this process.

Qppgr-A.print made from a duplicating negative which, in turn was made
from a first generation print. The genealogy is: (1) original
negative, (2) first generation print, (3) duplicating negative,
(4) dupe, or duplicate print. .A duplicating negative is made
to protect the original negative from wear when a large number
of prints is required.

Edge numbers-—Serial numbers placed on the edge of the negative at one-
foot intervals. They are transferred by printing to all prints.
The task of exactly matching corresponding sections of negative
and print is simply that of matching edge numbers and counting
whatever additional frames are necessary.

Editing--The process of selecting exposed shots, assembling them, cut-
.ting or trimming them to length, arranging them in a desired
sequence and, finally, splicing them together. The fgppp
lassembly brings all material together in the order called for
by the shooting script. A rough cut eliminates unusable material
from the first assembly and may make tentative cuts in the length
of some shots. .Succeeding fine cuts eliminate excess footage,
determine shot arrangement and refine the rhythm, pace and
timing of the flow of visual hmages.

pEffects--see: optical effects.

Fine cut--see: editing.

145

First assembly-~see: editing.

Leader-~Extra film at the beginning (head) and and (tail) of a roll
(camera load) or reel (projector load) of film used for thread-
ing into a camera or projector and to protect the film.

;M§§kf-Any cutout placed between the camera and the scene to block out
part of the scene. A mask is often painted to blend in with
the scene and appear as part of it.

EggEEr-A.mask on film placed between the negative and the film being
exposed in the printer to block out part of the image on the
negative. A second matte is used with another negative in a
second printing to protect the exposed image while something
new is printed into the previously blocked-out position.

Mpntage--In European usage, the whole process of editing (ppgp).

In U. S. usage, a montage is a brief sequence composed of many
short shots (often double- and triple-superimposed) designed to
give a total impression or to provide exposition in a kind of
visual shorthand.

Neg-pas (negative-positive)--The process of image reproduction whereby
positive images are printed from negatives, and vice versa.
(9:. direct positive; reversalL) V

One-light print--see: print.

Optical effects--Any visual changes or devices which cannot be directly
photographed as the film passes through the camera once. Dis-
solves, wipes and superimposures are the simplest and most common

effects.

146

Parallaxe-The apparent displacement of a subject when seen alternately
from two separate viewpoints (e.g., from first one eye, then
the other).

,Parallel editing-~Anuarrangement of shots which alternately shows the
progression of two distinct lines of action thus: A, B, A1, B1,
A2, B2, etc. The nature of the actions and the content of the
shots will determine whether the two lines develop toward one
another, away from one another, or progress in an interacting
relationship.

Ppippf-Any positiVe image. (See: direct positive; neg-pos; reversalL)
A one-light print is one made with the printer light set at a
constant intensity--no variation is made to compensate for
differences in the exposure of the negative. .A timed print is

one in which the printer light intensity has been varied to
compensate for negative variations so that all shots of a scene
will have matched exposures. A workprint is one on which editing
is carried out to protect the original negative; usually it is

a one-light print.

Ppocessing--The printing and development of film. (See: direct posi-
tive; neg-pos; reversal})

Recording--The process of placing sound or music on film. A sound
track requires that a negative image of the sound be made.

This is combined with the picture negative to provide a print
for projection. Often, sound and picture are "married" onto

a single duplicating negative to facilitate printing.

147

Reversal--The production of a positive, rather than the customary
negative, hmage when film.sxposed in the camera or printed from
a positive is processed. Development takes place in two stages
with an intermediate exposureuof the film to white light to
accomplish the reversal.

Rough cut-~See: editing.

Scenario--The written form of a film.which shows image progress and
the development of action. Shots, scenes and sequences are
made apparent through construction. Often used interchangeably
(though incorrectly) with shooting script (gpgp).

Shooting script-~The written form of a film which presents all images
in numbered sequences of fully detailed shots and lines of
dialogue. The specific blueprint for production, containing
all information required for shooting.

Sippppf-Number boards photographed at the beginning of each shot for
identification purposes. Usually a chalkboard; hence, the
generic term for any such board.

§lpge-Any miscellaneous piece of film inserted to replace missing
material or to supply extra footage.

Soundkstripe--A ribbon of iron oxide material bonded to the edge of a
film so that sound may be added by tape recording procedures.
The sound may be erased and re-recorded as necessary.

Split screen-~An optical effect (gpgp) which places two or more pictures
side by side without overlapping.

"Striprtease"—-A technique of revealing graphic material by slowly
pulling or stripping away a concealing piece which is usually

invisible for being of the same color as the background.

148
Timed print--See: print.
Treatment--A prose narrative which presents the content of a film and
which indicates the major elements of the visual treatment of
each scene or content division. (See footnote, p. 23);
Wild shot-~Any shot takenvwithout regard for specific setting or for

specific place in a sequence of actions.

Workprint--See: print.

149
BIBLIOGRAPHY-
Bretz, Rudy. Techniques of Television Production. New York: McGraw-
Hill Book Co., 1953.

Bretz, Rudy, and Stasheff, Edward. Televigion Scripts for Staging and
Study. New York: A. A. Wyn, 1953; '

Brodbeck, Emil. Handbook of Basic Motion Picture Techniques. New York:
Whittlesey House, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1950.

Brunstetter, Max Russell. How To Use the Educational Sound Film. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1937.

Buchanan, Andrew. The Film.ianducation. London: Phoenix House, E1951].

Carroll, John S. (ed.) Photo—Lab-Indegg, The Cumulative Formulary of
Standard Recommended Ppptographic Proceduges. 19th ed. New York:
Morgan and‘Morgan, 1959.

Hoban, Charles F. Jr. Movies That Teach. New York: Dryden Press [1946].

 

Hoban, Charles F. Jr., and van Ormer, Edward B. Instructional Film
Research:1918-l950 (Rapid.Mass Learning). A Report on the
Pennsylvania State College project jointly sponsored by the
Department of the Army and tle Department of the Navy. [Port
Washington, N. Y.: U. 8. Navy Special Devices Center, 1951.]

Jacobs, Lewis. Film Writing Forms: 'Methods of Preparing a Story for
the Screen. New York: Gotham.Book'Mart, 1934.

 

Offenhauser, William H. Jr. 16mm Sound Motion Pictures. 2nd ed. New
York: Interscience Publishers, 1958.

Reisz, Karel. The Technique of Film Editing: Basic Principles for T.V.
3rd ed. New York: Farrar, Strauss and Cudahy, 1955.

 

Rose, Jackson (comp.) American Cinematographer Hand Book and Reference
Guide. 9th ed. Hollywood, Calif.: American Society of Cine-
matographers, 1956. ’

Spottiswoode, Raymond. Film.and:;ts Techqiques. Berkeley and Los
Angeles: University of California Press, 1952.

Stasheff, Edward, and Bretz, Rudy. The Television Program. New York:
A. A. Wyn, 1951.

Westfall, Leon Harvey. A Study of Verbal Accpppaniments to Educational
Motion Pictures. New York: Teachers College, Columbia Univer-
sity, 1934.

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