FEMALE PARENT-COACH EXPERIENCES COACHING DAUGHTERS IN YOUTH SPORT By Cassandra J. Coble A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Kinesiology 2010 ABSTRACT FEMALE PARENT-COACH EXPERIENCES COACHING DAUGHTERS IN YOUTH SPORT By Cassandra J. Coble The purposes of this study were to examine the experiences of mothers who enter the role of parent-coach. Using Eccles Expectancy Value Model of AchievementRelated Choices (1991, 1998, 2004) and Model of Parental Influences (1998) as a framework, three research questions were addressed: (a) What are the factors that motivate female parents to coach youth sports; (b) What are the experiences female parent-coaches have within youth sports; and (c) What are the factors related to the withdrawal of female parent-coaches from the position of youth sport parent-coach. Ten mothers who were coaching their daughters were interviewed. Interviews were transcribed and analyzed by three researchers using content analysis procedures. Results revealed nine general dimensions including entry into coaching, enjoyment, value associated with coaching, goals as a coach, positive aspects of coaching, negative aspects of coaching, challenges, perceived differences between male and female coaches, and reasons for discontinuation. The results indicated mothers experience both positive and negative feelings related to coaching and occasionally perceive a bias from players, parents, and coaches related to their gender. Experiences mothers have as children appear to influence the experiences they have as coaches as well as the activities they choose to socialize their daughters in to. For my parents: To my mom and dad who always provided love, encouragement, and support through all of my ventures and for teaching me the importance of following my dreams. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would first like to thank my advisor and mentor Dr. Marty Ewing for her guidance and support throughout this project. Your knowledge and patience throughout this project will never be forgotten. Additionally, I would like to thank my committee members Dr. Crystal Branta and Dr. Dan Gould. Your insight and support were incredible. Finally, I would like to thank the participants in this study for taking the time to talk about your experiences and shed light on the wonderful work you do. I would also like to thank my friends at Michigan State University for supporting and assisting me throughout my time in East Lansing. A special thanks to my fellow graduate student Katie Griffes for enduring this experience with me. Finally, to John, for being my biggest supporter through the good and the bad. Thank you for letting me experience the world and live my dreams while still being there in the end. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………...viii LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………………ix CHAPTER ONE: Introduction……………………………………………………………………1 CHAPTER TWO: Literature Review…………………………………………………….5 Expectancy Value Theory……………………………………………………………....5 Model of Parental Influences…………………………………………………………...6 Gender role stereotyping…………………………………………………………….10 Coaches as socializing agents in sport…………………………………………........12 Socializers‟ Experiences in Sport………………………………………………….......13 Parent experiences in sport…………………………………………………………..13 Parent-Coach experiences in sport………………………………………………......15 Parent entry into the parent-coach role………………………………………….......18 Parent-Coach withdrawal from coaching……………………………………………18 Gender Influences in Coaching……………………………………………………......19 Gender segregation in sport………………………………………………………....19 Gender role stereotyping…………………………………………………………….19 Youth sport coaching efficacy……………………………………………………….20 Female coach expereinces…………………………………………………………...21 Developmental Levels in Sport………………………………………………………..22 Developmental impact on parent-coach……………………………………………..22 Parental involvement in talent development in youth sport…………………………23 Long –term athlete development…………………………………………………….24 CHAPTER THREE: Methods…………………………………………………………...26 Participants………………………………………………………………………….....26 Procedures…………………………………………………………………………......30 Recruitment of participants………………………………………………………….30 Demographic survey………………………………………………………………...30 Interview protocol…………………………………………………………………...31 Data Analysis……………………………………………………………………….....31 Transcription…………………………………………………………………….......31 Content analysis……………………………………………………………………..32 CHAPTER FOUR: Results………………………………………………………….......33 Entry Into Coahcing Role………………………………………………………….......33 Reasons mother chose to coach……………………………………………………...33 Personal reasons for coaching…………………………………………………….....37 Concerns about coaching………………………………………………………........43 No issues considered prior to coaching……………………………………………..45 v Enjoyment……………………………………………………………………………...46 Social Aspect………………………………………………………………………...47 Seeing development in players………………………………………………………47 Miscellaneous enjoyment factors……………………………………………………48 Value Associated With Coaching……………………………………………………...49 Affiliation……………………………………………………………………………50 Opportunity to create change………………………………………………………..50 Goals As A Coach……………………………………………………………………..52 Personal goals………………………………………………………………………..52 Creating a positive environment…………………………………………………….53 Goals for players…………………………………………………………………….55 No goals at current time……………………………………………………………..56 Goals for own child………………………………………………………………….57 Positive Aspects of Coaching………………………………………………………….59 Positive aspects of coaching…………………………………………………………60 Perceived impact of positive experiences on child………………………………….62 Perceived impact on relationship with child………………………………………...63 Negative Expereinces as Parent-Coach………………………………………………..63 Negative off-field experiences as coach……………………………………………..64 Negative personal expereinces………………………………………………………64 Perceived impact of negative expereinces on daughter……………………………..68 Perceived impact of negative expereinces on mother-daughter relaitonship………..70 Challenges……………………………………………………………………………..71 Coaches……………………………………………………………………………...71 Dual role conflicts…………………………………………………………………...73 Mis-involvement of parents…………………………………………………………74 Challenges dealing with players……………………………………………………..76 Time constraints……………………………………………………………………..77 Coach doubts effectiveness………………………………………………………….79 Dealing with administrative tasks…………………………………………………...79 Dealing with developmental differences……………………………………………80 Perceived Differences Between Male and Female Coaches…………………………..80 Women perceived as more nurturing………………………………………………..80 Perceived gender bias in coaching ability…………………………………………...81 Differing coahcing philosophies…………………………………………………….81 Women perceived as better organizers………………………………………………82 Discontinuation………………………………………………………………………...82 Summary……………………………………………………………………………….85 CHAPTER FIVE: Discussion……………………………………………………………89 Experiences of Mother-Coaches……………………………………………………….94 Implications…………………………………………………………………………..105 Recommendations for Future Research………………………………………………107 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………109 vi APPENDIX A: Informed Consent Form……………………………………………….112 APPENDIX B: Demographic Sruvey…………………………………………………..114 APPENDIX C: Interview Protocol……………………………………………………..117 APPENDIX D: Themes and Quotes of All Participants………………………………..120 REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………196 vii LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Mother demographics…………………………………………………………..27 Table 2: Mother coaching demographics………………………………………………29 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Entry into coaching role: Reasons mothers chose to coach…………………34 Figure 2: Entry into coaching role: Personal reasons for coaching……………………...38 Figure 3: Entry into coaching role: Concerns about coaching…………………………...43 Figure 4: Entry into coaching role: No issues considered prior to coaching……………46 Figure 5: Enjoyment……………………………………………………………………..46 Figure 6: Value associated with coaching……………………………………………….50 Figure 7: Goals as a coach: Personal goals………………………………………………52 Figure 8: Goals as a coach: Create a positive environment……………………………...53 Figure 9: Goals as a coach: Goals for players…………………………………………55 Figure10: Goals as a coach: No goals at current time…………………………………56 Figure 11: Goals as a coach: Goals for own child……………………………………….57 Figure 12: Positive aspects of coaching………………………………………………….60 Figrue 13: Negative aspects of coaching: Negative off-field experiences………………64 Figure 14: Negative aspects of coaching: Negative personal experiences………………65 Figure 15: Negative aspects of coaching: Perceive impact of negative expereinces on daughter………………………………………………………………………………….69 ix Figure 16: Negative aspects of coaching: Perceived impact of negative experiences on mother-daughter realtionship…………………………………………………………….70 Figure 17: Challenges: Coaches……………………………………………………….72 Figure 18: Challenges: Dual-Role conflict………………………………………………73 Figure 19: Challenges: Mis-Involvement of parents……………………………………75 Figure 20: Challenges: Challenges dealing with players………………………………...76 Figure 21: Challenges: Time commitments……………………………………………...78 Figure 22: Challenges: Coach doubts effectiveness……………………………………..79 Figure 23: Perceived differences between male and female coaches………………….80 Figure 24: Reasons for discontinuation………………………………………………….83 x CHAPTER ONE Introduction Youth sport participation has grown in the United States over the past several decades (Smoll, Magill, & Ash, 1988). With the increase in participants, there is a corresponding increase in the number of volunteers needed to fill the role of youth sport coach. While parents often fill the role as coach in youth sports, little research has been conducted to understand the experiences of these parent-coaches, especially with mothers. The Expectancy-Value Model of Achievement-Related Choices (Eccles & Harold, 1991; Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998; Fredricks & Eccles, 2004) addressed the antecedents of an individual‟s choices and behaviors. Eccles, Wigfield, and Schiefele (1998) expanded their model to a more comprehensive model of parental influence, outlining the importance of socializers in the choices that individuals make. Socializers, acting as “providers of experience,” “interpreters of experience,” and “role models,” are some of the primary influences in an individual‟s achievement-related choices and behaviors (Eccles & Harold, 1991). Parents, acting as socializing agents, have been shown to influence their child‟s attitudes (Brustad, 1996) and activity levels in sport (Dempsey, Kimiciek, & Horn, 1993; Kimiciek & Horn, 1998). Coaches act as secondary socializing agents (Baxter-Jones & Maffulli, 2003; Horn, 2008, 124) through their feedback (Smoll & Smith, 1996) and methods of reinforcement (Horn; Black & Weiss, 1992). As introduced in the Expectancy Value Model (Eccles & Harold, 1991; Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998; Fredricks & Eccles, 2004), a gender component is evident in the socialization process, with mothers and fathers reporting differential treatment towards their male and female children. Parents report purchasing more athletic equipment for their sons and feel their sons 1 have more athletic ability (Fredricks & Eccles, 2005). Parents perceive their sons to be more competent than daughters in the athletic domain in studies with kindergarteners to sixth-graders (Eccles, Jacobs, & Harold, 1990; Eccles, Freedman-Doan, From, Jacobs, & Yoon, 2000). Girls have a more negative assessment of their athletic ability by first grade and subsequently place less importance on sport than boys (Eccles & Harold, 1991). As coaches note, previous playing experience has been reported as important in gaining sport-specific knowledge (Lemyre, Trudel, & Durand-Bush, 2007). One must consider the influence of these early socialization experiences on future participation in the coaching domain. Differential treatment by gender is not limited to the socialization process, as coaches and parents have reported an influence of gender stereotypes in their roles in sport. The construction of gender in sport has been examined, with female coaches reporting feeling isolated in groups in which they were the minority. Players are often coached by males, adding to the assumption that men are naturally superior athletes. As coaches have noted, men‟s greater strength make them appear more qualified to coach which inculcates the idea of masculine superiority in sport (Therberge, 1993). Gender stereotypic roles influence the experiences of adults in youth sport, with mothers often acting in a less instrumental role in these sport organizations than fathers (Chafetz & Kotarba, 1995; Messner & Bozada-Deas, 2009; Thompson, 1999). Support has also been shown to differ, with mothers showing more expressive, positive support and fathers perceived as giving more instrumental support (Wuerth, Lee, & Alfermann, 2002). The impact of these socializers on the achievement choices and behaviors of participants in youth sport is evident in the literature. However, our understanding of the socializers themselves has been quite limited to this point. 2 Past research concerning the role parent‟s play in youth sport has shown both positive and negative aspects of being a parent and when taking on the additional role of coach. Parents have reported stressors associated with their role in youth sport, such as competition and time stressors (Harwood & Knight, 2009). Parent-coaches have been studied specifically, with findings supporting parental experiences in youth sport as well as identifying additional stressors such as the difficulty of separating the role of parent from coach, rebellious behavior, and fears of differential treatment towards their children (Jowett, Timson-Katchis, & Adams, 2007; Weiss & Fretwell, 2005). Positive experiences from coaching one‟s own child include the opportunity for quality time and the enjoyment of teaching skills to one‟s child (Jowett, Timson-Katchis, & Adams, 2007; Weiss & Fretwell, 2005). Research on the impact of these positive and negative events can help us understand the parent-coach experience and the influence these experiences have on parent-coach‟s preferences to continue or to withdraw from the position of coach. Entry into and withdrawal from the role of parent-coach have not been fully examined in the literature, although research has shown that the role of parent-coach is influenced by the children‟s participation in sport (Jowett, Timson-Katchis, & Adams, 2007; Weiss & Sisley, 1984). Stressors, such as time commitments and conflicts with job (Weiss & Sisley, 1984; Weiss & Fretwell, 2005), have also been reported as reasons for withdrawal from the role of parentcoach. A more complete knowledge of the influence of these factors as well as additional factors related to withdrawal from sport will lead to a better understanding of socializers‟ influences on children in youth sport. Parental involvement in youth sport has been examined in relation to talent development. Research indicates that as talented individuals progress through their activity, parental involvement decreases (Bloom, 1985). Parental reports indicate that, while coaching a child at a 3 young age or in a less competitive league may be acceptable, parents benefit from discontinuing their involvement as parent-coach when their children get older (Weiss & Fretwell, 2005). Research has supported the impact of parents and coaches on the achievement choices and behaviors of youth in sport. However, our understanding of parents and coaches, and specifically female parent-coaches, is relatively limited. Currently, there is a void in the literature on the factors that are related to a mother‟s entry into the position of coach in youth sport, the experiences of these mothers while acting in the role of parent-coach, and the reported reasons of mothers for withdrawal from the parent-coach role. An understanding of these experiences can contribute to an understanding of children‟s experiences in sport and their interest in continued participation and/or withdrawal from sport. Examining the differences associated with developmental level and how parents perceive the maturation of their child to impact their experiences and withdrawal from coaching can aide in the understanding of the impact of parent-coach socializers across development in sport. The purpose of this study is to (a) examine the factors that motivate female parents to coach youth sports; (b) examine the experiences female parent-coaches have within youth sports; and (c) examine the factors related to the withdrawal of female parent-coaches from the position of youth sport parent-coach. 4 CHAPTER 2 Literature Review Youth participation in organized sport has increased over the past several decades to an estimated 45 million children (Ewing & Seefeldt, 2002). As the number of youth sport participants increases, the necessity for volunteers willing to coach rises. Parents often fill the role as youth sport coach within organized programs. As shown in a 1979 survey, of the 423 volunteer youth sport coaches who participated in the study, 52% of the volunteers coached their own children (Gould & Martens, 1979). Organizations responsible for filling these volunteer positions need to understand the individuals who comprise their volunteer workforce in order to better meet their needs and provide a satisfying experience for the participants. Research examining the individuals who act as parent-coaches can provide insight to organizations responsible for recruiting coaches, especially mothers as well as those providing coaching education. Expectancy Value Model of Achievement-Related Choices A relevant model from which to explore the values and costs associated with parents acting as coaches is the Expectancy-Value Model of Achievement-Related Choices as proposed by Eccles and colleagues (Eccles & Harold, 1991; Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998; Fredricks & Eccles, 2004). Research related to this model originally examined behaviors in academics and was later extended to test achievement-related choices in the athletic domain (Eccles & Harold, 1991). The Eccles‟ model addresses the achievement choices and behaviors an individual engages in and the antecedents associated with these choices, emphasizing the social psychological influence on choices and persistence within a task. Antecedents, including the cultural milieu, socialization experiences, the child‟s aptitudes, and previous experiences, 5 influence the child‟s perceptions and expectations which consequently inform their self-beliefs. These self-beliefs influence expectancies and task values which subsequently impact performance, persistence at the task (Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele), and future task choices (Jacobs & Eccles, 2000). According to Eccles‟ model, an individual‟s choices are influenced by the relative value of the task and expectations of success for each option (Jacobs & Eccles, 2000). Individuals engage in a cost/benefit analysis when determining what choices to pursue, as one choice often eliminates other options (Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele). If the individual perceives the subjective cost to outweigh the values of the activity, the person will discontinue participation in the activity (Eccles, 1983). Conversely, if individuals perceive the activity to be of value or are confident in their abilities, their participation is likely to continue (Eccles & Harold). Model of Parental Influences Eccles and colleagues (Eccles & Harold, 1991; Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998; Fredricks & Eccles, 2004) outlined the importance of socializers‟ beliefs and behaviors in the achievement-related choices that an individual makes in their Expectancy-Value Model. They later expanded their original Expectancy-Value Model into a Comprehensive Model of Parental Influence (Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998) that considers sources of general and childspecific beliefs of the parent. The model also outlines general parent behaviors and parentspecific behaviors which influence child outcomes. Socialization experiences influence children‟s perceptions and expectations, which subsequently influence achievement choices and behaviors (Jacobs & Eccles, 2000). According to Eccles‟ model, parents, acting as socializers, exert influence on their children‟s perceived competence, task values, and achievement behaviors by acting as “role models,” “interpreters of 6 experience,” and “providers of experience” (Eccles & Harold, 1991). As role models, parents behave as a model or standard, engaging their children in a form of observational learning. Parents influence their children‟s attitudes about activities through the various pursuits in which they engage. Parents also convey beliefs about participation in activities through the messages that they provide about their own abilities and performances (Eccles, 1993). As “interpreters of experience,” parents take their specific beliefs about their children and general beliefs about the nature of talent and convey these beliefs to their children through causal attributions and overt and subtle messages (Eccles, 1993). As “providers of experiences,” parents regulate the types of experiences, the toys provided to the child, and the patterns of reinforcement (Eccles, 1993). As Eccles‟ model highlights, socializers‟ beliefs and behaviors have, to some extent, been seen to influence individuals‟ achievement-related choices (Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998). The influence of socializers varies developmentally, with parents acting as important socializers for children and early adolescents, while peers and close friends are more influential throughout the lifespan (Harter, 1990; Higginson, 1985; Horn, 2008) Parents, the earliest and most persistent influence on a child‟s involvement in sport (McPherson & Brown, 1998, 270; Smoll, Magill & Ash, 1988, 270; Woogler & Power, 1993), shape the type of activity and level of involvement of their children in sport. If adults perceived an activity to be of value, they are likely to pass this interest along to their children (McPherson & Brown). In studying world-class tennis players, Monsaas (1985) found that, in about 80% of the families, at least one parent could be considered an avid tennis player. Kalinowski (1985) reported a similar relationship in his study with Olympic swimmers, finding the majority of the swimmers had at least one parent with an interest in athletics. 7 As highlighted in Eccles‟ Comprehensive Model of Parent Behavior, parents‟ general and specific beliefs influence children‟s outcomes (Wigfield, Eccles, Schiefele, Roeser, & DavisKean, 2006). Parental perceptions of children‟s abilities have been seen to influence children‟s physical activity levels (Dempsey, Kimiciek, & Horn, 1993). Dempsey and colleagues examined parental influences on children‟s moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) participation, using Eccles Expectancy-Value Model as a framework. Seventy-one fourth- and fifth-grade children and their parents completed questionnaires examining parents‟ value of MVPA for their children, parents‟ expectations for their children‟s MVPA, parents‟ perceptions of their child‟s physical competence, parents‟ goal orientation related to their child‟s MVPA, and parents‟ MVPA behavior. Children also reported on each variable, indicating their value, expectations, perceived competence, goal orientations, and behavior related to MVPA. Parents‟ perceptions of their children‟s physical competence and gender were seen to significantly influence moderate to vigorous physical activity. Results, however, did not indicate a relationship between parent and child‟s moderate to vigorous actual physical activity behaviors. Babkes and Weiss (1999) examined the influence of parental reported behaviors and attitudes, athletes‟ perceptions of their parent‟s behaviors and attitudes toward sport participation, and children‟s perceptions of their own motivation, perceived soccer competence, and enjoyment. Participants included 227 youth athletes involved in a competitive youth soccer program, ranging in age from 9 to 11, their mothers, and their fathers. Children who perceived their mothers and fathers to have more positive beliefs about their soccer competence and who served as positive exercise role models for them had higher perceived soccer competence and enjoyed participation more. 8 Tennis players who perceived positive parental support have reported higher levels of tennis enjoyment (Leff & Hoyle, 1995). Ninety-seven males and 57 females between the ages of 6 and 18 participated in the study. The participants were at select tennis academies who participated in the sport year round. However, gender differences in child sport participation emerged. Young females felt parents played the same role in the females‟ sport participation while male athletes felt fathers put more pressure on them than mothers. Brustad (1993) examined the influence of parents as socializers in a study of 81 fourthgrade children and their parents, the majority of whom were women (77%). Results revealed that parents who expressed high levels of enjoyment in physical activities encouraged their children to be physically active, while parents who enjoyed physical activity less did not encourage their children to the same extent. Parental encouragement and parental enjoyment of physical activity were related to children‟s perceived competence and attraction to physical activity. A gender component was evident in the results, in which boys received more encouragement to be more physically active than girls. Parental encouragement characteristics were independent of actual parental physical fitness. In a later study, Brustad (1996) measured children‟s attraction to physical activity, perceived physical competence, and perceptions of their parents‟ physical activity beliefs and behaviors, in order to determine the influence of parental socialization on children‟s physical activity levels. Participants included 107 fourth, fifth, and sixth graders, 48 boys and 59 girls. The study took place in physical education classes in a Los Angeles school district, and also examined if environmental influences such as socioeconomic levels were influential in the previous findings of Brustad (1993). Results indicated a relationship between children‟s perceptions of their parent‟s physical activity socialization processes and their own physical 9 activity. Support for Eccles‟ Expectancy-Value Model (Eccles & Harold, 1991; Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998; Fredricks & Eccles, 2004) was found, with parental encouragement acting as the most influential variable related to boys‟ attractiveness to activity. For girls, perceived parental enjoyment of physical activity was more influential in relation to girls‟ attraction to physical activity. Differences related to the psychological dimensions of physical activity for boys and girls emerged, with boys reporting a greater liking of physical activity than girls. Gender Role Socialization. As evidenced in Brustad‟s (1993, 1996) work, there is support for a gender component, which is examined in the Expectancy-Value Model of Achievement Related Choices (Eccles & Harold, 1991; Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998; Fredricks & Eccles, 2004) and her Comprehensive Model of Parental Influences (Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998). Specifically, parents act as role models, interpreters of experiences, and providers of experiences. Parents attach value to specific activities and convey gender stereotypic beliefs through the messages they provide to their children, which also influence their children‟s motivation. The attributions parents make regarding their children‟s performance, and their judgments of their child‟s competence, are often related to gender (Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998). Mothers and fathers have reported gender stereotyped beliefs and behaviors in relation to sport. Fredricks and Eccles (2005) were interested in the possible link between parental beliefs and practices and child outcomes. Participants were recruited from an existing longitudinal study examining the development and socialization of children‟s achievement-related motives. Three hundred and forty-four mothers, 245 fathers, and 364 children (n=180 girls and 184 boys), grades second through fifth, filled out questionnaires measuring their competence beliefs in 10 sport, math, reading, and instrumental music. The child‟s gender influenced his or her competence beliefs, with girls reporting lower ratings in valuing sport and lower participation rates than boys. The cross sectional nature of the study allowed researchers to assess the constructs across ages, with no differences reported related to age. Results also revealed gender stereotypic beliefs held by both mothers and fathers. Sons were reported to have higher athletic ability than daughters. Parents also reported purchasing more athletic equipment for their sons than daughters, encouraged participation in their sons more than their daughters, and spent more time on sport related activities with sons than they did with their daughters. Researchers examined these results to determine if there were differences between mothers‟ and fathers‟ socialization actions and children‟s outcomes. Overall, mothers and fathers had a similar impact on children‟s perceived competence, value, and participation. A significant difference was found in level of encouragement, with mother‟s encouragement a positive predictor of children‟s participation while father‟s encouragement and child‟s participation showed no association. Results also indicated a negative relationship between mothers‟, but not fathers‟, co-participation with the child in athletic activities and child‟s value over time. Eccles and colleagues (Eccles, Jacobs, & Harold, 1990; Eccles, Freedman-Doan, Frome, Jacobs, & Yoon, 2000) conducted longitudinal studies assessing the development of children in the family and school. Parents rated their sons as more competent in sport than parents of daughters in kindergarten, first-, third-, (Eccles, Freedman-Doan, Frome, Jacobs, & Yoon) and sixth grade (Eccles, Jacobs, & Harold). The perceptions of superior athletic ability have been seen in mothers, specifically mothers of sons, who reported higher perceptions of sport ability in their child than did mothers of daughters (Jacobs & Eccles, 1992). 11 Overall, numerous studies have examined the links in Eccles Expectancy-Value Model, with support being found for the model, specifically within the athletic domain (Eccles & Harold, 1991). However, our understanding of parent-coaches as socializing agents and role models throughout the various levels in sport is quite limited. To fully understand Eccles model, we must begin by understanding those who act as socializers, specifically female parent-coaches, to determine how their experiences influence the provision of, interpretation of, and ability to act as role models within youth sports. Coaches as socializing agents in sport. Parents are the most influential socializers for children during their entrance into youth sports, with coaches acting in a powerful, secondary role as socializing agents (Baxter-Jones & Maffulli, 2003; Horn, 2008, 124). Coaches influence the participation and competence motivation of youth in sport through the feedback (Smoll & Smith, 1996) and reinforcement they provide (Horn, 2008; Black & Weiss, 1992). Keegan, Harwood, Spray, and Lavallee (2009) conducted focus groups with 19 female and 21 male children aged 7 to 11 years. Unlike parents, who are relied on for their support of participation and learning, athletes are dependent on coaches for instruction and pragmatic support. Like parents, coaches provided strong influences on children‟s motivation in sport, specifically as the child ages. Higginson (1985) collected data with elite female athletes who participated in the Empire State Games. Participants were classified in groups of U-13, junior high school, or senior high school. While U-13 participants selected the mother and father as the most influential person in their sport participation, coaches and teachers, as opposed to peers and parents, were reported as the most influential socializers for sport involvement for girls over the age of 13. 12 The influence of parents and coaches within the socialization process of children in sport is important to consider when studying youth sports. Gender is also important to consider in this socialization process, as gander roles and stereotypes may influence the experiences of female coaches. Understanding how parent-coaches impact the socialization process will guides our understanding of the antecedents of parent-coaches entry into the role of coaching in youth sport. Socializers’ Experiences in Sport Parent experiences in sport. Research conducted with parents in youth sports has created an initial understanding of the experiences of parents and parent-coaches in youth sports. Research has examined challenges and stressors associated with parenting a child athlete, which is important to understand when examining the values and costs associated with coaching one‟s own child. Harwood and Knight (2009) distributed a survey to 123 tennis parents from across the United Kingdom asking parents to articulate their experiences related to stressors associated with parenting an athlete. Several core themes of stressors emerged in this study, including competition stressors, coach-related stressors, financial stressors, time stressors, sibling stressors, organizational-related stressors, and developmental stressors. Competition stressors reported by parents included those that occurred before a match, during a match, and after the match. Before match stressors included logistics and travel, physical and nutritional preparation of the child, and their child‟s psychological state prior to a match. Parents also reported concerns with aspects of pre-match preparation such as work coverage and care for other children in the family. In-match stressors included children‟s oncourt behavior and self-control, gamesmanship and cheating by other parents and competitors, other parental interference, intimidation, gossiping, difficulty controlling feelings of helplessness, and offering correct support. After the match, parents reported stress due to the 13 effect the result of the match had on their child and their lack of skills in helping the child manage the emotions, an inability to conduct a post-match analysis, and difficulty managing one‟s own emotions toward the child. Time stressors were reported by a number of individuals in Harwood and Knight‟s (2009) study, with the impact of being a tennis parent limiting the amount of time for personal needs, spousal relationships, and family life. Extensive time spent with one child limited time spent with other children for those families who had more than one child. Unequal time, money, and attention given to the tennis child and living a “split family” life created family stress for tennis parents. Work conflicts were another area of stress for the parents, as they were needed to transport their children to tournaments and practices instead of putting in extra time at work. Studies addressing parental stressors highlight the difficulties associated with acting as a parent of an athlete. These and other factors must be considered when addressing the experiences of parents who take on the additional role of coach. Wiersma and Fifer (2008) studied the experiences of parents in the youth sport domain. Focus groups were conducted with 16 fathers and 39 mothers. Of the 55 parents, 17 parents had previous coaching experience. Analysis revealed parent joys, which included benefits to the parent and to the child. Parent benefits involved satisfaction related to observing child enjoyment, development, improvement, success, and child play, and to encouraging the child. Sports also allowed for interaction opportunities for parents, in which they were able to meet other parents and spend time with their child. Parents also noted challenges associated with their child‟s participation in sport. Instrumental support, such as time commitments, money, and parent commitment, as well as emotional support, such as maintaining a balance between competition and fun, were difficult to provide for children. 14 In addition to family centered issues related to the provision of support, parents commented on factors they felt explained parental misconduct in youth sport. As children aged, parents felt misconduct on the part of adults increased, partially due to the more competitive nature of sports throughout the child‟s development. Additionally, parents reported that negative comments were often directed at adult volunteers in youth sport. Despite the knowledge that many volunteer coaches might not have previously coached and are just “stepping up,” these volunteers were often the recipients of verbal abuse. Parent-Coach experiences in sport. Stressors reported by parents in sport lend an understanding to the costs that one must consider when deciding to enroll youth in sports and highlights the costs and benefits one must weigh when considering entering the role of parentcoach. Parent-coaches in youth sport report similar experiences as parents who do not take on the additional role of coach, with stressors related to having a child in sport reported by both parents and parent-coaches (McCann, 2005; Weirsma & Fifer, 2008; Weiss & Fretwell, 2005). These stressors may impact decisions related to entering, continuing, or discontinuing the position as coach for one‟s own child. Research related to parent-coach experiences in sport has found that coaching a child in sport is a positive and negative experience for parent-coaches (McCann, 2005; Weirsma & Fifer, 2008; Weiss & Fretwell, 2005). Weiss and Fretwell conducted qualitative interviews with soccer players and their parent-coaches to expand current knowledge regarding the parent-coach phenomenon in competitive youth sports. The study took place with a U-12 soccer team. Fathers who coached their children, sons of the coach, and teammates participated in the study. Results revealed positive and negative aspects of playing for one‟s father, playing on a team in which a player was coached by his father, and coaching one‟s own child. Positive aspects of 15 coaching one‟s son included taking pride in seeing the son‟s achievement, social exchanges with parents and players, opportunities to teach skills and values, enjoyment related to coaching one‟s son, and quality time spent with one‟s son that the position of parent-coach allowed. Parentcoaches also noted negative aspects related to coaching their own child. Coaches had difficulty separating the role of parent from the role of coach. Parent-coaches felt that their sons occasionally demonstrated rebellious behavior which conflicted with the role of parent-coach. Time constraints were problematic for parents, with one father noting that he felt tired by the end of the season. Additionally, interactions with parents on the sidelines proved difficult for parentcoaches to deal with, as communication with parents was an undesirable aspect of coaching. In addition to positive and negative aspects of coaching one‟s own child, parent-coaches noted differences in the treatment of their child as compared to the child‟s teammates. Parent-coaches reported challenges related to their dual role as parent and coach, with their sons occasionally talking back to them or questioning their decisions. Parents also reported having higher expectations for their sons, placing greater pressure on their sons, and giving more recognition to other players. In retrospective interviews conducted with 11 college-aged children and their parents, McCann (2005) examined the parent-coach athlete-child relationship. Results indicated a dual role influence on the relationship, with the majority of participants reporting that the opportunities presented in the role created a bond while some dyads believed the experience had no impact or felt there was a strained relationship due to the experience. Parent-coaches also noted positive outcomes associated with coaching their child, including enhanced selfperceptions through success and enhanced knowledge related to coaching. Frustrations were 16 reported by parent-coaches, specifically related to the difficulties with coaching a teenager, due to the child‟s superior knowledge related to the sport and lack of respect from the child. Jowett, Timson-Katchis, and Adams (2007) conducted a similar study with 6 parentcoaches and 6 child-athlete dyads, with two father-coach daughter-athlete partnerships, two mother-coach son-athlete partnerships, and two mother-coach daughter-athlete partnerships. Interviews were conducted with parent-coaches and child-athletes. Jowett and colleagues organized the participants into two categories, highly interdependent dyads and moderately interdependent dyads. Of the six dyads, two were highly interdependent and four were less interdependent. Results for the highly interdependent dyads supported the notion that children are dependent on their parents for support and that parents are also often dependent on their children in the coach-athlete relationship. These dyads were successful as parent-coaches, and child-athletes were able to develop rules that allowed for a negotiation of roles and rules as events changed. Moderately independent dyads reported negative feelings in the parent-coach child-athlete relationship. Parent-coaches in these dyads were more dependent on the childathlete than the child-athlete was dependent on the parent-coach. This resulted in conflicting interests, with child-athletes interested in discontinuing the relationship, while parent-coaches preferred to continue the relationship. Parents experience both positive and negative moments in sport (McCann, 2005; Weirsma & Fifer, 2008; Weiss & Fretwell, 2005). These experiences as reported by parentcoaches should be studied in relation to their entry into, experiences during, and reasons for withdrawal from the coaching role. Through an understanding of these events, researchers can help determine the impact these experiences have on the behaviors and beliefs of the parent- 17 coach, as they may subsequently influence the subjective task value and achievement-related choices of the child-athlete. Parent entry into the parent-coach role. Educators and researchers have been interested in the influence of the social network related to the participation of children in sport. However, research does not extend as fully to the influences on parents as they decide to undertake the role of parent-coach. While the research is limited regarding the socialization of parents themselves into the role of coach in youth sports, understanding this process is necessary in order to examine the impact parent-coaches have on their children as providers, interpreters, and role models for their children in youth sport. It is important to determine the values and costs a parent perceives for his or her child when a parent coaches and the implications that the decision to coach or to discontinue coaching has on the parent. Research within the area of entry into coaching cites a child‟s participation in sport as a reported reason the parent entered the role (Weiss & Fretwell, 2005). The role of parent-coach was often entered into with a sense of apprehension, as parent-coaches reported the new roles and relationships created a sense of uneasiness (Jowett, Timson-Katchis & Adams, 2007). Additional research is needed concerning parents entrance into the role of parent-coach and the perceptions of their ability to provide a sufficient experience for their child as well as other children on the team. Examining the methods parents use when providing and interpreting sporting experiences can aide in understanding the role of parent-coaches in youth sport. Parent-Coach withdrawal from coaching. Few studies have examined the antecedents related to a parent‟s withdrawal from the role of coaching. The limited research related to the topic has found that reasons for withdrawal from the coaching role include the reported time commitment, conflict with one‟s job (Weiss & Sisly, 1984; Wiess & Fretwell, 2005), 18 organizational issues, and the child‟s discontinued participation (Weiss & Sisley). An understanding of the parental experiences related to withdrawal from the role of coaching may lead to a better understanding of the role of the parent in the interpretation of the sporting experience for the child. Gender Influences in the Coaching Role Gender segregation in sport. When studying the experiences during the coaching tenure and reasons for withdrawal from the role of youth sports-coach, it is important to consider the gender of the coach. Gender segregation in youth sports is evident throughout the United Sates. Messner and Bozada-Deas (2009) analyzed the female coach statistics for soccer and for baseball/softball youth sport leagues. From 1999 to 2007, only 13.4 percent of head coaches in the soccer league were female, and only 5.9 percent of the baseball/softball teams were managed by women. The majority of these female head coaches were concentrated in the five to eight year old divisions, with boys over the age of 10 not experiencing women as their head coaches. The number of female coaches coaching women sport teams has been dropping, from 90 percent in 1972 to less than 50 percent in 1998 (Lumpkin, Stoll, & Beller, 1999). Gender role stereotyping. Parent participation in youth sport is usually defined by gender roles, with mothers often acting as “team moms,” chauffeurs, and social directors while fathers take on roles more similar to advisors concerning the sport (Chafetz & Kotarba, 1995; Messner & Bozada-Deas, 2009; Thompson, 1999). When interacting with children, mothers are seen as more expressive and are perceived to provide more positive support. Fathers are perceived to provide more instrumental support, demonstrating more directive behavior (Wuerth, Lee, & Alfermann, 2004). These gender stereotypical roles may influence the way female coaches are 19 perceived by individuals, specifically those looking for individuals they feel are competent in terms of teaching skill development. Current participation motives of female parent-coaches may be influenced by past participation experiences in sport, as gender differences in adolescents‟ participation in sports has been shown to relate to gender differences in estimates of sport ability and the value attached to sport (Eccles & Harold, 1991). As previously noted, parents perceive their sons as having more athletic ability than daughters (Fredricks & Eccles, 2005; Eccles, Freedman-Doan, Frome, Jacobs, & Yoon, 2000, 341; Eccles, Jacobs, & Harold, 1990). These beliefs may influence the experiences that parents provide (Eccles, 170) and the perceptions of the child‟s competence within the sport domain (Eccles, Jacobs & Harold, 1990; Eccles, 1992, 170). Children are also influenced by gender stereotypes, with their own gender predicting their competence in the task (Eccles & Harold, 1991). By first grade, girls have a more negative assessment of their general athletic ability than boys. Girls report placing less importance on sport than boys and see themselves as less able in sport than in other domains such as English (Eccles & Harold). A child‟s perception of competence within the sport domain is influenced by the extent to which the child sees sport as being appropriate for his or her gender (Eccles & Harold). Gender role stereotypes of the parents and the gender of the child influence parents‟ perception of competence for their child in sports, ultimately influencing their child‟s achievement-related choices (Eccles, Jacob, & Harold, 1990). Youth sport coaching efficacy. Lemyre, Trudel, and Durand-Bush (2007) interviewed youth sport coaches, who noted previous playing experience was a way in which they gained sport-specific knowledge. Feltz, Hepler, Roman, and Paiement (2009) examined coaching efficacy among volunteer youth sport coaches of team sports. More confident coaches had more 20 extensive playing and coaching backgrounds. The relationship between prior playing experience influenced coaching efficacy. Therefore, previous achievement-related experiences in sport should be examined in relation to female coaches to determine how gender stereotypes influence their feelings of efficacy in the coaching domain. Additionally, when examining current female parent-coaches, previous participation experiences must be examined as they may influence current perceptions of competence in the coaching domain. Female coach experiences. Theberge (1993) examined the construction of gender in sport, through interviews with female coaches of Canadian national teams. Theberge noted the variations in gender segregation according to sport, with sports such as field hockey and synchronized swimming dominated by female coaching. She also noted female coaches who work in gender segregated sports in which female to male representation in the coaching role is often skewed. In defining skewed, Theberge used Kanter‟s (1977) definition characterizing skewed groups as having an 85:15 majority-minority ratio. Women coaching sports within a group qualifying as skewed understood their “token status” and felt isolated, specifically during clinics, within competition, camps, at meetings, and during conferences. Their high visibility as token female coaches increased the pressure the coaches felt to perform. The idea of masculine superiority in sport was also examined by Theberge (1993). Coaches noted that many of their players had not been coached by a woman, adding to the assumption that men are naturally superior athletes and will therefore be superior coaches. Coaches felt there was a prevailing belief that a man‟s greater strength made him more qualified to coach, entrenching the idea of masculine superiority in sport. The idea of masculine superiority in the coaching domain was not fully supported in a study conducted by Martin, Dale, and Jackson (2003). The study was conducted in a Dallas-Fort 21 Worth summer youth program with athletes ranging from 10 to 18 years of age. One parent from each family and the athlete completed questionnaires representing the child‟s motivation for participation and preferences for coaching qualities. The majority of parents (75.1%) and children (63.1%) indicated no preference in the gender of their child‟s coach. The gender of the coach did not matter to the majority of the female athletes (84%), while only 48.6% of male participants indicated that gender did not matter. Female athletes who did indicate a preference preferred a female coach while mothers, fathers, and boys who indicated a preference preferred male coaches. Understanding preferences related to youth sport coaches allows for a better understanding of the experiences and possible reasons for withdrawal of female youth sport coaches. Developmental levels in sport Developmental impact on parent-coach. Approaching the topic of parental involvement in sport throughout their children‟s development may generate an understanding of the behaviors of the parent-coach and their decisions to continue or discontinue in the role as coach. Athletes‟ experiences vary throughout their progression in sport. As individuals advance through various levels in sport, their self-perceptions of confidence and subjective task value have been seen to decrease (Jacobs, Lanza, Osgood, Eccles, & Wigfield, 2002). This change in self-perceptions and confidence has been associated with changing values in relevant domains (Jacobs, Lanza, Osgood, Eccles, & Wigfield), and with a decline in sport-competence beliefs being seen over a three-year period (Rodriguez, Wigfield & Eccles, 2003). A longitudinal study has found a decline in the importance of sport, with an accelerated decline occurring in the secondary school years (Fredricks & Eccles, 2002). This is possibly due to a better understanding of their athletic ability, which was then translated to a drop in perceived value of athletics (Rodriguez, Wigfield 22 & Eccles). An understanding of the relationships between task values and behaviors of youth sport participants may impact the actions of the parents and their interest in remaining in the role of parent-coach. Parental involvement in talent development in youth sport. Parents‟ roles in relation to providing experiences may shift from providing opportunities and role modeling in the early phases of involvement to providing encouragement and guidance in the later stages (Jacobs & Eccles, 2000). This shift can be seen in research on talent development that lends an understanding to the diminishing roles that parents play in their child‟s progression throughout sport. Parents report higher involvement in the initiation phase in youth sport than at later ages. Bloom and his colleagues (1985) have described levels within the development of talent. Research with concert pianists, Olympic swimmers, world-class tennis players, mathematicians, and a neurologist found that there are transitional periods in development, which are referred to as "stages of learning." The first stage, the early years, is considered to be playful and a time in which children became interested and excited about the sport. During this time, parents are responsible for the introduction to the activity as well as the preparation for lessons, assurance that the child is practicing, and the necessary education as the parents assist the child in the field. The middle years are a time in which the parents are more involved in the development of talent in their children. The parents‟ routine changes slightly due to the greater time commitment required; however, the time devoted to the sport itself becomes more limited as the teacher and child takes more responsibility in the sport. The later years become more refined and the individual and parents focus on perfecting talent and finding a highly skilled teacher. The participants in this study demonstrated the importance of acknowledging the developmental levels within the individuals‟ development and the importance of determining the proper means 23 for helping the child achieve the expected developmental level. Parental involvement in these stages became more limited as the child progresses. Youth sports, which rely heavily on parental involvement to succeed, require a more direct relationship with the child, sometimes in the role of coach. The experiences of parents throughout the developmental levels lend an understanding to the reasons for continued participation, reasons for discontinuing, or methods for remaining involved in the child‟s sporting career outside of the role of parent-coach. Long-term athlete development. Bloom‟s stages of development may be limited in their ability to fully explain the differences that occur in the various developmental levels within youth sports due to the numerous activities studied. Previous research conducted with parentcoaches found that parents believe that coaching one‟s child is acceptable at an early age, and that at more advanced levels, parents benefit from discontinuing coaching their children (Weiss & Fretwell, 2005). Competitive level may be a more relevant means by which to study parentcoach experiences, as past reports indicated this may be a boundary in the approach to coaching (Gilbert & Trudell, 2004). A more specific outline concerning talent development that covers youth sports is the Long-Term Athlete Development Resources Paper developed by the Canadian Sport Centres. The seven-stage outline moves from an “active start” to “active for life.” This outline, which is broken down by chronological and developmental age, includes the stages of active start, FUNdamentals, learning to train, training to train, training to compete, training to win, and active for life, all of which can better help parents and researchers understand the level that children are at when parents are discussing their experiences in sport. There has been limited research on parent-coaches in youth sport, with their reasons for entering into the role and reasons for withdrawal presenting a gap in the literature and understanding of parent-coach experiences, specifically female coaches. The purpose of the 24 proposed study is to understand female parent-coach involvement in youth sport from the perspective of the parent-coach, with an emphasis on the entry into, experiences during, and reasons for withdrawal from the role as parent-coach. In examining this topic, the researchers will consider the gender of the coach as well as the developmental level of the athletes. 25 CHAPTER 3 Methods Qualitative research in sport psychology has gained relevance as researchers are attempting to broaden the knowledge in their fields (Cote‟, 1993; Dale, 1996; Horn, 2008). This form of research allows for an understanding of the perceptions of policies and roles within organizations as well as clarification of variables impacting certain situations (Locke, 1989). When conducting research in an area such as parent-coaches, in which the knowledge base is limited, qualitative research allows the participants to express their thoughts on the subject and explore areas that research should cover, but has not yet covered. Participants The participants included ten female parent-coaches throughout the mid-west (see Table 1) who were coaching their daughters in youth sport. This approximates the sample size used commonly in qualitative studies in sport psychology (Jowett, Timson-Katchis & Adams, 2007; McCann, 2005; Weiss & Fretwell, 2005). The ten mothers in the study were between 32 and 45 years of age with between one and four children, most had a bachelor‟s degree in areas such as physical education (C3), marketing (C5), communication (C6), psychology (C7), and elementary education (C8 & C9). Eight mothers were married with one separated and one divorced. Four mothers were working at the time of the study with four identifying themselves as full time mothers and wives and two mothers abstaining from the question. 26 Table 1 Mother Demographics Participant Age Marital Status Sports Played (Years) 1 45 Married Softball (8) 32 2 Separated Soccer (10) Basketball (7) Softball (2) Volleyball (1) Parents Coached Children Gender/Age/Currently Coaching No F / 11/ Yes No M / 13 / No F / 10 / Yes M / 7 / No 3 37 Married Basketball (4) Softball (2) Soccer (2) No M / 8 / No F / 7 / Yes M / 4 / No 4 35 Divorced None No M / 16 / No F / 12 / Yes 5 38 Married Softball (13) Basketball (8) Mother F / 11 / No F / 9 / No F / 7 / Yes M / 5 / No 6 41 Married Softball (13) Basketball (2) Mother & Father F / 11 / Yes M / 9 / No M / 6 / No 7 36 Married Softball (10) Basketball (7) Volleyball (7) Cheer (2) Father M / 10 / No F / 8 / Yes 8 38 Married Volleyball (8) Softball (1) Basketball (3) No M / 12 / No F / 10 / Yes M / 6 / No 9 38 Married Softball (3) Track (3) Mother M / 11 / No F / 9 / Yes 10 35 Married Basketball (2) Floor Hockey (5) No M / 13 / No F / 9 / Yes F / 2.5 / No 27 Nine mothers coached their daughter on a female only sport team and one mother coached her daughter on a coed team (see Table 2). Additionally, three coaches coached in a competitive league that included selection of players, cutting of players, travel beyond local towns, and yearround participation. Recreational leagues were those that had a set season schedule and were open to all players who were interested in participating. 28 Table 2 Mother Coaching Demographics Participant Previous Coaching Experience(s) Current Coaching Experience(s) Sport Level Sport Competition Level 1 Soccer Youth Yes Soccer Competitive 2 Soccer Youth Yes Soccer Competitive 3 Volleyball Youth Basketball Youth Softball HS No No No Basketball Recreational 4 None N/A Softball Recreational 5 Softball Youth Basketball Youth Yes Yes Softball Recreational 6 T-ball Softball Softball Youth Youth Youth Yes Yes No Softball Recreational 7 Softball Youth Basketball Youth No Yes Softball Recreational 8 Volleyball Youth T-ball Youth No Yes Soccer Competitive 9 Softball (assistant) Youth Yes Softball Recreational 10 T-ball (assistant) Youth Yes Softball Recreational N/A Coached Child Previous studies lack a formal definition of a parent-coach. However, parent-coaches are most commonly defined as individuals who are a parent or guardian coaching thier child in sport for various lengths of time (Jowett, Timson-Katchis, & Adams, 2007; McCann, 2005; Weiss & 29 Fretwell, 2005). The current study defines parent-coaches as those who are parents or guardians of a child, aged five to 12, with the parents acting as coach for at least one season. The age range for parent coaches allows the researcher to examine the experiences and approaches that parentcoaches use at various developmental levels, including the introductory level in which children should be experiencing general development (Canadian Sports Centres, n.d.). Procedures Recruitment of Participants. Following approval from the Institutional Review Board, the recruitment process began. Informed consent were obtained at the time of the interview, indicating that the participants understood that their participation in the study was voluntary. Participants were recruited through local recreational youth sport leagues utilizing community recreation directors and female coaches as recruiters. The researcher contacted community recreation directors via phone and e-mail in leagues that were comprised of volunteer-coaches and requested their consent to conduct qualitative research with female adults who coach within the leagues. After receiving consent, the researcher worked with the organization leaders to determine which female parent-coaches qualify for the study. Female parent-coaches were contacted in person via phone or e-mail by the researcher to obtain permission to receive information regarding participation in the study. Additionally, the snowball technique was used to find coaches that qualified. Interviews were conducted at locations agreed upon by both the interviewer and interviewee which public and private settings. Prior to the completion of the demographic survey, written consent was obtained from participants (Appendix A) Demographic survey. Each participant received a demographic survey (Appendix B) that included questions related to previous playing experience and the age(s) of the child(ren) coached. The survey was completed prior to the start of the interview. Each interview was 30 approximately 30 minutes to 1 hour, with the majority of the interviews lasting 1 hour. During the interview, notes were taken by the interviewer and each interview was audio recorded for use during analysis. Interview Protocol. Berg (2009) described the interview as a “conversation with a purpose” (p. 101) in order to gather relevant information from an individual. The interview guide followed a semi-standardized form, which allowed the interviewer to conduct the interview as a conversation (Patton, 2002), in which digression and additional probing occurred (Berg, 2009). In creating the interview guide, the researcher first created an outline of the relevant topics and generated lines of inquiry, followed by the creation of relevant questions for each item (Berg, 2009; Patton, 2002). The interview guide (Appendix C) acted as a framework in which the interviewer used the developed questions as a guide, then decided in the interview which information should be discussed more fully (Patton, 2002). The interview protocol began with warm-up, non-threatening questions, designed to develop rapport (Berg, 2009). The questions then progressed to the more essential questions (Berg, 2009) that focused on the entry into, experiences during, and withdrawal of the participant from the role of parent-coach. In order to examine the reliability of participants‟ responses, extra questions, which were similar to essential questions but worded differently in order to examine consistency of responses, were used (Berg, 2009). The final questions allowed the participants to add any remaining information or clarify or elaborate on any responses given during the interview. During the interview, the interviewer collected notes to complement the audiotapes. Data Analysis 31 Transcription. All interviews were digitally recorded and transcribed by the researcher verbatim to create a document for thematic analysis. Any identifying information in the transcripts were coded to protect anonymity. The interviews were reviewed for accuracy. After completion of this project, the audiotapes were erased. Content Analysis. Two researchers who are familiar with the research questions reviewed the interviews using the criteria described below. Content analysis was used to identify core themes and meanings (Patton, 2002). A manifest content analysis was conducted, in which material that is countable was analyzed (Berg, 2009). Initial readings of the transcripts allowed for general themes to emerge, but the coding of the data occurred on a line-by-line analysis of the data. The researchers used focused coding to identify “meaning units” (Cote, 1993) which included messages such as words, themes, paragraphs, and concepts (Berg, 2009). Codes were tagged as comments throughout the text in a Microsoft Word document (LaPelle, 2004; Ryan, 2004). After the focused coding occurred, the meaning units were pulled out of the transcripts and placed in a Word Document to aid in identifying higher order themes. Data were organized in a Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet, which documented the general theme, higher order themes, a hyper linked raw meaning unit, and the line numbers and interviewee pseudo-identification. Finally, a third researcher familiar with the study analyzed the Microsoft Excel and Microsoft Word documents to aide in triangulation of the data. 32 CHAPTER FOUR Results Results of mother-coach interview responses revealed nine general dimensions addressing the three research questions. These general dimensions included: entry into coaching, enjoyment, value associated with coaching, goals as a coach, positive aspects of coaching, negative aspects of coaching, challenges, perceived differences between male and female coaches, and reasons for discontinuation. The following section includes a presentation and explanation of each dimension and themes as well as quotes from mothers. Entry into Coaching Role To determine the experiences that mothers have when entering the position of coach in youth sports, each individual was asked questions which included: (a) When did you begin coaching?, (b) When did you begin coaching your daughter?, (c) What issues did you consider when making your decision to coach your daughter? Results revealed three third-order themes: reasons mother chose to coach, personal reasons for coaching, and concerns about coaching. Reasons Mother Chose to Coach. Participants discussed their entry into the position of coach, with second-order themes emerging including external reasons for coaching, the influence of their daughter on their entry into coaching, and the influence of previous experiences (see Figure 1). 33 st # of coaches 1 order themes 8 Asked to coach 2 Didn‟t want to sit back 1 Was available 1 Felt more qualified than others 3 Daughter was excited about mother coaching 2 Daughter wanted mother to coach 5 Had previous experience as assistant coach 4 Started coaching in high school or college rd Was needed 7 nd 3 Started as head coach in recreational league 1 2 order themes 3 order themes External Reasons For Coaching Reasons Mother Chose to Coach Influence of Daughter Influences of Previous Experiences Drew on previous experiences Figure 1. Entry into coaching role: Reasons mothers chose to coach. Several coaches noted that they began coaching because they felt they were needed to fill that position. “I think there‟s always a need for coaches, um, with people‟s busy schedules” (C5). Another coach remarked, “…no one stepped forward. I think [I] and someone else were the only two that stepped forward and she‟s actually, we coach together” (C4). 34 Another external influence for mother-coaches was the influence of individuals who asked the individuals to coach. As one participant noted, a friend in the league asked her to coach. As she explained, “…she kind of approached me ever since the beginning [be]cause we‟re good friends with them” (C10). Another coach noted the influence of the league on her entry. “…we were just talking to the people in the league…I think because I said I would head coach if they didn‟t have one. Then I was the head coach” (C9). The feeling of not wanting to sit back was mentioned as an external driving force for two coaches when deciding to take on the position of coach. … the community that we live in, it‟s a really small community so I really think when it‟s run on volunteers, if you think you can do it better, you need to step up and do it, show people how to do it. I don‟t respect people that sit back and don‟t volunteer their time and say, “Well, we should do this and they should do this,” and critique other people when they do nothing… (C7) Another coach noted that she was available to coach as she “was there at the practices so I just ended up helping out and helping coach” (C9). Being able to coach with a friend influenced two mothers. One explained, “…my girlfriend and I from high school ball coached…” (C7). One coach noted that she looked for a coaching position. She explained, “…they had the job opportunities posted at school. I probably looked for it” (C3). Finally, one coach noted that she took on the position because she felt she was more qualified than others. “Well, because…originally the coach she had before, I didn‟t think was helping her even as much as I could just, kind of, because of the knowledge factor” (C2). Another second-order theme that emerged within reasons mothers chose to coach was the influence of the daughter. Three mothers noted their daughters‟ excitement with the mothers‟ 35 new position as coach. One coach explained that, upon hearing her mother would coach, the daughter “told everybody, „my mom‟s coach, my mom‟s coaching‟” (C10). While discussing their entry into coaching their daughters, two mother-coaches also noted the influence their daughters had on their decision to coach. These mothers felt their daughters wanted them to coach, as explained by one mother who said, “Really, mainly, my daughter wanted me to” (C4). A third second-order theme that emerged was the influence that previous experiences have had on the coach‟s entry into the position of coach. Several coaches noted that they had previous experience as an assistant coach. As one coach explained: … so we just kept going with it and [daughter] ended up having [Female Coach] as her coach. And so, she does a wonderful job as well. So the next season, [Female Coach] said “Will you help me out and coach with me?” I said sure. So I coached a season with her and I learned a lot from her. (C1) One coach remarked on some of the duties she completed as the assistant: “I helped with the pitching machines, I helped with t-ball, I helped with flag football,” (C10) as well as “got the snack list, made sure all the kids had their flags on, all that kind of stuff” (C10). Several participants mentioned that they started coaching in high school or during their undergrad university experience. For example, one participant noted that she was “…doing th clinics in high school. It started in 6 grade. We were in, you know, high school and we were th running clinics for 6 graders…” (C8). Another participant noted that she started coaching while at university. “…my nieces are twins and they were playing for like a Little League and they wanted me to coach them” (C7). Three coaches mentioned that their start came as a head coach in a recreational or learning league environment which, for two coaches, preceded their coaching their daughters in 36 the competitive league. “…we were done with the recreational and the president of our soccer league asked me if I would coach a majors team. And that is a pre travel team” (C1). Finally, one mother-coach noted her participation was due partially to her previous experience she had with her mother coaching when she played. As she remarked, she wanted to coach because she “had fond memories of [her] mother doing it” (C5). Personal Reasons for Coaching. To determine the reasons mother chose to coach, the participants were asked the following questions: (a) Why do you coach?, (b) What values do you see in coaching?, (c) What are your goals in coaching?, (d) What are your goals in coaching your daughter and do they differ from the goals you have for the team?, (e) What do you enjoy about coaching? Second-order themes that emerged from the data included affective reasons for coaching, to spend time with children, to influence others, no others would coach, influence of social support, and overcoming stereotypic bias (see Figure 2). 37 st # of coaches 1 order themes 9 5 Personal satisfaction gained from coaching rd Has ability to coach 5 nd Enjoys coaching 4 To spend time with kids 2 Affective Reasons For Coaching To watch girls 4 3 order themes Has passion for teaching 5 order themes Growth/Learning for players and coach 2 2 To build passion in sport 2 To create a positive environment 3 To act as a role model 2 No one else would coach 4 To Spend Time With Children Found help 1 Had little help 1 To overcome bias No Others Would Coach Influence of Social Support Had support 2 To Influence Others Overcoming Stereotypic Bias Figure 2. Entry into coaching role: Personal reasons for coaching. 38 Personal Reasons For Coaching A second-order theme emerging from the data was the affective reasons for coaching, including enjoys coaching, has ability to coach, the personal satisfaction gained from coaching, growth/learning for players and coach, and has a passion for teaching. Nine participants noted the enjoyment they received from coaching. As one mother explained, “I have loved every second of it” (C4). Another mother had similar feelings, remarking, “…it‟s been a very positive experience” (C5). Several coaches noted they had the ability to coach and remarked about their feelings of competence within the area of sport or dealing with youth as a reason they took on the position. Probably because I wanted to make sure that she, there wasn‟t a lot of coaches and I wanted to make sure that she didn‟t have just anyone, that she had someone that understood a little bit more about the game and that could teach her something. (C3) Similarly, another coach spoke of her abilities on the field as well as her ability to deal with the aspects of coaching that she felt were considered more feminine. I know the sport and I know that if I, if some dad, for example, were to hit me a hard ground ball and, say, make the play, I would be able to do it and show him that I‟m fully capable of running a team just as much as he is. Probably more so, like she said because there‟s a lot of paperwork and there‟s a lot of politics and there‟s a lot of hormones. (C6) Another personal reason mentioned during the interviews was the personal satisfaction the mothers received from coaching. One mother discussed the continued involvement that she was able to get as a coach. “…probably it‟s the same reason I wanted to, and I assisted in cheerleading too, because I still wanted to be young again. I still wanted, I looked into tag, I still wanted to play” (C6). Another mother noted the positive feelings associated with coaching when she remarked, “…truthfully, when I come home from soccer, bad weather, good weather, inside a gym, I feel good” (C1). Another coach discussed that she enjoyed seeing the growth and learning in the players. “Just watching them, how they improve week after week” (C10). Similarly, another coach said 39 she enjoyed watching “them grow on the field. I mean, even this season from last, we‟ve only had one game. Their footwork is amazing. Just to watch them mature and, they score, they make a great play…” (C1). Some of the coaches noted their passion for teaching as a reason behind their involvement as coach. One mother commented on her love of the sport and happiness at the opportunity to teach. “…I loved the game of basketball. And so, to be able to teach kids the sport, that‟s really enjoyable for me” (C3). Spending time with children was a second order theme that emerged under personal reasons mothers chose to coach. Within spending time with children, themes that emerged were to spend time with kids and to watch girls. Five mothers noted that coaching gave them the opportunity to spend time with players and with the child they are coaching. One mother remarked on the opportunity to spend time with her daughter‟s friends, saying: Get that relationship with the girls and know that, you know, these girls are going to be going all the way through school with my daughter, so, I want to be friends with her friends, you know, so that we all are, you know, see the faces all around. (C9) Another mother felt coaching allowed for time with her daughter, saying, “I like being able to bond with that particular child and say, remember Mom coached you” (C5). Additionally, two coaches discussed the pleasure they got from watching the girls. As one mother explained, “She scored her first goal. To see that and to, you know, watch her look over at us” (C1). The ability to influence others was another second-order theme that emerged, with building passion in sport, creating a positive environment, and acting as a role model all mentioned as reasons mothers coached. 40 Building passion in sport as well as a foundation for activities that the participants can continue with and get exercise through was also noted as a reason that coaches took on the responsibility of their position. “To get them involved in something that they enjoy, that they can continue, um, and have a passion for it and get exercise through” (C3). Another mother noted the excitement of the players. …there is not one of them that does not want to come to soccer practice. We have been practicing since January 1, indoors one night a week. Now we are outdoors two nights a week and every one of them just can‟t wait to come to practice. (C1) One mother noted that she felt comfortable in her ability to create a positive environment that would benefit her daughter. “…somewhere along the lines she is going to have a coach who isn‟t so nice or positive so I figured I needed to create as many of those positive experiences as I can” (C9). This mother also noted that coaching gave her the opportunity to select individuals to assist who had the same philosophy as she did. “…having a little bit of control about who coaches with me. Like, I being the head coach, I can make sure that the people who are also going to be positive are going to be there” (C9). The opportunity to act as a role model was also seen as an influential factor for mother coaches. One mother noted that, as a coach, she had the ability to act as a positive role model to the players on the team. “I think it is another opportunity for an adult or a mentor relationship with kids who desperately need it. Especially this day in age. So it‟s an opportunity to be just kind of an example” (C3). An additional reason mentioned by mothers as reasons they coach includes the fact that no other person would coach. One mother explained, “I got the guilt trip that they needed another coach or the girls wouldn‟t be allowed to play…” (C4). Another mother noted that she 41 would need to coach again in order to keep the players on the same team. She explained, “In order for me to keep the girls together, I might have to coach again” (C8). Another second-order theme that emerged was the influence of social support as a reason mothers entered the coaching role. Mothers discussed how they found help, had little help, or had support while they were coaching. Four mothers mentioned that they found help while in the position, from either family members or other adults on the team. As one coach explained, “…my assistant coach, she knows a little more about softball. And then we had a dad help us too…” (C4). Another coach noted the help from family members when she said: …I have a really good support system in terms of, I have my niece is 22 and my other niece is 20 and they both grew up with softballs in their hands too and gloves. And, I think that the girls, my teammates, my team players really connect with the younger girls and are having a better time but I send them out to coach bases or manage the book… (C6) Support from league members was mentioned by one mother-coach as influential in her decision to move to the position of head coach. “I was very intimidated. They just encouraged me and convinced me that I could do it. And that‟s what it was. They had the faith in me and I didn‟t” (C1). While several coaches noted the assistance they received, one discussed how she lacked help as the coach. “…you don‟t have, you know, [laughter] a lot of help…” (C10). Finally, one coach mentioned a personal reason for coaching was to overcome the stereotypic bias that she saw in sport. “Well one thing was when my daughter was associating coaching with dads” (C7). This mother-coach went on to say: …that was a big thing. When she said, “Dad, when I get big, will you show me?” And I thought, how would she know that girls play sports too if she didn‟t know that I did it, if I ever didn‟t show her that. (C7) 42 Concerns About Coaching. While discussing their entry into the position of mothercoach, interviewees discussed issues they considered before taking on the role. Participants noted issues relating to the league/team, deciding how to deal with competition, and how to manage play time (see Figure 3). st # of coaches 1 order themes 4 How to deal with competition 1 How to manage play time 2 Lack of knowledge 2 Insecurities 2 Lack of ability 5 Family time commitments 4 General time commitments 4 rd Few female coaches 2 nd Work time commitments 2 order themes 3 order themes League/Team Issues Perceived Limitations Concerns About Coaching Time Constraints Figure 3. Entry into coaching role: Concerns about coaching. The lack of female coaches currently coaching was mentioned as an issue by several mothers. As one mother remarked, “…it was mostly men…” (C2) which was an issue that she had to consider prior to taking on the position. Another noted the few number of female coaches at a meeting she attended for the league: “I went down for our scheduling meeting and I was the only female” (C1). 43 Two coaches remarked on the concern with dealing with the competition that would be present in the league, worrying about “some of these coaches and how they talk to kids,” feeling that she “would never talk to my kids like that. And, I wouldn‟t want someone talking to my kids like that” (C4). Another mother was concerned about injuries in the more competitive environment, mentioning that “you don‟t want someone there that is going to get hurt” (C5). Additionally, one participant noted the difficulty in managing play time as the competition levels increased. “Because now you‟re going in to competitive level stuff, you can‟t just have fun out there, everybody gets equal playing time, this is more about, you know, winning the game and succeeding at, you know, that competitive level” (C2). Perceived limitations was another second order theme that emerged, with lack of knowledge, insecurities, and lack of ability emerging from the data both for mothers who had previous playing experience in the sport they were coaching and those who did not have previous playing experience in the sport they were coaching. Knowledge in the sport was an area that the participants were concerned with. I mean, we‟re at a game and the ref makes a call and I look at [assistant coach] and I‟m like, “What was that?” She goes, “I don‟t know.” And then we‟re like, “Okay, we don‟t know the call.” More research we have to do. (C1) Some mother-coaches felt insecure about handling the players and mothers. “I was so nervous about not being good with the girls” (C4). Another coach mentioned “I worry that I‟m stepping on toes and hurting mother‟s feelings because that‟s the biggest part of the whole thing” (C6). A second individual limitation participants were concerned with was the lack of ability in the sport they were coaching. For example, one mother-coach said, “Really, the biggest thing I was afraid of was the skill level because I am not athletically inclined whatsoever” (C4). 44 Another coach echoed that feeling, stating, “…some of the stuff I just can‟t do. Like I can‟t stand there and hit the balls to the girls at third base” (C9). Another second-order theme emerging from the data was time constraints, with family time commitments, general time commitments, and work time commitments mentioned as issues that were considered prior to entering the role. Family issues related to the additional time commitment that a mother-coach would enter into left mothers considering how to deal with issues such as household activities like cooking. “…[be]cause there‟s just not time to get home and cook” (C9). The additional time commitment that coaching would take for these mothers led them to wonder if they could manage multiple children whose schedules were already full. “I think for me, it‟s the whole outside struggle piece with my husband‟s schedule…I have three kids going like this [hand diverge in three different directions] and then we have soccer. (C6) Caring for children not on the team that the mother planned to coach was a family time commitment concern, as explained by the participant who said, “…who is going to watch my 2 year old when we had games?” (C10). General time commitments related to being a mother and coach also emerged from the data. One mother-coach noted that she had to ask herself, “Do I have time for this? Do I want to dedicate, you know, cause my thought was, if I want to do it, I‟m not going to do it like just halfway” (C2). Work time commitments were another concern for mothers prior to deciding to coach. As one mother explained, she had to decide “whether or not [she] wanted to do that and whether or not [she] could because work schedule, [she] work[s] full-time…” (C2). No issues considered prior to coaching. While the majority of participants noted issues they considered prior to taking on the position of mother-coach, two coaches noted that nothing 45 would have deterred them from taking on the role (see Figure 4). “There really wasn‟t anything really that would have prevented me from doing it” (C9). # of coaches st rd 3 order themes No issues considered prior to coaching 2 1 order themes No issues considered prior to coaching Figure 4. Entry into coaching: No issues considered prior to coaching. Enjoyment. To determine what the mothers enjoyed about coaching, participants were asked one question: What do you enjoy about coaching? Second-order themes that emerged from the data included the social aspect of being a coach, seeing development in players, and miscellaneous enjoyment factors (see Figure 5). st nd # of coaches 1 order themes 7 Spending time with daughter and players 5 Building relationships with parents and players 4 Build team unity 6 Seeing improvement in players 5 Seeing growth in players 2 Seeing success in daughter 3 Controlling the team‟s schedule and players 2 order themes Social Aspect Seeing Development In Players Miscellaneous Enjoyment Factors Seeing players continue 2 2 Teaching players Figure 5. Enjoyment. 46 Social Aspect. The social aspect of coaching included the opportunity for mothers to spend time with their daughter and other players, build relationships with players and mothers, and build team unity. The role of mother-coach opened up opportunities to spend time with their own daughter as well as other players. The chance to spend time with each other is created through the sport itself as evidenced when one mother said, “We look forward to get[ting] outside. We look forward to being together” (C1). The time spent together can go beyond just that spent on the field, as one mother explained how the team joined together for a fun treat. “…hanging out with them at the game and sometimes, like our very last game, we‟re going to go get ice cream. So going and doing stuff with them” (C10). Mothers remarked about how they enjoyed the opportunity to meet and spend time with people they may never have been introduced to were it not for their role as coach. “We were all, all of us mothers got along and I just had a ball. I made so many new friends too just, you know, mothers that I wouldn‟t have known” (C4). Building team unity was also considered an enjoyable component of coaching. “…I like [that] the girls are really close. Even though we‟ve lost every game, even though we‟ve lost every game, the girls really like each other. They want to be together and that makes me feel good” (C8). Seeing Development in Players. Another second order theme that emerged from the data was seeing development in players, with themes that include seeing improvement in players, seeing growth in players, and seeing success in daughter. 47 When discussing the enjoyment the participants receive from coaching, several coaches noted the enjoyment they received from seeing improvement in the team members in general. As one mother stated: …just working with them, watching them, doing different drills with them and watching them, it could be something as little as our defense taking the throw-in but they can‟t keep their toe down. And repetitively doing it over and over until finally she keeps her toe down. But that‟s awesome, you know? (C1) Another mother discussed the joy she found in passing on knowledge in an arena in which she felt confident. My love and what I‟m really good at is working with the girls, working on their spirit, working on their drive, working on their drills. I can do the other stuff, I just don‟t find joy in it. (C8) Growth in the team in general was also mentioned by several mother-coaches as reasons they enjoy coaching. As one participant said, she enjoyed seeing the players take on more mature responsibilities. …watching, right now we are at a point where we just started having captains at practice. And they are, the girls are getting old enough where they have to organize it. They know it‟s, it‟s just nice to watch them mature and you can look at them and watch them know what to do. (C1) Additionally, mothers noted the enjoyment they had at seeing success in their daughters. One individual noted how she liked “seeing [daughter] be successful too,” and that she liked seeing her “daughter out there be a good contributor to the team” (C5). Miscellaneous Enjoyment Factors. Finally, miscellaneous factors related to enjoyment in coaching were found with controlling the team‟s schedule and players, seeing players continue, and teaching players emerging as themes. Control over the team‟s schedule and players were reasons mentioned in relation to the enjoyment garnered from coaching. As one mother noted, “I‟m a control person and I like to 48 have control” (C5). She discussed how she enjoyed controlling the environment she created for her daughter‟s friends. “…the majority of the kids are from her school so being able to positively influence those girls.” Seeing players continue was also noted by two mothers. As one explained, “I think if I can pass on my passion for softball [to the] kids that really enjoy it, that makes me feel good” (C7). Some mother coaches noted how they enjoyed teaching players which motivated them to continued coaching. “Working with the girls…I have a teaching degree, I love kids…and teaching to the whole person. And sport is just one way to do it” (C8). Value Associated With Coaching To determine the value associated with coaching, mother-coaches were asked the following question: What value do you see in coaching? Many of the responses echoed the enjoyments factors mentioned by mother-coaches. As mothers explained the value they see in coaching, the second-order themes that emerged included affiliation and the opportunity to influence the team and players (see Figure 6). 49 st # of coaches 4 nd 1 order themes Adult affiliation 2 order themes Affiliation 2 Player affiliation 6 Teaching players 2 Having fun 2 Having control 2 Mentoring/serving as a role model 1 Seeing improvement in players Opportunity to Create Change Figure 6. Value Associated with Coaching. Affiliation. Both adult and player affiliation were mentioned as values associated with coaching. The relationships that the parent-coaches were able to form through their role as coach were a value of their position that was seen by some of the coaches. As one parent explained, “…the friendships that the coaches make with the parents” are of value (C10). Parent-coaches felt that player affiliation was also of value. One coach discussed the importance of the players having friends at this time in her life. “Because I think it‟s important for, especially girls, to be out there playing and, they have too much drama in their lives so I want them to be more of a team…” (C4). Opportunity to create change. Mothers in the study noted that they valued the opportunity to create change their position allowed. Within opportunities to create change, teaching players, having fun, having control, mentoring/serving as a role model, and seeing improvement in players emerged as themes. 50 The ability to teach and pass on skill knowledge, how to strive to be more, and the importance of understanding winning is not number one was mentioned as a value that these parents felt they saw in coaching. One parent discussed the feelings she had when passing on skills to the players. …we‟ll be at practice and if somebody doesn‟t get a drill, they‟ll come up and say, “Coach [participants name], I just don‟t get it. Can you help me?” You know, and to think that somebody is looking to you for that…(C1) Passing on values that were important to the parent-coach through this avenue of teaching was also mentioned as a value to being parent-coach as explained by one parent: It just, it‟s not about winning. You don‟t always win in life, and I think that, especially at this age, they need to learn that…if you don‟t get that promotion, there‟s always going to be other promotions where you have to strive to be better. That‟s where I hope that I‟m somewhat teaching the girls, to strive to be better. (C4) She added: We‟re here to have fun. It doesn‟t matter if someone, it didn‟t matter if someone lost the ball or didn‟t get the hit, they were there to have fun and as long as they were having fun, that was the most important thing to us. (C4) Two coaches mentioned allowing players to have fun while learning as a value they see in coaching. One parent, who played for her parents, explained how she learned to balance fun and learning through her experience with her parents. I think there is a balance between having fun and actually teaching the skill. And, I wouldn‟t know how to do those things, teach the skill, and not just be a goof off all the time were it not for that travel team experience with my parents. (C6) The ability to control the environment, the focus of the team, and the attitudes of the players and assistant coaches was seen as a value one parent mentioned she found in coaching. “…kind of impress the girls with what kind of attitude you want them to have as opposed to watching somebody else” (C2). 51 Acting as a mentor and role model for the players was mentioned by some coaches when discussing the values they see in coaching. One mother explained, “Well, I say that, it‟s important for me to really live a moral and…ethical life. So, I would say that I would be that example to them as well” (C3). Finally, seeing improvement in players was mentioned by one coach as a value she held in coaching. She explained, “…the reward of watching the girls improve” (C1) as a value she saw in the position. Goals As A Coach To determine the goals that the mothers had as coaches, participants were asked three questions: (a) What are your goals as a coach?, (b) What were your goals/expectations for your child? and (c) Do these differ from goals for the team? Themes that emerged from the data were personal goals, creating a positive environment, goals for players, no goals at current time, and goals for own child. Personal goals. Coaches mentioned personal goals that they had while coaching which included to meet parent expectations, to acknowledge individual differences, and to learn through coaching (see Figure 7). st # of coaches 2 To learn through coaching 1 To meet parents expectations 1 rd 1 order themes To acknowledge individual differences 3 order themes Personal Goals Figure 7. Goals as a coach: Personal goals. 52 Learning through coaching was another personal goal mentioned by the participants. Coaching provided an avenue for learning as explained by a mother who said she wanted to “…learn more, be smarter. My thing is always to be smarter than the other team.” (C8) As one mother explained, she hoped she was meeting the expectations of the parents as she knew these individuals outside of the sport. “I hope I‟m meeting their expectations because I know [parent] from school” (C5). Acknowledging individual differences was also mentioned as a goal for the mothers. One mother explained that she wanted to “…bring values that…not everybody can be really coordinated, not everybody has a really strong arm or has the physical ability to play as well as some kids but everybody can try and everybody can focus and listen. Everybody can give 100%.” (C7) Creating a positive environment. Coaches, both competitive and recreational, hoped they could create and maintain a positive environment for the players (see Figure 8). Being positive was important for the mother-coaches. As one mother summed up: …I also try to be you know, positive and nice. You know, I don‟t…run them to death or anything. And we‟re not screaming to death at them and things. I don‟t think that‟s very productive at all. But, um…at the same time, I want them to listen and, we‟re practicing for, because you don‟t have very much time with them. (C2) st rd # of coaches 1 order themes 5 Being positive 5 That players are having fun 5 Focusing on player development 3 Keeping the players interests 2 Increasing family involvement 3 order themes Create a Positive Environment Figure 8. Goals as a coach: Create a positive environment. 53 Mothers also mentioned that players having fun was a goal of theirs. As one parent mentioned, the stress in the lives of kids was a reason to focus on the positive atmosphere. She said: …that‟s the most important thing. There is so much stress in kids life nowadays. I have an older son in, he‟s at the stage where he doesn‟t even want to play sports anymore because the stress that are put on these kids to win, win, win, win, win. And I don‟t want that. (C4) Another parent echoed this thought when saying “I think it‟s important to have fun” (C7). Mothers mentioned that focusing on player development was important. As one mother explained, exploring positions at a young age was important. She said, “And I think from six to eight, you should not have a position. You should learn everything.” (C7) Another coach explained that helping players learn was more important than the score of the game. “[Be]cause we really weren‟t out to win. There was no score. It was really just about making sure the kids had the opportunity to be on the court and try to put into action the things they were learning.” (C3) Keeping the players interests in the sport was also noted by some coaches. “…keep their interest in it, or, if they‟re not interested, then, they‟ll find out and I want it to be a good experience like, „Oh, it was fun but not for me‟” (C9). Another mother explained, “I really want those girls to have a passion for it and feel good when they do it right and know that they‟ve done it right and that they have the skills and have been given the tools to do it right” (C6). Increasing the involvement of families was also a goal within creating positive environments that coaches mentioned. As one mother explained, they wanted “…the parents to 54 come back and want to coach, have a positive experience that they want to be involved next year. Even if they‟re not on your team but just be involved” (C5). Goals for players. Mother-coaches also mentioned goals they had for the players on their team, with players returning, seeing improvement in players‟ skills, that players try new things, creating opportunities for success, winning games, and preventing injuries all emerging as themes (see Figure 9). st # of coaches 5 That players return 2 Skill improvement in players 2 rd 1 order themes That players try new things 3 order themes Goals For Players 2 Create opportunities for success 1 Win games 1 Prevent injury Figure 9. Goals as a coach: Goals for players. Several of the coaches remarked that one of their goals was to have the players return, mainly by creating an environment which the players enjoy. So my goal is, when the seasons over, you know, when I say to the girl, “Ok, you guys want to play,” everybody says yes, I want to play next year. And even some of the girls that didn‟t play this year that saw us play, “I want to play on that team or that looks like fun to me.” Um, so I think you‟ve got to remember it‟s for the kids and it is fun and, you know, in the long run, they don‟t know if they won or lost, they don‟t care about heir stats, you know, they just remember they were the pink team, you know, and they won Big League Chew when they got a triple. That‟s all they care about and you‟ve got to really keep that in perspective if you want it to be fun. (C7) 55 Skill improvement in players was another goal for players. One mother explained, “At our level, to have fun and gain the skills necessary to hit the ball, field the ball, to get three outs before we get the 5 runs because we have a 5 run limit. I mean, those are my goals.” (C5) Players trying new things was another goal mothers coaching recreational teams mentioned. “We are a recreational league and I think our, my goal, you talked about goals, I think the girls should be comfortable playing any position on the field. (C5). Another mother echoed this thought when she explained that she wanted to encourage the players to try different positions on the field. She said, “…really encourage them to try new positions” (C9). Creating opportunities for success was also a goal coaches mentioned. “…that‟s kind of what I try to do with my kids is pick realistic goals that everybody can accomplish so everybody feels like they are succeeding as something” (C7). Preventing injury and a general concern for the players‟ health was noted by a coach, who felt one of her goals was to help the girls focus in order to prevent injury. “I don‟t know how many times we‟ve said, „Watch the ball, tell me where the ball is.‟ Um, that was a big thing this year was keeping the girls safe” (C9). Finally, winning games was mentioned by one mother as a goal when she said, “to win more than one game,” with laughter accompanying the statement (C3). No Goals At Current Time. While the majority of participants discussed goals they had, one participant noted that she had no goals at the current time (see Figure 10). She said, “I‟m not sure I have any right now.” (C3) st rd # of coaches 1 order themes 3 order themes 1 No goals at current time No goals at current time Figure 10. Goals as a coach: No goals at current time. 56 Goals For Own Child. When discussing goals for the parent-coaches own child, secondorder themes that emerged included having higher expectations of daughter, having a greater awareness of what daughter can do, seeing good values in child, having their daughter enjoying sport, and seeing success in their child (see Figure 11). # of coaches st 1 order themes nd 2 order themes 5 Has Higher Expectations For Daughter 2 rd 3 order themes Has a Greater Awareness of What Daughter Can Do 2 Good attitude 2 See good values 5 Enjoys sport 4 Continued involvement 3 Success in child 2 See Good Values In Child Goals For Own Child Do her best Daughter Enjoys Sport See Success In Child Figure 11. Goals as a coach: Goals for own child. Several parent-coaches felt that their goals and expectations were different for their daughter and for their team, mainly because of the better understanding they had of their daughter‟s abilities. As one mother explained: … if there is a grounder, I expect her to get it and if the other ones don‟t get it, I guess I am a little bit, I mean, not, I don‟t want to say I‟m hard on my daughter about it but I think that she‟s capable of not missing a grounder…(C9) 57 Mothers also noted that they had a greater awareness of what their daughter can do as compared to other players on the team. “…you personally know what she can and can‟t do” (C3). Another mother noted that she was more aware of her daughter‟s ability as she explained how she was not aware of what other players did outside of practices and games. “…I don‟t know what they‟ve done at home, I don‟t know how much they practice, I don‟t know what‟s going on with them outside of games or practice” (C9). In terms of values and attitudes that the parent-coaches mentioned as goals, the child showing good values and having a good attitude were mentioned. Two mothers mentioned they wanted their daughter to have a good attitude. One said, “I just always want her to have a great attitude the whole time and no grumpies” (C9). Additionally, two mothers discussed how they wanted to see good values. As one explained: ..well first of all, my main thing with her is to be a good sport, to be a good loser. Not everybody is going to win all the time and I will not have a bad thrower or that‟s not a good call…to me that‟s very disrespectful to the game, the coach, to everybody… (C7) Another parent added that it was important for her daughter to be a good teammate: I think the most important thing for me, for her is to be a good teammate. There‟s nothing more I enjoy than, like last night one of the girls missed a ball at first base and dropped it and she said to her “It‟s okay, you‟ll get the next one. Not a big deal.” And she ran off and kind of hit her on the back. And to me, that‟s priceless. Mother-coaches also mentioned that they wanted their daughter to enjoy sports, with enjoys sport and continued involvement emerging as themes. Five mothers explained that their daughter enjoying sport was a goal. One mother mentioned she wanted her daughter to “…have fun playing it,” (C10) and another echoed that idea when she said, “to keep [her] enjoying the sport” (C1). Additionally, mothers hoped their daughters continued their involvement in sport. “I guess the other goal is that she would want to come back next year and want [mother] to coach” (C5). 58 Finally, mothers mentioned that they wanted to see success in their child, with success in child and doing her best emerging as themes. Three mothers mentioned specifically how they wanted to see success in their child, with one mother explaining, “Well, I want my [Daughter] to hit the ball to the grass” (C5). Another mother explained that she wanted to see success in any activity her daughter chooses. “I don‟t care what sport she chooses or if it‟s musical or voice or anything. I want to have her get to where she needs to go” (C8). Mother-coaches also noted that they wanted their daughters to do their best, saying, “Give me your best potential, try your hardest…” (C8) Positive Aspects of Coaching To determine what the female parent-coaches perceived to be positive experiences and the impact of these experiences on their daughters, they were asked a series of questions: (a) What were some of the positive experiences you had when coaching?, Describe those incidents to me, (b) How do you think your child felt about these experiences, (c) How do you think those experiences impact your relationship with your child? Analysis of the data revealed the following second-order themes: positive aspects of coaching, perceived impact on child‟s feelings, and perceived impact on relationship with child (see Figure 12). 59 st # of coaches nd 1 order themes 2 7 Task related success 3 Support from parents 2 Building relationships in players 2 Outcome related successes 1 Being recognized as coach 1 Acting as a counselor 1 Seeing players comfort level increase 1 Seeing increased confidence in players 4 Positive experiences impacted daughter 3 Acknowledged positive impact 3 No impact 1 Daughter was happy 1 Daughter enjoys being part of success 6 Creates opportunities to bond 3 More open with daughter 2 Daughter feels special 1 order themes No change in relationship Positive Aspects of Coaching Perceived Impact of Positive Experiences on Daughter Perceived Impact of Positive Experiences on Mother-Daughter Relationship Figure 12. Positive aspects of coaching. Positive Aspects of Coaching. Positive experiences mentioned for the mother-coaches included task related successes, support from parents, building relationships in players, outcome 60 related successes, being recognized as coach, acting as a counselor, seeing players comfort level increase, and seeing increased confidence in players. Task related successes were mentioned as positive aspects. One mother described the process oriented successes when she explained, “Well, getting those three outs before you get the five runs, happen occasionally. I think, for us, that‟s a very big milestone to achieve” (C5). Another parent added how the players responded to the realization of their efforts: Well, this win was huge. I mean, I can‟t tell you, I mean, that‟s just the biggest thing because it was like the girls were running around the field with finally light bulbs blinking on their head because we‟d been coaching and coaching and teaching but they were stuck in their old habits and we just couldn‟t get them to trust us, trust themselves. (C8) Yet another parent remarked on the success of a player who had struggled recently. …there was one girl who kind of struggled the whole season and we made, well, everybody makes the playoffs, and we squeezed one practice in before playoffs and she came. And, she like, that was the day where it all kind of clicked for her. … she made the effort to come and then she worked her tail off and it paid off. It was exciting to see that…(C9) Support from parents was noted as a positive aspect of coaching. “I have a mom who sporadically sends me e-mails. You know, is just grateful that her daughter has another influence in her life” (C1). Another mother added, “They were all, I think, just really thankful that they had a coach that knew something about the sport” (C3). Building relationships with players was also mentioned as a positive aspect of coaching. One mother described the relationship she built through the sport: …when they actually listen to what you are saying and they really do it because they really want, they know, “Ok, she knows what she is talking about, she‟s gonna tell me.” And then they do it and they kinda look back at me and their like “Yes!” Or you‟re like, “That‟s what I told you to do, good job!” And the goalie plays out and I‟ve been telling her that for weeks and I can see that she‟s happy about it. That makes me happy about it. (C2) 61 Outcome related successes were also described by the two competitive coaches. As one mother said, “…positive would be successful seasons” (C1). Being recognized as the coach was mentioned as a positive aspect of coaching. As one mother explained, “…a positive thing is having the girls come up to me and talk to me and say hi to me when they see me walking or…we do something and [players] are talking to me” (C4). Acting as a counselor was also mentioned as a positive aspect of coaching as it allowed the mother-coach to provide an outlet for players. As one mother described, “…if they need someone to go to their parents…I can remember not wanting to go to my mom for something and not having anyone to confide in” (C4). Another positive aspect of coaching was seeing increased confidence in players, with one mother explaining, “…her confidence is higher…” (C5). Perceived Impact of Positive Experiences on Child. Several parents felt the positive experiences they had as coaches had an impact on their daughters who played for them. Three parent-coaches acknowledged the positive impact, as explained by the parent who said, “Oh yeah, yeah” (C7). Adding to these acknowledgments, four mothers noted the positive experience impacted daughter. As one explained, “…she can tell when, I‟ll say, „Oh, well wasn‟t that great when [player] was so excited,‟ so we feed off of the positive things too” (C7). Three mothers felt the positive experiences had no impact on their daughter, explaining, “I‟m not sure if it has any different…just because I am the coach” (C2). Another mother described how she would attend the games regardless of whether she was coaching or not so she did not feel that coaching added to the positive impact on her child. “…[be]cause I‟m the type that would be there watching so we could still share those…” (C9). 62 Daughter enjoying being a part of the team‟s success was also mentioned as a positive impact on daughter. As one mother explained, “They are happy for their teammates when those things happen” (C5). Perceived Impact on Relationship With Child. The majority of the parents felt the positive experiences impacted their relationship with their daughter. The mothers felt that they were more open with their daughter because of the experiences, communication lines were opened, and the positive experiences created opportunities to bond. It was noted that the experiences created time for the parent and the daughter to bond, specifically due to the time they get to spend with each other. I think it was positive just because, she‟s the middle child and she‟s the only girl and so, sometimes, she feels like she gets left out because my son gets, is involved in more activities and he gets probably more attention that way. So I think for her, it was really positive because she thought, oh, wow, my mom wants to coach my team. (C6) Parent-coaches also noted their daughter felt special because their mother was a coach. “So I think for her, it was really positive because she thought, „Oh, wow, my mom wants to coach my team‟” (C3). While most coaches felt the positive experiences the mother had as a coach impacted their daughter‟s relationship, one coach felt the positive experiences did not impact their relationship. “I think positive, it‟s pretty much the same, you know… Negative, possibly. But when it‟s a positive thing, I think, you know, it‟s the same thing as it would be either way” (C2). Negative Experiences as Parent-Coach To determine the negative experiences that female parent-coaches had while coaching, participants were each asked: (a) What were some of the negative experiences you had when coaching?, Describe those incidents to me, (b) How do you think your child felt about those experiences, and (c) How did those experiences impact your relationship with your child. From 63 participant responses, three lower order themes emerged which were negative off-field experiences as coach, negative personal experiences, perceived impact of negative experiences on daughter, and perceived impact of negative experiences on mother-daughter relationship. Results for negative experiences are presented in four separate figures on the following pages (see Figure 13-16). Negative Off-Field Experiences as coach. Mothers noted that administrative tasks, including paperwork and management of the club were negatives (see Figure 13). One mother described the “paperwork you have to do, those types of things” as being “more negative than anything on the field with the players at all” (C2). Within management of the club, the mother added, “It‟s the management of the club” (C2) that is negative. Non-team issues were considered to be negatives for one mother, more so than issues with the players. She explained, “…everything else that you have to deal with” is a negative aspect of coaching. st # of coaches 1 order themes 1 1 Management of club 1 Non-team issues nd d Paperwork 2 order themes 3r order themes Administrative tasks Negative Offfield Experiences Non-team issues Figure 13. Negative aspects of coaching: Negative off-field experiences. Negative Personal Experiences. Themes that emerged under negative personal experiences included conflict with coaches, blamed for losing record, conflict with parents, conflict with players, and no negative experiences (see Figure 14). 64 st # of coaches 1 order themes 3 Conflict with male assistant coach rd Conflict with intensity of opposing coaches‟ philosophy 1 nd 1 Parents over-involved 1 Perception by parents of playing favorites 1 Differing parental philosophies 1 Not respected as coach 1 Opposing parents cause problems 1 Frustrated by parents negative comments 1 Lost parents as friends 1 Unhappy players 1 Lack of effort and influence of hormones 1 No negative experiences Conflict with coaches Not winning 2 3 order themes Misunderstood regarding tactics used to teach games 2 order themes Conflict with opposing male coaches 1 2 Blamed for losing record Conflict with parents Negative Personal Experiences Conflict with players No negative experiences Figure 14. Negative aspects of coaching: Negative personal experiences. 65 Conflict with coaches included conflict with intensity of opposing coaches‟ philosophy, conflict with male assistant coach, conflict with opposing male coaches, and misunderstood regarding tactics used to teach game. Conflict with the opposing coaches‟ philosophy was discussed, with one mother explaining: The only negative that really comes into it is when you play a very, not so much aggressive team because we are aggressive but [begins to whisper] when you play somebody who doesn‟t play for the reasons you play. They don‟t play a clean game of soccer. They don‟t, we‟ve had, we had a team last year that we played, and our striker is of course the one who scores. This team intentionally tripped her and when the ref turned around the opposing girl fell on top of her like they collided. Stuff like that, I don‟t like that. (C1) One mother explained that she had conflict with her male assistant coach, saying “It was an all around bad experience” (C1). Another mother noted she had conflict with opposing male coaches saying, “…then the other city coach, he‟s kind of a jack ass, excuse me, in that sense. I guess would be the negative, dealing with him” (C4). Mothers felt that a negative aspect was when they were misunderstood regarding tactics used to teach the game. One mother described a situation which she experienced: But a lot of people that commented, when they were little I taught them to tag the runner as well as touch the base because they didn‟t know what was a force and not a force and when it would, during a play they would just be so confused that, people would yell and they didn‟t get it so we would touch the base and tag the runner and a lot of people were, a lot of coaches were like, “Hey, that‟s just rubbing it in. That‟s rude, why are you tagging her?” And it isn‟t a rude thing, it‟s a way to teach the game. (C7) Not winning was a negative aspect of coaching for parents. One mother said, “I think because they‟re not seeing them win, they weren‟t seeing them win for a while. So after awhile, they‟re like, “Ok, it must be the coach” (C2). 66 Conflict with parents on the team included lost parents as friends, perceptions by parents of playing favorites, differing parental philosophies, not respected as coach, opposing parents cause problems, frustrated parents negative comments, and parents over-involved. One mother explained how they lost parents as friends when she said: Unfortunately, there have been people that I have lost friends with over the Little League and that don‟t think it‟s just a game. And it‟s sad. And she‟ll say, “Why aren‟t you, why don‟t so and so come over when we have bonfires?” and I‟ll say, “Cause she‟s mad. She got mad over a game and she thinks that‟s more important than being friends.” (C7) Parents also noted the perceptions of parents that the mother is playing favorites. As she explained, “…they‟ll say she‟s favoring her kid. Which, that‟s really hard too because I try and favor every kid” (C6). Differing parental philosophies was mentioned by one parent who felt they were “…just not agreeing with [her] strategy or [her] philosophy” (C2). Not being respected as a coach was another conflict with parents. As one mother explained, “…they‟re frustrated, and so they say things sometimes at inappropriate times” (C2). Opposing parents were also noted as a conflict by one mother who said: Well, dealing with the parents. It was from another team and he actually was taking it out on his coach…And, he just criticized her up and down and I heard from my parents that he was making comments about my girls or about the umpires decision and, just stuff like that. And that doesn‟t need to be brought into young kids games. I mean, you hear so much negative about “Oh, this parent beat some other parent at a soccer game.” You know, I didn‟t want that to happen to my parents. (C4) One mother noted that parents‟ negative comments frustrated her when she said: You know, here I am preaching there is no I in team and then they say, “The team sucks.” So that indirectly means that their kid sucks. And, so, you got to pick that person back up. That‟s a major obstacle. And I have a couple of parents who do that. (C6) Finally, parents‟ over-involvement was noted by two parents. One explained, “They think they should have been the all star when they were growing up and they weren‟t so now they‟re trying 67 to be through their kids” (C4). One parent also noted that over-involvement was present at the younger ages, saying: But I think at this age, there‟s a lot more parent involvement. So coaches have to deal with, you know, if their daughters not trying hard enough and we pull her out, then they hear us talk on the sidelines, they see what we‟re doing and so, you know, they feel it‟s necessary to interject more I think at this age. (C2) Conflict with players was noted as a negative aspect of coaching, with unhappy players and lack of effort and influence of hormones emerging as themes. One mother noted that unhappy players were a minor issue. She explained, “…with a couple girls who it didn‟t really matter where I put them in the field, they were unhappy” (C9). Lack of effort and the influence of hormones also came up when one parent noted: You know, we‟re at an age right now where these girls, the hormones are kicking in, they‟re having changes, the emotions are running. We had our first ever tournament … we‟ve been told by the [opposing team] coaches and the [opposing team] parents we‟re the toughest team they played and they just, they slaughtered us. But the girls gave up. They got emotional, they cried. So my goal is maybe to teach them not to, they have to know, you know, I would have been happy with a ten to nothing loss had they tried. (C1) Not all parent-coaches noted negative experiences during their time as coach. One coach felt that she had not yet experienced a negative experience during her time as parent-coach. As she explained, “I haven‟t really had one yet” (C10). Perceived Impact of Negative Experiences on Daughter. When discussing whether they felt the negative experiences impacted their daughter, parent-coaches felt there was no impact, felt their daughter experienced negatives, or, if there was an impact, the parent coaches noted ways in which they attempted to protect their child from the negative experiences and the daughter acted as a leader (see Figure 15). 68 st rd # of coaches 1 order themes 3 No impact 2 Daughter experiences negatives 2 Parent protects child from negative experiences 1 Daughter acts as leader 3 order themes Perceived Impact of Negative Experiences on Daughter Figure 15. Negative aspects of coaching: Perceived impact of negative experiences on daughter. Not all parents who discussed negative experiences felt their child was impacted by these experiences. Other parents noted that they felt their child was not impacted by negative experiences they experienced. One parent noted that the young age of the child may be what keeps her impervious to the situation but as she gets older, as a female, she may be impacted more. “Now if it was older, I think it might have affected her if it was, because as you, especially girls going through hormones and everything, I think that it probably would have affected her a little bit more…” (C4). Two parents-coaches noted that their children were exposed to and impacted in some way by the negative experiences that parent-coach had. In discussing the how one parent-coach deals with the impact on her daughter, the mother said: …I tell her because she has seen it, unfortunately. You know, I‟ve done this for four years and there have been a couple people that, their kid didn‟t get on the right team, their kid didn‟t make travel ball, I guess it‟s my fault because I‟m their friend and, you know, it‟s sad when people react that way. (C7) Another parent felt that her daughter would be as frustrated as she was at the negative experiences and that the feelings were specific to being a parent coach because the daughter “…probably wouldn‟t be as conscious of it. Cause she wouldn‟t hear about it probably, like she would hear about it after the game from me” (C9) 69 One parent who spoke of the impact these negative experiences have on their daughters discussed the ways in which she tried to shield her daughter from the impact of these experiences. I have filtered a lot more of what I say in front of her because I know she knows these, when I say, “Mrs. So and So,” she knows whose mom that is…but I do say to her, you know, “It‟s just a game” (C7). Another means by which this mother-coach attempted to protect her daughter was by asking her to leave when a sensitive conversation begins. “…if she‟s there and the conversation comes up, I do say, „This is an adult conversation, why don‟t you go play on the playset‟” (C7). Daughter acting as a leader was noted by one mother as a result of the negative experiences. “I think she felt a little bit more of a leader maybe because she‟s not doing that stuff normally” (C9). Perceived impact of Negative Experience on Mother-Daughter Relationship. Four mothers noted that the negatives experiences had no impact on the mother-daughter relationship and one mother noted that the negative experiences impacted the mother-daughter relationship (see Figure 16). st rd # of coaches 1 order theme 3 4 No impact on relationship 1 Impacts relationship Perceived Impact of Negative Experience on Mother-Daughter Relationship order theme Figure 16. Negative aspects of coaching: Perceived impact of negative experiences on motherdaughter relationship. Four coaches believed that the negative experiences the mother had were not likely to have an impact on their relationship with their daughter due to the age of the child or the reaction of the mother-coach. “I think they are young enough that they don‟t realize it” (C5). Another 70 coach felt comfortable in her decisions and believed that helped her daughter accept the situation: You know, I don‟t think so because I think she knows I am very comfortable in the decisions I made and the reason I do Little League is…this is something I do to make your school a better place to go to school and to make you, more fun for you guys in the summer. (C7) Another parent felt that the negative experiences did not impact her daughter at the time but may eventually impact her daughter, possibly indirectly. …at some point I think it has. You know, I can get, I can get very frustrated and, if its‟, if it‟s something that happened at work with an e-mail, and then it was like a trickledown effect when I get home, it affects [daughter] because I‟m in a bad mood. (C1) Challenges To determine the challenges that female parent-coaches faced while coaching, participants were each asked: (a) What were some of the challenges/conflicts you faced when coaching?, How do parents treat you?, How do other coaches treat you?, Are you able to separate the role of parent from that of coach?, Does the age of the child affect this?, Is this unique to sport or are these conflicts present outside of sport?, (b) How have other people responded to you as a female coach in this league?, and From whom? Second-order themes that emerged from the data were coaches, dual role conflicts, mis-involvement of parents, challenges dealing with players, time constraints, coach doubts effectiveness, dealing with administrative tasks, and dealing with developmental differences. Coaches. Challenges with coaches included managerial differences, overly competitive coaches, misunderstanding or seeking advantage through rules, and negative coaching (see Figure 17). 71 st # of coaches 4 Managerial differences 3 nd 1 order themes Overly-competitive coaches 2 order themes Coaches 3 Misunderstanding/Seeking advantage through rules 1 Negative coaching Figure 17. Challenges: Coaches. Managerial differences were considered a challenge that parent-coaches faced on the field. We don‟t have umpires either so if they‟re, if it‟s…a close play, if it‟s a close play, they‟re safe, which is nice. You know, I like that rule because it seems to balance things out. It‟s just, when they‟re pitching 10 balls and they‟re creeping, you know, when she took the ball and she didn‟t even give my catcher a chance to catch it. (C5) This parent-coach noted a disagreement she had with a male coach who she felt was asking her excessive questions. I got a lot of questions from [Male Coach 2], the new coach, we scrimmaged them and one of the families from the other team came up to me and grilled me with a bunch of questions on how we were playing. And I was really taken back by it…(C5) Another challenge with coaches is the difference in their opinions as to how competitive the teams and coaches should be at the various levels. As one coach explained: I mean, we…if we get all the kids there by 6:30, we‟re happy. I‟m not that intense…she was there when we got there. Her whole team is on the field taking infield. And we were the home team and it was like ten to six and I thought I was doing good to get there. So her intensity level was extremely high. (C5) Another coach mentioned the high intensity level that accompanied the opposing coach‟s desire to win and brought about an attitude from the coach. “I think there‟s been a couple times where you can get the real competitive coach who wants to win and he kind of has the attitude” (C7). 72 Misunderstanding or seeking advantage through rules was a concern for three coaches. One explained: You know, we‟re supposed to have, there are all these rules and everybody makes up their own rules. And I am very much Type A, we follow the rules, it‟s seven pitches, your kids are on the grass, you have two coaches on the field. (C5) The final theme that emerged with coaches was the negative coaching that some mothercoaches witnessed. One mother remarked, “…there was no positive” (C1). Dual Role Conflicts. Dealing with the dual role of mother and coach was a challenge that several parents commented on, with daughter unreceptive to coaching from mother, daughter conflicted about roles, avoiding special treatment of child, fairness, and coaching does not provide challenge to roles (see Figure 18). st nd # of coaches 1 order themes 5 Coaching does not provide challenge to roles 4 Daughter conflicted about roles 4 Avoiding special treatment of child 3 Fairness 2 Daughter unreceptive to coaching from mother 2 order themes Dual Role Conflicts Figure 18. Challenges: Dual role conflicts. Several parents noted that coaching did not provide challenges to the dual role relationship. One parent explained, “Once you become a parent, you‟re a parent for life” (C4). Another said: So I feel like I am doing a lot of mothering as well…I coach the same way I mother. So, to me, there isn‟t much of a difference and my daughter knows where she should be and what she should be doing. (C5) 73 Daughter appearing to be conflicted about roles was another theme that emerged. One mother explained, “…she wanted to hug my legs, she wanted to, you know what I mean, that kind of a thing more than focus on the sport. And I think with a different coach, she would have focused more on the sport” (C3). Another mother discussed how her daughter wanted the mothers attention when she said, “she was whiny, she wanted moms attention. „Mommy, you clap just for everybody, you never clap for just me.‟” (C7) Some parent-coaches also noted that they tried to avoid giving their daughter special treatment. For example, one coach told her daughter, “I can‟t give you special treatment because I‟m the mom, I‟m the coach so I have to do what‟s best for the team” (C9). Dealing with fairness was an issue for one mother who said, “So that was my biggest thing coaching was, I‟m friends with a lot of the moms too so I got to try to be as fair as possible” (C7). The parent-coaches also discussed whether they felt they separated the role or they felt there was no difference in their roles. Two parents felt their daughter was unreceptive to coaching from the mother which created a challenge for them. I get very frustrated with her. Um, and the moms that I coached with, I wish they could be here too because they are the same way. I mean, they can tell their daughters to do it and they‟ll whine and cry and whimper. (C7) She added, “…there was another mother I coached with and her daughter was on the team and she was equally obnoxious” (C7) Mis-involvement of Parents. The mis-involvement of parents was a challenge for coaches, with parents trying to coach, negative feedback from parents, parents not understanding optimal push, parents not disciplining their own children, and miscellaneous parent issues all emerging as themes (see Figure 19). 74 st # of coaches 4 Negative feedback from parents 3 nd 1 order themes Parents trying to coach 2 2 Parents not understanding optimal push 2 Mis-Involvement of Parents Parents not disciplining their own children 3 order themes Miscellaneous parent issues Figure 19. Challenges: Mis-involvement of parents. Negative feedback was another challenge that mothers encountered. As one mother described, “…there‟s days when I‟ve gone to work and I‟ve gotten an e-mail from a parent and it‟s ruined my whole day” (C4). Another parent echoed that thought, saying, “…one of [the parents] talked negatively right to my face” (C6). Parents trying to coach was also mentioned as a challenge in coaching. As one mother explained, “…that‟s not fun for the coach to have parents who are coaching from the sidelines” (C3). Parents not understanding optimal push was also discussed as a challenge coaches encounter with parents. We had, my son used to play football and I used to laugh at these parents that would just sit and the stands and just, and I‟m like, not one time have I ever heard a NFL player state “I just want to thank my little league football coach.” Most of the people that get drafted, they don‟t start playing sports until high school. So, you know, to push kids and to make them not want to play, that‟s, what fun is that? (C4) Parents‟ not disciplining their own children was an issue two mothers discussed. One mother discussed how she didn‟t understand why parents did not intervene when their children were misbehaving. She said: 75 I would know if my kids were acting like that and I would be all over them like, you don‟t treat your coach like that, you‟re not going to stomp your feet at your coach, you‟re not going to give the ump a dirty look and… it‟s kind of frustrating when the parents don‟t do that for their kid when I‟m coaching them. I feel like you got to respect your coach and not stomp your feet or walk away or roll your eyes at the coach. (C9) Finally, miscellaneous parent issues were mentioned, with communication issues, disagreements, and parents wanting everything mentioned as concerns. One mother explained, “I‟ve got a lot of people that disagree” (C7). Another mother explained, “…parents wanting this and wanting that and you can‟t please everybody…” (C2) Challenges Dealing With Players. Players were also noted as a challenge, with lack of player commitment, players not focused, drama queens, dealing with high needs child, and view of female coaches authority all emerging as themes (see Figure 20). st # of coaches 4 Lack of player commitment 3 nd 1 order themes Players not focused 2 order themes Challenges Dealing With Players 3 Drama queens 1 Dealing with high needs child 1 View of female coaches authority Figure 20. Challenges: Challenges dealing with players. Lack of player commitment was a difficulty noted by four mother-coaches. As one mother explained, “I can‟t get my whole team to a practice” (C6). Another parent also had a problem with players attending games, explaining, “I‟m struggling with girls…it‟s disappointing to the girls if every game is a forfeit” (C10). Another issue with players were their lack of focus, in some cases due to distractions on the field. One mother noted, “…when we have practice and the U11 boys team is on the other 76 half…you know, some of the girls are heavily into dating now in fifth grade…and the next thing you know, they are watching the boys…” (C1). In some cases, mothers had to deal with players acting like drama queens. One mother explained, “…it‟s drama with girls. It‟s drama, you know. And it‟s little things that you wouldn‟t think are a big deal” (C7). Another mother noted how injuries could lead to drama. She noted, “…you would have kids get hurt and be overly dramatic about falling and you would see coaches caring for kids and making sure they are okay…at that level, you have to” (C3). Dealing with high needs children was an issue one mother-coach dealt with. She described working with him, saying: I would say initially that, dealing with the child that has the high needs was very difficult for me. And I really had to put time and energy into thinking how do I handle this best. And so, I would say, I don‟t want to say that it was a negative, but if I had to come up with something, that was probably the biggest challenge. I don‟t really want to say that it was negative but it was a challenge. But it ended up being positive. (C3) How the players view the female coaches authority was noted as a challenge by one mother-coach. She explained: I think with women it‟s a little bit harder because we are so personable and we‟re like, you know, fun, and we like to joke around with them a lot but, when it comes down to business, [the players] need to listen. (C2) Time Constraints. Another challenge mentioned by parent-coaches as a challenge was the time commitment the position required. Coaching as a time commitment, family time commitments, lack of time, and exhaustion emerged as themes from the data (see Figure 21). 77 st # of coaches 5 Coaching as a time commitment 5 nd 1 order themes Time commitments with family 2 order themes Time Commitments 3 Lack of time 1 Exhaustion Figure 21. Challenges: Time commitments. One coach noted the additional time that was required of a coach, remarking, “You just have to be there earlier” (C3). Another coach also said, “…it‟s like a full time job” (C8). Another coach discussed the specific duties that add to the commitment, mentioning, “…doing the lineup, making sure that the book is kept properly, that everybody plays every position…” (C5). Time commitments as they relate to the family was mentioned as challenges associated with coaching. Dealing with family members who move in multiple directions was a challenge noted by several parents. The conflicts are, I mean, it‟s fun being a coach but it‟s hard when you have other kids. You know, when you are a parent and you have other kids on different teams and they play on the same nights. (C10) Another parent noted the challenge of caring for children who are not playing. She said, “I‟m watching the runners and my son is crying, „what‟s going on?‟” (C5) Lack of time was noted by three mothers. One discussed what she had to give up to coach, explaining: …working out. This used to be my running time and I probably have gained ten pounds since. I don‟t have any time…with homework and kids and band and running here and there and, you know, we just, there‟s no time. (C7) 78 Another mother discussed her busy schedule, saying, “working 40-45 hours a week, practicing two nights a week, coaching games two days a weekend…” (C1). The exhaustion that one parent-coach felt the position added, noting, “there are times where I‟m just exhausted” (C1) Coach Doubts Effectiveness. The coach doubting her effectiveness was noted, with preparing team for competition and win/loss record noted (see Figure 21). Preparing the team for competition was a challenge mentioned by the participants who felt “trying to get them in to the infield and knowing what to do was a big challenge…getting it so they were confident.” (C9) st # of coaches 2 Preparing team for competition 2 nd 1 order themes Win/Loss record 2 order themes Coach Doubts Effectiveness 2 Dealing with developmental differences 1 Dealing with administrative tasks Figure 22. Challenges: Coach doubts effectiveness. Dealing with win and loss record was mentioned as a challenge by two coaches, one who said: We had one of the moms that kind of was disgusted because we weren‟t winning games and, I guess she made a point to, um, I don‟t know if she made a point to say it out loud but she said it in front of, uh, my coach, my assistant coach husband. (C4) Dealing with administrative tasks. The administrative tasks that take time of the parentcoach were also considered challenges for parent-coaches. “…I would say those are, the administrative stuff that is just bogging down to a coach, you know, with all the procedures we have to do for the association” (C2). 79 Dealing with developmental differences. Another challenge mentioned by some coaches was dealing with developmental differences. One mother noted the extra attention she had to give younger players when she said, “I mean, these kids, I told them, I said, „You cannot go to the bathroom. If you have to go to the bathroom, you have to go before the game” (C5). Another mother discussed the changes that would need to come as the players increased in age and level. She said, “I think that as the kids get older and the skills get better and, let‟s say, you have either a kid that‟s really good or maybe below average, I think that that would be maybe more difficult” (C3). Perceived Differences Between Male and Female Coaches Mothers noted differences between male and female coaches, with themes emerging including differing coaching philosophies, women perceived as more nurturing, perceived gender bias in coaching ability, and women perceived as better organizers (see Figure 23). st # of coaches 1 order themes General Dimension 7 Women perceived as more nurturing 6 Perceived gender bias in coaching ability 4 Differing coaching philosophies 3 Perceived Differences Between Male and Female Coaches Women perceived as better organizers Figure 23. Perceived differences between male and female coaches. Women Perceived As More Nurturing. Several coaches noted that women are perceived as more nurturing and emotional than men. As one mother explained, social norms allowed her to be more nurturing. She said: Not that a male coach can‟t be, but sometimes that‟s not seen…[as] appropriate to hug, you know, to hug the kids, that kind of a thing. Where it‟s more appropriate for a woman to hug a kid. You know what I mean? (C3) 80 Another mother noted how a male coach she worked with was not prepared to coach girls when she said, “…it was just somebody who thought he knew everything there was to know about soccer but did not know how to coach 10 year old girls. It was an awful season” (C1). Another mother added that she felt the girls related more to women, saying, “I think that the girls relate easier to a maternal figure” (C5). Perceived Gender Bias in Coaching Ability. Mothers noted the bias they sometimes encountered as a mother coaching as opposed to a father. One mother explained: …a man could probably step out on the court, I might be a little sexist here, a man could probably step on the court and not know much about the game and be fine. And parents wouldn‟t care. But if a woman does, she better know what she‟s doing. (C3) One mother discussed an incident in which she was asked to let a man demonstrate a skill that she felt qualified to do. She said: I work with one other man who runs the other team for my age group and he‟s very, very kind. But, for example, we went to a clinic where the [Town] High School varsity coach ran the clinic and the other coach showed up 40 minutes late. And as soon as he showed up, [the varsity coach] said, “Did you bring your glove?” and [the male coach] said, “No, I didn‟t.” And I said, “I brought mine.” “Can [Other Coach] borrow it?” “No. If you need a coach to catch the ball, I‟ll catch the ball.” (C6) Differing Coaching Philosophies. Four mothers noted that their philosophies differed from the philosophies of the male coaches they knew. One mother explained: …from what I‟ve been witness to, no, they don‟t have that emotional aspect of it, they don‟t care. If they have a girl playing a travel team and playing to play and they sit the bench, their response, and I‟ve heard it from several people is, “Hey, we‟re doing them a favor. They‟re learning in practice. If they weren‟t in our practice, they would be horrible.” (C8) Another mother noted the competitiveness of men and how it differed from women. I think men are more competitive than women. I mean, there are a lot of women that are competitive…I would love to win…but, would I lose sleep over it? No, I wouldn‟t. And 81 honestly, [opposing male coach] would. [Opposing male coach] would lose sleep over it. I think [opposing male coach] drilled those girls and made it a point to win. (C4) Women Perceived As Better Organizers. Three mothers noted that women were often perceived as better organizers than the male coaches and were often given roles that related to this. One mother explained, “Some of them I think they look at it as „Oh, somebody who can organize the schedules for us.‟ … „Oh, there‟s a lady in the group, you know, she can do it.‟ (C1) Discontinuation To determine the factors related to discontinuation for parent-coaches and their children, each parent-coach was asked the following questions: (a) Did your child ever want to quit while you were coaching? How did you work through this? (b) When do you anticipate discontinuing coaching your child?, What do you see as influential factors in this decision?, What level would you stop coaching your own child? What factors would influence you to stop at this level? Parent-Coaches noted whether they had considered stopping coaching their children and the factors that would lead to their discontinuation. First- order themes that emerged for parents who considered quitting were lack of qualifications at higher levels, time commitments, child‟s discontinuation, does not want to hear criticism, to build daughter‟s independence, difficulties with daughter, and does not want to deal with league politics (see Figure 24). 82 st # of coaches 1 order themes 8 Lack of qualifications 4 Time commitment 2 Child‟s discontinuation 2 Does not want to hear criticism 2 To build daughter‟s independence 1 Difficulties with daughter 1 General Dimension Does not want to deal with politics Reasons for Discontinuation Figure 24. Reasons for discontinuation. Lack of qualifications was cited as a reason parent-coaches feel they would drop out of the position of coach. The limited experience some parent-coaches have within the sports they are coaching would limit their abilities and knowledge as discussed by several coaches. One explained, “You know, eventually I‟m not going to be qualified to do this. I mean, it‟s gonna get over my head” (C1). Another parent-coach said, “Now, at some point, my skills, I just won‟t be able to. I just don‟t know enough to tell them what to do. So that‟s like, that‟s where the cutoff will be, for me” (C9). Yet another coach commented on leaving coaching within a specific sport due to lack of knowledge. She said she would leave coaching “…soccer, but not coaching in general, I will always be a coach” (C8). Lack of qualifications at the next level was a reason several coaches noted they would withdrawal from the role of parent-coach, noting that the need to teach skills at higher levels would differ as well as the philosophy and expectations from coaches at a higher level. One parent explained: 83 I don‟t know if I‟ll coach the next level up. Because, like I said, my philosophy of play will differ, it will go against the grain that I feel that all the kids, even at the next level, I‟m not gonna make everybody pitch because I don‟t think that will be effective but I think everybody should play infield and outfield. A lot of kids are first learning the game. (C5) Another coach said, “I‟m getting to the point now where next year is competitive. Next year is pitch count, next year they win and lose and I‟m like, I don‟t know if [its] too competitive to still be fun” (C7). Yet another coach explained: …I‟m not a competitive person. I mean, yeah, I would love to win, but, I‟m not a competitive person like that. I can‟t sit there and scream at a child to make sure that they get that hit, or, why didn‟t you get that ball. I couldn‟t do that and, I have a problem with people doing that to other people‟s children. And, to be in that level and to watch another coach do it to some other team, I couldn‟t do that. (C4) The time commitment that coaching took was considered a reason for withdrawal from the position of parent-coach. As one parent-coach for a competitive team explained: …this type of coaching where we‟re at, you have to come up with your own teams, you have to find your own players, you have to go to rec teams in your area and scout girls to play soccer. Then you have to have tryout, then you have to cut the girls, I mean, it is, it‟s a job. (C8) Scheduling conflicts were another issue discussed as a reason for discontinuation from the parent-coach role. One parent-coach mentioned, “…I don‟t want to miss theirs because I‟m coaching something else. Or, I don‟t want to miss my daughter‟s games because I‟m coaching my sons or vice versa” (C3). Politics related to coaching was seen as a possible reason for leaving the role of parent coach. For example, one parent-coach explained, “The club politics and the whole male thing and all of that stuff is draining to a person” (C2). 84 One parent coach noted that she felt leaving the role of parent-coach would build her daughter‟s independence. She noted that, “I think if she moves up, she needs to experience a different coach” (C4). Another parent noted the difficulties she has encountered with her daughter was a reason she would consider ending coaching. When explaining the difficulties she was having, the parent-coach said, “I could tell everybody else what they were doing wrong but not her” (C7). Another reason parent-coaches felt would lead to their discontinuation was the discontinuation of their daughter and not wanting to use their limited time unless they were spending it with their family. As one parent-coach said, “I would not take time away from my family to coach other people‟s kids” (C7). Summary The research question that was addressed was: How did mothers enter the role of coach? Mothers entered the sport position often after being asked to coach by another coach or organization personnel. They often felt like they needed to fill the position because they felt playing sports was important for their daughters and no others were stepping in to the position. Daughters were also influential in the choice to coach, with mothers noting the excitement of their daughters at the prospect of them coaching. Previous experiences prior to coaching their daughter, as an assistant, or as a head coach in a recreational league was also discussed as reasons mothers entered coaching. Mothers also noted personal reasons they entered the position including enjoyment, ability, personal satisfaction from coaching, growth and learning in the position, and their passion for teaching. Coaching would also allow mothers to spend time with children and allow them to influence the individuals on the team, including their daughter. Social support was 85 influential for mothers who felt help from parents and others would allow them to coach. Finally, one mother wanted to overcome the stereotypic bias that men are youth sport coaches. Concerns about coaching were issues, with the limited number of female coaches, dealing with competition, and managing play time all issues the mothers worried about. Perceived limitations were also a concern, as mothers felt they lacked knowledge or ability to coach. Finally, time constraints were of concern as family, work, and life issues limited time to participate in such a time consuming activity. Another research question was: What are the experiences of mothers who coach youth sports? Mothers indicated that there were enjoyable experiences, aspects they valued in coaching, that they had goals as a coach, that there were positive and negative aspects of coaching, challenges associated with the position, and perceived biases between male and female coaches. Enjoyable experiences included the social aspect of coaching for both the adults and the players on the team. Seeing development in their daughter and in other players was also enjoyable for mothers as well as teaching the players, seeing them continue, and controlling the situation players and their daughters were in. When discussing the value in coaching, affiliation between parents and players was noted as well as the opportunity to create change in the athletes. Mothers noted the value they saw in coaching, with affiliation for players and parents a positive aspect of coaching. The position of coaching also allowed the mothers to create change in the players and their daughter specifically. Goals were also discussed by mothers, with personal goals emerging, the goal of creating a positive environment, goals for players, and goals specifically for the mothers own child. 86 Positive and negative aspects of coaching also emerged from the data. Mothers noted positive aspects of coaching which included being recognized as coach, acting as counselor, seeing players continue, seeing increased confidence in players, building relationships in players, support from parents, and task and outcome related successes. When discussing the perceived impact of positive experiences on their daughter, mothers acknowledged the positive impact, felt the positive experiences impacted their daughter, felt their daughter was happy with the positive experiences, felt their daughters enjoyed being part of the success, or felt there was no impact. For mothers who felt positive experiences impacted their daughters, they felt it impacted their relationship by becoming more open with their daughter, that the positive experiences created an opportunity to bond, felt their daughter felt special, or felt there was no change in their relationship. Negative experiences that occurred on and off the field were noted by mothers as well as negative personal experiences during the coaching tenure. For mothers who noted a negative experiences, come felt their daughter experiences the negatives while the majority felt their daughter was not impacted by the negative experiences, felt they protected their daughter from the negative experiences, or that their daughter acted as a leader during the negative experience. The negative experiences were seen to impact their mother-daughter relationship by some mothers and not impact the mother-daughter relationship by other mothers. Challenges were also noted by the mothers in the study. Coaches created a challenge as they were seen as negative, overly-competitive, that they were seeking advantage through the rules, or because there were managerial differences between coaches. Players were also seen as a challenge as they were not always focused, not fully committed, acted like drama queens, did not view the female coach with the proper authority, or due to the individual differences such as a high needs child. The dual role mother-daughter relationship was another challenge as the 87 daughter was sometimes unreceptive to coaching from her mother, conflicted about roles, and the mother had difficulty avoiding special treatment of her child and keeping things fair. However, for some mothers, the dual-role relationship was not a challenge for all mothers. Time constraints were another challenge as mothers felt there was a lack of time, that coaching took additional time, that family issues were a time constraint, and that coaching was exhausting. Mothers doubting their effectiveness as a coach was also a challenge as they sometimes felt illequipped when preparing the team for competition, dealing with administrative tasks, dealing with developmental difference, and dealing with the win/loss record. Mothers also noted perceived differences between male and female coaches as an issue they faced. These mothers noted the differing coaching philosophies by gender, that women are perceived as more nurturing, the perceived gender biases in coaching ability, and that women are perceived as better organizers. Finally, mothers addressed the research question: Why would you stop coaching? Reasons for discontinuation included child‟s discontinuation, difficulties with daughter, lack of qualification, does not want to deal with politics, does not want to hear criticism, the time commitment, and to build daughter‟s independence. 88 CHAPTER FIVE Discussion The purpose of this study was to understand female parent-coach involvement in youth sport from the perspective of the mother-coach, with an emphasis on entry into, experiences during, and reasons for withdrawal from the role of mother-coach. To assess the experiences of these mothers, three research questions were addressed: (a) What are the factors that motivate female parents to coach youth sports; (b) What are the experiences female parent-coaches have within youth sports; and (c) What are the factors related to the withdrawal of female parentcoaches from the position of youth sport parent-coach. This study focused specifically on the mothers‟ beliefs and behaviors as examined through the Model of Parental Influences (Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998) as well as the cost versus value and expectation of success analysis of mothers and their achievement- related choices in the coaching domain as described in the Eccles‟ Expectancy-Value Model of Achievement-Related Choices (Eccles & Harold, 1991; Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998; Fredricks & Eccles, 2004). These costs, benefits, and expectations of success were examined by assessing the explicit choices the mothers made regarding their children as well as the less obvious choices, such as continuation or discontinuation from coaching that may ultimately impact their child. Mothers who coached were familiar with athletics, having been introduced to sport at an early age. All of the mothers in the study were involved in sport at some level, with nine of the ten mothers playing at least one sport for three years or more. This involvement in sport at a time when girls were first being given the opportunity to participate in sports that were traditionally played only by boys shows an interest in, attraction to, and acceptance of sport for 89 women by the mother-coaches. As the current socializers, the mother-coaches have involved their daughters in sport and assured their participation, stepping into the role of coach when others were not willing. As socializers, these mothers are passing along the activities they were socialized into and that they saw value in, which is consistent with previous research that shows parents pass their interests along to their children (Kalinowski, 1985; McPherson & Brown, 1998; Monsaas, 1985). The Model of Parental Influences (Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998) outlines the impact of parents on their children. As the model describes, parent demographics, parent general beliefs and behaviors, parent child-specific behaviors, and parent-specific behaviors are a few mediators of the child‟s outcomes. By understanding the beliefs and behaviors of mothers who choose to coach, we can better understand how they impact their children which may ultimately impact the mother‟s interest in coaching as well as their choices to continue in the position of mother-coach. The reasons that the mothers provided for coaching included personal reasons, the opportunity to spend time with others, and the opportunity to influence others. Mothers also discussed their desire to go against typical gender stereotypic roles in sport by showing their daughters and players that they could coach as women and complete the same tasks in sport as men. The mothers also believed they had the ability to coach at the level they were at as well as the passion and knowledge to teach children, specifically girls. These mothers felt they were in control of the situations that surrounded their team and daughter. They felt responsible for controlling the environment their daughters were in as they felt they could create the appropriate learning environment. The mothers also showed feelings of high efficacy that they were able to teach girls the skills they needed at the current level or find the necessary information. However, 90 these feelings of efficacy did not often translate to the next level as the mothers, specifically those who were coaching a sport they did not play or did not play at a high level, felt they lacked the experience or knowledge of the sport at that level. Mothers reported having higher expectations for their daughters because they were able to spend more time with their daughters and better understood their abilities. The mothers often felt their daughters could perform to a certain, often high, standard, which is consistent with previous research (Evans, 1985; McCann, 2005; Weiss & Fretwell, 2005). Mothers also expected their daughters to act as a leader and show values that the mothers deemed “good.” As the mothers involved their daughters in sport and noted that they wanted them to enjoy sport and continue playing, they indicated their perception of value in sport for their children. Mothers also noted that they had an appreciation for the impact of affiliation through sport for their daughters and focused on sharing positive team experiences and happiness with their daughters. Mothers felt empowered in shaping their daughters‟ skills by spending time with their child, teaching strategies, and providing toys, equipment, and lessons all. Coaching provided an opportunity to spend one-on-one time with their daughters which, for some mothers, would not happen otherwise. However, this one-on-one time limited time spent with their other children for mothers who were already living a busy life. Mothers who felt confident as teachers focused on creating a positive environment and focusing on task related successes. Additionally, these mothers assured their daughters the opportunity to be involved in sport, stepping into the role of coach when there was a chance that the teams might fold otherwise. The mothers felt it was necessary to coach as it sent a message to their daughters that women were not limited in their sport roles but could coach just as men do. 91 As these mothers now act as the socializers for their daughters, their interest in providing opportunities for their daughters to participate in sport was obvious. Despite the gender stereotypes the mothers remarked about as a coach, they still chose to step into these roles, in some cases trying to go against gender roles. Their beliefs that girls and women should have the opportunity to be involved in sport and that they possess the knowledge or can find the necessary information to coach at the level they were at highlights the importance of the mothers imparting their beliefs through their behaviors. After understanding the impact of being a socializer and what the socializer values through an examination of the Model of Parents Influences (Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998), an understanding of the experiences as a coach lends understanding to the decisions that mother-coaches made in relation to continuation or discontinuation of the coaching role. The impact of the goals and self-schemata of the mothers on their choices to continue coaching was consistent with Eccles‟ Expectancy Value Model (Eccles & Harold, 1991; Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998; Fredricks & Eccles, 2004). One goal that the mothers discussed focused on creating a positive environment for their daughters as well as other players in sport. For those that felt they could not create this environment due to the negative reaction of parents or other coaches, discontinuation was considered. Additionally, the impact of the self-concept of one‟s ability as outlined by Eccles was evident, with mothers feeling comfortable at the level they were coaching. However, many felt they did not have the skills or knowledge to coach at the next level. Additionally, task demands such as the time commitment, difficulties with daughter, and dealing with philosophies and expectations that the mothers did not agree with impacted the desire of the mother to continue coaching. 92 Overall, the mothers felt they had the ability to coach at the level they were at or they felt they could find the necessary resources to coach successfully at the level. However, this confidence did not always translate to the next level as reasons for discontinuation included the lack of ability, knowledge, or skill to coach girls as they reached a higher level. Additionally, mothers noted the task demands and the inability to create a positive environment as reasons they would leave the coaching role. The subjective task value, or the cost versus value portion of Eccles‟ model (Eccles & Harold, 1991; Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998; Fredricks & Eccles, 2004), was highlighted in the results of the study when the mothers considered whether the value of coaching one child was greater than the cost of missing other children‟s events. Mothers discussed the discomfort they felt when they could not equally share in all of their children‟s activities, successes, and joys. This was seen as an influential factor that mothers had to consider when determining whether they would be successful as a coach. Additionally, positive and negative experiences influenced the subjective task value of coaching. For mothers who had daughters around as they experienced positive and negative events, the question arises as to whether the positive and negative experiences would impact the relationship and subsequently the choices mothers made related to coaching. Mothers noted that their daughters experienced positive events and this positively impacted their relationship as the mothers were able to share positive feelings with their daughters, likely increasing the desire to coach and continue experiencing these positive events with their daughter. Most mothers did not feel the negative experiences impacted their daughter or the mother-daughter relationship, indicating that negative experiences were not perceived as costs. 93 The positive experiences that the daughter is present for may be perceived as benefits of coaching as it allows interaction and shared joy between the mother and daughter. As children have indicated, positive experiences with their parents serving as their coach, especially at an early age, may lead to a continued desire to have a parent remain as their coach (McCann, 2005) which may be influential in the parent‟s decision to continue coaching, ultimately impacting the child‟s decision in sport. Negative experiences that mothers noted were not perceived to impact the daughter and therefore were not perceived to be a cost. Mothers are in a position in which they weigh the impact of these experiences as well as the impact of the positive and negative aspects of coaching and do a cost-benefit analysis when determining whether the activity is of value. The collective experiences that each mother had as a coach as well as the value that she placed on these experiences impacted her decisions related to the continuation or discontinuation of coaching. The decision to continue as a coach was an option for mothers who felt confident in the role of coach, felt they were able to continue working towards their goals while incorporating their values while not negatively impacting their children or family. However, some mothers felt the cost of coaching was greater than the value of coaching, especially for their daughters or family. Some also felt they could not be successful in the position, indicating that discontinuation would be the best option. Experiences of Mother-Coaches Responses from mother-coaches indicated that there were positive and negative aspects of coaching that they considered prior to taking on the position as well as throughout the season which is consistent with previous research (Weiss & Fretwell, 2005). These experiences eventually impacted their thoughts or decisions related to their continuation or discontinuation as 94 a coach. Additionally, the dual-role of mother and coach created a relationship that was both cordial and contentious as discussed by Weiss and Fretwell, with issues affecting both young and early adolescent children and their mothers. Difficulty finding coaches is a common theme in youth sport (Wiersma & Fifer, 2008) possibly leading leagues to approach those individuals who are visible and well known in the organization or community. Being asked to coach by a league member or a current coach was often the influential factor related to the entry into coaching, particularly when women were confronted with the prospect of their daughter not being able to play if no parent stepped up to coach. Having a relationship with league members or with a coach often led these mothers to be approached as they already appeared involved and present at practices, games, or other sporting events. Many of the mothers were children at the time when Title IX was being introduced in America and sport opportunities were expanding for girls. All of the mothers in the study had some experience in sport, with nine of them having played organized sport for several years. Some mothers noted that they were the first to have the opportunity to play organized sports as females. This indicates a desire to be involved in sport despite the cultural norms that had previously kept that possibility limited for females. The impact of these previous experiences may also contribute to the desires of the mothers to have their daughters involved in sport and assure their participation by acting as coach when confronted with the possibility of the team folding due to a lack of coaches. Previous coaching experience was also noted, as some mothers coached while they were in high school or college as an assistant coach prior to moving to the head coach position or recreational coach prior to moving to the position of competitive coach. Overall, the mothers 95 had previous playing and coaching experiences that appeared influential in their choices to coach and may have impacted their efficacy in the coaching arena as these have been found as influential factors in coaching efficacy of volunteer youth sport coaches (Feltz, Hepler, Roman, & Paiement, 2009). However, caution should be taken when considering the impact of previous experiences on coaching efficacy as most studies are completed with predominantly male participants which may not fully grasp the impact of the attributions that parents made regarding the superior ability of sons in sport as evidenced by the provision of sports equipment, encouragement for participation, and time spent on sport activities which tend to favor boys (Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998; Fredricks & Eccles, 2005). Therefore, if women were treated differently by male coaches when playing sports as children, they may not have increased efficacy from past playing experiences. While previous coaching experience is also noted as a means of building efficacy, the type of coaching experience may need to be examined as not all of the coaching experiences mothers discussed were profound learning experiences. As one mother explained, she was tasked with traditional “team mom” responsibilities as the assistant coach. Past coaching experience may increase efficacy based on a continuum, with highly involved coaching experiences impacting efficacy more than a mere association with the coaching role. Despite the fact that many of the women had some previous experience playing sports, insecurities, lack of ability, and lack of knowledge were noted as some of the reasons mothers did not feel they were able to complete tasks necessary of a coach. Additionally, mothers did not feel they had the necessary knowledge of the specific sports or skills they were teaching or they had concerns about properly teaching the players the necessary skills. This concern about lack of knowledge in the specific sport that the mothers were coaching was perceived to be due to 96 gender biases as many of the mothers remarked that a man who might not be as knowledgeable on the sport field may elicit less criticism than a woman in that position as there is an general assumption that men are more knowledgeable about sport. The assumption that men are superior athletes appears to influence the perception that men are superior at all aspect of sport, including coaching and women must prove themselves as coaches (Kitty, 2006) which was echoed by the mothers in this study. This feeling of inferiority for women may be related to the low levels of confidence and perceived ability that women report in sport (Kitty; Marback, Short, Short, & Sullivan, 2005). Additionally, the myth that women are less intense in sport and do not win as much as men can contribute to the perceptions of limited competence of female coaches (Women‟s Sports Foundation, 2000), impacting players and parents on teams. The perceptions of lesser ability of female coaches may be passed on to female players, who, as reported by one mother, sometimes lacked respect for her as a female coach. Apprehension in taking on the role of coach is not uncommon for parents and is not limited to feelings of inadequacy related to ability. The new and different relationship that parents would have with their child when taking on this role is a concern (Jowett, TimsonKatchis, & Adams, 2007) and was discussed by mothers in this study. This apprehension related to the dual-role is not limited to sports, as mothers who chose to homeschool their children were also concerned about entering this dual-role relationship (Lois, 2006). Despite the concerns prior to entering this dual role, apprehension appears to ebb over time for many of the mothers (Lois, 2006) as was seen with mothers in this study who felt more comfortable in the level they were at during their current coaching tenure. Father-coaches were seen as recognizing “the black-and-white differences in their roles as parent and coach” (Weiss & Fretwell, 2005, 301). Some mothers echoed this difference in 97 roles, noting the need to separate roles on the field as their daughters sometimes had difficulty understanding how to interact with the mother as she was coaching. Additionally, these mothers felt their daughters were sometimes unreceptive to their coaching, creating frustration as the coach. Adolescents have been found to be unreceptive to coaching from a parent (McCann, 2005) but it appears this can be found at various competitive levels, although the disruptive actions of the children appear to differ by age. For these mothers, separating the role of mother and coach was a necessary step as they felt it would make them more efficient in their role as they would no longer have to cater to their daughter. While some mothers believed separating the roles was necessary, the clear delineation of roles that men discussed (Weiss & Fretwell, 2005) was not as evident for all mothers as these mothers noted they did not feel there was a need to separate the roles, instead feeling that their role was expanded, with their responsibilities now including mothering multiple children on the field or in other environments. By denying the need to separate the role of parent and coach and accepting the actions of their daughters, these mothers may be avoiding burnout that often accompanies dual-role ambiguity, specifically concerning situations where an individual is emotionally connected such as the mother-child role (Lois, 2006). The need to separate the role of mother and coach is not as clear for mothers as it is for fathers, indicating the need for additional research to be conducted to determine if this is an issue related to gender. Additionally, mothers noted the low number of female coaches as an issue they considered prior to coaching and emerged as an issue while coaching specifically for the competitive coaches. The low numbers of female coaches in sport is well-known (Acosta & Carpenter, 2004; Mesner & Bozada-Deas, 2009) with most female coaches concentrated in the five- to eight-year-old range (Mesner & Bozada-Deas). This lack of female coaches, especially 98 in the older age groups and in the competitive sports, can create feelings of isolation and increase pressure to be successful (Theberge, 1993). Women may also be excluded from the “old boys‟ network” that allows for advancement (Theberge), instead being given more menial tasks such as the organization of materials and schedules. The experiences of mother-coaches were very similar to the experiences of fathercoaches as examined in previous studies with both positives and negatives related to coaching (Weiss & Fretwell, 2005). Mothers noted that the social interactions, the opportunity to teach skills and pass on their values, the quality time they were able to spend with their daughter, and seeing players continue were all highlights of being a coach. Understanding these experiences allows for an understanding of the choices that mothers make regarding coaching in general as well as coaching her child. Creating a positive environment emerged as a major consideration for mothers who coached at this age and level as these mothers felt that coaching allowed them to influence others through this positive environment in which they could build passion in sport and act as a role model. The mothers felt they could build this passion by keeping the sport fun, being positive, focusing on the development of players, keeping the interest of the players, and by increasing family involvement. These are key factors in athlete enjoyment at the youth level (McCann, 2005; Seefeldt & Ewing, 1996) and are influential in continuation in sport which was mentioned as a goal for many of the parents. Additionally, the mothers focused on task- related successes more often than outcome-related successes, even when the parent‟s focus was on the outcome. As mothers noted their desire to create a positive environment, they added that they did not always recognize this desire in male coaches. Mothers noted that they encouraged their players in a more positive manner than male coaches they competed against, that male coaches 99 were often more competitive in their selection and treatment of players, and more willing to push the girls to perform. This was often perceived as a negative quality of male coaches by the mothers and, as one mother noted, may not be beneficial for young girls in sport. For mothers who did not feel they would be able to continue fostering the positive environment they felt was important, discontinuation as a coach was considered an option. As the levels increased, mothers felt they would reach a point in which the expectations would be centered more on outcome and less on task, which was often against their philosophy of creating a positive environment. These mothers questioned the value of coaching at a level in which they might not be appreciated impacting their decision to continue coaching. Coaching provided an opportunity to meet other parents and opened up avenues for relationships that last as well as ones that are limited due to negative interactions. Support received from parents was positively received by mothers and fathers (Weiss & Fretwell, 2005) and has been shown to increase levels of efficacy in the coaching position (Feltz, Hepler, Roman, & Paiement, 2009). For those first entering the position, positive support from adults in the organization was an impetus to their eventual decision to act as a coach. However, not all interactions with adults was positive, with conflict with both coaches and parents emerging as negative experiences. Additionally, mothers who coached were able to interact with the players on the team in a way they would not have been able to if they were not a coach. Parents are interested in knowing their children‟s friends and coaching provides an avenue for this (Weiss & Fretwell, 2005). In addition to personally knowing some of their children‟s friends, serving as a role model to these individuals was important for the mothers as they acknowledged that not all children have positive relationships with adults. Mothers also noted the interaction of the players 100 and felt seeing relationships grow between players as well as players picking others up and assisting each other when needed was important and something they valued as mother-coaches. Interaction between a mother and daughter appears to be an integral part of coaching for mothers. Relationships were strengthened for mothers and daughters who felt coaching provided an opportunity for communication. Open communication between a mother and daughter is important as it appears to be an opportunity to bond and create a relationship that is considered equal (McCann, 2005). While this opportunity may exist for fathers and daughters through sport, it appears to be much more complicated as daughters perceive fathers are overly critical in their feedback (McCann) and provide less support than mothers (Martin, Richardson, Weiller, & Jackson, 2004). Similar to previous studies, mothers did not enjoy dealing with rebellious behavior, the time constraints of coaching, dealing with various issues that parents brought up, and the fear of appearing to give differential treatment towards their children and how others would perceive that. Time commitments was an issue that mothers considered prior to coaching, was a concern while coaching, and was a reason mothers noted they would discontinue coaching. For some mothers, coaching was like a “full-time job” as they had to be at the field earlier than other parents, left after others, and put time in to the position outside of practices and games. Additionally, mother-coaches were frustrated with finding proper supervision for children not playing or missing other children‟s activities as because they were unable to split time between children‟s activities and coaching. Coaching also took away from personal activities that the mothers pursued in the off-season as well as work and was exhausting for some mothers. Despite the added time commitment that coaching brought, it was noted that mothering and 101 parenting in general is a juggling act and consideration should be taken in determining if one more activity can be added. Players, whether the coach‟s daughter or others on the team, created difficulties for the mothers, as the players were sometimes difficult to control. Some of the difficulties were general to all players at all ages, such as the lack of commitment of players. However, some difficulties stemmed from the age of the child or the gender of the player and or coach. Mothers noted that girls can be more dramatic than boys about certain issues such as player numbers or equipment. Unlike the adolescent rebellion in which children may be less receptive to parentcoaches (McCann, 2005), young children were seen as difficult to deal with as they can require more attention after an injury that could be considered minimal which is frustrating to coaches. Being a female coach can also create conflict as players may not treat the mother-coach as they would a male coach. Finally, player focus was an issue for mothers as adolescent girls can sometimes be distracted by boys, and/or preferring to talk with other players rather than listen to the mother-coach. Each of these experiences could be considered costs in the decision related to coaching, especially if mothers felt their daughters were impacted negatively by these experiences. The positive and negative experiences that the mothers encountered specific to coaching were perceived to have different impacts on their daughters, with positive experiences sometimes perceived by the mothers as impacting the daughters and negative experiences perceived as having little to no impact on their daughter. Mothers who felt that positive experiences impacted their daughter noted the shared emotions of joy in that situation which is an avenue to create bonds through shared history (Fivush, Haden, & Reese, 1996 as cited in Sales, Fivush, & Peterson, 2003). These positive experiences opened up opportunities for mothers and daughters 102 to communicate and bond, which may relate to Fivush and colleagues findings related to the purpose behind reminiscing. Coaches are often the recipients of abuse in youth sport (Wiersma & Fifer, 2005). Therefore, it is important to determine if negative experiences impact the child whose mother may be experiencing negative remarks from others. While mothers noted they were sometimes in disagreement with coaches, players, and parents, they perceived that negative experiences did not impact the daughter greatly as positive experiences as most mothers tried to shield their daughters from the negative event. The differences in the perceptions of the impact of positive and negative experiences may be related to the underlying goals associated with reminiscing about positive and negative experiences. When parents reminisce about negative experiences, it is often done in a manner related to teaching their children about stressful events in order to cope with the event in the future (Sales, Fivush, & Peterson, 2003). Mothers who believe their children are too young to learn a lesson from a negative experience or ill-equipped to deal with the negative situation may instead choose to protect their children from the negative situation by having the child removed and not commenting on the incident until a later time. However, the mother who did feel her daughter experienced the negatives directed at her as the coach remained open with her daughter as she was very involved and experienced these negatives in more than just the sport arena. Therefore, the negative experiences were learning experiences for the daughter so her daughter could fully understand the situation and the consequences of the negative experiences. Additionally, negative experience often took place off of the field which might have influenced the need to discuss the experience with the daughter, impacting the interaction as compared to positive experiences which were often events that mother and daughter were present for. 103 Mothering is traditionally associated with nurturing, caring, and love (Pillay, 2009) and, within the sport context, this can sometimes be seen as a negative disposition. Women in this study felt they were perceived as more nurturing than male coaches as they were more emotional in general and on the field. They felt that, as mothers, they were quicker to care for a child that appeared hurt or were better suited to assist a child with special needs. They were also more comfortable showing emotion in front of the team and hugging children which might not be appropriate for men to do in the sport domain. This was not seen as a negative aspect for female coaches by the mothers as they felt the girls responded to this show of emotion and could relate better to them as female coaches. As with previous research, a child‟s discontinuation was an integral factor related to parent discontinuation from coaching (Weiss & Fretwell, 2005). Mothers valued the time coaching allowed them to spend with one child. However, coaching took time away from other children, family tasks such as cooking dinner, and personal activities such as exercising. Therefore, mothers did a cost/benefit analysis when considering coaching a team in which their children were not on, often feeling that it was more of a cost than a benefit and they were unlikely to take on that position. Despite the mothers‟ feelings of confidence at the current level, there was a concern that they would not always be qualified to coach. Mothers also discussed the impact of the next level and their feelings of inadequacy in coaching at that level. Some of the mothers were coaching sports that they did not play as a child or had not played at a competitive level and they felt illprepared to step up to the next level, highlighting the impact of previous experiences has on coaching confidence (Feltz, Hepler, Roman, & Paiement, 2009). However, mothers often noted apprehension in entering the position that they were currently at, so with guidance and support 104 and possibly time as an assistant at the next level, the feeling that they were ill-prepared could be abated. More important may be the feeling that the mothers‟ desire to create a positive environment would not be appreciated at the next level. Mothers noted their philosophy of play, specifically related to letting everyone play every position and maintaining a positive environment, might not translate to the next level. They also questioned their ability to be as competitive as required at this higher level which would cause them to stay at the level they were at. While most youth sport programs and, specifically the programs that the mothers coached in, support creating a positive environment for the development of players, the perception at the local level seems to contrast the program philosophies (e.g., The Mission of Little League, n.d.; AYSO‟s Mission & Vision, 2009) as these mothers noted the focus on competition and outcome related successes at the various levels in their program. Implications First, youth sport programs should consider how to involve mothers in the coaching role as women are underrepresented in this arena (Acosta & Carpenter, 2004; Messner & BozadaDeas, 2009). Organizations should consider approaching females specifically to take on the role of coach, helping them understand that apprehension is normal when taking on this position (Jowett, Timson-Katchis, & Adams, 2007) and should not be a deterrent. Additionally, youth sport programs should consider giving females interested in coaching a mentor to take them through the initial experiences and onward as social support in the coaching role has been noted to increase efficacy (Feltz, Hepler, Roman, & Paiement, 2009) These organizations should also consider who should be coaching at various ages and what the implications of gender in coaching are. Daughters perceive that fathers coach their sons 105 differently than they do their daughters (McCann, 2005) and feel that fathers provide less support for their them in sport (Martin, Richardson, Weiller, & Jackson, 2004). This, coupled with the differential provision of equipment in sport that girls receive introduces the question of who daughters should be coached by and what levels this might be important. Women are seen to show more expressive, positive support (Wuerth, Lee, & Alferman, 2002) and may fit well with children, specifically girls, in sport. Second, mothers who note their desire to create a positive environment should understand the organization‟s mission and choose a league that supports the philosophy they feel is important to impart to players. Potential mother-coaches should be given a chance to develop their philosophy prior to coaching as well as throughout the coaching experience. Mothers should also determine how they could implement their philosophy at various levels and assess the acceptance of their philosophy in different leagues and levels instead of assuming that current coaches have a different philosophy and therefore their philosophy would not be accepted. Third, mothers should consider the implications of entering the role of coach, specifically considering the impact of the dual role on the relationship with their daughter. Coaching a daughter opens lines of communication (McCann, 2005) but can also create disharmony in the mother-daughter relationship. Therefore, mothers who are considering entering the role should discuss the benefits and disadvantages of coaching one‟s own daughter with mothers who have taken on the role. Additionally, mothers should discuss with their daughters the impact of positive and negative experiences on their daughter to determine if this is a cost or benefit of coaching. This would allow these mothers to fully understand the impact of this role, allowing them to develop a plan prior to entering the role. 106 Finally, mothers should be introduced to the positive and negative aspects of coaching and be given information on how to best deal with common occurrences that coaches, and mother-coaches specifically, encounter. Positive and negative experiences are common in youth sports (e. g., Harwood & Knight, 2009; Weiss & Fretwell, 2005; Wiersma & Fifer, 2008) and developing coaching education materials addressed at potential issues and strategies in which parents could deal with them would benefit parent-coaches as well as organizations that may see parent-coach involvement endure. Additionally, helping mothers understand the potential biases that they may experience could increase the longevity of mothers in the coaching profession. The goal of the increased proliferation of female coaches is not an issue that can be addressed by women alone. Sport organizations, male coaches, parents, players, and female coaches all have a role in advancing women in the coaching arena. The differences in mothers‟ coaching philosophy as compared to that of fathers can be an advantage in youth sport and should be welcomed by organizational personnel and parents. As mothers step into the role of coach, coaching education should assist mothers who may not feel they have the tools necessary to coach. The importance of youth sport organizations, parents, male coaches, players, and daughters in understanding the experiences of mother-coaches is essential to the development of women in spot and avenues for this better understanding these mothers are outlined below. Recommendations for Future Research While findings from the current study present an understanding of the experiences of mother-coaches, there are limitations to this study that require additional research. The study had a limited sample size of only ten participants with similar demographic characteristics and should be expanded to multiple ages of both mothers and daughters. Additionally, the research was completed with mothers only and does not allow for actual comparisons with the 107 experiences and perceptions of fathers and non-parent female coaches, limiting the ability to understand if the experiences and biases that these women mentioned are specific to mothers. It appears that many of the experiences that mothers spoke of, including their entry into the position and experiences as a coach, were similar to research conducted with male coaches, leading to the question as to the degree to which these experiences differ. Research with mothers, fathers, and non-parents would allow for a better understanding of the experiences that might differ for each group, assisting youth sport organizations in understanding and supporting their volunteers. Additionally, mothers did not elaborate on their experiences as children playing sport. This limits our ability to discern what experiences impact the efficacy of female coaches and if their experiences related to efficacy differ from father-coaches. Retrospective interviews with parents who are coaching about their experiences in youth sport would allow a better understanding of the influences of playing sports as a child and whether the misappropriation of sport equipment was felt by mothers who choose to coach. Third, daughters were not included in the study so our understanding of the impact of having mothers as coaches could not be understood. Mothers noted the importance of acting as a role model for their daughters, showing them that women could do what men could. However, it is unclear if daughters perceive the message in the same way. It is also important to understand if girls feel it is important to be coached by women and, if there is a preference, if this is dependent on the age of the player. By understanding the preferences of daughters and girls in general, we can better understand the influence that having a female coach might have on a female player. A long-term assessment of the experiences of having a mother coach would be 108 beneficial as it would allow for an assessment of the long term impact of having a female coach, specifically a mother, coaching. Fourth, parents‟ and players‟ opinions of having a parent, specifically a mother-coach, should be considered. Mother-coaches noted they sometimes felt that parents were not treating them as they should be treated as a mother and coach. Understanding the motivations behind parent‟s actions would allow parent-coaches to understand those with whom they will work. Additionally, understanding parent‟s perceptions of mothers coaching their own children, which is not likely to always be negative, may lend support to individuals who sacrifice in order to coach. Player opinions should also be examined to understand their preferences for coaches and the perceptions they have of having a mother coaching their team. Additionally, the preference of coaching ability should be examined in both players and parents to fully understand their actions and reactions in the youth sport arena. Finally, the study did not explicitly assess the philosophies of the coaches and whether these philosophies differed by age of the coach, age of the daughter, or level of the sport. While mother coaches briefly discussed their philosophies and how they thought others perceived the usefulness of their philosophy, this study did not assess whether the organizations they volunteered for supported their philosophy and if this support differed by competitive level. An understanding of how the youth sports organizations try to support coaches who follow their mission despite disagreements by parents would allow researchers to examine coaching retention as it relates to connection with organizational philosophy. Conclusion Overall, the experiences of mother-coaches were both positive and negative related to the dual-role, experiences with coaches, parents, and players, and the time constraints that mothers 109 experience when they take on the role of mother-coach. As mothers indicated, positive events appear to positively impact the mother-daughter relationship while negative experiences seem to have limited impact. It appears that time constraints with the family and lack of knowledge or ability are the most influential factors mothers consider when determining whether they will continue in the role of coach. Results of the study provide information for mothers considering entering the role as well as youth sport organizations interested in understanding and assisting volunteer mother-coaches. As this study was an introductory investigation into the experiences of mother-coaches, limitations are evident and future research should include daughters, sport organizations, parents, and players to fully understand the implications and experiences of mothers coaching their daughters. 110 APPENDICES 111 APPENDIX A Informed Consent Form 112 Research Participant Information and Consent Form EXPLANATION OF THE RESEARCH: You are being asked to participate in a research study being conducted at Michigan State University. From this study, the researchers hope to better understand the experiences of female parent-coaches in youth sport. As a participant in the study, you will complete a questionnaire and be interviewed in which you will talk about some of your experiences related to your entry into, experiences during, and anticipated reasons for withdrawal from the role of parent-coach. You must be at least 18 years old to participate in the research. The questionnaire will take approximately 5 minutes and the interview will last approximately 45 minutes to 1 hour. Your answers will be tape recorded. YOUR RIGHTS TO PARTICIPATE, SAY NO, OR WITHDRAW: Your participation in this study would be greatly appreciated. However, please know that your participation is voluntary. You have the right to say no. You may change your mind at any time and withdraw. You may choose not to answer specific questions or to stop participating at any time. You will be told of any significant findings that develop during the course of the study that may influence your willingness to continue to participate in the research. CONTACT INFORMATION FOR QUESTIONS AND CONCERNS: If you have any questions about this study, please contact one of the investigators (Cassandra Coble at 134 IM Sports Circle, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, by phone at (941)763-0375, or by e-mail at coblecas@msu.edu or Dr. Martha Ewing at 201 IM Sport Circle, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48823, by phone at (517) 353-4652 or by e-mail at mewing@msu.edu). If you have questions or concerns about your role and rights as a research participant, would like to obtain information or offer input, or would like to register a complaint about this study, you may contact, anonymously if you wish, the Michigan State University‟s Human Research Protection Program at 5173552180, Fax 5174324503, or email irb@msu.edu or regular mail at 207 Olds Hall, MSU, East Lansing, MI 48824. DOCUMENTATION OF INFORMED CONSENT. Your signature below means that you voluntarily agree to participate in this research study. (Please retain this copy of the consent form for your files.) ___________________________________ Your name ___________________________________ Your Signature _______________________ Date 113 APPENDIX B Demographic Survey 114 Demographic Survey Did you play organized sports as a child (age 5-18)? If so, what sports and for how long? Sports _____Yes _______No Number of Years _________________________ _________ _________________________ _________ _________________________ _________ ________________________ _________ Did one of your parents serve as a coach of any of your teams? If Yes, who coached you? _______Mother How many years/seasons, did she/he coach you? _____Yes _____No _______Father _______ Why did they stop? ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ What is your age? ____________________________________________________ How many children do you have? What are their ages? ________________________________________ __________________________________________________ How many of your children do you currently coach? ____________________________ What are their ages? ____________________________________________________ 115 What sports have you coached and what sports do you currently coach? Previously Coached ________________________________ Coached Child? ____ Yes _____No ________________________________ Coached Child? ____ Yes _____No ________________________________ Coached Child? ____ Yes _____No ________________________________ Coached Child? ____ Yes _____No ________________________________ Coached Child? ____ Yes _____No ________________________________ Coached Child? ____ Yes _____No ________________________________ Coached Child? ____ Yes _____No ________________________________ Coached Child? ____ Yes _____No Currently Coach What is your current occupation? ________________________________________________________________________ 116 APPENDIX C Interview Protocol 117 Parent-Coach Interview Protocol I would like to first begin by asking you a few questions about your experiences in sport. What were your experiences in sport? Probe: What were the good things? Probe: What were some of the bad things? Were you ever coached by your parent? Tell me about those experiences. Now I have a few questions about your experiences in coaching. When did you begin coaching? Tell me about your entry into coaching. When did you begin coaching your child? How did your entry into this position occur? What issues did you wrestle with/consider when making your decision to coach your child? What were your goals/expectations for your child? Do these differ from goals for the team? By level? What were some of the positive experiences you had when coaching? Describe those incidents to me. How do you think your child felt about these experiences? How did those experience impact your relationship with your child? (value) What were some of the negative experiences you had when coaching? Describe those incidents to me. How do you think your child felt about these experiences? How did those experience impact your relationship with your child? (cost) What were some of the challenges/conflicts you faced when coaching? How do parents treat you? How do other coaches treat you? Are you able to separate the role of parent from that of coach? If so, how? If not, how does that affect you as a parent and as a coach? Does the age of the child affect this? Is this unique to sport or are these conflicts present outside of sport? Did your child ever want to quit while you were coaching? How did you work through this? Do you see any issues related to your gender in your position? 118 From whom? Strategies for overcoming bias? Why do you think more mothers do not coach? Or coach their own children? What recommendations do you have for other parents coaching their children? When do you anticipate discontinuing coaching your child? What do you see as influential factors in this decision? What level would you stop coaching your own child? What factors would influence you to stop at this level? 119 APPENDIX D Themes and Quotes of All Participants 120 Themes and Quotes of All Participants Codes following each individual response indicate the assigned number to the participants followed by the page number in the individual transcript in which the quote can be found. General Dimension: Entry Into Coaching Role rd  3 order: REASONS MOTHER CHOSE TO COACH  2 nd order: External Reasons for Coaching o Asked to coach The head coach…she was, she‟s all about getting as much help… (C9P3) [Head Coach] chose me. She saw me from the sidelines and I think basically saw how I encouraged [daughter] from the sidelines versus telling her what to do I would encourage her and all the other girls on the team and I think that was part of it. (C1P5) …the parents asked me to be a [sic] coach (C5P16) Well, I know Bill from just being a member at the [organization] and they said that they needed coaches. (C3P7) The city …whoever runs it, approached us and she kind of e-mailed all the parents (C4P3) We were just talking to people in the league… I said I would head coach if they didn‟t have one, then I was the head coach. (C9P5) Well, she kind of approached me ever since the beginning cause we‟re real good friends with them. (C10P2) So she kind of approached me, “You know, I still need a coach, I still need a coach.” (C10P2) From our organization. From the people that we coach with and play with. (C10P2) So she, she, “Come on, you can coach it.” (C10P2) th …then I was asked right out of high school to coach our 7 grade volleyball team. (C8P3) o Was needed 121 …no one stepped forward. I think me and someone else were the only two that stepped forward and she‟s actually, we coach together. (C4P3) …there wasn‟t anybody else (C2P1) I think there‟s always a need for coaches with people‟s busy schedules. (C5P4) We need a coach. (C8P7) Just the need. (C6P4) I don‟t think they had a head coach. So I said, “If you don‟t have a head coach, I‟ll do it. Otherwise, I‟ll, if someone else wants to, I‟ll be an assistant.” (C9P5) …they needed a coach and my daughter wanted to play and if there wasn‟t a coach, then she couldn‟t play so…the guilt trip came in (C10P1) I just got tired of listening to her and then [daughter] kind of gave the puppy dog look so I just said yes. (C10P2) But I could just see that people were just volunteering cause they had to because there wasn‟t enough people type thing. (C2P2) Cause I don‟t want them to be without a coach. I‟ve seen that happen before where they‟re scrambling for a coach. That‟s not good. You don‟t want that. You want to make sure you‟ve got a coach on the first day of practice. (C9P5) Well the reason that I coached her to begin with when we moved up from tball was we wanted to move her up to the next league because we thought tball was kind of going to be too boring for her. And in order to move the kids up the league suggested…parents had to coach. So if you thought your kids was good enough to move up, they didn‟t want you moving kids up and then them not being at the level they needed to be and then sticking a coach with a bunch of young kids. So they said, and that was a way to get coaches. So they said, “If you want to move her up, you have to coach.” (C7P8) o Did not want to sit back I, I just, in the community that we live in, it‟s a really small community so I really think when it‟s run on volunteers, if you think you can do it better, you need to step up and do it, show people how to do it. I don‟t respect people that sit back and don‟t volunteer their time and say, “Well, we should do this and they should do this,” and critique other people when they do nothing. So that is kind of my attitude, if you‟re not going to say anything or do anything, 122 just sit back and watch everything so that‟s why I got involved in the Little League too, exec board member, because I kind of feel that way. (C7P5) I felt like it was my duty to do it. (C9P5) I don‟t like looking at people that do a bad job and sitting in my bag chair saying, “Oh my gosh, they should do this, they should do that,” or, “Why are they doing?” So I would rather get involved and do it myself than sit back and criticize other people. (C7P4) o Was available Well my daughter wanted to play and then I was there at the practices so I just ended up helping out and helping coach. (C9P3) …and I‟m willing to help because that‟s one thing, I‟m gonna be there anyway to watch practice so I might as well get in there and help out. (C9P3) o Felt more qualified than others So I had the knowledge, why can‟t I just help give that to her. And you can, you can tell your daughter things like when they get done with the game but if you‟re not the coach, “Ok mom, whatever.” (C2P5) Well, because originally the coach she had before, I didn‟t think was helping her even as much as I could just, kind of, because of the knowledge factor. (C2P5) o 2 nd order: Influence of Daughter o Daughter was excited about mother coaching Oh my gosh, she was ecstatic. (C10P3) She was all excited. “Yay!” (C10P3) She told everybody, “my mom‟s coach, my mom‟s coaching.” (C10P3) Maybe initially it made her more excited to play (C3P13) And probably, my daughter would absolutely love this. And she was thrilled with the idea. So. (C3P7) …everybody knew that‟s my mom, that‟s my mom. (C7P8) o Daughter wanted mother to coach 123 I said, you know, “do you want me to coach?” And she goes, “Yeah! That will be fun.” And then he came back saying, “Well, I guess I can do it.” By that time I had already agreed to doing it and I asked her and she said, “No, I want you to do it. I think that would be fun.” Which I was, I was kind of hoping she would lean to the other ways. [Laughter] No, I wouldn‟t pass it up. I mean, if I didn‟t like it, I wouldn‟t have come back. This year, I would have made up some dumb excuse that I wouldn‟t have been able to come back. But, I really enjoyed it last year and all of my girls came back. So, I was just amazed that all of my girls came back and wanted to have fun again. (C4P7) Really, mainly, my daughter wanted me to. (C4P4) “Mom, why can‟t you coach for me …?” (C10P1) I: Ok, so she asked you prior to knowing that you needed/ P: /Right./ I: /Some coaches. (C10P3)  2 nd order: Influence of Previous Experience o Had previous coaching experience as assistant coach So, he and I originally started together and we both did it because it was mixed boys and girls and, and quite frankly, it takes five people to do t-ball. So you need more help. (C7P4) …when she was old enough, he and I did it together. So, we would coach together. (C7P5) Well he didn‟t know anything about softball that much. I mean, he knew tball but not a whole lot. He didn‟t know technique so he was kind of the support coach. I basically, and I‟m real loud and he‟s not so I would always get the kids where they needed to be and he was more like “Good job!” you know, behind the scenes. (C7P5) This was my third season. I was a head coach this year but in the past, an assistant. (C9P3) …six and under. So she did it and she liked it. And so we just kept going with it and [daughter] ended up having [Female coach] as her coach. And so, she does a wonderful job as well. So the next season, [Female coach] said “Will you help me out and coach with me?” I said sure. So I coached a season with her and I learned a lot from her. Well then when the next season 124 came, [daughter] was eligible to move up and was ready and her daughter wasn‟t. So we went our separate ways. (C1P3) I helped with the pitching machines, I helped with t-ball, I helped with flag football, but... (C10P4) Like line up, like if it was the pitching machine, we had them lined up so when they, the next person, “Ok, you‟re up on deck, go.” (C10P4) Got the snack list, made sure all the kids had their flags on, all that kind of stuff. (C10P4) I actually started when I was in high school fast pitch coaching a Little League team through [City] Baseball/Softball. And then, when [daughter] expressed an interest, my daughter expressed an interest to play. I signed up to be an assistant and then I was approached during the season last year to take a team this year through [League Administrator]. (C6P5) o Started coaching in high school or college I coached when I was finishing my undergrad work here in town. At the middle school level. Or actually, yeah it was the middle school level. Yes. Basketball and volleyball. (C3P3) I coached when I was actually at [University]. My nieces are twins and they were playing for like a Little League and they wanted me to coach them. And rd th they probably were, it was like 3 through 5 graders, little kids when they were just pitching, learning pitching. (C7P3) th We were doing clinics in high school. It started in 6 grade. We were in, you th know, high school and we were running clinics for 6 graders and we got played money and it was one of my first, one of the first jobs I had and I loved it. (C8P3) I actually started when I was in high school fast pitch coaching a Little League team through [City] Baseball/Softball. (C6P5) …a guy team wanted to start up so we started coaching the guys (C8P3) o Started as head coach in recreational league And then I took a U10 rec team while she still coached a U8 rec team. Then, we were done with the rec and the president of our soccer league asked me if I would coach a majors team. And that is a pre travel team. It‟s you just go very local. (C1P3) 125 I think just how I was as a rec coach…obviously [league administrator] had gotten feedback from parents that were pleased, their kids were pleased and that must have been it. (C1P26) So, that as fun and then I coached also the church league, the Upwards Basketball. This year was my first year …coaching that. And that was fun. I don‟t know if you guys have Upwards up that way but it‟s a very noncompetitive league where they, everybody has to play a certain number of minutes and it‟s just more, it‟s through the church so it‟s just more uplifting, fun thing for the kids. So that was fun coaching that too. It was real laid back. (C7P4) I just volunteered…For the next session for the rec league so…(C2P2) Well, it was because we were playing in more like a rec league and the parents that were coaching were pretty much just because there wasn‟t anybody else. (C2P1) o Drew on previous playing experience …wanting to do it because I had fond memories of my mother doing it. (C5P4)  rd 3 order: PERSONAL REASONS FOR COACHING  2 nd order: Affective reasons for coaching o Enjoys coaching I like it. (C10P3) It‟s fun to…coach the kids (C10P3) So it was fun. (C10P3) I just love it (C1P6) Well, I have a passion for sports. (C3P4) Why not coach? (C6P6) I don‟t know if I could sit on the sidelines now. (C1P6) I think because I coached with other individuals and I didn‟t agree with how they coached and I agree with how [assistant]…does it and [assistant] agrees 126 with how I do it. And I just don‟t know, it‟s hard to explain. I just don‟t think I could sit on the side and not be you know, high fiving those girls when they come off the field. You know, watching my daughter run over and hug me. Like that…and all of the girls are like that. I just don‟t know. I just like being on that side with the team. And it‟s just a fit. I don‟t know. It‟s hard to explain. (C1P6) I find out, no, the other coach stacked the whole team and I kind of got the Bad News Bears I guess you could kind of say. So, me and another mom were just doing it and we had a blast with the girls last year. (C4P2) …it‟s been a very positive experience. (C5P30) So I‟ve always been very drawn to sports. (C8P1) I have loved every second of it. (C4P19) …there‟s more good than bad (C7P11) I think we both enjoy it. (C7P14) …it was really fun (C7P3) …it‟s all been (C9P7) o Has ability to coach I would think that I have a nice way of doing things. I‟ve seen coaches…over the years, you know, the best player plays pitcher, the second best player plays first base and they bat in ability order and I think that, at this level and even the next level from where I am, they all should be given equal opportunity to play every position. And, if I am going to be constructive on critiquing them, the only way I can do that is if I‟ve set a nice example and said, everybody plays, everybody plays every position, I am going to do my best to tolerate your, [Laughter] you know, some of the kids, I‟m like oh my gosh, you‟re going to get nailed, will you pay attention please. Please quit looking at the dirt (C5P6) In order for both of our girls to play and be challenged in a sport and show their potential, we pretty much had to coach. There was not a place for them to be. (C8P5) Well, you know, with the education major (C3P5) Probably because I wanted to make sure that she, there wasn‟t a lot of coaches and I wanted to make sure that she didn‟t have just anyone, that she had 127 someone that understood a little bit more about the game and that could teach her something. (C3P5) And I think I‟ve always been, I understood the game (C3P4) I know the sport and I know that if I, if some dad, for example, were to hit me a hard ground ball and say make the play, I would be able to do it and show him that I‟m fully capable of running a team just as much as he is. Probably more so, like she said because there‟s a lot of paperwork and there‟s a lot of politics and there‟s a lot of hormones. (C6P5) And this level is perfect for me because I think [sic] I can meet the parents expectations at this level. (C5P6) I am an insecure individual so I don‟t know that I could upsell myself and say, oh, I shouldn‟t, but if someone said, “You did a great job last year, why don‟t you go ahead and do it.” Ok, someone else has faith in my ability because often times, I don‟t. (C6P5) …we have all kinds of kids in and out of our house all day long, so. (C10P8) o Personal satisfaction gained from coaching And I tell the girls, I won‟t make them do anything I‟m not willing to do for myself. So, they told me to go run the bases, sometimes I do run them with them. Sometimes I do take the long run with them. You know what I mean? I‟m willing to show them the proper technique and the proper way to do things. And it helps me stay young and in shape. And it is, it is a very satisfying experience to have fun and teach at the same time. (C6P6) Because probably it‟s the same reason I wanted to, and I assisted in cheerleading too, because I still wanted to be young again. I still wanted, I looked into tag, I still wanted to play. (C6P6) Mine is emotional. I love to see the girls succeed. I like to see them do things they didn‟t think they could do and , feeling good and overcoming it. (C8P3) …it‟s very rewarding. (C1P14) But, truthfully, when I come home from soccer, bad weather, good weather, inside a gym, I feel good. (C1P21) The only thing we don‟t do with them is run laps. We do all the plyo with them. (C1P31) 128 Just, I need, I feel like I can‟t give money to organizations but I can give my time. So this is one way I can do it, by stepping up and coaching. (C9P5) …just because I really do like being involved in it (C9P15) I like to be active, I‟m not a person to stay home. (C10P1) o Growth/Learning for players and coach Just to watch them grow on the field. I mean, even this season from last, we‟ve only had one game. Their footwork is amazing. Just to watch them mature and, they score, they make a great play…(C1P6) Just watching them, how they improve week after week. (C10P3) I was just devastated. I like teaching the girls that in life, they are going to go through hard things. I could be a soccer game, it could be a boyfriend, it could be a test. And you [sic] can either decide to rise to the occasion or you can decide to fold. And I just, and that‟s what I just try to hit with her all the time, and it‟s just a teaching tool. And I feel I‟m a positive role model for the girls and I want to be there to teach that to them. (C8P6) And I never said too much about when other people were coaching my kids unless they were way out of line because I never coached before. Now, coaching, I don‟t have a problem telling people, “You know, you need to step back” because they shouldn‟t stress kids out. (C4P3) I just, I‟m always trying to find a way to stop it. I just, that‟s exciting for me. It‟s the part I love about the game is being smarter than the other team. (C8P4) o Has a passion for teaching …had a passion for teaching at that time and that was one avenue to do it. In an area I enjoy myself. (C3P5) …do what it needed to do but I loved the, for basketball especially, I loved the game of basketball. And so, to be able to teach kids the sport, that‟s really enjoyable for me. (C3P4) … it is a very satisfying experience to have fun and teach at the same time. I mean, even our losses have been teaching, learning experiences for our girls. And, to have them say,” we didn‟t win but it felt like a win,” is a good thing. It‟s a very positive thing. (C6P6)  2 nd order: To spend time with children 129 o To spend time with kids Like I said, you have to juggle. And I‟m a mom that, my kids come first. So I would rather be doing something with them than going off doing something else. I mean, now, like I said, as they‟ve gotten older, I have a 12 and 16 year old so I definitely have some “me time” but you know, I can always find “me time” and I wouldn‟t pass this up for the world because there is going to be a time when they‟re not going to want you to be around. You know. Or they‟re going to be off to college or they‟re going to start their own life and you‟re going to wonder where your time went. And it‟s gone. And…my mom was single and she was working two jobs and she wasn‟t there all the time. And I really wish that she would have been …(C4P16) I was definitely going to be more involved with my children and make sure that I was there for them and make sure that if they wanted me or not wanted me, I was going to be there. You know, so, that was my biggest thing. (C4P16) I like being able to bond with that particular child and say, remember Mom coached you. (C5P6) You know, “Can we come sit on your blanket?” You know, to be familiar with their friends [sic] and not only with the girls that are on your team but knowing the girls that are on the other teams too. (C5P16) I hope I am coach to all the girls. I hope I am somebody [sic] they can come to, call to, I hope I can give them a kick in the butt they need. (C8P8) ...it‟s fun to be with all the girls and to see, and you know, to be there with them. (C9P15) Get that relationship with the girls and know that, you know, these girls are going to be going all the way through school with my daughter, so, I want to be friends with her friends, you know, so that we all are…you know, see the faces all around. (C9P15) I would still go to her game cause I try to go to all the kids games and, so, but I would, I would have [baby daughter] with me so, if something happened, she takes off, I missed the play or whatever. So, this way, I am seeing every game and every play that she does. (C10P7) Cause at some point, I‟m not gonna be able to, I won‟t be her coach. (C9P3) 130 …think that her mom is the cool mom I guess. I don‟t want to be one of those, I guess, you know, minivan moms. [Laughter] I want to be the cool mom. (C4P10) o To watch girls I love watching those girls. (C1P6) Just watching them, (C10P3) She scored her first goal. To see that and to, you know, watch her look over at us. (C1P9)  2 nd order: To influence others o To build passion in sport Well, I just think it‟s always a struggle for people to stay fit, especially in our society. And so, if they can develop that at a young age, a passion for that or a desire for that, that can see them thru, even when they‟re older, then I think that‟s important. (C3P5) To get them involved in something that they enjoy, that they can continue, and have a passion for it and get exercise through. (C3P5) Probably to get kids excited about not only sports but fitness. Lifetime fitness. (C3P5) Just to watch them mature and, they score, they make a great play, they high five, they hug. It‟s just, it‟s phenomenal to watch them. (C1P6) …there is not one of them that does not want to come to soccer practice. We have been practicing since January 1. Indoors one night a week. Now we are outdoors two nights a week and every one of them just can‟t wait to come to practice. (C1P6) And it‟s very important to me so I think, you know, I want to pass that on. (C3P23) …go out there and have fun and make sure the girls want to come back next year and maybe want to do it when they‟re older and have children of their own…And maybe if there are more women and we taught them, you know, there [sic] would be more women, be more involved with their children. (C4P17) 131 I think that when you have little kids starting, they really have to enjoy the game, they have to find it fun, they have to want to play and want to think this is the greatest thing ever and say “When do we go. Is it today?” (C7P6) They really got to have that drive to, you know, make it fun. Because when it, when you do get older, it does become more of a job and you have really got to have the passion. (C7P6) Because our season starts like two weeks before school is out and then it goes kind of to, like, the mid of July. I want them to, I just didn‟t want them sitting at home. At least they would get out twice a week. (C4P5) o To create a positive environment And, somewhere along the lines she is going to have a coach who isn‟t so nice or positive so I figured I needed to create as many of those positive experiences as I can. (C9P3) Cause I want to make sure my daughter has as many positive experiences [sic] while she can. (C9P3) And then, having a little bit of control about who coaches with me. Like, I being the head coach, I can make sure that the people who are also going to be positive are going to be there. (C9P3) And I had parents coming up to me going, “[Coach], my daughter saw your team last year and she just thought you guys had so much fun. We want, she wants to be on your team, she doesn‟t want to be on that other team” and I was like “OK.” I was doing my little happy dance so. (C4P16) o To act as a role model I think it is another opportunity for an adult or a mentor relationship with kids who desperately need it. Especially, you know, at this day in age. So it‟s an opportunity to be just kind of an example. (C3P5) And I feel I‟m a positive role model for the girls (C8P6) I think it‟s really helpful that moms do get involved and girls do have, you know, women role models to look after. (C2P15)  2 nd order: No others would coach o No one else would coach 132 I got the guilt trip that they needed another coach or the girls wouldn‟t be allowed to play, be able to play because they didn‟t have a coach. I did ask my daughter‟s dad because he has more experience than I do and he kinda him-hawed about it and I didn‟t want the girls not to have a team. (C4P2) And it‟s the City Sport of [Town] so I got suckered into it. Kind of said, “Oh, we have enough for two teams but we don‟t have another coach.” (C4P2) I sent out my e-mail saying sign-ups were out and if any other parents wanted to take over the team, I would not have a problem being just a spectator and they all said, “Nope, we want you as the coach. You and [Assistant Coach].” So here I am. (C4P2) So, in order for me to keep the girls together, I might have to coach again. Which is something that I‟ll deal with when the time comes. (C8P7)  2 nd order: Influence of Social Support o Found help I knew them a little bit and knew that that would be something they would enjoy and that they wouldn‟t, that it would be comfortable for them, that they wouldn‟t be uncomfortable in that position. (C3P15) …my assistant coach, she knows a little more about softball. And then we had a dad help us too. (C4P8) I make my oldest, my oldest son help me too. He was there today practicing with us, but, we basically just try to get everyone we can to help us. So, basically with the parents too because there are a lot of parents that say, “Oh, we can come out and help” and “I know a little bit about softball.” (C4P8) I have a really good support system in terms of, I have my niece is 22 and my other niece is 20 and they both grew up with softballs in their hands too and gloves. And I think that the girls, my teammates, my team players really connect with the younger girls and are having a better time but I send them out to coach bases or manage the book so I can actually handle the discipline part of, “Please don‟t stand on the bench so you don‟t break your ankle.” That kind of stuff. They have the fun of giving them the tools of, if there‟s two outs, you‟re gonna steal, whatever. (C6P12) …if people are willing to share, I‟ll always tell, you know, all season, you know, if you can, if you want to help, please, come in and help and if you have suggestions, let me know, I‟m very approachable. If you think I am doing something wrong, just let me know. If we can improve, I will definitely listen. (C9P14) 133 A couple of them were ones that I knew from our neighborhood that had either coached, help coached before because our kids had played together or I knew they had experience and so I just asked them. (C3P14) I had other parents helping me and I would just say, “You guys take the team” and I would take him aside and we would chat and we would get things straightened out and, and, his issue was that he really needed it explained to him over and over. And he wanted to make sure it made sense in his head before we went out there. So I would just take that little bit of extra time, make sure he understood. (C3P14) o Had little help …you don‟t have, you know, [laughter] a lot of help, so. (C10P5) o Had support I was very intimidated. They just encouraged me and convinced me that I could do it. And that‟s what it was. They had the faith in me and I didn‟t. (C1P26) You know, in, you know, in [town] we‟re a small community. They would prefer for everybody to get involved. (C1P26)  2 nd order: Overcoming stereotypic bias o To overcome bias “Mom, why can‟t you coach for me cause Dad coaches everything for [brother]?” (C10P1) So, I thought to myself, you know, he never even played, why is he teaching her to play softball? You know, I should be the one that does it. (C7P4) Well one thing was when my daughter was associating coaching with dads. (C7P4) And that was a big thing. When she said, “Dad, when I get big, will you show me?” And I thought, how would she know that girls play sports too if she didn‟t know that I did it, if I ever didn‟t show her that. (C7P4) So, but I thought it really wasn‟t her, you know, misunderstanding. She had just never seen a sport where, and, and in our family we have all boys so they do a lot of wrestling and a lot of football. And the only thing she had saw was cheerleading that was girls. (C7P4) 134  rd 3 order: CONCERNS ABOUT COACHING  2 nd order: League/Team Issues o Few female coaches So it was mostly men (C2P1) …there are not a lot of female coaches in this, this soccer division we‟re in. (C1P24) But not in our club and not right in, not in like the immediate teams we play. (C2P12) I think there was one other female coach at our level. (C3P16) …the majority of my coaches were men. (C5P28) I went down for our scheduling meeting and I was the only female. (C1P17) o How to deal with competition And, to watch some of these coaches and how they talk to kids, I would never talk to my kids like that. And, I wouldn‟t want someone talking to my kids like that. So I could not be that level, no, no. (C4P7) That‟s the other concern is that you don‟t want someone there that is going to get hurt. (C5P8) o How to manage play time Because now you‟re going in to competitive level stuff, you can‟t just have fun out there, everybody gets equal playing time, this is more about winning the game and succeeding at that competitive level. (C2P4) Not just, I didn‟t mean helping as in I can control her playing time (C2P4)  nd 2 order: Perceived Limitations o Lack of knowledge I mean, we‟re at a game and the ref makes a call and I look at [assistant coach] and I‟m like, “What was that?” She goes, “I don‟t know.” And then we‟re like, “Okay, we don‟t know the call.” More research we have to do. (C1P14) 135 …so there is an assistant that plays softball so she does that. That‟s like, that‟s kind of her role. (C9P13) o Insecurities And, I was so nervous about not being good with the girls but, you know, I got out there and I talk it like it is. You know, it is what it is and you have to be straight forward with kids, I think. And if they go, “Well Coach [coach], you know I‟d rather do this” and I‟m like, “No you can‟t, you gotta do this.” Sorry, I‟m the boss. And, the one rule is they‟re not allowed to throw balls at Coach [coach]. (C4P19) I worry that I‟m stepping on toes and hurting parents feelings because that‟s the biggest part of the whole thing, like when I see P5, I wonder, “She‟s calling me, oh God, I yelled at her [Daughter] and I‟m in trouble.” (C6P5) o Lack of ability Really, the biggest thing I was afraid of was the skill level because I am not athletically inclined whatsoever. My children did not get it from me whatsoever. And both of them are in sports. But, it was just the skill and not knowing what I was doing. Was really my biggest thing. (C4P8) The skills. I have no skills at softball whatsoever. I know the concept of baseball but, an inland fly, whatever they call it, that still confuses me. Basically the skills and not knowing if I could teach these girls anything. (C4P8) Oh, certainly, that‟s why, some of the stuff I just can‟t do. Like I can‟t stand there and hit the balls to the girls at third base (C9P13)  2 nd order: Time Constraints o Family time commitments I think for me, it‟s the whole outside struggle piece with my husband‟s schedule… I have three going like this [hands diverge in different directions] and then we have soccer. Like I said, [Husband] and I usually meet on the soccer field [Laughter] on Wednesday nights. That was my biggest concern was making sure everybody got where they were going. And I asked [Female A], I said I would like to pick the girls coaches so I‟m familiar with them and so they are comfortable. So I asked, I said, can you put her on P6‟s team because I know P6, you know, she‟s comfortable there. And same with [Middle Daughter]. I said, you know, there‟s [Female A] daughters, [Middle Daughter] is on the team again, she‟s comfortable with [Female A] and she‟s 136 comfortable with some of the other kids so, that‟s my, schedule was my biggest concern with coaching. (C6P10) Cause there‟s just not time to get home and cook. And if I had, I could be a little bit more organized and maybe the crock pot would be on but, it doesn‟t always happen. It just doesn‟t. (C9P13) I‟ve been a stay at home mom, I have three kids. They all play sports so, if I‟m with her, I‟m not with my other two. And it‟s very hard on me. (C8P5) …but I feel guilty with my other kids, often. And that‟s just me as a mom trying to be there and do everything at the same time. (C8P5) Things that are important in my life. My family , my husband, my children, myself. There is only one reason I am doing it, and that‟s for her. (C8P11) The kids. They‟re either at practice, at a game, my daughter dances and that goes all year long, and, my kids love to play sports and I can‟t tell them no. We do football, right in to basketball, right in to baseball, right back in to football. And then my daughter cheerleads, she does basketball, she does softball, and then we squeeze in dance which goes from September to June. And that, so, yeah, we‟re always going, going, going, going all year. (C9P13) So I‟m like, ok, if we can have games Tuesdays and Thursdays, we‟ll be doing great…Games are Monday and Wednesdays (C10P3) Who is going to watch my 2 year old when we had games (C10P2) …my husband‟s schedule mostly (C3P8) And then my younger son is not playing but he needs to be watched. (C3P8) o General time commitments Do I have time for this? Do I want to dedicate, you know, cause my thought was, if I want to do it, I‟m not going to do it like just halfway. (C2P3) Well because, with the rec league it wasn‟t as much. I think those thoughts went through my head more when I decided to go to travel. (C2P4) I think you are always for a lack of time. And I think a lot of people say, “Oh, I‟m too busy.” (C7P21) Our, my lifestyle and schedule at home is challenging [sic] to put that time in. And especially, I was asked to coach softball but I had to say no because my husband works long hours and I have two others that would be running around 137 the field and another, my son is playing as well, so just schedule wise, there wasn‟t the opportunity there to do that. (C3P7) I‟ve coached my little guy, t-ball, my husband and I do it together and it‟s just trying to be everywhere at once, like a job. (C8P5) o Work time commitments So, it was whether or not I wanted to , you know, do that and whether or not I could because work schedule, I work full-time…(C2P4) I had to actually work around that. So that was a big deal and whether or not I wanted to help my daughter by doing that. (C2P4) I mean I work about 70 hours a week and I work in [city]. So I drive an hour 15 every day to work. And when my daughter and I talked about coaching, and I had just started a new job, is I do allergy testing and this is allergy season so this is my busiest time of the year. Literally, I have my planner and every Tuesday and Thursday, there is an X through it. And … I don‟t do any nighttime programming and people say, well, this day works better for me and I say, my daughter plays softball and I‟m the coach and that‟s the time we have together. And people are very respectful of that. But since March, I‟ve been at a dinner every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday and at softball every Tuesday and Thursday. Every week. (C7P20) I just know I am busy, I‟m slammed with all kinds of stuff. (C9P12) So but everybody is busy, you know, now that the economy has been really bad in this area so a lot of the dads are out of work and a lot of the moms went back to work full time. So I‟ve really seen a shift in the field trips, the school parties, the stuff to the dads. And the dads are, you know, they‟re picking up the slack but you know, it‟s a different thing. You know, and that‟s probably why we had a lot of dads coaching too, because a lot of the moms, you know, it‟s too much to work and, you go from your job, and some people just can‟t. I have a job where I can work around my schedule but some people can‟t do that. (C7P21) …if I was working I can‟t even imagine. (C3P9)  rd 3 order: NO ISSUES CONSIDERED PRIOR TO COACHING I had never had any concerns with coaching my daughter. (C8P5) There really wasn‟t a, anything really that would have prevented me from doing it. (C9P5) 138 I didn‟t really think too much about it. (C9P5) General Dimension: Enjoyment  nd 2 order: SOCIAL ASPECT o Spending time with daughter and players We look forward to get[ting] outside. We look forward to being together. (C1P10) Just hanging out with the girls (C4P10) …and spending time with my daughter (C5P15) But we work around it because in the end we really enjoy spending time with our kids and it‟s something that we look back and say, “We had fun doing that.” (C7P11) Hanging out with them at the game and sometimes, like our very last game, we‟re going to go get ice cream. So going and doing stuff with them. (C10P6) I guess just hanging out with the kids cause its, it‟s fun. I like it. (C10P6) I love working with the girls (C8P6) It‟s something that she knows we‟re doing on Tuesdays and Thursdays and Saturdays. (C5P16) I think the sport really focuses the opportunity. (C5P15) …and her desire to want to is taken away all together because she has got to be somewhere with her mom. (C6P15) It‟s just too much of a commitment. At least now I see it as spending time with her. (C7P24) …and my daughter feels special that she knows, no matter what, every Tuesday and Thursday, I am going to be there. (C7P20) …so it‟s great for us and our personal relationship (C8P5) …and then its memories that we‟ve made as a team, and we‟ll always remember when they played with their friends and the fun that we had. (C7P13) 139 o Building relationships with parents and players We were all, all of us parents got along and I just had a ball. I made so many new friends too just, parents that I wouldn‟t have known. (C4P13) We got a great group of parents too so that they‟re friends, we‟re friends with them. So that‟s, it‟s nice to spend time with people that you like. (C5P15) I think just meeting the new girls because we only had, I think there were four girls on our team this year that I knew and all the rest were new girls that I met and that‟s, I think that‟s fun to meet the new girls (C9P7) …some of the girls I am like a second mom to (C1P11) So all the kids call me Coach Mom. (C10P8) o Building team unity …and it‟s hard and they were swinging like just trying to connect to help them and it was good to see the way they were cheering each other on. Cause it‟s something that, you can model that, but you can‟t make people do it. It‟s not a fake thing that you can be like, “Oh, nice try.” They were like, “Come on, that was a close one, bring it up a little higher,” and really encouraging. So I enjoy that, I love to see that (C7P13) I like that [sic] the girls are really close. Even though we‟ve lost every game, even though we‟ve lost every game, the girls really like each other. They want to be together and that makes me feel good. (C8P6) Bringing a team together. We have a girl on our team, and this makes me feel really good. She‟s from [town], and she‟s played for [town] soccer before and she didn‟t like it. And she also plays softball which she loves. And all of her friends wanted her to play softball and she goes to the same church as another parent whose daughter does and they talked about our team. So she left all her friends on her softball team to come to [town 2] to play soccer and didn‟t know any one of these girls and she‟s one of the family. (C1P9) Just working as a team. That makes me feel better. Like, I taught that. (C2P6) …working on, you know, team sport, and having them support each other. (C8P6) …and she‟s one of the family. (C1P9) …they‟re just closer as a team, they‟re friends. Two years ago, you know, they, they would be out there playing soccer and you know, somebody scored and it 140 was good. Now, there‟s high fives, there‟s hugs, there‟s cheers from the sideline. (C1P11) …teamwork, have the girls really support and love each other and be there for each other. This is a team sport. If you‟re not a team player, personally, I don‟t have room for you because I need everybody to work together. And I think it can carry you through life, in a job, in your family, in working. (C8P4)  nd 2 order: SEEING DEVELOPMENT IN PLAYERS o Seeing Success in daughter I am proud of her. Being able to say that is the same name on the back of my shirt. You know, I‟m a [Surname]. (C5P16) So, I like seeing her be successful too. (C5P16) I like seeing my daughter out there be a good contributor to the team. (C5P16) Me being the coach has made her want to perform better I think. (C6P18) o Seeing improvement in players And last night, we do coach pitch, usually I pitch and my husband pitches to them and last night we let the girls pitch to each other. And it was awesome to stand, I was the catcher and I stood behind the plate and the girls that were batting were talking to the pitchers [be]cause the girls had never pitched and they‟re only 8. And they were like, “Come on, get it in, anything close I‟m swinging.” And it was so heartwarming because they were nervous and really scared to be out there and no other team has pitched so I thought, let‟s try it, you know, we‟re 8, a lot of teams are 6 and 7 and we can do this you know. (C7P12) And you see them make a play or hit the ball when they haven‟t been hitting and that‟s really rewarding when, ok, all the little things we did worked. (C9P7) She‟s one of our little, you know, and it‟s stuff like that, just to watch them improve. (C1P9) Just working with them, watching them, doing different drills with them and watching them. It could be something as little as our defense taking the throw-in but they can‟t keep their toe down. And repetitively doing it over and over until finally she keeps her toe down. But that‟s awesome, you know? (C1P10) I enjoy seeing the girls succeed and grow and learn. So, when I can tell them a principle or a skill and, at first, they might not get it but they finally get it, you‟re 141 like “Good!” You know, I enjoy seeing them learn those things. When they successfully learn either the skill or the strategy (C2P5) Seeing them gain the new skills, I mean, coming from nothing to learning how to hit the ball and field the ball (C5P7) So I enjoy that, I love to see that, I love to see them do something that they don‟t think they can do. Like last night, this little girl did not want to pitch. I‟m like, too bad, everybody is doing it and you‟re next so here you go. Give it your best shot. And she did a wonderful job and afterword she was so excited cause she never would have said, “Hey, would you let me pitch?” She jus would have sat back. So I try to let them all have the same opportunity. So, that‟s good to see when they‟re excited that, “Oh my gosh I can do it!” (C7P13) I like working with them on a drill and have them get it. (C8P6) My love and my, what, what I‟m really good at is working with the girls, working on their spirit, working on their drive, working on their drills. I can do the other stuff, I just don‟t find joy in it. (C8P8) o Seeing growth in players Watching, right now we are at a point where we just started having captains at practice. And they are, the girls are getting old enough where they have to organize it. They know it‟s, it‟s just nice to watch them mature and you can look at them and watch them know what to do. They know how to start their drills, they know how the practice is going to run for the first 14 minutes. They know the plyo and the cardio exercises we are going to do for the next 25 minutes. They know that. But also, you know, we try to come up with new drills we do. (C1P10) And it‟s nice now because the girls are giving us feedback, “Hey, what if we did this?” There‟s not a part of the practice, it could be raining and we still love to go to practice and so do the girls. (C1P10) …and, when they‟re in the position, the correct spot and I tell them the ball is going to be there and the ball is there and they are there, I don‟t know, I don‟t know what it is about that that makes you feel better but, it‟s like when they succeed at what I taught them and I know that I was helping them learn that and it finally goes off, that‟s, that‟s why I like that. (C2P6) Specifically, I had some kids with high needs on my team. I had one with, that was emotionally needy on my team and, to see success in him at the end of the season. (C3P12) 142 I love to see the kids learn and grow and I‟ve loved seeing my team from 6 year olds go to 8 year olds and pitch to each other (C7P12) …to see them finally kind of break out of their shell a little bit (C9P7)  nd 2 order: MISCELLANEOUS ENJOYMENT FACTORS o Controlling the team‟s schedule and players I‟m a control person and I like to have control. (C5P15) And the majority of the kids are from her school so being able to positively influence those girls. (C5P15) I would be ok with somebody else coaching her for other sports, just not soccer. (C1P22) Because as coaches, I have always set our soccer Monday, Wednesday. (C1P22) And then also, you have that authority too. Whereas, on the sidelines, I try not to be, you know, coaching form the sidelines. (C3P10) o Seeing players continue I mean, seeing the improvement and want, you know, those kids that come back the next year that want to continue (C5P7) So I think if I can pass on my passion for softball on to kids that really enjoy it, that makes me feel good. (C7P13) o Teaching players I love the practice. I love teaching them the drills. (C1P9) And working with the girls and…you know. I have a teaching degree, I love kids. I, and teaching to the whole person. And sport is just one way to do it. (C8P4) General Dimension: Value Associated With Coaching  nd 2 order: AFFILIATION o Adult affiliation Meeting the parents. (C1P7) 143 …the friendships that the coaches make with the parents. (C10P4) Well, you know, it gives me good experience dealing with people. I mean, we had a really good team this year as far as there weren‟t any difficult parents to deal with. (C9P4) We, and it was funny as last season some of the umpires said that we were the best team. They loved playing with us and our parents because we were so much fun. (C4P3) And maybe because we are such a small, like I said, we only had five or six teams, so we were such a small little thing and all of the coaches talked and whatever. We actually, we had a coach baseball-softball game (C4P15) I think you click with them on different levels (C1P11) o Player affiliation Because I think it‟s important for, especially girls, to be out there playing and, they have too much drama in their lives so I want them to be more of a team and so, so, that‟s why. (C4P3) …the friendships that the kids are making (C10P4)  nd 2 order: OPPORTUNITY TO CREATE CHANGE o Teaching players …we‟ll be at practice and if somebody doesn‟t get a drill, they‟ll come up and say, “Coach [participants name], I just don‟t get it. Can you help me?” You know, and to think that somebody is looking to you for that… (C1P7) I mean, even our losses have been teaching, learning experiences for our girls. And, to have them say, “We didn‟t win but it felt like a win,” is a good thing. It‟s a very positive thing. (C6P7) But one thing that we have, and we strictly abide by this…we have a lot of constructive criticisms we give these girls, but we always, always, always follow it up with positive feedback. Always. (C1P4) It just, it‟s not about winning. You don‟t always win in life, and I think that, especially at this age, they need to learn that. You win or lose in life. You‟re going to be up for a promotion, you‟re not going to be the only one up for a promotion, and you can‟t sit there and, if you don‟t get that promotion, you can‟t sit there and say, “Forget it, I quit, I‟m not doing this again.” That‟s your livelihood if you quit a job. You know, if you have a family, that‟s taking away 144 food from the table or a roof over your head. You‟re not always going to win or lose but if you don‟t get that promotion, there‟s always going to be other promotions where you have to strive to be better. That‟s where I hope that I‟m somewhat teaching the girls, to strive to be better. (C4P6) Well, we‟re not, they‟re not allowed to criticize each other. (C4P5) I guess to teach them…Well, my thing is to respect everyone. That was one of our rules this year. They had to respect everyone. And I think that‟s the biggest thing, because kids aren‟t respecting other kids or other, even adults right now. So I think that‟s, I guess that‟s the big value, that they have to respect everyone. It doesn‟t matter if someone is better than the other person cause you‟re always going to get, someone is always going to be better at something else. And, that other person can be better at something that you‟re not. So, I guess, value wise, it‟s respecting is the most important thing. (C4P5) We‟re here to have fun. It doesn‟t matter if someone, it didn‟t matter if someone lost the ball or didn‟t get the hit, they were there to have fun and as long as they were having fun, that was the most important thing to us. (C4P5) But if you cry because you‟re mad and you lost and your mitt and you know, thinking that you got the wrong end and, to me, that‟s not okay. So people that says “There‟s no crying in softball.” If you pitch your best game ever and you get beat, it‟s okay to be like “Man, I gave, that was the best I‟ll ever do” and it wasn‟t enough. And that‟s okay. Not this bat throwing and this, “Oh, that girl, we would have won if she would have slid or whatever.” (C7P11) …instead of just giving up. You just can‟t give up. No matter how, no matter how far behind, you just can‟t give up. (C1P8) Just by talking with them. A lot, a lot of encouragement. (C1P8) Showing them they can do it because they are capable. Every one of them is capable and they just have to know it. (C1P9) So, I think that‟s a huge one for them, once they discover that they really get to play a lot when they are catcher they like that. (C9P6) And actually, I was on his team for the all-star game and, it took all my power to bite my tongue. It just, it‟s not about winning. You don‟t always win in life, and I think that, especially at this age, they need to learn that. (C4P6) I don‟t care if I win or lose. The girls don‟t seem to care either so I‟m good with it. (C4P8) 145 I think if they all were in the best interest of the kids and not just winning, that‟s, for my opinion, that‟s what I‟ve noticed. (C8P7) o Having fun How we are coaching to be like, if the girls, if we lose, ok, we lost. But did you have fun? So they‟re still having fun even though they lost. (C10P4) Like I said, I, I think there is a balance between having fun and actually teaching the skill. And, I wouldn‟t know how to do those things, teach the skill, and not just be a goof-off all the time were it not for that travel team experience with my parents. (C6P2) o Having control You get to control the positive atmosphere or if it‟s more of a competitive, it‟s a negative kind of thing. (C2P2) You get to control what they focus on. If, I mean from my standpoint you‟re more in control of what happens with the team (C2P2) And you can have more of a say with your manager and your assistant (C2P2) …you get to kind of impress the girls with what kind of attitude you want them to have as opposed to watching somebody else. (C2P2) If they have an issue with that, they need to bring it to us. (C4P5) o Mentoring / Serving as a role model …from the kids standpoint, I think it‟s important for them to have somebody that does have knowledge, played the sport, not just kind of volunteering to organize the snack schedule or something. (C2P2) So I think it‟s important the girls, or whoever, that are being coached to have somebody that wants to be there and loves the sport so that they aren‟t just doing it grudgingly. (C2P2) Well, I say that, it‟s important for me to really live a moral and ethical life. So, I would say that I would be that example to them as well. (C3P6) …mainly deal with positives of course. Correct when necessary but not in a negative way, but in a healthy way. (C3P6) I think it is another opportunity for an adult or a mentor relationship with kids who desperately need it. (C3P5) 146 o Seeing improvement in players …the reward of watching the girls improve. (C1P7) General Dimension: Goals As A Coach  rd 3 order: PERSONAL GOALS o To meet parent expectations I hope I‟m meeting their expectations because I know Sue from school…(C5P16) o To acknowledge individual differences …and bring values that everybody, not everybody can be really coordinated, not everybody has a really strong arm or has the physical ability to play as well as some kids but everybody can try and everybody can focus and listen. Everybody can give 100%. (C7P6) o To learn through coaching To learn more about the sport of course. (C1P7) Well, obviously, learn more, be smarter. My thing is always to be smarter than the other team. (C8P4)  rd 3 order: CREATING A POSITIVE ENVIRONMENT o Being positive I, sometimes they might not like that about me, but I also try to be positive and nice. I don‟t run them to death or anything. And we‟re not screaming to death at them and things. I don‟t think that‟s very productive at all. But, at the same time, I want them to listen and, we‟re practicing for, because you don‟t have very much time with them. (C2P3) I don‟t ever criticize the kids on the field. You know, if they miss a ball or it goes through their legs or whatever, I don‟t say “Get you mitt down.” I walk up to them on the field cause we‟re out there and I‟ll say, “Ok, now next time, you need to get your mitt closer to the ground” but I‟ll never yell out to them because they already know they made a mistake and yelling it in front of a whole group of parents is not going to make them do better next time. (C7P12) I do encourage all the kids, you know, “We have to talk nice.” (C7P12) 147 And for the players, I guess, just keeping it positive. I know I keep coming back to that but I really, that‟s really what I want to do, keep it positive for them and, you know, maybe, especially for players who have never played before (C9P4) But, that‟s one of my goals, to try and sandwich that constructiveness in between two positives. (C5P27) I just believe in being really positive with the girls (C8P6) But anything that‟s negative and taking down somebody else, I don‟t have time. (C8P9) Just always encouraging the girls…teach them something but always find something positive that they‟ve done. (C9P3) …and tell them about it and then try to teach them something to help. (C9P3) …making sure there is a positive influence there. (C9P3) I can make sure that the people who are also going to be positive are going to be there. (C9P3) Well, I, if I wasn‟t the coach, and we had the other coaches there, it would have been just fine. (C9P3) It won‟t be the positive end (C9P4) o That players are having fun I want the girls to enjoy themselves (C2P3) …my goal is really to have the girls have fun and to get something out of this (C4P7) So, its, I think it, that‟s the most important thing. There is so much stress in kids‟ life nowadays. I have an older son in, he‟s at the stage where he doesn‟t even want to play sports anymore because the stress that are put on these kids to win, win, win, win, win. And I don‟t want that. (C4P3) I think, for me, I want the kids to have fun. At our level, to have fun. (C5P7) So I think it‟s real important to have fun (C7P6) That she just has fun (C10P5) …and she likes playing softball (C10P5) 148 So have fun but, you know, listen, and kind of respect the authority you have so that you‟re, you‟re kind of commanding without having to be mean. (C2P3) And I told them when they asked me, I said, “I can‟t guarantee we‟ll win” but I said, “I can guarantee we‟ll have fun” (C4P3) That we want them to have a good time (C5P7) o Focusing on players development To help the girls. (C1P7) You know, I just personally, I kind of explain why I do certain things and that, you know, like last year, a lot of the girls in the beginning of the year were asking if they won or lost. “Did we win or lose?” And I said, “We don‟t keep score.” “But my Dad does.” And I said, “Well, you ask your dad when you get home if we won or lost.” But the most important thing was that we got, our goal is always to get 18 out, [be]cause there‟s 6 innings and I figure, if we don‟t get mercied, you‟re teaching them to get the out, sooner or later the team that gets the most outs the quickest is gonna win. So it‟s the last out on the score and we‟re in the outs and we keep a tally of the outs and we want to play. It‟s called the perfect game, if we can, that‟s our perfect game. And if we can just string those, so, I try to explain that to the parents, that winning and losing is not about playing good softball, it‟s about getting the outs, stopping the runs. So if we can get enough outs and stop enough runs, then we‟re gonna win every time. So the score doesn‟t matter. (C7P15) And because it is a learning league, it is a Little League and we‟re not, we don‟t travel. Our main goal is not to win, our main goal is to teach the kids. (C7P7) And I think from six to eight, you should not have a position. You should learn everything. (C7P7) Cause we really weren‟t out to win. There was no score. It was really just about making sure the kids had the opportunity to be on the court and try to put into action the things they were learning. (C3P15) Some innings where we‟ve gotten the three outs before the five runs. I mean, our last game was 30 to 30. Six innings. So six times five, we didn‟t get one inning where we got the three outs before the five [Laughter]. So I like to know the score just to see how we measure up, to see if the teams, because some teams blow you out. And you‟re like, man, that team is stacked. So, I like, we never tell the kids the score. I just say we tied. But myself, I‟m just like how did we compare, it seemed pretty even. (C5P9) 149 The girls that are not quite there yet, they should feel the position, but they also want to feel the win at this age. It‟s not, you know, we do keep score at my age. (C6P6) o Keeping the players interests …keep their interest in it, or, if they‟re not interested, then, they‟ll find out and I want it to be a good experience like, “Oh, it was fun but not for me.” (C9P5) Keep her interest. (C10P5) I really want those girls to have a passion for it and feel good when they do it right and know that they‟ve done it right and that they have the skills and have been given the tools to do it right. (C6P7) o Increasing family involvement I am welcome, I don‟t want criticism though but I‟ll take all the advice and I‟ll take it, you know, that they can give. And we encourage parents to come to practice and help if they have more experience because I want families to be involved. And I told them this year too that they‟re more than welcome to come and help us at any time. (C4P3) And want the parents to come back and want to coach, have a positive experience that they want to be involved next year. Even if they‟re not on your team but just be involved. (C5P7) I don‟t think families are involved anymore. (C4P4)  rd 3 order: GOALS FOR PLAYERS o That players return But really, I guess, my goal is just for them to have fun and want to come out next year and come out. A lot of our girls, this is the only sport they play. Three of them have never, ever played softball before. And, like I said, a few of them, this is the only sport they play. Their parents make them play one sport and they choose softball. And some of them are really good at it too and they only play this and they only play one season. They don‟t even try out for the hi-, their middle school team. So I just want them to have fun and come back. Really, because, if you enjoy doing something, you will continue it. And hopefully they‟ll continue on next year and, and the years after. Plus, it‟s good exercise. (C4P7) 150 She‟s now catching the ball more aggressively and I now see a real spark or passion, a taste for it. She has already declared that she is going to play next year. So I feel like I have already met this year‟s goal. (C6P13) So my goal is, when the seasons over, you know, when I say to the girl[s], “Ok, you guys want to play,” everybody says “Yes, I want to play next year.” And even some of the girls that didn‟t play this year that saw us play, “I want to play on that team or that looks like fun to me.” So I think you‟ve got to remember it‟s for the kids and it is fun and, in the long run, they don‟t know if they won or lost, they don‟t care about heir stats, they just remember they were the pink team and they won Big League Chew when they got a triple. That‟s all they care about and you‟ve got to really keep that in perspective if you want it to be fun. (C7P23) …playing softball and she continues. (C10P5) And I told them when they asked me, I said, “I can‟t guarantee we‟ll win” but I said, “I can guarantee we‟ll have fun” and, you know, “the girls will want to come back next year.” And I think I did it because they all came back. Everyone came back except for one girl. (C4P3) That we want them to have a good time and come back. (C5P7) No, you know what, my goal is really to have the girls have fun and to get something out of this and maybe that, when they get older, they‟ll want to do it. To at least, and too, just have fun with their daughter[s]. (C4P7) I think that‟s how you measure your success as a coach is if they come back. (C5P7) o Skill Improvement in players No, I would like every girl to experience that. I think every girl would love, see the other objective I have for them is they all look at the ball when they hit it. (C5P13) I said, when, it wasn‟t if you hit the ball, I said “when you hit this ball, you look at me and you run here and you‟re gonna be safe.” And she did. You know. So those little things that you, and then one of my silliest goals, every time you talk to them, they turn around and look at you. I said, “You guys have got to look at the ball and listen to me without turning around. You‟re gonna get your head hit.” [Laughter] I said, just, this is one of those moments, just listen to me. Look at the batter when they are on base. Don‟t look at me, just look at the batter and remember, if it‟s at me or the catcher, you have got to go back. So, those types of things, that they become more routine or that they know what to do in the situation. You know, don‟t throw, the pitcher doesn‟t throw the ball to the 151 shortstop. I would cringe if my daughter did that. [Laughter] They have done that twice. Throw the ball to shortstop. (C5P13) At our level, to have fun and gain the skills necessary to hit the ball, field the ball, to get three outs before we get the 5 runs because we have a 5 run limit. I mean, those are my goals. (C5P7) I said, “Don‟t look at that ball, you‟re gonna get out.” And, making it, I tell them, look at me, look at the base and you‟re gonna be safe. So, I would like all of them, one of my players that has the most opportunity, she finally did that. She didn‟t look at the ball and she got to first base without getting out so that was a huge win for her. (C5P13) And we have kids, we use a T. If they can‟t hit the ball after 7 pitches, we put it on a T. So, to not use the T I think is another goal. (C5P17) …that they all are learning how to play softball. (C10P4) o That players try new things We are a recreational league and I think our, my goal, you talked about goals, I think the girls should be comfortable playing any position on the field. (C5P30) And then, encouraging them all to try different positions (C9P5) But, they have to be out there. I always try to let them know, “This is what you have to do outfield. You have to back up third base, you have to back up second base. The ball might come down on a steal. You have to be there. You have to be ready to get the ball.” So, trying to point out the positive aspect of the outfield positions because they are important. (C9P6) It‟s, it gets really kind of boring on the field because the girls are standing out there, so, really encourage them to try different positions. And, the pitching was a big one this year. (C9P6) o Create Opportunities for success …we set little goals at the beginning of each game that I think the girls can accomplish and at the end of the game each person get[s] like a Big League Chew. (C7P13) They‟re given the opportunity to run and get to every base and feel how good it feels to come home and score that winning run. You, not the winning run, but to score a run. (C5P30) 152 So that‟s kind of what I try to do with my kids is pick realistic goals that everybody can accomplish so everybody feels like they are succeeding as something. (C7P6) o Win games To win more than one game. [Laughter] (C4P7) o Prevent injury Just trying to get them to pay attention in the field. Like that was a huge one this year because if the girls get a hold of the ball now, and they‟re not paying attention and they‟re in the field, they‟re going to get hurt. And so that was a huge thing for us this year was just keeping them safe, like, “You gotta watch the ball.” (C9P5) I don‟t know how many times we‟ve said, “Watch the ball, tell me where the ball is.” That was a big thing this year was keeping the girls safe. (C9P5)  rd 3 order: NO GOALS AT CURRENT TIME I‟m not sure I have any right now. (C3P6)  rd 3 order: GOALS FOR OWN CHILD  2 nd order: Has Higher Expectations For Daughter I would have higher expectations for her performance! (C3P10) I think I might hold her a little bit to a higher standard because she is also my daughter. (C7P12) Just, I think, I always, if there is a grounder, I expect her to get it and if the other ones don‟t get it, I guess I am a little bit, I mean, not, I don‟t want to say I‟m hard on my daughter about it but I think that she‟s capable of not missing a grounder. (C9P6) I think my expectations for her are a little higher because I know what she‟s capable of… (C9P6) And I think just the expectations of our kids are a little bit higher, that this is what I need you to do. (C5P19) I: Behavior or performance? P: Probably both. 153 I: Ok. So you expect more as a coach? P: I think so. Yeah. (C3P10)  2 nd order: Has a Greater Awareness of What Daughter Can Do But other kids, I don‟t know what they‟ve done at home, I don‟t know how much they practice, I don‟t know what‟s going on with them outside of the games or practice. (C9P6) I just think you‟re more aware maybe of what, cause you know, you personally know what she can and can‟t do. (C3P11)  2 nd order: See Good Values In Child o Good attitude Not give me attitude. (C4P9) I just always want her to have a great attitude the whole time and no grumpies. (C9P6) o See good values To play fair (C1P8) I think the most important thing for me, for her is to be a good teammate. There‟s nothing more I enjoy than, like last night one of the girls missed a ball at first base and dropped it and she said to her “It‟s okay, you‟ll get the next one. Not a big deal.” And she ran off and kind of hit her on the back. And to me, that‟s priceless. That‟s what you, anybody can learn the game but I don‟t think everybody can be a good sport about it. (C7P11) …it‟s good thoughts from the mouth and nothing else. We‟re not negative at all. (C7P12) So to me, and I tell her all the time, even in school and whatever we talk about, you know, with grades and academics and school and being the best. The most important thing is to be a good person, to be a nice person, to be a gracious winner and not rub it in someone‟s face, and to be a good loser and know that there‟s nothing wrong to me if you cry at the end of the game that you played your best at and you cry because you came up short, that‟s okay. But if you cry because you‟re mad and you lost and your mitt and you know, thinking that you got the wrong end and, to me, that‟s not okay. (C7P11) Well, first of all, my main thing with her is to be a good sport, to be a good loser. Not everybody is going to win all the time and I will not have a bad, a 154 bad thrower or that‟s not a good call, argue, we won‟t go there because, to me, that‟s very disrespectful to the game, the coach, to everybody (C7P11)  2 nd order: Daughter Enjoys Sport o Enjoys sport To keep enjoying the sport (C1P8) Because we found that just works better at this age the way the girls are. There‟s less drama and there‟s less tears and the end thing is, we want them to have fun. We want them to come home and be like, “Oh, that was so fun. I got a great hit.” (C7P11) Let her continue having fun playing it (C10P5) That she just has fun (C10P5) …she likes playing softball (C10P5) [Daughter] is a, it‟s a peculiar situation we‟ve had in the past year. So, in October, she had brain surgery and since that time she has been fitted with a brace for curvature of the spine. So, my biggest goal is to make her overcome what she could very easily perceive as an inability and overcome it. So, that‟s been the biggest thing. But, in terms of the sport itself, she‟s come a long way baby. She‟s come a long way. She‟s now catching the ball more aggressively and I now see a real spark or passion, a taste for it. (C6P13) …probably the same. (C10P5) “Do you really love soccer, do you really want to,” and her answers were always yes and I never really doubted. (C2P5) o Continued involvement …sport so she‟ll continue to play because I love that she plays. (C1P8) I guess just to have fun and be with her teammates and want to come back next year even though her mom coached. (C4P9) No, so that‟s one of my very specific objectives for her. She can field, she, I‟m not concerned about her fielding at all. And, I guess the other goal is that she would want to come back next year and want me to coach. (C5P13) …and she continues. (C10P5) 155  2 nd order: See Success In Child o Success in child I wanted her to get better with her skills. Like her individual skills. Learn more of a competitive strategy or competitive nature. (C2P5) Well, I want my [Daughter] to hit the ball to the grass. (C5P12) I want to send her to second base. [Laughter] That‟s one of my goals for her. She swings and she stops right here and it‟s like oh, bring that bat around. (C5P12) I don‟t care what sport she chooses or if it‟s musical or voice or anything. I want to help her get to where she needs to go. (C8P5) I don‟t care what it is, I just want her to set a goal in life and achieve it. (C8P5) o Do her best …and just to always do her best. (C1P8) …my goals with [daughter] are just to get her to be the best that she can be. (C1P8) Listening. Give me your best potential, try your hardest whether, whatever the outcome is, being a good person on the inside… (C8P8) I just expect her to give her best and all the time and , it‟s helped us really work through things that I expect in life out of her and I know it‟s gonna be tough and I know it‟s gonna be hard but you just can‟t give up. (C8P7) General Dimension: Positive Aspects of Coaching  nd 2 order: POSITIVE ASPECTS OF COACHING o Being recognized as coach Just having, you know, going up to the school and having the girls go “Hi Coach [P4]” when I was dropping off the kids. You know, they knew. (C4P10) So, I guess that‟s, you know, [a] positive thing is having the girls come up to me and talk to me and say hi to me when they see me walking or, you know, we do something and they are talking to me. (C4P10) 156 o Acting as a counselor …and if they need someone to go to their parents, I was, you know, I can remember not wanting to go to my mom for something and not having anyone to confide in. (C4P10) o Seeing players comfort level increase And her comfort level is higher…(C5P16) o Seeing increased confidence in players ...her confidence is higher (C5P16) o Building relationships with players When your kids are done and they hug you. (C1P14) And they would give me hugs. And, of course I‟m on Facebook, so I have, half the team is on my friends, you know. (C4P10) So when they actually listen to what you are saying and they really do it because they really want, they know, “Ok, she knows what she is talking about, she‟s gonna tell me.” And then they do it and they kinda look back at me and their like “Yes!” Or you‟re like, “That‟s what I told you to do, good job!” And the goalie plays out and I‟ve been telling her that for weeks and I can see that she‟s happy about it. That make me happy about it. (C2P6) o Task related success Positive would be some very close losses to some very successful teams that are in a division above us that we just played very well. (C1P13) Well, getting those three outs before you get the five runs happen[s] occasionally. I think, for us, that‟s a very big milestone to achieve. (C5P16) Well, this win was huge. I mean, I can‟t tell you that‟s just the biggest thing because it was like the girls were running around the field with finally light bulbs blinking on their head because we‟d been coaching and coaching and teaching but they were stuck in their old habits and we just couldn‟t get them to trust us, trust themselves. (C8P6) There was one girl who kind of struggled the whole season and we made, well, everybody makes the playoffs, and we squeezed one practice in before playoffs and she came. And, she like, that was the day where it all kind of clicked for her. She was scooping up grounders, making plays at practice, she was hitting the ball, 157 I don‟t think she had a hit all season, she just couldn‟t make contact. And to see her finally do it, I was so thrilled. And I said, “Yay! You get to play the infield.” I said, “You‟re infield to whole game.” Because, you know, she made the effort to come and then she worked her tail off and it paid off. It was exciting to see that. (C9P7) I think seeing my girls be hungry for a hit has been a big deal. (C6P16) Seeing them happy and confident. You know, when they‟re confident in themselves, that‟s very rewarding. (C2P6) And then of course, to see improvement in the kids is always rewarding. (C3P13) And we have kids, we use a T. If they can‟t hit the ball after 7 pitches, we put it on a T. So, to not use the T (C5P17) To see them round, running the bases like they should. (C5P17) o Outcome related success …positive would be, successful seasons (C1P13) Winning is good since we‟ve had so many struggles lately [laughter-had won first game prior to interview]. (C2P6) o Support from parents When your parents tell you “Good job.” (C1P14) The parent interaction that I had with this team was all positive. (C3P12) They were all, I think, just really thankful that they had a coach that knew something about the sport. (C3P12) I had a lot of parent[s] comment on my coaching and what it‟s done for their child and the fact that their daughter didn‟t want to play and had a bad experience the year before and has learned a lot more and has really liked the game. (C7P13) You know, all the parents on my team are very positive. Very, very positive. All of them were very thankful at the, they all said thank you. I got cards and stuff. (C3P21) I have a mom who sporadically sends me e-mails. You know, is just grateful that her daughter has another influence in her life. (C1P11) 158 To deal with him at every practice and every game because he was very demanding. But at the end, he was so grateful and his parents were so grateful that it made it all worth it. (C3P12)  nd 2 order: PERCEIVED IMPACT OF POSITIVE EXPERIENCES ON DAUGHTER o Acknowledged positive impact Yeah. (C6P17) Oh yeah, yeah. (C7P13) I do. (C6P17) o Positive experiences impacted daughter I think she feels great because I feel great and my attitude rubs off on her. (C1P14) Yeah, I think she feels good about and, you know, enjoys it. (C2P6) And she can tell when I‟ll say, “Oh, well wasn‟t that great when Susan was so excited.” So we feed off of the positive things too. (C7P14) Yeah, cause when we all get excited, she‟s right there with us. You know, excited too. (C9P8) Oh, absolutely. I‟m like, the more of those you have, the better I think. (C9P8) o Daughter was happy She says, “Now I can play.” (C10P6) She was happy. (C10P6) o No impact I‟m not sure if it has any different though, just because I am the coach. You know what I mean? I think you would have the same kind of reaction regardless. (C2P6) I think that…me coaching her did not have really an impact. (C3P13) …if I was there seeing everything, cause I‟m the type that would be there watching so we could still share those…(C9P8) 159 o Daughter enjoys being part of team‟s success Yeah, they just, they want to be a part of the success. (C5P17) They are happy for their teammates when those things happen. (C5P17)  nd 2 order: PERCEIVED IMPACT OF POSITIVE EXPERIENCES ON MOTHERDAUGHTER RELATIONSHIP o More open with daughter You know, just kind of more comfortable with each other so we can talk about any area of our life more. I think we just kind of get closer. (C9P8) Just, I think it just opens us up to talk more. (C9P8) Our communication has always been really great but it‟s good for her, I think it‟s been positive for her to see that I can be goofy or silly and her peers think that I am fun and approachable. (C6P16) And I think that‟s good because you want to be an approachable person to your kids, all of your kids‟ friends. You want them to hang out at your house. Because if they‟re hanging out at your house, you know your kid is under your wing still. And you know what they‟re doing. (C6P16) Because we talk about soccer all the time. (C1P15) Well, there‟s certainly more dialogue than just what the usual stuff is. You know what I mean? It‟s more about the game and about the technique and about the reasons things are done the way they are done, you know. And there is talk about that play and there‟s talk about team dynamics and there‟s ways to communicate so that, you know, I don‟t know if this happens with you but with me and [Daughter], she will say so and so said this, this, and this and this is what I told her she needed to do. And I‟ll be able to say, “Well, that was probably more appropriate to handle yourself. If it happens again this way and you don‟t feel comfortable, ask one of the adults.” (C6P18) o Creates opportunities to bond I think it‟s made it better. I think to share that experience. (C7P14) And it gives me the time to spend with just her. My husband‟s not around, my son‟s not around. We go to the games by ourselves because we go early and the boys meet us there. (C7P14) …it‟s a good bonding time with us. (C7P14) 160 I mean, I‟m always been a part of her life and always been there for everything. But, I think, actually, just me and her being on a team and having it just me and her. Where I try to make sure that, you know, being a mom of two, I try to make sure that you have equal time with both, that you do different things with both of them. This was something that she and I did,and she knew she needed more than me. So, I guess that was a bonus. (C4P11) She‟s mentioned it and plus, I know it‟s been hard since we had the third child and, you know, our older life with them…cause the baby does take more of my attention. So, she likes the, she looks forward to going to practices and games cause she knows that hour, that [baby] is not going to be there. It‟s going to be more me, not my sister. (C10P7) I think it does cause she knows it‟s one on one with mom. Iit‟s her time with me, not, you know, brothers not, well maybe brother, brother is not there because he is playing a game but its more, it‟s doing something with her by herself and she likes that. (C10P7) …it has definitely brought us closer together. We kick around the soccer ball. Even in the house we‟ve got the soccer ball that stays in the house and, it‟s just stuff we do together now. (C1P16) I think it was positive just because, she‟s the middle child and she‟s the only girl and so, sometimes, she feels like she gets left out because my son is involved in more activities and he gets probably more attention that way. (C3P13) I mean we, yeah, it brings us closer. You know, I‟m more involved with her. (C1P16) Because I‟m kinda growing with [Daughter]. You know, this is a different element from being a, yes it‟s a mom-daughter, but we‟re both learning different things and it‟s really made us buddies. (C1P30) If anything, it brought us closer. Because I do have a very, very close relationship with my son and I don‟t know if that‟s a son, mother-son thing, and, we were close, but, I don‟t know if we are too much alike so we are constantly butting heads with each other . So this definitely has brought us closer so I am definitely glad that I did it because I would not trade it for the world because I think it definitely did bring us closer together. (C4P11) I mean, she just knows who I am as a person and I know who she is as a person and I have all the time in the world to work with her. (C8P6) …in my personal opinion we‟ve grown a lot. (C8P6) 161 I think she does. She thinks it‟s cool that all her friends like me. (C4P10) o Daughter feels special So I think for her, it was really positive because she thought, oh, wow, my mom wants to coach my team. (C3P13) So, I guess that was a bonus. But, I think, just, we always did stuff together but, I think this is like a group organization so I think it maybe meant something that I wanted to do it. (C4P11) o No Change in relationship Positive, no. I think positive, it‟s pretty much the same, you know? Negative, possibly. But when it‟s a positive thing, I think, it‟s the same thing as it would be either way. (C2P7) General Dimension: Negative Aspects of Coaching  rd 3 order: NEGATIVE OFF-FIELD EXPERIENCES AS COACH  2 nd order: Administrative Tasks o Paperwork The paperwork you have to do, those type of things. Not being told something. Administrative stuff that really does, I mean, it‟s not even really, like it matters a whole lot but those type of things have been more negative than anything on the field with the players at all. (C2P7) o Management of club It‟s the management of the club. (C2P7)  2 nd order: Non-team Issues …like it matters a whole lot but those type of things have been more negative than anything on the field with the players at all. (C2P7) …everything else that you have to deal with. (C2P7)  rd 3 order: NEGATIVE PERSONAL EXPERIENCES  2 nd order: Conflict with Coaches 162 o Conflict with male assistant coach No positives, all negatives. It was an all-around bad experience. (C1P28) o Conflict with opposing male coaches …then the other city coach, he‟s kind of a jack ass, excuse me, in that sense. I guess would be the negative, dealing with him. (C4P11) o Conflict with intensity of opposing coaches‟ philosophy The only negative that really comes into it is when you play a very, not so much aggressive team because we are aggressive but [begins to whisper] when you play somebody who doesn‟t play for the reasons you play. They don‟t play a clean game of soccer. They don‟t, we‟ve had, we had a team last year that we played, and our striker is of course the one who scores. This team intentionally tripped her and when the ref turned around the opposing girl fell on top of her like they collided. Stuff like that, I don‟t like that. (C1P7) The coach. There was just some, I guess, bad blood. I didn‟t realize that there was another coach and from my understanding, he kicked 4 girls that I took off of his team because he wanted better players. He stacked his team. And, I‟m not about that. We have a Bad News Bears team and I‟m fine with that. We all had fun. All my girls had a wonderful time. All his girls were, we went to the All-Star game and we didn‟t win, they sat there and moped and complained the whole time. My girls kinda went “Whatever,” and went about their day and went out there and played and had a good time. His girls sat there and moped and complained and, after that game I was so proud of my girls for not being that way and real-, you know, just having a fun time. And, I just don‟t, I would, if he was my daughters coach, she would be pulled from the team. I just don‟t think that‟s a way to coach. Or, to teach kids, any kids, to be that way, I just, that‟s just not me I guess. (C4P12) …the most negativity has been with just the way the other coaches. Like, not necessarily in [Local city]. Everybody is kind of on the same page in [Local city] but when you go to some of the other areas, the intensity and the way that they aren‟t as good about rotating the players at this level. That‟s where my conflict comes. And we had a game, that one intense game, my assistant goes, “I hope we don‟t play them again.” And I, and I am dealing with the conflict because we teach our kids we‟re going to be pitching, the kids are going to be pitching. This is new to us. Normally we have used machines or the coaches have pitched all season. We also teach our kids to catch. We dress them in full catchers gear and we put them outside the batter box where they are safe. But this coach from [Neighboring City] kept catching the ball 163 in front of my catcher. And she was in the batter‟s box helping the batters. And I had a huge issue with it and I just didn‟t know how to address it. I kept saying to the catcher, “Now, you take that ball, you own that plate.” You know. And then she was right behind the pitcher. We can be on the field. We typically are in the grass behind second and short. She was right behind the pitcher. And we‟re coach pitching so our coach was out there and she was hovering. I called her “The Hoverer.” She was hovering on top of the pitcher, her pitcher. And every time there was a runner at third and the bases were loaded, she called it „The Pitcher Play‟ and everybody crept in. And she, the goal was to get them out at home. And my intensity got very wound then. I wasn‟t at my best that night. Because I‟m like we‟re gonna beat them ____ [47:39], they‟re not going to run this pitcher play on us on us anymore. You guys are fast and you are going to get there. But, again, my little girls would come up and she just brought them all up in the infield. Those are the issues I have. That‟s my negative. Just dealing with the coaches that aren‟t on the same page or have the same philosophy. (C5P19) o Misunderstood regarding tactics used to teach game. But a lot of people that commented, when they were little I taught them to tag the runner as well as touch the base because they didn‟t know what was a force and not a force and when it would, during a play they would just be so confused that, people would yell and they didn‟t get it so we would touch the base and tag the runner and a lot of people were, a lot of coaches were like, “Hey, that‟s just rubbing it in. That‟s rude, why are you tagging her?” And it isn‟t a rude thing, it‟s a way to teach the game. And so once I explained, “Hey, they‟re six and they don‟t understand and they get too frustrated that we‟re just really getting in the habit of lets touch them and lets gently tag them, not pelt them with the ball.” But, you know, there were some people that didn‟t like that. (C7P15) So, you know, a lot of people, like last night, the team that we played against was like, “You‟re gonna pitch to your own girls?” and I was like, “Well, I don‟t think it‟s fair for my girls that have never pitched to pitch to your girls cause they‟re gonna get hit and it‟s gonna scare your girls, you know, and they‟re not gonna hit as well so I don‟t think it‟s, once I think that they‟re good enough to pitch to my kids, then we can try them with somebody else.” But, you know, and this lady was like, “Well, you should never let them pitch to each other.” And I‟m like, “well, the point of pitching is to strike people out.” So, that‟s not the coach pitch. You don‟t, you can‟t strike out. What are you going to do, just have them up there and let the other girls just whiff at everything that‟s, you know, that‟s obnoxious so I just did my own thing. You know. And we did fine and everyone was happy. (C7P15)  2 nd order: Blamed for losing record 164 o Not winning I think because they‟re not seeing them win, they weren‟t seeing them win for a while… So after, after awhile, they‟re like, “Ok, it must be the coach.” You know what I mean…And not to say that‟s not somewhat true, what have you, but I think parents, even, you know, even myself, it‟s just natural that you do this but you get kind of clouded by the fact that it can‟t be my daughter not trying hard enough or, you know, they aren‟t playing their position correctly or they‟re not, they‟re not working hard enough or whatever it might be. So, if it‟s not their daughter, it must be you. Because normally, parents don‟t go the other players. It‟s either me or you. Either my daughters doing or, you know what I mean? (C2P8) …just, you don‟t, you don‟t think that you‟re doing anything right if you don‟t win, I guess. (C4P11) Us not winning many games. (C4P11)  2 nd order: Conflict with parents o Lost parents as friends Unfortunately, there have been people that I have lost friends with over the Little League and that don‟t think it‟s just a game. And it‟s sad. And she‟ll say, “Why aren‟t you, why don‟t so and so come over when we have bonfires?” and I‟ll say, “Cause she‟s mad. She got mad over a game and she thinks that‟s more important than being friends.” (C7P15) o Perception by parents of playing favorites Or, they‟ll say, she‟s favoring her kid. Which, that‟s really hard too because I try and favor every kid. (C6P18) o Differing parental philosophies …just not agreeing with your strategy or your philosophy. If you‟re not winning, of course, there must be something wrong with it. (C2P8) o Not respected as coach But, parents either commenting or time management, you know. Things that are subtle, like subtle ways of disrespecting the coaches determination or whatever. (C2P7) You know, they‟re frustrated, and so they say things, sometimes at inappropriate times. (C2P8) 165 Like playing time for their daughters (C2P8) o Opposing parents cause problems Well, dealing with the parents. It was from another team and he actually was taking it out on his coach, cause he, I guess he‟s a problem parent. He‟s actually been suspended from the league and been banned from fields. And he didn‟t want this coach, she was a younger, she definitely is a softball guru. I mean, she and her assistant both play softball to this day. Very nice young girls too, very nice young girls. And, he just criticized her up and down and I heard from my parents that he was making comments about my girls or about the umpires decision and, just stuff like that. And that doesn‟t need to be brought into young kids games. I mean, you hear so much negative about “Oh, this parent beat some other parent at a soccer game.” You know, I didn‟t want that to happen to my parents. And I actually, when this all went down, I actually sent out an e-mail to all my parents saying, “If there was anything said to you, please let me know.” I wrote a letter, I had to write a letter to the commission of our softball league and I said that I would not accept that behavior from any of my parents plus I would not accept that disrespect to my girls or to my parents and if there was an issue I would want my parents to bring it to my attention. (C4P12) o Frustrated by parents negative comments I‟ve had a couple of parents, not necessarily about my daughter, but I‟ve had a couple of parents come back to me and tell me that other parents are degrading the girls in front of their own players which is awful. It‟s really hard to make a girl believe she is successful as a player if her parents are telling her that the team in general. (C6P18) You know, here I am preaching there is no I in team and then they say, “The team sucks.” So that indirectly means that their kid sucks. And, so, you got to pick that person back up. That‟s a major obstacle. And I have a couple of parents who do that. (C6P18) o Parents over-involved At that age, parents are more involved at this age than they are when they get older. They kind of back off and then, the daughters I think make them. When you get older you‟re a teenager and you‟re more independent, your mom‟s not coming up and kind of defending you every second. (C2P8) But I think at this age, there‟s a lot more parent involvement. So coaches have to deal with, you know, if their daughters not trying hard enough and we pull her out, then they hear us talk on the sidelines, they see what we‟re doing 166 and so, you know, they feel it‟s necessary to interject more I think at this age. (C2P9) They think they should have been the all star when they were growing up and they weren‟t so now they‟re trying to be through their kids. I know I‟m not athletic and I never was and I never will be. I‟m not trying to live through my children. I tell my kids if you want to play, you play. You have to make it through the whole season, if you don‟t want to go back next year, you don‟t go back next year. And, I think that he, he wanted his daughter to be the all star and thought that she was going to go and make a national softball league. And, that‟s not the case. (C4P12)  2 nd order: Conflict with Players o Unhappy players Kind of minor but just with a couple girls who it didn‟t really matter where I put them in the field, they were unhappy. And I‟m like, I put you in a position you wanted and you‟re still unhappy. (C9P8) o Lack of effort and influence of hormones You know, we, we‟re at an age right now where these girls, the hormones are kicking in, they‟re having changes, the emotions are running. We had our first ever tournament at CMU…They‟ve never played in a tournament and they made it in the championship round. And the team that beat us is a team that there is a lot of history there. And, we‟ve been told by the coaches and the parents we‟re the toughest team they played and they just, they slaughtered us. But the girls gave up. They got emotional, they cried. So my goal is maybe to teach them not to, they have to know, you know, I would have been happy with a ten to nothing loss had they tried. (C1P8)  2 nd order: No negative experiences I haven‟t really had one yet. (C10P7)  rd 3 order: PERCEIVED IMPACT OF NEGATIVE EXPERIENCES ON DAUGHTER o Daughter experiences negatives I think she‟s so used to it (C7P15) …because I was a PTA President, I was a substitute teacher at the school, I‟m really out there. (C7P15) 167 And I tell her because she has seen it, unfortunately. I‟ve done this for four years and there have been a couple people that, their kid didn‟t get on the right team, their kid didn‟t make travel ball, I guess it‟s my fault because I‟m their friend and it‟s sad when people react that way. I don‟t really want them in my life either. So I just try not to have negative, and that happened with the mom that actually wanted her two girls on my team again this year and I thought, you didn‟t like me last year, you were so mad about your son and then this year you requested me and she comes to every game. (C7P16) So that part is a little frustrating and she would hear me complain it about it after. Cause she could kind of see it too. And she wasn‟t the only one that would see it and say something to me about and so won‟t listen to me. I‟m trying to, you know, some of the girls were trying to step it up and be leaders and they couldn‟t get through to the same girls I couldn‟t get through too. So there was a lot of frustration, like after a game, and my daughter would hear those. (C9P8) Well, I think she probably felt like, I think she was equally frustrated (C9P9) Probably not. Cause she probably wouldn‟t be as conscious of it. Cause she wouldn‟t hear about it probably, like she would hear about it after the game from me. (C9P9) o No impact I could be wrong but she hasn‟t really said anything so. (C2P9) I don‟t think that affects her. (C2P9) No. I kind of addressed it…I kind of made sure that the other girls weren‟t aware of it or if it was brought to my attention I kind of tell them the same thing that I told her that, you know, that‟s not the way I coach and that‟s not the way it should be. And she said she wouldn‟t want it because she was on the All-Star team too. She said that she wouldn‟t want him as a coach because she didn‟t like the way he was screaming at the kids. And with the parent, she kind of said that‟s silly and kind of walks away type thing. I don‟t think it affected her too much. (C4P13) Now if it was older, I think it might have affected her if it was, because as you, especially girls going through hormones and everything, I think that it probably would have affected her a little bit more because of the hormone change and “Oh my God, he‟s criticizing me.” But, I try to make sure that my daughter know[s], and actually all the girls, that everyone‟s different. And not matter if he says something or doesn‟t say something you still are going to go out there and do it the way you want to do it. (C4P13) o Parent protects child from negative experiences 168 Like the number 7. There‟s a lot of phone calls and e-mails and issues over the number 7 and she never really knew it. (C7P16) Like when I saw her name, I‟m like, ok. So she‟s not uncomfortable with it. But I do, if she‟s there and the conversation comes up, I do say, “This is an adult conversation, why don‟t you go play on the playset.” And their children sometimes will be around when they‟re going off and I‟ll say, “Why don‟t you take so and so with you and you guys go play while we talk about this as adults, this is an adult conversation.” (C7P16) I do try to keep it, I don‟t think it‟s fair or appropriate for her to know everything that‟s being said either. (C7P16) I have filtered a lot more of what I say in front of her because I know she knows these, when I say, “Mrs. So and So,” she knows whose mom that is. So my husband and I have code now because we don‟t want her…but at home I am like, “Are you kidding me, she called again, left me another voice mail?” So, but I do say to her, you know, “It‟s just a game.” (C7P15) We are very cautious, because if I‟m feeling negative, it‟s going to affect the team. (C1P15) o Daughter acts as leader I think she felt a little bit more of a leader maybe because she‟s not doing that stuff necessarily. (C9P9) Cause she would say, you know, “We tried to get so and so to pay attention and she wouldn‟t.” (C9P9)  nd 2 order: PERCEVIED IMPACT OF NEGATIVE EXPERIENCES ON MOTHERDAUGHTER RELATIONSHIP o Impacts relationship Oh, at some point I think it has. You know, I can get, I can get very frustrated and, if it‟s something that happened at work with an e-mail [from a parent on the team], and then it was like a trickledown effect when I get home, it affects [daughter] because I‟m in a bad mood. (C1P16) o No impact on relationship No, but you should talk to that coach cause she‟s a female. She has a daughter on the team. [Laughter]. No, my daughter does, I don‟t think the kids realize it. (C5P20) 169 I think they are young enough that they don‟t realize it. (C5P20) I don‟t, I don‟t think it has a negative impact on my relationship with my daughter. (C6P20) You know, I don‟t think so because I think she knows I am very comfortable in the decisions I made and the reason I do Little League is I don‟t get paid, I got elected to do this by people in the community that thought I could do a good job and, and I tell her, you know, “This isn‟t my job. This is something I do to make your school a better place to go to school and to make you, more fun for you guys in the summer.” DC (C7P16) I think it, our relationship. [LP] Maybe because maybe she, she might realize that, I don‟t know if that would affect our relationship. I don‟t know. (C9P9) General Dimension: Challenges  nd 2 order: COACHES o Negative Coaching …not so much firm with the kids, you have to be, but there was no positive. (C1P4) …I don‟t really know if we yell at them. We are very firm in saying…if you don‟t play your position then no one is going to pass it to you and things like that. She was very, just kind of not nice. It was very, very rough on her daughter. (C1P5) But, there‟s a lot of teams out there where the girls don‟t talk on the field, they yell. They get yelled at by their coaches. That I don‟t agree with. (C1P7) o Overly Competitive Coaches We just will, cause we always huddle up and, like I said, my plan is always to review, the assistant is out warming the kids up. I mean, if we get all the kids there by 6:30, we‟re happy. I‟m not that intense. [The opposing team is] like, “Do you want to take infield?” “Forget it, I don‟t even have an infield.” I don‟t take infield. Maybe I don‟t‟, I see these teams, [opposing team] took infield, [opposing team] was there when we got there. Her whole team is on the field taking infield. And we were the home team and it was like ten to six and I thought I was doing good to get there. So, her intensity level was extremely high. (C5P21) We lost to them 5-2. This time we took a loss of 5-3 and it was a great game. It was a great game. And I congratulated him and he said, “Yeah, your one player is 170 good.” And I said, “She‟s only as good as all those other players on the field. You know, I just don‟t, there‟s too many coaches that are all about this player or this player, not their team. (C1P19) I think, there‟s been, well, there‟s been a couple times where you can get the real competitive coach who wants to win and he kind of has the attitude. …You know, they‟re throwing their scorebooks and they‟re yelling at their kids and they‟re making people cry… (C7P18) o Misunderstanding/ Seeking advantage Through Rules You know, we‟re supposed to have, there are all these rules and everybody makes up their own rules. And I am very much Type A, we follow the rules. It‟s seven pitches, your kids are on the grass, you have two coaches on the field. (C5P21) So that‟s the hardest thing for me is just to shut it because it‟s not my league, it‟s not my program, it‟s their school, somebody must have let her coach. She must do something…But yeah, it‟s more from the women that you get some kickback I think… Just like, they want to go over every rule and does it really say to do that and, you‟re like, “Really?” (C7P19) …we had to talk about the out of bounds thing the other night for like five minutes. And I finally was like, I don‟t want to, I would rather her just bat again. “Well, is it fair if it bounces on the base, if it bounces over the base and didn‟t touch the base,” but then it was, and I was just like, “Oh, well she‟ll just bat again. She can hit it again.” (C7P20) Because maybe I don‟t, I‟m not, I mean, if I need to argue that call, I‟ll argue it or whatever but they want to argue every play and so then it just, “Oh, no, this is what the rules say, you have to follow the rules, not make your own rules.” (C10P8) o Managerial Differences …with my assistant coach. There‟s some times we don‟t always agree on who needs to be put in, who needs to be put in for who. And how much playtime they should have. We don‟t always agree sometimes on how practice should run. (C1P16) I would say just, I think, just dealing with the other coaches and the other personalities that come. (C5P21) He was the only one and I don‟t know, you know. I guess there is one in every bunch. (C4P13) 171 We don‟t have umpires either so if they‟re, if it‟s a close play they‟re safe, which is nice. I like that rule because it seems to balance things out. It‟s just, when they‟re pitching 10 balls and they‟re creeping, you know, when she took the ball and she didn‟t even give my catcher a chance to catch it. (C5P21) I got a lot of questions from [Male Coach 2], the new coach. We scrimmaged them and one of the families from the other team came up to me and grilled me with a bunch of questions on how we were playing. And I was really taken back by it And I just said, “We‟re playing the same way we played last year.” “Why did you do this, why did you do that?” And so she was going to be the mouth piece to go back to her team and say this is why she did it. And I‟m like, didn‟t you guys go over the rules? We scrimmaged them and we were doing things a lot differently than the other team. There‟s a pitching mound and the girls have to pitch 25 to 30 feet from the back of the plate. It‟s 40 feet at the mound. So our coach pitches from the circle and that‟s where the girls will pitch from. And he lobs it in there. The girls are going to lob it in there. For instance, the other coach whipped it in there for them to hit from the, I don‟t know what to call it, from the pitching mound. And they wanted to know why. And I‟m like, “Because that‟s what the girls are going to do.” If you expect your 9 year old, your 8 year old to lob that ball in, they are going to lob it in there…They‟re going to lob it behind them and they are going to lob it over their head, you know. That was one instance. (C5P24) I got some feedback, most of it is usually, “Oh, ok, I didn‟t know that‟s why we were doing that” or “I didn‟t understand the rule.” But a lot of people that commented, when [the players] were little, I taught them to tag the runner as well as touch the base because they didn‟t know what was a force and not a force and when it would, during a play they would just be so confused that, people would yell and they didn‟t get it and so we would touch the base and tag the runner and a lot of people were, a lot of coaches were like, “Hey, that‟s just rubbing it in. That‟s rude, why are you tagging her?” And it isn‟t a rude thing, it‟s a way to teach the game. So once I explained, “Hey, they‟re six and they don‟t understand and they get too frustrated that we‟re just really getting in the habit of lets touch them and lets gently tag them, not pelt them with the ball.” But, you know, there were some people that didn‟t like that. (C7P15) And they don‟t like that because their team, they look like, they‟re like the little Bad News Bears out there and I‟m like, come on, at this age? So they do kind of get a little, you know, but it‟s more the women. But I think they feel like they‟ve never played and they‟ll say, “Oh, I‟ve never played and it‟s my daughter‟s first year,” or whatever... (C7P18) But you do see some things they do and I‟m like, “Why are they doing that?” You know, like I said to my husband, I play this one coach and she has the girls stand like this [places both hands in air], like you‟re at the volleyball net with their gloves up here, standing straight up. And she says, “Get in your ready 172 position.” She says, “One, two, three, ready” and they do this [places both hands in air], standing straight up. And I‟m sitting, like, my brains hurting because I‟m thinking, that‟s front line volleyball. What is she doing? Why is she? And I‟m saying to my husband, “Why are they, what is she doing? When do they get in their ready position?” And that‟s their, and every, I don‟t think any of them caught like a grounder because by the time the got their mitts…And I wanted to say to her so bad, “Where did you see that?” Cause, and my husband is like, “You shut,” and it‟s not our league. If it would have been like Town League where I‟m like, I would have said, “Hey, down and ready means your glove should be, get them if you want them.” But I, you know, it killed me, like I bit my tongue. And we play them like four times. (C7P19) nd o 2 order: DUAL ROLE CONFLICTS o Daughter unreceptive to coaching from mother I get very frustrated with her. And the moms that I coached with, I wish they could be here too because they are the same way. I mean, they can tell their daughters to do it and they‟ll whine and cry and whimper… (C7P11) Because I think, and it‟s funny too is because the mom that helps me, her daughter is on our team too and both of the girls think we are harder on them than the other girls but really, we say the same thing to all of them. Like I‟ll joke around with them and say, “Cant, you know, dirt, on your mitt.” And last year the one dad that helped us made up nicknames for all the girls so we were out there screaming all their nicknames. “Can you catch that ball finally?” You know. Or, just joking around with them. And I say the same stuff to her too but, I think because it‟s my daughter, she takes things differently than someone else‟s kid. And the other mom, it‟s the same situation where, “Why are you saying that to me” and, you know, we‟re saying it to all the girls but they specifically think that we‟re just saying it to them. (C4P9) So, there was another mother I coached with and her daughter was on the team and she was equally obnoxious. (C7P9) No, I know it‟s not because I‟ve seen her before. I saw, she, I did not coach her [in] basketball last year and she had a much better year than when I coached this year. And I didn‟t want to coach her this year but nobody else stepped up. (C7P10) I had always coached her in softball, in t-ball and then when she played basketball there were enough coaches so I just thought, I‟m gonna sit back in my bag chair and watch this happen and not do anything. And she had a wonderful year. She made all new friends, she didn‟t play with anybody she knew, she didn‟t know the coach, she listened very well and had a great year. This year, it was…it was drama. (C7P10) 173 I mean, they can tell their daughters to do it and they‟ll whine and cry and whimper but the minute I say “hey do this,” they‟ll do it and the other mom is rolling her eyes like “Why?‟ But we know that, we learned that working together over the past three years… (C7P11) o Daughter Conflicted About Roles She would not have been attentive to the sport. She would have been more attentive to the running over and hugging me, you know? (C3P13) And it is a struggle being a mom and a daughter on the same team. You know, she gets more attitude with me than someone else does. (C4P7) I don‟ think she would want me to come back because she would think that I was harder on her than the other girls. (C4P9) It‟s always, “You‟re going to pick me last, it‟s not fair so you make me go last” and “You don‟t want people to think you are favoring me so I have to get the worst number.” (C7P9) I mean, I have to tell her sometimes, hey, coach not mom kind of deal. If she starts to do her little wanting special treatment or whatever, and, I just kind of have to remind her everybody has…to have time on the bench, everybody has to play in the outfield, it happens, you know. I said, you need, you might end up being a great outfielder someday [be]cause the balls will come in the air. (C9P10) In a way, she wanted to hug my legs, she wanted to, you know what I mean, that kind of a thing more than focus on the sport. And I think with a different coach, she would have focused more on the sport. (C3P13) And she would listen, everybody else would listen to me and she would want to raise her hand and talk the whole time I was talking and nobody else did. So, it was like a mini-coach. (C7P8) I think she might tend to be a little more grumpy with me because I am the mom and she thinks she can get away with it. (C9P6) …but the main issue, she was whiny, she wanted moms attention. “Mommy, you clap just for everybody, you never clap for just me.” (C7P8) o Avoiding Special Treatment of Child I want it to be special to her and not be like, “I don‟t want you to coach cause you‟re my mom and I don‟t get what everybody else gets.” So, so we‟re working on it. (C7P10) 174 We have to, we have a team here and it, I can‟t give you special treatment because I‟m the mom. I‟m the coach so I have to do what‟s best for the team. So, I do try to separate it…the coach is a different kind of role, it‟s not a friend. I mean it can be a friend but it‟s kind of, they‟re there for the team and the goal is to win and that‟s really, you do want to win. I mean, you want them to learn along the way but, somewhere you have to win in order to advance. (C9P10) I think my expectations for my daughter were the same as they were for everyone else on the team. (C3P18) But I think, I don‟t know. I don‟t treat [daughter]…If anything, I am harder on [daughter] than anyone else. So I don‟t, and I really, really try not to treat her any different. (C1P15) And I give [assistant coach] credit as well because neither one of us, if anything, we‟re harder on our own children. (C1P19) o Fairness But she likes it but it‟s just, it came down to when we gave out the shirts, [daughter]‟s always been number 12, always. And this year they didn‟t have a number 12. So, I said, “What number do you want to be?” And she wanted to be number 7. Well, we‟ve played with the same girls for three years, so they kind of have their numbers. So…I asked one of the coaches, I said, “Is it unfair for me to just give her number 7? She‟s my kid, I‟m putting up all the time and energy, she just wants 7. Is it?” And [coach] goes “No, my kid wants 9. Let‟s do, let‟s pick the coaches kids and everybody else will just pick out of the bag.” Well, the little girl that‟s been 7 two years now looked in the bag and didn‟t see 7. (C7P9) I think one thing that was really tough for me this year was trying to keep it all fair. (C7P9) So that was my biggest thing coaching was, I‟m friends with a lot of the moms too so I have to try to be as fair as possible (C7P10) It always rotates the same way. So that took care of, you know, the first time I was like “Where is everybody going to go? How am I going to make this fair?” (C7P7) …let everybody try all the positions (C9P11) I would say, “Well, we‟re gonna do this, how do,” so she would know what was going down and she would want to pretend she was coaching too. (C7P9) I just want to make sure I keep it fair. (C9P4) 175 I feel like I am favoring my daughter (C8P5) o Coaching Does Not Provide Challenge to Roles I don‟t…I‟m [daughter]‟s mom and when I get on the soccer field, I‟m her coach but I‟m still her mom. (C1P19) But we are very respectful to guide, I would not hesitate to pull her daughter aside and say, “Hey, your foots not in front of the ball or you‟re not, you‟re too far behind the ball.” We don‟t , we allow eachother to coach all of the girls the same way… doing it for so long that I‟m just her mom that coaches her soccer. (C1P1920) Once you become a parent you‟re a parent for life. I always say that once you become a parent, you kind of lose yourself. You‟re kind of “Oh, I‟m now [son‟s] mom or I‟m [daughter‟s] mom.” You‟re no longer [Coach] anymore. Until they reach a certain age and then you get to kind of be [Coach] again. Once you‟re a parent, you kind of, when you see a kid walking in the store and you see him touching something, you automatically go, “No honey, you can‟t touch that.” I work at [department store] part time and I‟m constantly telling kids “Stop running, you‟re going to run in to something.” So, I honestly, I can‟t separate it. Because if I see one of my girls doing something, cause I call them my girls and they‟re not all My girls, but, if I see them doing something wrong, I‟m gonna tell them. (C4P14) I just look at it as just, I‟m just, maybe mothering a few more children. (C5P25) Even when I‟ve been their Sunday School teacher, they called me Mom. (C5P25) So I feel like I am doing a lot of mothering as well…I coach the same way I mother. So, to me, there isn‟t much of a difference and my daughter knows where she should be and what she should be doing. (C5P25) [Daughter] calls me Mom. (C5P25) I don‟t…It‟s just who I am (C8P8) I don‟t care if I‟m at home, the grocery store, I don‟t care. It‟s just for me, I don‟t feel like, I‟m a natural in that position. (C8P8) I just, across the board, whether I am in teaching, whether I am a mom, whether I am a wife, or whether I am a coach, I‟m the same. I don‟t think it affects me. (C8P8) 176 So, I think, it took a while for that adjustment period but I think after awhile, she‟s gotten used to that. (C2P13) It hasn‟t been, it hasn‟t been. (C10P8) nd o 2 order: MIS-INVOLVEMENT OF PARENTS o Parents Trying to Coach “You know…I noticed you didn‟t volunteer to coach the team. So, until you can really throw stones and not break the glass, you should probably just kind of respect the way I am doing things.” And she really heard what I said. I mean, I tried to be nice about it and I know it sounds kind of, kind of rude to put it in that terms, I thought it did, I didn‟t think it was necessary after a 21-1 loss for her to say “You‟re not tough enough on those girls” and “The reason they‟re losing is because you don‟t yell at them enough.” “You know, you didn‟t sign up to do this and until you have walked in my shoes I don‟t think you should throw stones.” (C6P24) Cause that‟s not fun for the coach, to have parents who are coaching from the sidelines. (C3P11) o Negative Feedback From Parents …it‟s hard to hear parents‟ negative comments... (C8P9) And, I mean, it‟s, there‟s days when I‟ve gone to work and I‟ve gotten an e-mail from a parent [of a player] and it‟s ruined my whole day. (C1P14) Well, in terms of…the two parents that talked negatively, one of them talked negatively right to my face (C6P24) …there‟s some times that I‟m kind of defending my position. But my comment to them is always, “We always need more coaches, if you think you can do it better next year, give me your name and number and I‟ll sign you up.” (C7P14) Step up or shut up. (C7P5) I‟ve got a lot of people that disagree. But, then they coach their own team next year (C7P8) o Parents Not Understanding Optimal Push …my son used to play football and I used to laugh at these parents that would just sit and the stands and just, and I‟m like, not one time have I ever heard a NFL player state “I just want to thank my little league football coach.” Most of the 177 people that get drafted, they don‟t start playing sports until high school. So, to push kids and to make them not want to play, that‟s, what fun is that? (C4P12) I think it comes in again to the whole, what your kid can do kind of thing and you expect that out of them. And even though you expect that out of the other kids, there‟s just this deep, and there‟s a deep desire for your kid to be successful, for your own kid to be successful. And you have that for all the kids but there‟s just something in you. And especially if you have experience with sports, like I do where I did some sidelines a lot, you just want that, not start them, but you want that success in your kids that you didn‟t have. And not that you‟re going to push them overly to get there but you just want, I want them to be able to feel so good out there. (C3P18) o Parents Not Disciplining Their Own Children And sometimes when the parents are standing around and you think, oh my, are they gonna, cause they let their kids talk that way to them. They throw the bat and say, “You pick it up.” But there‟s been some parents that say, you know, “You handle that, I‟m not.” (C7P17) I just don‟t, I try to understand it…I would know if my kids were acting like that and I would be all over them like, you don‟t treat your coach like that, you‟re not going to stomp your feet at your coach, you‟re not going to give the ump a dirty look and, so, like on the parent end of it I would kind of be on my kids about it just, so, it‟s kind of frustrating when the parents don‟t do that for their kid when I‟m coaching them. I feel like you got to respect your coach and not stomp your feet or walk away or roll your eyes at the coach or. (C9P9) o Miscellaneous Parent Issues There‟s just a little bit of a disconnect. I wasn‟t surprised. So it gave me the opportunity to sound off a little and say, “Listen, I communicated. I‟m sorry.” (C5P24) So, but I think our parents, outside of the, that one family that didn‟t show up properly attired, the mom is in my girl scout troop, so I see some of these things happening with Girl Scouts. She‟s at a meeting, Mom doesn‟t know there‟s a meeting. (C5P24) …the parents (C2P9) You know, the little girl saying I don‟t feel good and I want to play the outfield and I‟ll say, “Yes or no, you‟re in or out. You‟re there on the bench, you‟re not coming in and out every,” you know. And the mom will say, “Oh, you struck,” and I‟m like, don‟t even come in the dugout. I don‟t want any parents, you know, you‟ll see coaches that have people in the dugout, I have no one in the dugout except my girls. Because they have a board and they can read and no one needs to be in there. There‟s no friends, there‟s no parents, there‟s no strike out, “Oh, 178 can I come and see if you‟re,” we don‟t do that. It‟s very, you sit in your bag chairs, this is our team. And they do better that way. They do better without the mom, “Oh, you poor thing, did you get hurt? Do you need a band aid?” Unless there‟s a major issue, they stay in the dugout and it makes it easier. (C7P17) And then, parents wanting this and wanting that and you can‟t please everybody… (C2P10) I don‟t think it would matter as much as if we were producing, if we were winning. I think that, either way, if you‟re showing results in their head, in their minds, you know? They might have, they might talk to me a little bit faster than they would a man, you know, out of just kind of respect thing that, I don‟t know. (C2P11) nd o 2 order: CHALLENGES DEALING WITH PLAYERS o Players not focused And there‟s nights at practice where we just lose them. You know, they‟re just not in the mood. (C1P12) And then when we have practice and the U11 boys team is on the other half. You know, some of the girls are heavily into dating now at fifth grade. And it‟s ridiculous. And the next thing you know they are watching the boys and… (C1P13) Just, it could be, we had a practice last Wednesday and it started out well and we were doing a little drill where we had four forwards, three D and a goalie. And I‟m watching them and normally, the hustling. Girls are sluggish and I overheard them talking that at school, I don‟t know what happened, but three of the girls in the same class, somebody brought Mountain Dew. So they drank all this Mountain Dew, now they were coming down from their sugar high and they were whiny and they were this and they were that. (C1P13) I think sometimes I would get frustrated and be like, why? Why? I tell them this and why aren‟t they doing it? (C2P10) “I need you to pay attention and focus. Work hard at this small time.” I only have a week. (C2P11) Well, we always have the kids that don‟t pay attention whatsoever and the parents are, there‟s a fine line between nagging them and just accepting them the way they are. (C7P16) …the biggest issue with her was her attention span. And a lot of the girls, they were six and it got to be like focusing and paying attention (C7P8) 179 o Dealing with high needs child I would say initially that, dealing with the child that has the high needs was very difficult for me. And I really had to put time and energy into thinking how do I handle this best. And so, I would say, I don‟t want to say that it was a negative, but if I had to come up with something, that was probably the biggest challenge. I don‟t really want to say that it was negative but it was a challenge. But it ended up being positive. (C3P14) There would be times when he would try to interrupt, you know, in our circle time, in our group time, when I was trying to teach them something, he would try to interrupt and I would say, “No, no.” And try to be a little more firmer with him, but, it did take some initial effort but I did have the help of some other parents and that was good. (C3P14) o Lack of player commitment I can‟t get my whole team to a practice. (C6P20) And I had this one little girl for two years and she was, well, first of all, her parents bring her late to every game, and she always forgets something. And that happened when she was six so it‟s really not her fault but every time we go in the field, she can‟t find her visor, she can‟t find her mitt, she didn‟t check the board, she doesn‟t know when she‟s batting next, she can‟t find her batting helmet, her batting gloves, and, the first year it drove me crazy because I was constantly yelling “[Player], where‟s that [Player]?” But I know her mother and I know her mother‟s the same way. So this last year I said to her “[Player] when you‟re done batting, you need to get your glove and visor and stand at the fence. You have to be the first one on the field. You‟re going to lead the girls out every time. That‟s your job. If you‟re not there, people can‟t go out.” And then as soon as they come in from the field, no matter where she‟s batting, she puts on her helmet and her gloves and stands at the fence cause she doesn‟t like to be frustrated. And I said to her, “Does it make you feel crazy when I‟m yelling at you to bat?” Like “Where is she?” and she‟s running and that‟s not fun for her. So, this year is her, you know, going on her third year and much better, very few times have I‟ve, now we‟ve had to wait the game for her because her parents aren‟t there but she doesn‟t drive so that‟s not her fault (C7P16) Cause I am struggling with girls and I‟m not, I mean, I did not want to keep playing every, I mean, it‟s disappointing to the girls if every game is a forfeit. And yeah, they‟re just, they still play but we‟re getting some more of their people, you know, their girls and then they‟re not by themselves so. But now it‟s positive because we gained two more kids and we have enough to play each week. (C10P6) 180 I can‟t get my whole team, and really, we‟re a league that doesn‟t really condone consequences so, when they come to me and they say they want to do better, well, we can‟t really work as a team if we can‟t practice as a team. So I have to guess where people should play and I can‟t do it when I get half the team. And it‟s usually six or seven girls on a Saturday. (C6P20) Very, it‟s very difficult. Typically I‟m a positive person so it‟s a natural role to be competitive in a positive way which is helpful. But I have no tolerance for giving up, bad attitudes and that can happen in sports. (C8P9) You know, typically, it‟s, “Well, I‟m going on a boat with my family this weekend” or “Well, I didn‟t, I went back to bed and overslept” or “I didn‟t think you would have practice because it was raining” and…I didn‟t think I melted. That‟s my biggest difficulty is I can‟t get a team to come to practice and work as a team. (C6P20) o Drama queens And there was a big drama over who got what there red cleats because they fit three people. We just basically had to pick numbers over because two people didn‟t want black with the one girl getting red. (C7P9) And I think that you would have kids get hurt and be overly dramatic about falling and you would see coaches caring for their kids and making sure they are okay. I mean, at that level, you have to. You know, it‟s not like “Suck it up and go.” [Laughter] You know, you have to make sure that they‟re okay. (C3P22) …there are times when I…have a difficult couple of girls… (C9P15) And it‟s drama with girls. It‟s drama, you know. And it‟s little things that you wouldn‟t think are a big deal. (C7P9) … there‟s a fine line to them but I have some mouthy girls… (C7P17) o View of female coaches authority You know, were not just playing around and gonna be your friend right now. You need to respect the authority. You know what I mean? And that‟s been difficult, you know, without having to be really, really mean. (C2P10) I think with women it‟s a little bit harder because we are so personable and we‟re like, fun, and we like to joke around with them a lot but, when it comes down to business, you need to listen. (C2P10) With the girls I would say, the biggest struggle I‟ve had is gaining their full attention and respect. (C2P10) 181 I try to let them, I mean, I‟m very open with the girls. “I need you to focus right now. Stop talking. I need you to pay attention.” So I let them know that. But some, you know, their attention is still a minute or two and their off looking at the grass so I just have to keep reminding that we are here to do this. (C2P11) I think naturally, even without them being warm and mean or whatever you want to call it, I think, you know, when a, when a man says something to a young, at practice, they don‟t question it as much. For some reason, they just do it. So we have to work harder at getting them to, you know, cause we‟re their mom figure or whatever just, I don‟t what is it, I really can‟t tell you. I don‟t know if it‟s tone, if it‟s just the masculine gene or whatever, I definitely see that you have to work harder to gain that instant obedience. (C2P10) nd o 2 order: TIME CONSTRAINTS o Lack of time …Well, when you‟re a mom or a parent, you have to juggle your life anyway. So, there‟s always obst, always some other things, work related, whatsoever. But, I think if I wasn‟t able to juggle so many different activities, I wouldn‟t have put on another activity. So, I kind of worked it around my schedule where, ok, I know this is softball season. (C4P15) I am taking that golf class. There was a golf class that started in May but I knew that this was, and it would have conflicted with it so I kind of pushed it to the side. You kind of really have to juggle your schedule. (C4P15) And nowadays, these kids are just non-stop going and there are so many different activities so just to make sure everyone can get everything done. And of course you have to go to work to make the money to make the money to make sure that you get this done. (C4P16) Me, personally, working out. This used to be my running time and I probably have gained ten pounds since, I don‟t have any time. The time for myself was, you know, I would do nighttime runs after work. That does not happen now, with homework and kids and band and running here and there and, you know, we just, there‟s no time. (C7P21) Working 40-45 hours a week. Practicing two nights a week. Coaching games two days a weekend. Now being the director of travel soccer for [town]. (C1P20) o Coaching as a time commitment Probably adds to that. You just have to be there earlier…(C3P9) 182 …if you could just coach and focus on coaching…But there are 15 other things that you have to manage. (C2P15) …it‟s like a full time job (C8P7) I have a teaching degree and just recently, I had a long term job for three months and it was excruciating because this is like a full time job. (C8P5) Now I do it all. (C10P4) When you go build your own team and you are, you know, you have to develop the logo and get the schedule and you have to do a lot more work than you did before. So that time commitment was paperwork, extra time at home developing strategies, plans. (C2P4) Just doing the lineup, making sure that the book is kept properly, that everybody plays. I have everybody play every position, so making sure that they get a chance to play at every position no matter what their level or ability is. Making sure everybody gets to bat first each game. Getting the information from the other team, you know. Some teams don‟t keep a very good book. Hers is even more administrative with the pitching log and things like that. (C5P4) o Time commitments with family That‟s the challenge I think with it. And just making sure that they have a ride. And making sure I get to see them play. It just happens to work out that they‟ve had some postponed games that I‟ll be able to see [Oldest Daughter] play. So that‟s my disappointment with coaching. That‟s the thing about coaching is that you don‟t always get to see your other children play. (C5P11) That‟s the biggest complaint [from children who do not play] is that “we‟re bored and hungry.” (C6P12) My boys play soccer and every Saturday I have baseball or softball practice so I don‟t see their soccer games at all. But, you know, I took on the commitment and my boys really get that even though my 7 year old, almost 7 year old is, he struggles with it but at the same time it is a conflict. (C6P11) Yeah. I‟m just like, I‟m watching the runners and my son is crying. “What‟s going on?” (C5P12) And safety is an issue (C6P12) The conflicts are, I mean, it‟s fun being a coach but it‟s hard when you have other kids. You know, when you are a parent and you have other kids on different teams and they play on the same nights. (C10P7) 183 And so that is the conflict that I‟m struggling with because, yes, I want, I have to be there because I am the coach but at the same time, you want to be there for your other child too. So, it‟s been a struggle. (C10P7) We have worked on it, it‟s been a, like tomorrow, I‟ll watch the first 20 minutes of his game because he has a 5:45 game, I have a 7:15 game. So, I don‟t have to be there until 7:00 so I can watch half of his game. (C10P7) Oh, absolutely. Dinner… (C3P9) And then we‟re like, ok, if everything works the way in my favor when it comes down to games, we should be okay. Cause Dad golfs on Monday nights and then my oldest plays Mondays and Wednesdays. So I‟m like, ok, if we can have games Tuesdays and Thursdays, we‟ll be doing great. (C10P2) I just feel that they are missing out on a big, important part of their life and that‟s me. (C8P7) o Exhaustion But there are times where I‟m just exhausted, you know. (C1P20) It‟s just, some days I‟m mentally exhausted. (C1P21) nd o 2 order: COACH DOUBTS EFFECTIVENESS o Preparing team for competition Trying to get them in to the infield and knowing what to do was a big challenge… (C9P11) …knew in their head where to go with the ball if they got a hold of it because they would stand there with it and, so trying to prevent that. So that was a huge challenge this year was just knowing where to go with the ball and get those girls some confidence. (C9P11) … well, the one girl I told you about earlier, with her, it really clicked. With other girls, not so much. You know, they still, they, it could be lack of experience, they don‟t know what to do with the ball yet so it will come with time, maybe. (C9P11) I mean, it‟s only because I felt so bad for them. Not, and I said to my husband who happened to be there at the time, “It might be me, I might not be an effective teacher.” (C6P20) 184 o Win/Loss Record I don‟t think it would matter as much as if we were producing, if we were winning. I think that, either way, if you‟re showing results in their head, in their minds, you know. They might have, they might talk to me a little bit faster than they would a man, out of just kind of respect thing that, I don‟t know. (C2P11) We had one of the moms that kind of was disgusted because we weren‟t winning games and, I guess she made a point to, I don‟t know if she made a point to say it out loud but she said it in front of my coach, my assistant coach husband. And he kind of told her well, [Coach] and [Assistant Coach] both stated that at any time someone could take over the team if someone knew more skills. (C4P13) o Dealing with Administrative Tasks …the administrative stuff that is just, bogging down to a coach, with all the procedures we have to do for the association.(C2P9) o Dealing With Developmental Differences …I think that as the kids get older and the skills get better and, let‟s say, you have either a kid that‟s really good or maybe below average, I think that that would be maybe more difficult. If your kid is really good, you want to make sure they are on the field, you know what I mean? But if they‟re not, you still feel bad if they‟re not playing as much. (C3P17) …I think that, like, for instance, if I was coaching my sons team right now, I would be harder on him possibly that the other kids because he is my son. You know what I mean? And I have that ability or that, maybe, not right, but to be harder on him than I would be on someone else‟s kid. (C3P18) … and I told them, I said, “You cannot go to the bathroom. If you have to go to the bathroom, you have to go before the game.” We typically get 4 innings in. [Male Assistnat] coach that coach[es] here in [town] in, he gets six [innings] in. I said, well, that‟s because we are going to the bathroom in between innings, we come out and we don‟t have our hat and we don‟t have [Laughter] our glove. These kids are just young. They just don‟t get it. So I feel like I am doing a lot of mothering as well. (C5P25) I think the age and the ability. I think when she gets, when she is at a more competitive level, I will expect more out of her too, as long as that is something that she wants. I mean, if she is going after it and wanting it, I‟m gonna help push her. But if she doesn‟t want to do it, we‟re not gonna make her do it. (C3P19) 185 You know, she‟s funny because she‟ll go right to right field when they take a spot on the field. And so she, the other day, first base was open, I said, “[Middle Daughter] go play first base.” And see, I can‟t make her games. Yesterday was the first day I‟ve made a game of hers. I haven‟t seen [Older daughter] play a full game. The opportunity will present itself hopefully in a week. And I think her confidence is higher when I am there. And, you know, she was glad, you know. She said, “It would be nice if you could be here for more than 5 minutes, to see the entire game.” But, I think that she isn‟t having as much fun not having me coach her. And it‟s intenser. Because they do keep score, they want to win, you know. The coaches want to win so the intensity goes up and I think the expectations and the skill level is expected in the infield, whether or not it‟s willing to take that risk on somebody. I don‟t, but, you know, you worked with [Female Coach], that‟s just one critique I have is just, I wish she would get some of those younger kids in the field to give them a shot. (C5P7) If your kid is really good, you want to make sure they are on the field, you know what I mean? But if they‟re not, you still feel bad if they‟re not playing as much. You know, you would feel like, I have more control over this. I should have them out there, you know? The only way they‟re going to be better is if they have more playing time, you know? The whole thing that you would feel if you were on the sidelines… right now it wasn‟t an issue. But I think as the skills develop, you have more, difference of athletic skills of the kids, I think it would play more. Because right now, they‟re all not very good. [Laughter] (C3P17) …she feels comfortable when she is surrounded by people she knows. She‟s in th th 5 grade, I don‟t want to say the majority, but some of the girls are in 7 grade th th so there‟s a big social difference between a 5 grader and a 7 grader. (C5P14) General Dimension: Perceived Differences Between Male and Female Coaches o DIFFERING COACHING PHILOSOPHIES From what I‟ve seen in this organization, which has only been for a year, I don‟t feel that, from what I‟ve been witness to, no, they don‟t have that emotional aspect of it, they don‟t care. If they have a girl playing a travel team and playing to play and they sit the bench, they think the, their response, and I‟ve heard it from several people is, “Hey, we‟re doing them a favor. They‟re learning in practice. If they weren‟t in our practice, they would be horrible.” And that‟s just what we‟ve heard and they have told us that. (C8P9) There‟s other coaches, and they‟re male because I don‟t see a lot of female coaches out there, they don‟t shake the girls hands at the end of the game, they don‟t say good luck (C1P18) 186 Because we‟ve played some male coaches and they‟re, we hear them from the sidelines and they‟re not encouraging the same things we‟re encouraging. (C1P27) And a lot of those teams are the one we see and the kids are yelling at each other versus communicating and talking and working together. (C1P27) “You‟re losing because you guys are too”, they tell us that. “If you would get rid of some of your players that aren‟t good you would do better,” and all this other stuff. So on, on the head end of it, we‟re getting this and on the parents end…it‟s trying to balance the two. It‟s very difficult because on several aspects, they‟re true, but on the other, if you„re really coaching the human spirit, which I hope most of them are trying to do on some level, it really shouldn‟t matter. (C8P9) …his coaching techniques. (C1P28) The coaches. (C1P18) There were a few, the men tend to not be that way. They tend to be more competitive and pushing the girls and, they don‟t, it‟s all about the win. The female coach, basically, it was somewhat the same as our values of making sure everyone respects everyone and kind of lower key. I mean, you did have, there were a few that were all about, but they also did the lower key. It was the females that were that way and men are more competitive. (C4P5) I just, I think men are more competitive than women. I mean, there are a lot of women that are competitive. I give that. And, I mean, yeah, I would love to win. And I was like, I really wanted to, the other city team, I really wanted to beat them and crush them…but, would I lose sleep over it, no, I wouldn‟t. And honestly, he would. He would lose sleep over it. I think he drilled those girls and made it a point to win. (C4P5) I think fathers, I think they separate that. And I don‟t know if because they don‟t give, and not all fathers because I did have, my daughter did have a wonderful father coach, he definitely was a unique individual father, but, I think fathers can separate that parent and that competitive side. (C4P14-15) Just, and like [Middle Daughter‟s] coach doesn‟t do those things. He‟s, she goes, “Mom, we do the same things every practice. It‟s boring.” I sa-, I think that‟s the man. I think the men don‟t have the creativity that women have (C5P29) o WOMEN PERCEIVED AS MORE NURTURING Because women are more emotional than men. (C1P27) …all of [the parents] were very thankful at the, they all said thank you. I got cards and stuff. You know, and I don‟t know if it was because I was a little bit 187 more in tune emotionally with their kids [laughter] than a man would have been, and was, maybe, was a little more loving than maybe a male would be. (C3P21) Not that a male coach can‟t be, but sometimes that‟s not, seen, as if they don‟t feel comfortable with it or it doesn‟t seem appropriate to hug, you know, to hug the kids, that kind of a thing. Where it‟s more appropriate for a woman to hug a kid. You know what I mean? (C3P22) Well, just in talking to the other guys that helped me coach, they were like, “I don‟t know how you deal” with, like the specific child that I had that had struggles. They‟re like, “I don‟t know how you do that. I wouldn‟t, I could never do that.” And, it could be just their personality, but they wouldn‟t want to. I think maybe they didn‟t want to take the time away from the game to deal with that or they just didn‟t know how or just, wouldn‟t have the patience. (C3P22) And I don‟t know if it was because I was a female but I think you, just as a woman, more likely to nurture, and when you see someone hurting or someone struggling, natural instinct is, well, I need to take care of them. (C3P22) And I don‟t know if it‟s because they don‟t give birth to that person or what or it‟s that male female type thing but…No, because I can remember there‟s been times where my kids would get hurt on the field and my hus, their dad would be goin, “Oh, they‟re fine.” And here they would have blood or, you know, their nose crooked and, it‟s just the competitive. He‟s always going, “Oh, you just don‟t understand, you just don‟t understand. You just didn‟t play sports.” And I‟m like, “No, a kid gets hit and their nose is crooked or their finger is bent the wrong way, they‟re hurt.” [Laughter] So. I think fathers can separate it a lot better than mothers can. (C4P15) Being a female coach with a male coach, that‟s, those are things you just don‟t, you don‟t, “Oh God, I‟m hormonal today,” or, you know. It, it‟s nothing I would, I probably wouldn‟t want to, I‟ve coached with two males, one I really liked, one ended up very bad. I would never do it again. (C1P28) … it was just somebody who thought he knew everything there was to know about soccer but did not know how to coach 10 year old girls. It was an awful season. (C1P28) But I do believe it would be helpful for the girls to relate to a girl who played in high school and college and, cause some of the guys that are playing are good at coaching but they never played. (C2P15) …women role models to look after and if, if they have the knowledge and they played the sport, I think even more than a man, they know how women play. (C2P15) 188 So I think that the girls relate easier to a maternal figure. (C5P16) And I just, I had one tear fall and my kid caught it and she said, “Are you crying?” And I said, “No, I‟m not.” But she, another girl heard it and the whole dugout is going, “She‟s crying.” I mean, it‟s only because I felt so bad for them. (C6P20) And the very next week, everything started to click. I don‟t know, maybe they needed to see it. Maybe they needed to see I could have just as much fun but I can have just as much heartache as they do when it‟s not going our way. (C6P20) That‟s why I am more of the emotional aspect of it. (C8P4) o PERCEIVED GENDER BIAS IN COACHING ABILITY Cause most of the time, guys know a little about sports but…Across the board it‟s more common for women not to. (C3P16) I mean, once in a while you might have somebody say, “So, did you play?” You know what I mean? I mean, like, “Let‟s spill it here, do you have any experience?” But, maybe only one or two times did someone say that to me. (C3P17) I think she perceives me as a peer. So, I don‟t know that she would walk up to a man coach and say, “You need to yell at them more.” (C6P25) …a man could probably step out on the court, I might be a little sexist here, a man could probably step on the court and not know much about the game and be fine. And parents wouldn‟t care. But if a woman does, she better know what she‟s doing. (C3P16) I mean, I do, I work with one other man who runs the other team for my age group and he‟s very, very kind but, like for example, we went to a clinic where the [Town] High School varsity coach ran the clinic and the other coach showed up 40 minutes late. And as soon as he showed up, he said, “Did you bring your glove?” and he said, “No, I didn‟t.” And I said, “I brought mine.” “Can [Other Coach] borrow it?” “No. If you need a coach to catch the ball, I‟ll catch the ball.” (C6P22-23) He had more experience. He‟s a sport person. He‟s a typical male. But, he had more experience. He actually coached her two years in baseball. (C4P4) …on my boys team, I just help coach them. I go out on the field, they know how to play every sport they‟re playing, more than I know how to play soccer. (C8P7) 189 …does do a lot of coaching for Peyton [brother] cause he knows more of the sport. Plus, it‟s, you know, more boys sport, you know what I‟m saying? (C10P2) Boys are more for sports or whatever. (C10P2) And it kind of broke my heart when she said “Dad, when I do t-ball” because, you know, I thought there‟s no mom‟s that coach t-ball that she had ever seen. (C7P4) o WOMEN PERCEIVED AS BETTER ORGANIZERS Some of them I think they look at it as “Oh, somebody who can organize the, you know, the schedules for us.” Because you have to have a coordinator for your division that keeps track of the scores and stuff like that and a lot of them are like “Oh, there‟s a lady in the group, you know, she can do it.” (C1P24) I am a very, very organized, anal individual. (C1P25) I think I am maybe probably more organized than most men are. (C5P23) And I think, you know, being at home full time allows for you to do those things maybe a little bit easier than some men because, you know they do work. (C5P5) Cause his wife probably does it. [Laughter] (C5P5) I was like, I totally organized everything, I had the batting order, positions, I did all that stuff. Cause I could, I can be organized and I know who can do what so. (C9P13) General Dimension: Reasons for Discontinuation o CHILD‟S DISCONTINUATION I guess, I mean, if my daughter‟s not on the team, I might not want to coach. (C4P17) So, I haven‟t decided yet. I‟m kind of up in the air still. And it depends if my daughter plays or not. If she doesn‟t play I‟m not going to do it. (C7P24) And we just, we got to know ahead of time and I obviously won‟t coach and put the time in ahead of time if she‟s not going to do it. (C7P14) I‟m deciding, you know, it depends on if my daughter plays or not next year (C7P23) 190 But I would not take time away from my family to coach other people‟s kids. (C7P24) o DIFFICULTIES WITH DAUGHTER Cause it wasn‟t as fun for her. You know, we were like arguing, you know, arguing before the game and after the game her feelings would get hurt. (C7P10) You know, I could tell everybody else what they were doing wrong but not her. “You yell at me more than everybody.” And, and I‟m a very loud person anyways but I yell at everybody that way. You know, like the other night at softball, I‟m like “What are you doing? Get you mitt on. Why are you standing on second base with no mitt?” And I would say that to her or the other girl but she just takes it so, “You‟re yelling at me in front of everybody.” (C7P10) But, she sees it that way. (C7P10) It was, everything was really confrontational with me and the other lady that helped. She just, she wanted her way…I know I‟m not doing it next year. I already decided. (C7P10) o LACK OF QUALIFICATIONS You know, eventually I‟m not going to be qualified to do this. I mean, it‟s gonna get, you know, it‟s gonna get over my head (C1P14) Because I think it‟s just going to, I think that I‟m not going to be qualified enough. (C1P29) Personally, in this coaching, in this sport, in this genre, in this topic, there‟s other sports that I‟m confident in and I know I can really be an asset to peoples‟ lives. I don‟t know if I feel that necessarily in soccer. It opens a door for her and I am willing to step through it and be there as a support for her and learn with her but, I would coach but not having so much responsibility. (C8P11) Soccer, but not coaching in general, I will always be a coach. (C8P11) Now, at some point, my skills, I just won‟t be able to. I just don‟t know enough to tell them what to do. So that‟s like, that‟s where the cutoff will be, for me. (C9P4) No, I don‟t know those rules. (C10P12) Just my lack of skills really is going to be it. (C9P15) 191 I, I would, I know my daughter will be in the minors one more year then, after that, they go in the majors, I don‟t know, I don‟t know if I‟ll be able to do it. Like, I‟ll assist, because I know I could help but as far as that might be a little bit more than I really can handle as far as how the game is played and strategy in certain situations. Like, I wouldn‟t know when to bunt or, you know, little things like that. (C9P16) You know what, I don‟t know. Cause I don‟t think I want to teach, I‟m at the junior level so I have 11, 12, and 13 year olds and when you move up you are 14, 15, and 16 and I don‟t, I don‟t, I don‟t think I would want to coach that age. (C4P17) I‟m not a competitive person. I mean, yeah, I would love to win, but, I‟m not a competitive person like that. I can‟t sit there and scream at a child to make sure that they get that hit, or, why didn‟t you get that ball. I couldn‟t do that and, I have a problem with people doing that to other people‟s children. And, to be in that level and to watch another coach do it to some other team, I couldn‟t do that. (C4P6) I don‟t know if I‟ll coach the next level up. Because, like I said, my philosophy of play will differ, it will go against the grain that I feel that all the kids, even at the next level, I‟m not gonna make everybody pitch because I don‟t think that will be effective but I think everybody should play infield and outfield. A lot of kids are first learning the game. (C5P29) I don‟t see it from the parent. So I don‟t know if I‟ll coach because I don‟t know if the parents will support my level how I coach. (C5P30) I‟m getting to the point now where next year is competitive. Next year is pitch count, next year they win and lose and I‟m like, I don‟t know if I‟m too competitive to still be fun. (C7P23) Like, I‟ll assist, because I know I could help but as far as that might be a little bit more than I really can handle as far as how the game is played and strategy in certain situations. Like, I wouldn‟t know when to bunt or, you know, little things like that. (C9P16) Well, I mean, cause when you get in to the twelve‟s, it‟s more strict. They‟re laying more high school ball at twelve. They are following the high school rules at twelve than what you are right now. And, so I would rather have someone else that knows high school rules do it. You know, cause they play more innings than what we play now. (C10P12) …I would stick with the 10s I think. Just because once you get more in to the twelve‟s and fourteens, it gets more competitive and it‟s more of the wins and more, you know, they need to learn more and. The tens is still they‟re learning 192 and if you win, you win, if you lose, you lose so it‟s not so competitive as it is in the. So I would stick with the tens. (C10P10) And this level is perfect for me because I think…I can meet the parents expectations at this level. (C5P6) Because I‟ve seen a lot of parents give up coaching. It was time, you know in the rec league. (C1P30) So I think that as it gets in, as the kids get older and it‟s more competitive and there is more technical need, I do think you should have some sort of background… (C7P5) And, as you get older, you probably wouldn‟t want somebody coaching high school that has never played. (C7P6) …if they‟ve never played, they never, and I think as the kids get older, it gets harder. (C7P22) …the drama field, I don‟t think I want to deal with their drama as they get older. (C4P17) You know, we don‟t, we haven‟t researched those positions yet. (C1P7) You know, it just depends on how much confidence I have that, you know, most of these coaches, you know, you get to that level, they have played soccer. (C1P7) …we have never played soccer. (C1P7) Maybe, you know, I say that now, I, I am nervous about the future. I‟m nervous about when we get on the, I mean, us going from U10 to U11, the field seems to be ginormous. (C1P29) Because it becomes more competitive and because winning and the score is a more important role in the game. (C3P16) … I think I would need to get back in to coaching if I was going to step in to like a high school coaching role. I would feel like it‟s been enough time that I‟ve been out of it that I need some maybe assistant coaching time or some, I could step in to a middle school coaching job, no problem, and feel confident and maybe even JV. But at the varsity level, I feel like I need to get myself back in to, you know, into the, into being confident with it again. (C3P25) I actually went to a friend‟s daughter‟s soccer game and those girls were cutthroat out there. And they were 16, 17 years old; it was like junior high, varsity level 193 soccer. And then I went to my daughter‟s soccer game and they were just out there like, looking at the butterflies on the field. So, I think as you get older, it does get more competitive. (C4P6) I don‟t see it. (C5P30) …more time and experience would, I mean, I would probably do a little maybe research on drills and stuff like that if I was gonna do my own practice. (C3P26) o DOES NOT WANT TO DEAL WITH POLITICS The club politics and the whole male thing and all of that stuff is draining to a person. (C2P15) o DOES NOT WANT TO HEAR CRITICISM …a lot of people don‟t like to hear the criticism and there‟s a lot of complaining. It‟s not just what you do on the field. (C7P21) And not only that, you have to deal with everybody else‟s opinions. (C8P11) o TIME COMMITMENT Because I don‟t want to miss [other children] because I‟m coaching something else. Or, I don‟t want to miss my daughters games because I‟m coaching my sons or vice versa. (C3P25) Like, my husband‟s schedule would allow it and that he could be supportive of it and that we weren‟t running in 10 different directions with the kids. (C3P25) … if my lifestyle and our lifestyle is such that, we could do it, I would think about it. And it would all depend on our family. And whether we could, as a family, do it. (C3P25) No, it takes, it‟s too much time commitment. (C7P24) I don‟t, this division, this type of coaching where we‟re at, you have to come up with your own teams, you have to find your own players, you have to go to rec teams in your area and scout girls to play soccer. Then you have to have tryout, then you have to cut the girls, I mean, it is, it‟s a job. (C8P11) …it‟s because of my daughter‟s age bracket … I would basically have to recruit an entire new team to keep doing it. (C2P15) I can do the other stuff, I just don‟t find joy in it. And, for me, it doesn‟t bring me joy and it takes away from my family so therefore it‟s a negative in my bank of coaching or not. (C8P8) 194 In the way we‟re doing it, in my opinion, it‟s extremely difficult, you almost need to be retired because it take a lot of time, a lot of energy and, personally, if it wasn‟t for my daughter, I would never do it. (C8P11) You got to, there‟s a lot of organizing and making sure that it‟s fair and, you know, so it does take a lot of time. (C7P21) o TO BUILD DAUGHTERS INDEPENDENCE When she‟s 14, 15 or 16, she‟s not gonna want to be my baby anymore. And, I can‟t be there to hold her hand. And if she moves up and I‟m not there, I can‟t sit there and hold her hand. Cause, and the other coach isn‟t going to sit there and hold her hand either. Hopefully they won‟t. So I really think they need to do that because, again, I want my kids to be independent. I don‟t want them to rely on me. (C4P18) I don‟t think I would. I mean, I could say that now but in two years, you know, I could be saying something different. Honestly, I don‟t think I would. I think I would, you know, we had our fun and I‟ll tell her I want to stay with the little ones and you go off and have with, and get, I think that they need to have also though, to be honest with you, it‟s because my, their dad coached our son in football and he stayed back once he hit, he did flag and he, once he moved up, he stayed back cause we both, we both said that, I think they need to experience different people. So, you know, I think if she moves up, she needs to experience a different coach. (C4P18) It was time for their daughter to be coached by somebody else and but then it came out and the child just didn‟t so well. They needed their parent there. And I don‟t want [daughter] only to excel and be who she is only because I‟m there pushing her. Which I would be pushing her from the sidelines. But I‟ve watched her play basketball and I‟m not her coach so I think she‟ll, I think she would do good. (C1P30) 195 REFERENCES 196 References Babkes, M. L. & Weiss, M. R. (1999). 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