AN ANALYSIS OF POLYMORPHEC 09mm LEADERSHEPIN. .

EASTERN NIGERiAN CWMUMHES.

Thesis for the ”Degree of M. A.
MICHHGAN STATE umvsasm '
EFIONG BEN ATTAH
1968

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AN ANALYSIS OF POLYMORPHIC OPINION

LEADERSHIP IN EASTERN NIGERIAN COMMUNITIES

By

Efiong Ben Attah

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS
Department of Communication

1968

G //'77/~5

ABSTRACT
AN ANALYSIS OF POLYMORPHIC OPINION LEADERSHIP
IN EASTERN NIGERIAN COMMUNITIES

by Efiong B. Attah

For nearly two decades there have been increasing attempts in
developing countries to improve conditions of living. Research done in
connection with methods of Speeding develOpment has shown that local
influential peOple form an important factor in the successful introduction
of change. Although much research has been done to find the extent to
which opinion leadership in a community affects the adoption of new
ideas, practically no research has been done to find the relationship
of polymorphic opinion leadership to modernization. The present study
attempts to determine whether polymorphic leadership can be measured
by two polymorphism indexes, and the extent to which such polymorphism
is related to modernizing behavior among Eastern Nigerian village
leaders. The two measures of polymorphism used are: polymorphism
consistency, and the number of leadership roles combined by leaders.

Polymorphism is the degree to which an individual combines

 

leadership activities for different issues or types of roles.
Polymorphism consistency attempts to measure the tendency for leaders

to exert a similar level of influence for several issues. The leader-
ship characteristics studied in relation to polymorphism in the present
study are life cycle, level of education, socio-economic style of living,

_agricultural innovativeness, economic rationality, knowledgeability

Efiong B. Attah

about agricultural innovations, Opinionatedness, cosmopoliteness, mass
media exposure and fermal group participation.

Polymorphism consistency is indexed by weighted scores averaged
across eight roles. Deviations of eaCh role from the mean sociometric
score for each leader are averaged. This score is then subtracted from
99, the highest possible weight for the perfectly consistent person.

The resulting score gives the level of consistency of the perception of
the reSpondent's leadership behavior.

Bight hundred and thirty-four respondents from seventy-one village
communities in six subcultural areas in Eastern Nigeria were personally
interviewed. Variables that were measured by several items were factor-
analyzed. The data were analyzed by the use of zero-order produce
moment correlations and the hypotheses were then tested by use of the
F-test.

Five of the twenty general hypotheses were confirmed. The over-
all result of the study casts doubt on the assumption that Eastern
Nigerian leaders who are more polymorphic are more modern and polymorphic
leadership is an exclusive feature of economically underdeveloped

societies having similar social structural and value systems.

Accepted by the faculty of the Department
of Communication, College of Communication Arts,
Michigan State University, in partial fulfillment of

the requirements for the Master of Arts degree.

Director of Thesis'TT

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The research reported in this thesis is a result of the
cooPeration and contributions of several peOple. My indebtedness is
expressed to Dr. Everett M. Rogers, my major professor and friend, not
only for introducing me to the field of communication, but also for his
close guidance during my graduate study. I also extend my sincere
appreciation and thanks to Dr. Hideya Kumata and Dr. Vincent Farace for
their guidance and encouragement during the present study. Both were
members of my thesis committee.

The present thesis would not have been possible without the
joint Sponsorship of the United States Agency for International Develop-
ment and the Department of Communication at Michigan State University.
The data reported herein were gathered through the cooperation of both
institutions as part of a three-country research project on the
Diffusion of Innovations in Rural Societies. I am also grateful for the
fellowship offered me by this AID-MSU research project.

I wish to thank, among others, the following members of the staff
and friends who worked on the Diffusion Project in Nigeria: Dr. Arthur
Niehoff, Dr. Gerald Hursh, Neils Roling, Graham Kerr, Gabriel Idigo, and
Ema Oraekwu, the coding staff and the interviewers. The cooperation
of the Information Division of the Ministry of Agriculture in Eastern
Nigeria is also appreciated.

Sincere thanks are extended to Dr. Arthur Niehoff, Dr. Gerald

Hursh, Robert Keith and Joe Ascroft who contributed substantially by

criticism and suggestions to the definition and development of this
thesis.

The analysis of these data would have been impossible to
accomplish in the present form and size without the assistance of
the computer staff of the Department of Communication. I am
particularly grateful to Gerrit DeYoung and Mrs. Anita Immele and her
staff for their friendship and services.

Finally, this thesis is dedicated to my parents and people who

keep encouraging me and desire for more growth in Nigeria.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER
I INTRODUCT I ON AND THEO RY O O O I O O O O O O O O O 0

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Theory: Conceptualization of Polymorphism

of Opinion Leadership . . . . . . . . .
Power, Authority and Opinion Leadership . . . . .
Overlap and Multiple Leadership Roles . . . . . .
Objectives of the Present Study . . . . . . . . .

II STUDIES IN POLYMORPHISH . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Studies of the Socio-Psychological Factors

of Influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Columbia University Studies in the United States
Los Angeles Study of Overlap in Dental

Products and Services . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chicago Study of Family Planning . . . . . . . .
Conclusion and General Hypotheses . . . . . . . .

III METHODOLOGY 0 O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O 0

Sampling Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Definition of Leadership Roles . . .
Selection of Respondents . . . . . .

Interview Schedule . . . . . . . . .

Interviewer Selection and Training . . . . . . .
Data Collection . . . . . . . .'. . .
Missing Data and Error Checks . . . .
The Dependent Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Independent Variables . . . . . . . . . . . .
General and Emprical Hypotheses . . . . . . . . .
Method of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Iv FINDINGS O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0
Characteristics of the Sample . . . . . . . . . .

v SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS . . . . . . .

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Discussion
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Implications for Research . . . . . . . . . . . .

BIBLIOGMPHY O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

iii

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TABLE

1 Social and Personalitw’Factors Related to Opinion Leadership

2

10

11

LIST OF TABLES

Distribution in the Total Sample of Multiple, Single,
and "Non-Leaders": The Columbia University Study . . . .

Comparison of Hypothetical Frequency Calculations With
Actual Frequencies of Overlap in Leadership As Expected
From Chance Alone: The Columbia University Study . . . .

Distribution of Self-designated Opinion Leaders
by P mduct O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O I 0

Distribution in Total Sample of Self-designated
Opinion Leaders By Number of Areas of Influence:
me LOS Ange les St udy O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

Per Cent of Postcard Recipients Who Asked Opinions
on Topics Other Than Family Planning . . . . . . . . . .

Distribution of leaders in Three Studies by Number
of Roles Combined in Leadership Functions . . . . . . .

Distribution of Sample Areas by Sub—Linguistic
GroupsinEasternNigeria ...............

Distribution of Leaders by Kinds of Role . . . . . . . .

Selected Attributes Differentiating Leaders and
Innovators by Number of Roles: Mean Scores by Variables

SummaryofFindings

iv

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711a

Figure 1.

Figure 2.

Figure 3.

LIST OF FIGURES

Two Measures of Polymorphism and
Their Relationship . . . . . . . . . . .

Structure of Generalized Opinion
ReaderShip O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

Set Definition of Polymorphic Leaders
As a Subset of Opinion Leaders
(venn Diagram) . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

31+

 

List of Appendixes

Appendix A

Selected Questions from Phase I

Intervi'w" Sahedul. Q I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 102
Appendix B

Items for Independent Variables

Indexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Appendix C

Distribution of Demographic
Characteristic fer 9N7 Eastern
Nigerian Leaders and Innovators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

vi

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

In recent times, particularly since about 1950, the peoples
of much of the contemporary world have been faced with the urgent
need for improved conditions of living. The problem for the developing
world is not that of seeing improved living conditions as less than
desirable, but that of undertaking to satisfy needs arising from their
new desires. In most of these nations the rudiments of modern living
are already in Operation. The patterns of living are fundamentally
similar to those of the more advanced countries. There are differences
in levels of attainment of desired ends, the rate at which these levels
change, and the psychological factors that affect human behavior in
_ general. Within the less developed nations there are persons who have
adopted and demonstrated the efficiency of many asPects of the material
and mental attainments of the more advanced societies.

The need in deveIOping societies is largely to increase not only
the rate at which individuals join the group of adopters of new techniques
in their communities, and the rate at which new ideas are adopted, but
also the level at which these individuals and ideas operate. One of the
preconditions for acquiring this kind of societal function is Spon-
taneous adaptability, creativity and receptivity of new ideas. In the

develoPing world it is only the exceptional who have acquired these

modern attitudes. In most cases they constitute two categories of
people: those who rejected the traditional life, and those who are
still linked in part to the traditional system. Both may pursue the
same ends, but the latter are different by being strategically located
in the social system, so that they can affect and be affected by other
people within it. In this category are the relatively few who can

serve as communication Channels for successful introduction of new ideas
into the populace.

The needs of these "new" societies are clearly eXpressed by the
report of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs
(1965) on the World Social Situation of the Development Decade (1961-
1970). This report regrets, among other failures, "the disappointing
performance in agriculture and fbod production." A major obstacle to
development "has been the failure to involve the population at large in
a nation-wide process of change and development." (U. N. D. E. S. A.,
1965 pp. VII - III)

Perhaps the most promising method of getting the local population
involved in the development process is by using localleaders who exert
positive interpersonal influence for change among members of the
community. At this stage the need is for a non-specialist who can and
is well placed to persuade the local population in a variety of ways.
The next stage occurs when there is need for Specialists to direct
particular types of behavior. The former is an orientation kind of
effort and the latter is largely of a performance type. The first can
be done by a local leader , the other by a Specialist or professional

called a change agent. Both may work in the community.

The importance of the local leader has been the implicit basis of
much research on the change process. It appears that not only are
leaders needed, but also these leaders must constitute a type conducive
to efficient functioning: they must influence the largest number of
followers over the widest possible behavioral areas with a minimum of
effort.

Generally, changed behavior in one area of life also involves
changes in closely related sets of behavior. The introduction, for
instance, of a new kind of food crop must be fOllowed by changes in
food values, unless the fOod is produced completely for export; other-
wise the crop cannot become established in the agricultural system of
the community. Such value changes call fer shifts in deep-rooted
traditional behavior which cannot be carried out by external change
_agents without the use of community leaders. These must be leaders who
are not 323 far ahead of their system; they must be able to exert
p general influence in order to be able to function well in a non-
specialist society. Homans (1961, pp. 283-286) states that opinion
leaders gain their influence by rendering "valuable and rare services"
to the group. The implication is that they answer needs. Leadership
and followership are based on rewards involved in rendering and receiving
valuable and rare services, respectively. A person perceived by the
members of his community as being competent in perfbrming assigned
tasks and providing directions in needed services, is generally in high
demand for leadership. If he is demanded in more than one or several

service areas, he becomes a "polymorphic" leader, the type best suited

for establishing general changes among many people. If he is at the
same time favorably motivated toward new ideas, he can become a useful
linkage system between the local system and the change agency. This is
why further investigation about this type of leadership is considered
important to a successful directed change program.

The desired end in working through leaders is to bring about
improvements in the socio-economic system by:

1. Making the people perceive the need for and co-operate

in creating new social systems.

2. Making the people perceive the need to alter the relative
importance of certain elements and values of the social
system.

3. Making the people perceive the need to alter the
combinations of socio-economic elements and their
relative importance with a view to achieving a pre-
determined objective or set of objectives.

Perhaps the major task of the local leader lies in motivating
the people to link their perceived needs with behavior to answer the
needs. In short, the kind of leadership role called for in the
inducement of change is a complex of human factors required for making
relatively reluctant people approve, receive, and act out these new
ideas in an integrated behavioral system.

This is a process that involves the same individual in both the
stimulation, decision, and action processes. He needs knowledge and

linkage with both the local and the extra—community systems, but even

more, he needs influence which functions at the emotional and sentimental
levels in promoting leadership success. Gibb (19u7, pp. 233-2u8) stated that
”Leadership is not a quality which a man possesses; it is an inter-
actional* function of the personality and the social situation."
Interpersonal influence involves a direct interaction between
the influential person and the person influenced. Influence can be
indirect, although in the peasant village the predominance of face-to-
face communication generally renders the process a direct one. In this
primary situation the use of local leaders calls for a detailed knowledge
of the limits to efficiency that leaders may possess. Since leadership
is a limited resource, much in the same way that land resources and
capital are limited, there is need, in planned change, to seek the most
efficient way of employing it.
The importance of a detailed knowledge of local leadership
patterns is indicated in an analysis of case histories of change
programs throughout the world. In an analysis of 203 such cases,
Niehoff (1966, p. 8) found that in 177 (57.6 percent) cases the prOgram
outcomes were critically influenced by the attitude of local leaders
toward the projects. However, change agents often find it difficult
to locate leaders who will be acceptable and highly credible to a

majority of the community. A beginning toward answering this problem

 

*Berlo (1960, pp. 133-167) gives a comprehensive view of the complex
process known as interaction. In the leadership situation there is
interaction between the leader and every group member and action-
reaction between the group and the leader. The elements of inter-
dependence in this process is discussed later in this chapter.

can be made by studying the forms of leadership, and then how these
forms function. There already exists a large collection of literature
on the nature of opinion leadership in rural communities (Rogers,
July, 1967). However, a review of literature shows no studies on
monomorphic and polymorphic leadership in develOping countries. There
may be differences in role performance between highly consistent leaders
and low consistent leaders. The categories (Fig. I) may differ
sufficiently to affect the kind of outcome when local leaders are used.
While the concept of consistency is central to the present study and is
explained with the dependent variable in the next section, the number
of leadership roles combined by leaders is the second dependent variable
also investigated.

The need for such study is eXpressed by Merton (1957, p. 415),
who states: "Further inquiry into interpersonal influence must seek
to identify the monomorphic and polymorphic influentials, locate
these within the local social structure and establish the dynamics
of change from one type to the other...Formal criteria such as
education, income, participation in voluntary organizations, number of
references to local newspaper and the like do not provide adequate
indicators of those individuals who exert a significant measure of
interpersonal influence. Systematic interviewing supplemented by
direct observation are required." Educational level, socio-economic
style of living and social participation among others are criteria used
in studying largely because by observation they are fbund to be associated

with most kinds of leadership roles in Nigeria.

The need for this study is two-fold. The information obtained
can be useful to change agents in making pr0per initial contacts in
the village. During the field work in the present study it was fre-
quently noticed that the change agent inadvertently created.wrong
impressions by using certain persons as his channels of contact with
the village. A more scientific approach to selecting such initiators
and contacts can be gained through the study of leadership perception
as undertaken in the present study. Besides, as Mouton and others
(1955, p. 9) stated, "The data (sociometric mentions) can be employed
for planning or rearranging a social situation or for installing some
other administrative change." In Biafra* such situations may be
Young Farmer's Clubs, agricultural comunity cooperatives, and rural
development associations.

The second need is largely scientific in that sociometric
responses may be used in the social psychological study of communi-
ties. Such studies could eventually result in the differentiation of
communication channels at the interpersonal level similar to the kinds
of differentiation found in the use of mass media channels. The
analysis of polymorphism as undertaken in the present study gives
further insights into the understanding of opinion leadership and

community social structure. Such knowledge further improves the kinds

 

*Note that in the present thesis the names BIAFRA and EASTERN NIGERIA
are used synonymously. The use of both terms arises from the fact

that during the time of the Diffusion Project in Nigeria, there was a
political revolution during which the Eastern Region, where the study
was conducted, declared itself the Republic of Biafra. The situation
still remains unsettled at the time of the writing of the present report.

of information that analysts and practical workers use in decision-
making and in defining the organization of interpersonal communication
among community people. A lack of understanding of interpersonal
relationship on the part of visiting change agents usually starts
conflicts within the community which he may never know about or be
able to solve. Change projects may continue even under such circum-
stances, but definitely with difficulties and lowered efficiency. By
the present approach it will not only be possible to identify leaders
by number and area of leadership (a relatively simple job) but it will
be possible to explain their relative characterists in terms of con-

sistency and other variables related to development.

THEORY,
Conceptualization of Polymorphism of Opinion Leadership

Opinion leadership refers to the behavior of certain individuals

 

who, through day-to-day personal contacts with other members of their
community, influence the decision-making and opinion-formation processes
of those with whom they communicate.* They are not necessarily the
:Eormal leaders of their community, but in general the formal positions
they hold bear close relevance to their influence abilities, functions

and opportunities. This is particularly so in rural communities of

 

*The present definition differs from that of Katz and Lazarsfeld (1955,
p. 138) in that it is not limited as to scope or unit of contact in

the influence process. It is different also from that of Merton

(196”, p. #15) in the absence of limitation by size of fbllowing or
number of situations. The emphasis here is on the purposeful behavior
of individuals in changing the behavior and opinion of others. This
agrees with the definition of Opinion in terms of effect rather than in
'terms of quantity or the number of persons involved in the process.

 

Consistency of Sociometric Mentions

High

Mentions about equal
in all roles

Number of roles

Low

Mentions highly un-
equal

Number of roles

 

high high High
Number of mentions Number of mentions
hi or 10*
Number
of
Roles

Mentions about equal
in all roles

Number of roles very
few or one

with
number of mentions
hi or 10*

Mentions highly un-
equal

Number of roles very Low
few or one
with
number of mentions
hi or 10*

 

Figure 1. Two measures of Polymorphism and Their Relationship

 

*The sociometric number of mentions is not considered relevant to the
present study. However the relationship of self-perceived opinion
leadership with other concepts is used for further eXplaining the
nature of Opinion leadership in Eastern Nigeria.

10

developing nations. Constant interaction with other members of the
community makes the leaders prominent in the perception of their peers.
They come to be regarded as salient members of the community who may be
approached for guidance in various areas of need according to their
competence and interests. In other words, holding a formal position does
not necessarily disqualify a person as an opinion leader; but rather
exposes him to influence opportunities in informal situations which are
sometimes difficult to differentiate from authority situations. This

is why the situation is considered an important factor in opinion

 

leadership analyses. "Situational cues affect the opinions a person
expresses; they may also affect his resistance to counternorm communi-
cations." (Hovland, and others, 1953, p. 157)

The influence potential of communication sources varies with
certain personal and social characteristics of the communicator, as
well as that of the receiver. The perception of a person by the other
members of a system is one of the major determinants of his acceptability
as a force modifying other people's behavior. Besides the perception
of others, selfanotion is an important factor in the identification of

opinion.

Power, Authority and Opinion Leadership
Power and authority, when found together, reinforce the effects
of opinion leadership. While power may be considered a necessary
element of opinion leadership, authority as an institutionalized status
element is not usually associated with opinion leadership since
authority is usually an element of formal status. Social power is

defined as the ability of an individual or group of individuals to

11

control the attitude and behavior of others by force, command, persuasion,
precept, example or the manipulation or mediation of appr0priate status
symbols (Kenney, 1956, p. 717). Authority is social power derived
fundamentally from occupying a particular formal status, it involves the
enforcement of established social values.

Power, as a dynamic force and a potential for influence, is
. generally applied in a concrete situation. When effectively exercised,
it rests upon the conscious or unconscious acceptance of the source by
those being influenced, as aspect of credibility which is not directly
considered in this study. This is particularly so in the case of an
informal influence process, which is largely a voluntary acceptance
of the leadership performances and characteristics by the fOllower. In-
fluence is persuasive while power is coercive; in most circumstances in-
fluence attaches to an idea, a doctrine, a creed and has its locus in the
ideological Sphere. Its most relevant application is in the area of

voluntary action. Power attaches to a person, a group or an association

 

and has its locus in the sociological sphere (Bierstedt, 196u, p. 1M5).
These two concepts coverage in the idea of relating the perception of a
leader by those he influences with his personal characteristics.
Authority, on the other hand, is the potentiality to influence based on
legitimized right to means end control, whereas power is the actual
ability to influence or the actual means-end control. Where authority

is differentiated from power we also have a divergence between formal
and informal leadership. In both situations, particularly in the latter,
submission is largely voluntary if the social system permits maximum

individual freedom and choice. However, in the former case, the element

12

of choice is extremely limited and, very often absent. It is this kind
of situation that often results in a rapid adoption of innovations. The
Operating factor in this influence process is authority. Where both
formal and informal leadership tend to go together, polymorphic leader-
ship emerges because the leader becomes influential on the basis of his
perceived formal and informal abilities. In the diffusion process the
relevant kind of leadership role is the informal whatever the context.

Under such conditions, leadership overlap is common.

Overlap and Multiple Leadership Roles
Opinion leadership is a resultant of the factors of time, ex-
perience, interest, trustworthiness and situation. It is on the basis
of these preconditions that Katz's (1958) criteria (personification of
social values, competence, and strategic social location) emerge.
Merton (1957, p. M19) pointed out that "position in class, power,
and prestige hierarchies contribute to the potential f0r interpersonal
influence, but do not determine the extent to which influence actually
occurs." The following generalizations based on research (ROgers,
1962) apply to the notion of overlap and multiple role leadership:
1. Influentials are not found among institutional or
informal leaders only.
2. Influence criteria differ from issue to issue and from
community to community because no single or Special set
of factors are found to predispose people to be in-
fluentials in any or all fields. People can lead in

several and differing issues in a number of communities.

13

3. Opinion leaders and innovators in agriculture are not
necessarily different people.

n. In the k-choice*, sociometry statements cannot be made
about social expansivity and social isolation in more

than very relative terms.

Polymorphism of opinion leadership is defined as the degree to
which a single leader is sought for information and advice about a
variety of topics (such as agriculture, public affairs, family,
business or health). Merton (1957, p. #14) stated that the variety
of interpersonal influence Spheres are sometimes seemingly unrelated.
It is therefore the degree of social role Specialization that defines
the number of influence areas. He states that "monomorphic influence
occurs only in certain Spheres involving high specialization of skill
and little public recognition", under which condition a monomorphic
influential is only approached for advice on matters touching upon his
special sphere of competence.

A limited number of studies have analyzed the polymorphism of
opinion leadership. One of the major objectives of the present chapter
is to reconcile the divergent ideas about overlap and multiple role

leadership in the definition of polymorphism. Some researchers have

 

*In the pioneer sociometric study by Moreno, he instructed the subjects
to give a Specific number of choices. This is referred to as "K-choice"
0r "pick-K" method. In the present study the same approach was used
with each role studied.

1M

tended to emphasize the scope and area of influence covered, for
instance, marketing, fashions and public affairs (Katz and Lazarsfeld,
1955). Others considered more inclusive and less Sharply identified
i.ssues, for example, Silk's (1966) study of dental products and services,
and as dentist, electric toothbrush, mouthwash, toothpaste, and regular
toothbrush.

Polymorphism is the degree to which an individual combines leader-

 

ship activities for different issues or types of roles.* Polymorphism is

 

not concerned with the degree of influence in these roles. People who tend
to be consistently influential in two or more areas of behavior tend to have
a major leadership quality-flexibility which is important in the persuasive
{arocess of inducing change. These may be leaders who are required to make
interpersonal communication more effective. This does not, however, say whether
(zonsistency is desirable or not; it depends on the situation.

There appears to exist some confusion in the conclusion of Katz
and Lazarsfeld (1955, p. 33”): "By and large, however, the hypotheses
of a generalized leader receives little support in this study. There
is no overlap in any of the pairs of activities. Each arena, it seems
has a corps of leaders of its own." If generalized leadership means

being a leader in all of social or other issues of life, it is true

 

*Merton defines polymorphic leadership as the exertion of influence in
a variety of (sometimes seemingly unrelated) spheres. This definition
seems to imply that the relationship of issues in polymorphic leader-
ship is essential. The present definition does not see the need for
the issues to be related. This idea has to be established through
research before it can be accepted as a limitation on polymorphism of
leadership.

15

that no such leaders (can) exist. If generalized leadership means
combining two or more roles, then the second and third sentences of this
conclusion contradict the first. The study actually found not only
leaders who influenced two issues, but among these leaders there were
different combinations. For instance, in that study subjects were

fOund to exert influence in fashion and marketing, fashion and public
affairs, marketing and public affairs and in all these areas. (1955, pp.
333-33u). The concept of leadership overlap has therefore been somewhat
misunderstood. It might be clarified by differentiating between 2233:

lap and multi-area leadership,

 

Pe0ple sometimes play two or more different roles (to the same
person). This is a multiple role relationship and can be studied if the
same person is asked to name personal influentials in mentioned roles with
the Option of mentioning any one person any number of times. A multiple
role relationship is one that exists between the same person in areas
or issues which are defined as different by the persons concerned.

On the other hand, people sometimes tend to play different roles to
different followers. In this case there may be also multiple role
relationship, but this can be distinguished as overlap because of the

. greater element of the combined effect of individual and situational
structuring that affect role combination with the leader as the
referent serving the same people in different roles. Multiple role re-
lationships with the leader serving the same person in several roles
"may be said to be characteristic of rural communities and total status

situations while 'overlap' is characteristic of urban communities and

16

partial status situations. Both are polymorphism, generalized opinion
leadership" (Frankenberg, 1966, p. 287). Overlap means that the same
person serves as opinion leader in different combinations of roles to
different people, e.g., marketing and movies to some followers, and
marketing and politics to others. On the other hand, a person may be
a three role generalized Opinion leader for marketing, movies and
politics to the same individual, or to different people.

Polymorphism consistency attempts to measure the tendency for

 

leaders to exert the same level of influence in areas of social
need. It does not measure the level of "pOpularity" by role, but
rather the reliability of this p0pularity in terms of number of areas
and consistency of influence. It also measures stability of leadership
strength across all roles in which the leader serves. This notion of
polymorphism consistency is similar to the notion of status consistency
in sociology. So polymorphism consistency is the tendency for a
leader to have followership in several differentiated areas at the same
amount. This idea is implied in Merton's (1957, p. ulu) statement
that "it should not be assumed that individuals are_monomorphic or
polymorphic but rather that they Operate as one type or the other
according to the structure of the situation," as in Figure 2.

The situational analysis of leadership is linked with the notion
of role differentiation. It also implies that a person in a leader-
ship role in one Situation may not be a leader in another situation.

The role-situation approach is a total-situation* approach. It

 

*In an analysis of the application of the theories of social change
to the urban and rural communities, Frankenberg (1966, p. 289) gives
total status as characteristic of the rural environment. He defines

17

 

 

 

 

Perceived Roles of a Leader "X" Peers
ril_i
Multiple Role
X” <__._. _._._ .-:..- ’ Pl (AS . Pl p8?-
/Iu..—/”” " ‘ ce ives X
x (11..., //
1 T1 "’// //// L__l.

 

 

 

x3 2 Overlap
P
\ 3
\\e -__._... (As P -P

 

 

<x . P 2 5
\\\\\\\\\\\\\ u perceive X)

Figure 2. The Structure of Generalized Opinion Leadership*

 

 

 

 

*Polymorphism consistency takes into account factors of both overlap
and multipb role.
P = Individual Persons influenced (influencees)

X1_5= Leadership Roles exercised by one person: A leader's influence roles.

18

includes the perceptions of group members, the factors of custom and
tradition, aSpired goals, resources available for achieving goals,
competence of the leader, as well as pressures from outside the system
that influence the interactive behavior. Consistency measures the
degree of permanence or continuity and change of the leadership behavior
from one situation to another and from one role to another.

In terms of role-combinations, it has been found in all relevant
studies that the number of leaders decreases rather sharply as the
number of roles combined in leadership Situations increases. This is a
normal expectation as there is a point in the combination of roles
beyond which the requirements of efficient services are too demanding for
an individual to undertake. It might therefore be said that there is

an element of selectivity_and perhaps conscious limitation on the part

 

of leaders as to the number of leadership roles they can occupy during
a particular period. Perhaps there is a "saturation point" in
polymorphic opinion leadership. At this point, returns to leadership
efforts begin to decrease because the leader does not function at his
highest efficiency in some or all of the roles. Merton (1957, p. ulu)
points out that the same individual may serve as a monomorphic leader
for some persons and as a polymorphic leader for other persons. In the
present study a leader who served as a monomorphic leader to all ten
informants in his village could only have received ten mentions. If he

was polymorphic to all, he could have received twenty mentions in only

 

this concept by saying, "In rural societies status spreads from
situation to situation. A man's status is the same whatever activity he
is engaged in." Consistency of polymorphism is measuring how level the
Spread is from situation to Situation.

19

two roles, or thirty in only three or forty in only four and so on,
depending upon the number of roles. Several leaders were therefOre
obviously polymorphic to some followers, and monomorphic to others.
The concept of consistency serves to spell out the tendency in the
leadership process to combine various roles and thereby be perceived
differently by other members of the community.

Polymorphism has been adversely affected by the overstretched
notion of efficiency inherent in Specialization and the division of
labor. While this notion applies to all situations where resources
are limited as in cases of human resource use, it does not eliminate
the presence of efficiency in limited non-Specialization. Very little
has so far been known about the kinds and number of roles a person
can efficiently fill. To what extent can a single individual efficiently
satisfy the eXpectations of his various roles and status that he comes
to represent to various people. The notions of role-set and multiple
roles combined in the concept of polymorphism need further exploration.
The need for further investigation is given by the fact that in advancing
societies the role-set of a family head cannot be adequately filled in
the fact of the kind of social structure in which one lives. The
husbandsfather-protector-need provider role that inevitably devolves on
a family head is facing pressing demands from other quarters among which
are professional Obligations which must be retained if the family is to
continue in a desired way.

Usually polymorphism is considered a negative characteristic of
a traditional society; this is proper provided it is also remembered

that it serves specific needs within the structure and that when it no

longer exists or deteriorates, while the needs remain, further channels

20

have to be explored to satisfy the needs originally served by the poly-
morphic structure. This is how leadership may change with changes in the
social system. These notions apply to the leadership roles and demands
of developing and advanced societies whether it is in the family, friend-
ship groups, the village association or the mechanized factory.

A clear understanding of the nature of polymorphism will provide
. guidance in the choice of role combinations by individuals, this will
increase efficiency and reduce strains and the problems of extended
specialization. Besides, the fact that a person is perceived as functioning
in three or four roles does not mean that efficiency is equally high in
all areas, a study of polymorphism may help in identifying the most efficient
multiple-role an individual is capable of handling under Specific con-
ditions. Also certain individuals who are completely out of the leader-

ship current may be put into useful social activities.

Objectives of the Present Study
The present study attempts to answer two questions. First, an
attempt is made to see whether polymorphic leadership can be measured by
means of the polymorphism consistency score as well as by number of
leadership roles.* Secondly, polymorphism is examined to determine the
extent to which it is related to modernizing behavior in a series of
hypotheses which will be described in a later chapter. This later aim

intends to find out how the notion that polymorphic leadership is

 

*"Number of leadership roles" is used as a measure of the degree of
polymorphism; any number of roles therefore serves as a measure of
degree in polymorphism continuum just as any number of sociometric
mentions in any role qualifies a re3p0ndent as a leader and gives his
degree of Opinion leadership in that role.

21

characteristic of underdeveloped social structures is applicable to
Eastern Nigeria. Finally, it is eXpected that the present thesis will
contribute to the aims of the Diffusion Research Project, (Rogers, July
1965). One of these aims is to contribute to the improvement of methods

for studying the diffusion and adoption of innovations in the future.

CHAPTER II

STUDIES IN POLYMORPHISM

The present chapter is a review of theories and research studies
of opinion leadership and polymorphism as far as both are related to the
present study. One set of studies concentrates on identifying variables
correlated with opinion leadership. Polymorphism studies are mainly con-
cerned with the incidence of leadership fOrms in various social systems.
Three studies of this type are reviewed in the present chapter. One re-
view is a re-analysis of a pioneering study on the subject.

In l9u0 a study was completed on the behavior of people in the de-
cision-making process during a United States Presidential election cam-
paign. The findings of the Erie County, Ohio study (Lazarsfeld and
others, 19u8, p. 151) brought the attention of communication researchers

to the importance of interpersonal influence.

Studies of the Socio-Psychological Factors of Influence

A review of diffusion studies indicates that opinion leaders tend
to have some common characteristics. Table 1 summarizes findings on the
socio-psychological characteristics of Opinion leaders in studies con-
ducted between Iguo and 1965 in various parts of the world including the
United States, India, Southeast Asia and Latin America. The concepts
selected are only those that have relevance to the present study.

Most opinion leaders tend to be innovative, cosmopolite, exposed to
mass media, formal organization leaders and holders of higher social sta-

tus. Most of the studies done on opinion leadership were in the

22

23

acceptance of new ideas, eSpecially in agriculture. On the other hand
there has been a kind of controversy as to the existence of differences

in the forms of opinion leadership.

Colombia University Studies in the United States

Following the discovery of Opinion leadership in 19uo (Lazarsfeld
and others), Katz and Lazarsfeld in 1945 undertook another study. The
aim of that study, conducted in Decatur, Illinois, was to investigate
further the importance of interpersonal influence in the communication
process. A part of the study concerned overlap of leadership roles.

The Decatur study investigated the flow of influence in four areas:
marketing, fashion, public affairs and movie—going. The respondents
were women. The high concentration of movie-going among girls and the
fact that it covered a rather small sample precluded its inclusion in
the analysis of leadership overlap. The data on multiple-area leader-
ship thus deals with three areas as shown in Tables 2 and 3. About #1
percent of the respondents were opinion leaders. Of those who were
leaders 25.2 percent were leaders in two areas, 7.6 percent were lead-
ers in three areas while the rest were single-area leaders. Together
32.8 percent of the leader group were multiple area leaders and this
constituted 13.u percent of the total sample studied. Katz and
Lazarsfeld (1955, p. 334) concluded:

By and large, however, the hypothesis of a generalized

leader receives little support in this study. There

is no overlap in any of the pairs of activities. Each

area, it seems has a corpus of leaders of its own.

This conclusion was based on the assumption that the hypothesis of a

2H

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afiemoowvmaom owewsowumaom mo came an mowOOpm mo nonssz sowowoo mo mowpmwnopommmeo
o>fiuwmom

 

see owemmoomoa sowswoo 0v ooumaom mnouomm sewamoomnom pom Hmwoom .H canoe

25

TABLE 2 — Distribution in the Total Sample of Multiple,
Single and "Non—Leaders:" The Columbia University Study

 

Number and Names of

 

Areas of Leadership Percent Total Percent
0 Non-Leaders 59.2 59.2
1 Fashion 12.0
Marketing 12.”
Public Affairs 3.0
27.”
2 Fashion and Marketing 5.1
Fashion and Public Affairs 2.u
Marketing and Public Affairs 2 8
10.3
3 Three Areas Combined 3.1 3.1
Total 100.00 100.00 N=7OM

 

Source: Katz and Lazarsfeld (1955, pp. 333-33“).

26

_ general type leader required certain characteristic traits or attributes,
that is, it is based on the denial of the trait approach in leadership

analysis which is not relevant here. They also assumed that in any group
and in any situation those who embodied these leadership traits to the

, greatest extent would emerge as leaders. These assumptions emphasize an
all-or—nothing approach. They do not take into consideration circumstan-
cial and counterbalancing factors like competition for leadership, compe—

tence, interests, selection and preferences.

A Re-analysis of the Decatur Study by Marcus and Bauer

Perhaps because of the conclusion made by Katz and Lazarsfeld,
practically no attention has been given to the study of multiple—area
opinion leadership. However, Marcus and Bauer (196”), using data from
the Katz and Lazarsfeld study, concluded that there are generalized
Opinion leaders. The study found that 23.4 percent of the leadership
activities were in marketing, 22.6 percent in fashion and 11.3 percent
in public affairs. These proportions did not include the combination of
roles, but only the incidence of leadership in each role. For three
combination of two roles each, there were 2.N percent, 5.1 percent and
2.8 percent; which added to 10.3 percent for all cases of leadership
combination of two roles. For all the three roles combined, 3.1 per—
cent were leaders. Marcus and Bauer (196u) used a more reliable method
to calculate the expected probabilities of the occurrence of the various
combinations of roles. They took into consideration not only the prob-

ability of being a leader in two areas but also that of not being a

27

leader in the third area when two only were considered. This is relevant
because it is not reasonable to assume independence of role activities

by the same individual. The data and recalculations are shown in

Table 3.

In each case of the recalculation the actual frequency was greater
than chance expectations. Where the three-role combination was concerned,
the original study found that the number of persons who actually were
functioning was significantly different from the number eXpected on the
assumption of independence. The frequency (3.1 percent) was five times
. greater than expected. The recalculation of the two-area leadership
obtained by adding the three-area frequency, shows that the two-area
Opinion leadership was significantly greater than exPected under con-
ditions of combined area-leadership independence. This would include

in all cases those who led in two or more areas. Therefore the data

 

support the presence of generalized opinion leadership beyond mere chance.
Los Angeles Study of Overlap in Dental Products and Services
Silk (1966) reports a study of 177 residents of West Los Angeles.
Opinion leadership was measured by self-designation. Although Silk
fOund that over 18 percent of his sample were opinion leaders in two
or more areas, he concluded that "these data for dental products and
services gave no clear indication that the degree of overlap of opinion
leadership was greater than that expected if opinion leadership in one
area was entirely independent of that in another." In a sample of 177,
134 cases of self-designated leadership were found and these were oc-

cupied by 93 individuals. This means that about half the leadership

28

functions were performed by persons who led in at least two areas. The
data are given in Tables u and 5. The problem with Silk's study is that
his definitions of leadership areas could have been too narrow and there—
fore far removed from the reality of the influence situation.

Chicago Study of Family Planning

In this study of family planning those who received advice from
opinion leaders were asked to indicate other areas in which they sought
advice. The various areas are indicated in Tabel 6.

Padmore (in Bogue) (1967) found that family planning Opinion leaders
were only a little more likely to be consulted on non-family planning
matters than were non-leaders. Few of the differences between the
opinion leaders and non—leaders were statistically significant. In other
words, there were no significant findings showing the existence of
generalized Opinion leadership. Both the opinion leaders and the
"knowledgeable apprizers" were by definition opinion leaders, although for
the purposes of the study only a Specific group was designated as such.
All of them were involved in giving information that influenced behavior
in the same areas. The data indicate that in at least one third of the
cases the "Opinion leaders gave information in two areas other than family
planning." Although it is not possible to know how many people did this,
it is clear that some were opinion leaders in three areas. The case appears

much more pronounced among the "knowledgeable apprizers."

Conclusion and General Hypotheses
There is still no agreement as to the existence of generalized
opinion leadership; however all relevant studies have located and given

data on multiple-area opinion leaders. This points to the fact that

29

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30

TABLE A - Distribution of Self—designated
Opinion Leaders by Product

 

Product or Service

Number of Opinion

Percent of Total

 

Leaders Sample
1. Dentist 62 35.0
2. Electric Toothbrush 28 15.8
3. Mouthwash 18 10.0
H. Toothpaste In 7.9
5. Regular Toothbrush 12 6.8
Total 13H 65.5

 

Source: Silk, (196”, p.257).

31

TABLE 5 — Distribution in Total Sample of Self—designated Opinion
Leaders by Number of Areas of Influence: The Los Angeles

 

 

Study*
Number of Areas of Number of Opinion Percent of Total
Influence Leaders Sample
1. 0 (non-leaders) 8H M7.5
2. 1 61 3M.5
3. 2 25 14.0
H. 3 6 3.M 18.1
5. u o ____
6. 5 l 0.6
Total 177 100.0

 

* Source: Silk, (l96u, p.257)

32

TABLE 6 — Percent of Postcard Recipients who Asked Opinions
on Topics Other Than Family Planning*

 

Recipient Asked Advice About Postcard Donor Is

 

 

the Following in Addition to Knowledgible
Family Planning Opinion Leader Apprizer Other
1. Health Problems, Medical 19.2 27.8 20.0
Problems
2. Money Problems 15.M 22.2 20.0
3. Problems of feeding and 23.1 27.8 10.0
taking care of babies
u. Problems of getting 11.5 21.8 10.0
children to behave
6. Matters of voting and 7.7 11.1 10.0
Politics
7. Matters of religion, 7.7 11.1 10.0
morals
8. Matters of hair style, 26.9 27.8 10.0
what clothes to wear,
cosmetics
9. Marriage problems, how 19.2 27.8 10.0
to get along with husbands
or boy friend if there are
troubles
11. To have better sex relations 7.2 27.8 0.0
Total number in each role 26 18 10

 

*Source: Padmore, (1965, p.349).

33

multiple—area opinion leadership is a social fact, that it is a rare
phenomenon by nature and may follow the generally assumed normalacy of
distribution in the population. It may also mean that the degree of
occurrence in the population is highly limited since several decision-
making factors are involved in the leadership process. Among these are
the situation, time, individual interest, competence, the issue, purpose
of leadership, definition of roles and social perception. Besides, the
nature of the phenomenon may be such that one is both a monomorphic
leader as well as a polymorphic leader depending upon what persons are
being influenced or are concerned. This is why the concept of con-
sistency may be useful in explaining the phenomenon because it is com-
puted by including all possible roles in which the leader received
mentions as well as those in which he was not mentioned.

On the other hand all studies have tended to use a wrong pOpulation
base in their analyses and interpretations of polymorphism. Polymor-
phism is a higher level conceptualization than Opinion leadership (see
Figure 3). While Opinion leadership is a phenomenon of the general
population, polymorphism is a subject of Opinion leadership. In other
words, only people who have become leaders can be expected to be
multiple-area leaders. If we use the pOpulation of leaders in calcu-
lating the frequencies of the role combinations of leadership, the
results of the studies would be different. This is given in Table 7.
This study then is based on the assumption that there is multiple opin-

ion leadership. For instance we notice that there is a general tendency

3”

All Members of
\ Social System

Polymorphic 0
Opinion Leaders

 

Opinion Leaders

Figure 3 - Set Definition of Polymorphic Leaders as a
Subset of Opinion Leaders

.. Seas as. 5

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36

for leadership combinations to be about the same in the three studies
reviewed. A little over 60 percent in all cases are single-role leaders,
about 25 percent of the leaders are double-role leaders and a little

less than 10 percent (about 8 percent) are triple-area leaders. In all
three sets of data no four-role nor five-role leaders were located by
the sociometric method. The sociometric data of the Diffusion Study are
different from the self-designation data and Show mentions of up to six

roles combined by seven leaders.

General Hypotheses

The concept of polymorphism consistency is based on the idea that
consistency itself is an index of reliability. If a person has a ten-
dency to be homogeneous in his influence actions across a number of
social roles, the margin of leadership inefficiency in a total situation
is relatively lower than that of a highly Specialized leader who tries
to function in a general leadership situation. If a consistent leader
also has favorable attitudes toward innovations, however, he can be an
effective catalyst in his community for development. In the present
study two dependent variables are used to index polymorphism; these are
polymorphism consistency and number of leadership roles occupied by
each leader.

The attainment of leadership positions in a Nigerian village is

partly a function of life cycle in that a person must be old enough to

 

be regarded as a source of reliable information and direction. Age,

marital status and responsibility in terms of the number of children

37

are important life cycle factors. "Old enough” means that life cycle
factors are considered by the system in determining the level of matur-
ity approved for leadership. The following are the general hypothesis
which will be empirically tested later. The same hypotheses are gener-
ated in respect of number of leadership roles combined by leaders. This
is the second dependent variable.

General Hypothesis 1—1. There is a positive relationship between
polymorphism consistency of opinion lead-
ership and the life cycle of the leader.

General Hypothesis 1-2. There is a positive relationship between
the number of leadership roles in which
the Eastern Nigerian leaders receive
Sociometric mentions and their life cycle
scores.

This hypothesis means that the more consistently polymorphic peOple are
also the older peOple with large families. In other words the older,
more stable and experienced a person is, the more positions will be
available to him in the leadership system. Age and a large family are
strongly associated with esteem in the rural communities of Eastern
Nigeria. Many people with varying problems look to the local aged
for guidance in their day to day living.

Education is measured by the number of years of formal education
completed. It is expected that the relatively better-educated leaders
tend to be less localite than the other leaders. They therefore hold

fewer village positions and have a relatively lower tendency than

38

others to hold many village positions.

General Hypothesis 2-1. There is a negative relationship between
polymorphism consistency of opinion lead-
ership and the educational level of the
leader.

General Hypothesis 2-2. There is a negative relationship between
the number of roles in which leaders re-
ceive sociometric mentions and the educa-
tional level of the leaders.

This may mean that the more educated person (if he is a leader) will be
less polymorphic than the less educated leader. Such a leader is more
Specialized and therefore less inconsistent as a leader across all the
roles considered in this study but more consistent as a leader in a

few roles. Formal education also tends to alienate the more highly
educated who becomes less attached to the community. He is then per-
ceived as being competent in those areas of life in which he shows greater
specialization, because of this he is high sociometrically in such

areas and low in others. The less educated individual is mostly judged

as a leader.by the community members largely on the basis of perceived gen-
eral ability. He therefOre has about the same sociometric score across
roles; this gives a high polymorphism consistency score.

Socio-economic style of livipg_is the level of living acquired or

 

inherited in the community as indicated by the amount of wealth and the

level of living of the leader. The relatively higher status of leaders

39

makes them relatively less integrated with the rest of the community.
Such leaders may hold few formal positions but tend to be sought for
advice in several informal roles especially because of their wealth.
General Hypothesis 3-1. There is a positve relationship between
polymorphism consistency of Opinion lead-
ership and socio-economic style of living.
General Hypothesis 3-2. There is a positive relationship between
the number of roles in which a leader re-
ceived sociometric mentions and the socio-
economic style of living of the leaders.
Wealth is an important factor in the ascription of status in the Eastern
Nigerian community. Besides positions and fOllowership resulting from
ascription, wealth is the major factor in regard to influence. People
tend to be attracted to the successful in order to benefit from them.
In this way there is a general tendency for pe0ple with various prob-
lems to look up to those who have successfully overcome life problems,
the major one of which are problems of living: food, shelter and other
desirable things of modern life. Those who are poor are already failures
and so cannot be expected to give productive advice to others. In this
study they the relatively more modern who have been able to acquire the
modern style of living measured in this variable. 80 the high socio-
economic status removes him from the general leadership situations but
places him in a more modern Situation. Such a leader tends to

be more inconsistent than the more strongly local-oriented leader.

H0

Innovativeness is the degree to which an individual is relatively

 

earliest in ad0pting new ideas than other members of his social system
(ROgers, 1962, p. 19). In the present study the concept of time is lim-
ited by the relatively short period that the program of innovations ex-
isted in the community; so innovativeness is the actual participation in
one or more of the recent agricultural develOpment prOgrams either on

an individual basis, on a community basis, or both. Leaders tend to
conform to norms more than the ordinary members of the community. Because
of this they are rather slower in accepting innovations which would mean
deviation from local norms and a possible loss of influence. Leaders
who are integrated into the community and who hold many influence
functions tend to be less innovative.

A program of agricultural development usually consists of a series
of innovations which are defined as ideas or physical objects perceived
as new by the members of a social system. Innovations differ in terms
of certain characteristics among which are: their relative advantage;
compatibility with the social system, needs of the people and available
resources associated with them; complexity of application; communica-
bility and diversibility.* A program of innovations consists of differ-

ing projects administered separately under specific organizational

*For a full exPlanation of the characteristics of innovations,
see Rogers (1962, pp. 124-13”).

 

ul

approaches under the central administration by a government. An agricul-
tural deveIOpment program therefore consists of administrative systems
aiming at the diffusion and adOption of agricultural innovations. The
innovations in the program investigated in the present study consisted
of the following:
I. The Tree Crop PrOgrams
a) The Oil Palm Rehabilitation Program
b) The Cocoa Rehabilitation Program
0) The Rubber Rehabilitation Program
d) The Cashew Program
e) Community Plantation Program
f) Farm Settlement Program
2. The Food CrOp Programs
a) Cassava Program
b) Rice Program
c) NS-l Maize Program
d) Vegetable Growing
3. Other Programs
a) Aldrine Dust
b) Fertilizers Program
c) Poultry (improved)
d) Livestock (improved)
e) Stork Oil Press
General Hypothesis u-l. There is a negative relationship between

polymorphism consistency of Opinion

#2

leadership and agricultural innovativeness.
General Hypothesis 4-2. There is a negative relationship between
the number of roles in which leaders re-
ceive sociometric mentions and their ag-
ricultural innovativeness.
‘Agricultural innovativeness requires not only a change in behavior but
a change in attitude. Attitude change is possible among those who are
not too strongly committed to the local community system and norms. A
.general tendency to leadership involves strong adherence to the local
normative system. Innovators are less attached to the local system than
general leaders and being more modern-oriented, tend to be more special-
ized and therefore more inconsistent as polymorphic influentials.

Economic rationality is the degree to which a leader behaves in

 

order to maximize the benefits to himself of his resources such as
work, money and land. Since polymorphism is characteristic of the
more traditional leaders, Westernized rational behavior in economic
activities is characteristic of modernizing behavior, we expect a
negative relationship. In other words the two concepts do not vary.
This is not to say that rationality is an exclusive feature of
modernized peOple for, as Malinowski (19u8) pointed out, the most
primitive people are characterized by rationality, although it may not
be highly develoPed among them.
General Hypothesis 5-1. There is a negative relationship between
polymorphism consistency of Opinion

leadership and economic rationality.

 

1+3

General Hypothesis 5-2. There is a negative relationship between
the number of roles in which leaders are
mentioned and their economic rationality.

The Western form of modern economic rationality requires the efficient
use of resources (money, land and labor) for largely private productive
purposes. The developing rural economy in Eastern Nigeria is still
largely devoted to consumption. The purposeful development of resource
use is a new idea and leaders who accept this approach have become less
traditional, more personally concerned and more Specialized along with
other characteristics of modernity. Such leaders are less consistent
as polymorphic leaders than those who still follow the traditional
methods of labor and land use.

Agricultural knowledgeability is the extent to which an individual

 

. gives correct information about the various prOgrams of agricultural
deveIOpment. Perhaps the basic reason for selecting a person as an
opinion leader is the fact that he has information on the subject others
seek to know. In the case of agricultural knowledge every adult sup-
posedly knows enough about traditional agriculture. However, those who
have knowledge of the new agricultural programs are less likely to be
the traditional polymorphic leaders but rather be innovators. So
polymorphism tends to decrease as agricultural knowledge increases.
General Hypothesis 6-l. There is a negative relationship between
polymorphism consistency of opinion lead-
ership and knowledgeability about

agricultural innovations.

1m

General Hypothesis 6-2. There is a negative relationship between
the number of leadership roles in which
leaders are mentioned and their knowledgi-
bility about agricultural innovations.

Among the leaders there is a high level of common knowledge about the
local agricultural system. Knowledge of new agricultural technology

and practices is relatively low. Those who have this knowledge are

the less tratidional who actively want to go into the more modern and
more productive agriculture. They therefore exhibit a less stable rela-
tionship with the local social system so that their higher knowledge
level is associated with a lower level of polymorphism consistency.

9pinionatedness* is defined as the willingness of a person to ex-

 

press opinions on impersonal matters as well as the ability to give answers
to opinion questions. Ability to give Opinions is one of the observable
characteristics of effective leaders. The leader in the local community
is expected by his followers to have dependable Opinions on the subject
about which he is sought for information. It appears that if one fails
to satisfy this need one soon falls out of the group of leaders. How-
ever, just the ability to express an opinion in a definite direction
was measured in this study.

General Hypothesis 7-1. There is a positive relationship between

polymorphism consistency of opinion lead-

ership and opinionatedness.

*Both the ability to give one's opinions or answers to questions
about local needs and problems and the ability to give answers to state-
ments of opinion on impersonal matters are comparable measures of opinated-
ness. However, only items in the latter operation were used in indexing
opinionatedness.

 

145

General Hypothesis 7-2. There is a positive relationship between
the number of roles in which leaders are
mentioned and their opinionatedness.

Knowledge about the local social System is high among leaders who are
more deeply involved in local affairs than those who are not. They
tend to be more able to express Opinions about the local belief and
attitude system than those who are less generally attached to the local
system. Those who have been exPressing their opinions find it easier
to choose between alternative ideas and to talk about the needs and
problems of the community. Lerner (1958, p. 71) expresses the rela-
tionship of Opinionatedness with participation and modernization by
saying that Opinionatedness increases together with modernizing be-
havior in society.

Lerner (1958, p. 26) reports the following about the Chief of
Balgat. Naturally the Balgati whose advice was most sought was the
chief who reported: "Yes, that is my duty, to give advice. (Interviewer:
What about?) About all that I or you could imagine, even about their
wives and how to handle them, and how to cure the sick cow."

Cosmopoliteness is the degree of orientation to external social

 

systems that a person has. It is measured as the degree to which an
opinion leader makes contacts with and travels to places outside his
immediate community. In the Iowa hybrid corn study by Ryan and Gross
(19u3), this variable was first empirically studied in relation to the
adoption of an agricultural innovation. Similarly, opinion leaders

gain infOrmation and experience through contacts with outside social

'46

systems. The exposure one has to external systems has the effect of
orienting one's behavior beyond the familiar locale and therefore re-
duces linkage with the more conservative society.

Thus (Lerner, 1958, p. 26) "rather...surprising was the inter-
viewer's discovery that some Balgati went for advice also to the disrepu-
table (innovative) grocer. What did they ask his advice about? 'What
to do when they go to Ankara, where to go and what to buy, how much to
sell their things!" This passage points up the existence of polymorphic
leadership functions both for the localite and the cosm0polite. It also
shows how need satisfaction rather than reputation functions to a person
sought for advice.

General Hypothesis 8-1. There is a negative relationship between
polymorphism consistency of opinion
leadership and cosmopoliteness.

General Hypothesis 8-2. There is a negative relationship between
number of leadership roles in which
leaders receive mentions and cosmopolite-
ness.

Exposure to external social values reduces the leader's intimacy with
the local people. Those who seek advice are likely to be similar to

him. This reduces his chances of being consistently associated with

local patterns of life, thus becoming as relatively inconsistent as

a leader across all the roles considered in this study.

Mass media consumption* is the extent to which an Opinion leader

 

Mass media consumption is the preferred term in this present
thesis in order to make a distinction between the infOrmation saturated
societies and those deficient in information availability. In the fOrmer

 

1+7

Obtains his information from mass media channels of communication. In a
developing nation the common media are newsPapers, government agricul-
tural bulletins, and radio. The level of mass media has been found by
Lerner (1958, p. 55) and several other investigators as a major indicator
of modernity.

General Hypothesis 9-1. There is a negative relationship between
polymorphism consistency of Opinion
leadership and mass media consumption.

General Hypothesis 9-2. There is a negative relationship between
the number of leadership roles in which
leaders are mentioned and mass media con-
sumption.

Mass media consumption has been shown in several studies to be strongly
related to modernizing behavior. Polymorphism, on the other hand, is
characteristic of traditional behavior in general. The level of mass
media consumption increases with the acquisition of new forms of beha-
vior and a weakening local attachment. Consistent attachment to the
local system is therefore not associated with high mass media attach-
ment. The more limited interest of the highly eXposed leader results
in a high polymorphism inconsistency.

Group participation is the degree of active involvement in formal

 

the characteristic situation is that a person always has information

media available in relatively easy accessibility and behavior is
fundamentally selective. In the latter a great deal of relative effOrt
and resources are needed to gain contact with existing information sources,
it involves expenses that cut significantly into other consumption ex-
penses. Otherwise both terms have no difference.

 

'48

organizations in the community. This may take the form of ordinary
membership or the intensity of involvement shown by offices held in
various village formal organizations. The greater frequency of con-
tact with the members of the community is a means of either creating
influence Opportunities or of strengthening already existing influence
relations. Leaders have been found to conform highly to a group norm
and therefore less likely to change as fast as other community members.

General Hypothesis lO-l. There is a positive relationship between

polymorphism consistency of opinion lead-
ership and formal group participation.

Group Hypothesis 10-2. There is a positive relationship between

number Of leadership roles and formal
group participation.
Social participation is an indication of conformity and the more highly
a person conforms, the more generally he is accepted as a leader.
Merton (1957, p. #00) argues that localites have a greater heterogeneity
cdihterpersonal communication within the community than cosmopolites.
They therefore are relatively more consistently referred to for leader-
ship assistance than those to communicate less.

The general prediction of these hypotheses is based on the assumption
that polymorphism Of opinion leadership is characteristic of traditionalism.
Some of the variables are indicative of traditionalism and are eXpected to
correlate positively with high polymorphism while others are modernizing
and will have a negative relationship with polymorphism. For instance,
group participation is an indication of a strong attachment to the local

social-cultural system; it has a positive relationship with polymorphism

 

1+9

consistency. ExPression of Opinion about the village and beliefs may
not distinguish leaders since this would be common knowledge. This
study is interested in finding the kind of relation between polymorphism

consistency and opinionatedness.

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

SAMPLING PROCEDURE

The present study was carried out in Eastern Nigeria as part of the

three-nation study of the Diffusion of Innovations in Rural Societies,

sponsored by the United States Agency fer International Development.*

 

The Diffusion Project focused on three kinds of objectives, as

fellows:
1.

H.

To identify village innovators and Opinion leaders,

and determine their distinctive social and economic
characteristics, communication behavior, attitudes and
values to provide change agents with information useful
fer more efficient work.

To identify the role and influence of various communication
channels and thechniques such as mass media, opinion leaders,
interpersonal communication and demonstrations in the
innovation process.

To introduce various communication and economic incentives
(such as credit) through varisou communication channels
(radio forums) to determine the reSponse to these incentives.

To identify the influence of presently-existing price
incentives, credit, land tenure, marketing practices,

the shift from subsistence to commercial production, and other
economic factors on the adoption of'new ideas.

The second kind of objective concerned the development of improved
research methods for the study of the diffusion and adoption of
innovations in traditional societies.

Thirdly,

the study aimed at providing training to personnels from

the Host-County in social science research and analysis of research
data, as well as develop instructional structures fer diffusion-
adaption research and action programs. (Roger, 1965, pp. u-s)

50

51

Two major cultural areas were selected for the study in Eastern Nigeria,

the Ibo and Ibibio areas.

Table 8. Distribution Of Sample Areas by Sub-Linguistic Groups.

 

 

Number of Number of Number of
Provincial Group Divisions Countries Villages

l. Abakaliki 2 3 7
2. Onitsha 5 8 18
3. Owerri-Port Harcourt u 9 20
u. Umuahia 2 3 7
5. Annang 2 3 8
6- We .1: .2 a.

Totals 19 31 71

 

Six major cultural areas as given in Table 8 were selected
on the basis of pOpulation, participation in the agricultural production
of the area and accessibility by land tran3portation. The number of
villages studied in each province was proportionately assigned on the
basis of the 1963 Census, but the distribution of the villages within
the provinces was based on the 1953 Census because the 1963 Divisional
Census figures were not available at the time of sampling. The counties
were selected by a simple random sampling method. The actual communities
were selected on the basis of several factors.

1. The structure of the community

2. Information received from the divisional and county

agricultural officers concerning the participation of the

52

villagers in the agricultural develOpment program. Two
villages were selected from each sampled county on the basis

of information received from the divisional agricultural
office. One of the villages was considered a "success" village
since new agricultural programs were highly adopted, and the
other a "failure" village because no program had adopted at

the time of the selection.

3. Village was defined as the smallest combination of extended
families that had a name and was generally reOOgnized by the
village people as a community.

u. The most innovative part of the community too large to be
considered as a single unit was selected for study if that
community as a whole was considered agriculturally progressive.
The least progressive part of a non-innovative or laggard
community was correspondingly selected for study as
representative of the failure village.

5. The only units in the study randomly selected were the counties

from which two villages were selected for study.

Definition of Leadership Roles
In the selection of respondents fer the present study attention was
fecused on leaders and agricultural innovators. Eight categories of
leadership (Table 9) were identified on the basis of the most commonly-
equivalent institutions. The following are the roles considered in the
present study. Institutional roles were, as far as possible, categorized

as modern or traditional, and leaders were mentionedin each role on the

Table 9. Distribution of Leaders by Role*

53

 

Percent of

 

Leadership Role Name Number Leadership
of Leaders Mentions in Role
1. Traditional Leaders:
Administrative 192 20.8
2. Modern Leaders:
Administrative 220 23.9
3. Educational Leaders 163 17.7
4. Traditional leaders:
Religious 115 12.5
5. Modern leaders
Religious 164 17.8
6. Civic Leaders 291 31.6
7. Village Farming Leader 312 33.8
8. Village Affairs Leader 365 39.6

 

* The number of leaders and the percent of leadership
mentions by type of area of leadership do not sum to
the sample size and 100 percent respectively because
of the incidence of polymorphism.

 

5”

basis of this categorization. Although one person could not have been
reasonably mentioned in both modern and traditional roles under the same
function, anyone could have been mentioned in any or all of the eight roles.

1. Traditional Administrative Leaders are those village chiefs,
elders, lineage heads, and other persons in the village who are formally
known to function in the administrative role for the whole village or
parts of the population of the village.

2. Modern Administrative Leaders were persons appointed as village
representatives in the Local Government governing bodies, particularly
as local Council members, County Council members, Provincial Assemblymen
or Village tax Collectors assigned by the County Council. This role is
considered modern because the institution started during the past decade
just before National Independence and is an innovation in local government.

3. Education Leaders are all those who are directly involved in
the running of formal educational institutions within the village or in
cOOPeration with neighboring communities. These include heads of local
schools and native-born teachers, members of School committees and other
persons engaged in organizing formal education in the village.

u. Traditional religious leaders are persons who carry on the
indiginous religious practices, officiate in the village religious rites,
keep shrines, perform healing by the traditional method or by such
syncretic methods as spiritualism and local cults.

5. Modern Religious leaders are Officers, elders, preachers,
pastors, ministers, evangelists, missionaries of the organized churches.

Organized Churches include Western Christian Churches or other non-

55

Christian formal Churches.

6. Civic Leaders are the formal heads Of village modernizing
associations, clubs, youth leagues, Unions, cooperative societies or
other Special purpose organizations aiming at introducing change and
improvements into the village.

7. Village Affairs Leaders are influential persons in the village
who may not hold formal positions in organizations within the village.

8. Village Farming Leaders are those who are influential in
agriculture in the community. Even though they are not innovators these
are persons who show active interest in agricultural improvements or

are highly successful in their fanning activities.

SELECTION OF RESPONDENTS

Selection of reSpondents was done by trained interviewers using a
leader selection form. The final selection of reSpondentS was supervised
and approved by the supervisory staff. The method of selection was
sociometric, and anyone who had at least four mentions was selected,
provided there were not other persons within the particular leadership
role who had more choices and had not been selected in another role. Those
who had less than four mentions in any one role were included in the
appropriate roles where no other persons met the criterion of four mentions.
Leaders were selected for the following roles: administrative - modern
and traditional, religious - modern and traditional, education, civic,

agricultural or village farming, village affairs, and innovators.*

*Innovators are not included as a category in the analysis of the present
study unless they appear in one of the leadership roles.

56

INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

Before the construction of the interview schedule, preliminary
interviews were held with farmers, extension or county agents and
_agricultural extension officers. The Objective was to select suitable
items that could be used in testing and measuring the variables. This
step was followed by the construction of the questions, which were tested
with some farmers and county agricultural extension agents. The eXperience
thus obtained was used in making the schedule, which was pre-tested with
interviewers who had been trained in methods of iaterviewing, village
observation, and handling agricultural information questions that the
re3pondents might raise. The questions were mostly structured but a
few open-ended questions were asked about the village and the answers

were later coded. Selected questions are given in Appendix A.

INTERVIEWER SELECTION AND TRAINING

The interviewers were selected from a large group of applicants
who reSponded to a newSpaper advertisement. About 60 were selected for
interviews from about #00 applicants. The interviewing of respondents
was structured around simulated interviews and the ability to carry on
conversation with a stranger. No emphasis was given to formal edu—
cation during training as the interviewers were all relatively well-
educated, having attained at least the equivalent of complete High
School education. Besides they were selected mainly from trained School

teachers or persons eXperienced in newspaper reporting and salesmanship.

57

After selection the interviewers were given one week Of intensive
instruction on various aSpects of interviewing, such as meeting
respondents, establishing rapport, maintaining interview interest and
checking reSponses. Essential to the efficient handling of responses
was a wide knowledge of the agricultural development programs. This
knowledge was also an invaluable resource in meeting a major emphasis
of the study, meeting the village people without causing alarm and ex-
tensive suSPicion. The interviewers were given the necessary infOrmation
and guidance in these areas.

Following the instruction periods were simulation interview
sessions and exercises in translating the interview schedules from
English into the Ibo and Ibibio languages.

At the end of one week the interviewers were assigned in pairs
to pretest-villages where they were to Spend about two weeks in actual
interviewing. They were instructed to take note of all kinds of
problems they came across during interviews and in entering villages.
Pretest was followed by debriefing, restructing the schedules and

standardization of translations.

DATA-COLLECTION
The data were collected during a period of about eight weeks in 71
village communities in Eastern Nigeria, by trained interviewers. Nine
of these villages were discarded for not meeting certain requirements
of the study design. The interviewers Spent two weeks in each village

that was studied. During their stay in the village, the interviewers

58

were visited at least once a week by supervisors who systematically
selected the reSpondentS and checked through completed interview
schedules during subsequent supervisory visits. Whenever it was found
necessary, because of unanswered questions, suspected interviewing
mistakes, lack of qualification of village or reSpondent, the respondents
were revisited or replaced with other qualified leaders. Nine inter-
viewers and five supervisors (social scientists) were engaged in the

data-gathering.

MISSING DATA AND ERROR CHECKS

After the data had been collected and coded, in Eastern Nigeria,
they were sent to Michigan State University for checking. Two kinds of
mistakes were detected; there were missing data and errors. The missing
data problem was solved by checking back on the interview schedules.
Mistakes during interviewing had been checked during coding by re-
interviewing the reSpondents. By these two methods, mhsing data were
obtained in order to complete the data about each reSpondent.

The second kind of mistakes were errors which were of three kinds:
illegal codes, incompatible codes, and implausible codes. Illegal codes
are those codes which fall outside the stipulated range of acceptable
and applicable codes in any given field as specified in the code book.
These were checked by use of the counter—sorter as well as by use of a
computer programme at the Computer Center. Some hand checking using the

print-out of data was done where a small number of respondents were

59

involved. In example of an illegal code is a code of 9 in a field where
the reSponse code range is 0 to 8. Incompatible codes are those that
represent contradictory information to another item or other items of
information. Instances are a village head who has no formal position

or an innovator who has not heard about the innovation he has adopted.
Implausible codes are items which provide quantitative information that
is reasonably beyond normal eXpectation. For instance, a religious
traditional leader who has a university education but has never travelled
out of his country. Usually this form Of error arises during coding in
the form of misplaced codes. Implausible errors are detected by setting
limits on every entry on the basis of observation and present knowledge;
often the limits are arbitrarily based on reasonable expectation.
Implausible errors were detected by using the counter-sorter, hand

checking and computer prOgramming.

THE DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Opinion leadership polymorphis consistency is the degree to
which an opinion leader tends to occupy different role positions in

the leadership areas of his community at the same or comparable level

 

of influence across all roles. This measure does not involve the degree
of Opinion leadership, but it measures the extent to which a person is
perceived as having the same or equal level of influence across several
roles. Eight roles are considered in the present study. The score is

computed in the following manner.

60

lX-fl

Sum N for all roles and subtract the result from 99.

X = Weighted sociometric score for each role in the
study. This is computed by dividing the
sociometric mentions for each role by the total
number of mentions for that role in the village,
and multiplying by one hundred. This step is
performed for each role separately and for the
leaders individually.

>d
u

Arithmetic mean Of all weighted sociometric scores
for all the roles studied, whether the leader
had sociometric mentions or not.

lx-k'l

The absolute deviation score between the weighted
score per role and the average weighted score for
the leader.

Sum'X4N1 Add all deviation scores for all the roles studied.

Sum'X-R' Mean deviation score for leader. This measures
N the leadership inconsistency or tendency to serve
in different roles.

N = Number of roles studied.

99 = Conceptual score for the perfectly consistent
leader, obtained by subtracting one from 100, the
highest percentage score possible for the most
consistent leader.

[x581

— N

Polymorphism Consistency Score = 99

The second dependent variable is the number of roles in which a

 

leader received mentions as a leader. The highest possible score is
therefore eight and the lowest is one since all the subjects in the study
were leaders. This variable again does not take account of the amount
Of sociometric mentions for each role, it is a measure of degree in a

continuum of polymorphism. These two dependent variables are correlated

 

*The present measurement of polymorphism consistency was developed by
Everett M. Rogers (1965) for the Costa Rica UNESCO Diffusion Study.

61

-0.23, which is Significantly different from zero at the 1 percent level.
Hence, they appear to be indexes Of two quite different types of

polymorphism.

The Independent Variables
The independent variables in the present study are mostly computed
from a combination of scale items. In those cases where there was a doubt
as to the Specific items to be included in the measurement Of the variables
concerned, the items were factOr analyzed for selection. A factor loading
of 0.50 was the lowest criterion of selecting an item. The following
section outlines the operational definitions of the variables.

1. Life cycle is the degree to which an individual has passed

 

through the major turning points in a normal person's life.
These turning points are largely socially determined norms.
It is measured by age level and the number of children
owned. 0n the basis of studies in the Nigerian communities
it was found that the median age of the reSpondents is an
years. Age was categorized and scored as follows:
00 - an Years: 2
45 - 99 and over: 4
The number of children was scored as follows:
0 - u children: 1
5 - 15 children: 2
l6 - 19 children: 3
Thus a young man of 20 years of age who was not married and had

no child was scored 3 and a man of MS years or more with 16

62

or more children had a life cycle score of 7. Age was
considered a major factor in the life cycle score.
Education is the level of formal schooling attained;

it is measured by the number of years Of successful formal

education completed.

 

Scores Item
0.0 Never went to school
1.0 Primary school: incomplete
2.0 Primary school: complete
3.0 Secondary school: incomplete
u.o Secondary school: complete
5.0 University: incomplete
6.0 University: complete

Socio-Economic style of living is the degree to which the

 

individual has been able to supply himself with certain
necessary and luxury items for his normal living. It is
measured by the amount of wealth possessed, possessions and
the style of living as indicated by items of non-consumable
goods. These items were scored and factor analyzed.

Innovativeness is the degree to which a person is earlier

 

in adopting certain new ideas than other members of his
social system. Innovativeness is measured by the number of
agricultural innovations actually adopted by the leader. A
list of fifteen programs was provided to the reSpondent, and

one point score was given for every program joined up to F.

63

Nine or more programs had the highest score of 9.

Nine programs were chosen as the higher limit as these
constituted those most frequently mentioned by
reSpondents.

Economic rationality_is the degree of efficient use of economic

 

resources in the conscious attempt to maximize the benefits
of the available resources. Economic rationality is defined
in terms of Western economic pursuit of a high level of
efficiency in the use of money and other resources in the
production process. The measurement of economic rationality
was both imaginary and by actual behavior during the year

of the study. This dimension was measured and scored as
follows:

1. Purpose of usipg money:

 

 

Scores
0 No economic reason
1 General altruistic
2 For near relations and personal
3 Strictly personal

2. Motivation for work:

 

 

Scores
0 To have peace of mind
1 To be respected

2 To be rich

61+

The items for econanic rationality were factor-analyzed
before the index was computed. Results are given in
Appendix B.

ggricultural knowledgibility is the degree of knowledge that
an individual possesses about the new agricultural practices
promoted by government officials in his area. Agricultural
knowledgibility is measured by the amount of correct in-
formation that the reSpondent has about agricultural develop-
ment programs. This was based on the number of programs the
reSpondent could mention unaided, and this was scored 0-19.
The second part of this measure was the correct knowledge
possessed about ngagricultural innovations named with

the aid of the interviewer. Although the interviewer

named these programs, the respondent was scored as to
whether or not he could give correct infbrmation about

these programs as they were mentioned. This was scored
0-30, two points fer each program. Knowledgibility scores
range from 0 to '49.

Cosmopoliteness is defined as the degree to which an individual

 

is oriented externally to his social system (Rogers, 1962,
p. 17). In the present thesis cosm0politeness is measured
by the degree of external contacts that the respondent had
throughout his lifetime. Cosmopoliteness is indicated by
the places the reSpondent has lived in or traveled to
weighted by travel distance and urganization. Scoring was

as follows:

65

ages:
1 Village or twon within reSpondent's county
2 City within respondent's county
2 Village or town outside respondent's county
3 City outside respondent's county
3 Village or town outside Eastern Region
u City outside Eastern Region

Cosmopoliteness scores ranged from 0 to nu.

Opinionatedness is defined as the willingness that a person

 

has to express his Opinions in impersonal matters and is
operationalized as the ability of the reSpondent to give
an answer to opinionated statements. The questions con-
sisted mainly of two types: one type was made of two
questions to which the leader had to devise his answers
structuring them on the basis of his knowledge of village
problems and causes of disagreement. The other was a set
of opinion and half-truth statements to which the leader
had to indicate agreement or disagreement. After factor
analysis only the latter group of items were used, because
these items fermed the larger of the two factors and
contained items that better operationalized Opinionatedness.
Scoring was as follows:

mass;

0 No opinion given or "don't know"

1 Opinion expressed

l.

66

There were 26 items all of which were run for factor
analysis. The final score range was 0 to 7; the results
are given in Appendix B.

Mass media exposure or consumption is the degree to which an

 

individual seeks or gains information from the mass media
of communication. Mass media exposure is measured by the
extent to which the reSpondent uses newspapers, agricultural
newsletters, and the radio in gaining infermation,
eSpecially on the agricultural development scheme. This

was measured by proximity to infOnmation source owners or
ownership of source and frequency of use. These were scored

as follows:

 

Scores
0 Respondent does not live where a
person receives newspapers
0 Respondent lives where a person receives

newSpapers

Respondent reads newspaper or is read to with fOllowing

 

frequency:
Scores

0 Not applicable or reSpondent cannot read
and is not read to

1 Less than once a month

2 Once a month

3 Twice/thrice a month

u Once a week

5 Twice/thrice a week

6 Every day

67

Radio listening was similary scored.

2. Agricultural newsletter reading:

0 Not applicable, reSpondent cannot read

2 Respondent reads newsletter

2 Respondent lives where someone owns a radio
2 Respondent listens to agricultural extension

radio broadcast
Total mass media or consumption score was 20, scores
ranged from 0 to 20.

10. Group participation is the amount of social gregariousness

 

that a person has by participating in social organizations.
Group participation is measured by the extent that a
respondent holds membership and.positions in formal village

organizations and participates in decision-making.

68

General and Emprical Hypotheses

General Hypothesis (G.H.) 1-1. There is a positive relationship between

 

polymorphism consistency of Opinion leadership and the life cycle
Of leaders.

Empirical Hypothesis (E.H.) 1-1. There is a positive relationship between

 

GOH.

polymorphism consistency scores of Eastern Nigerian leaders and
their life cycle scores.

1—2. There is a positive relationship between the number Of leadership
roles for which leaders are mentioned and their life cycle.

E.H.

1-2. There is a positive relationship between the number of leadership
roles in which the Eastern Nigerian leaders received sociometric
mentions and their life cycle scores.

2-1. There is a negative relationship between polymorphism consistenes

G.H.

of Opinion leadership and the educational level of the leaders.

E.H.

G.H.

2-1. There is a negative relationship between Eastern Nigerian leaders'
polymorphism consistency scores and their educational level scores.

2-2. There is a negative relationship between the number of roles in
which leaders receive sociometric mentions and the educational level
of the leaders.

E.H.

G.H.

2-2. There is a negative relationship between the number of roles in
which Eastern Nigerian leaders receive sociometric mentions and their
educational level scores.

3-1. There is a positive relationship between polymorphism consistency
of opinion leadership and socio-economic style Of living.

E.H.

G.H.

3—1. There is a positive relationship between polymorphism of Opinion
leadership consistency score of Eastern Nigerian leaders and their
socio-economic style of living scores.

3-2. There is a positive relationship between the number of roles in
which a leader received sociometric mentions and the socio-economic
style of living of the leaders.

E.H.

G.H.

3-2. There is a positive relationship between the number of roles in
which the Eastern Nigerian leader received sociometric mentions
and the socio-economic style of living score Of the leaders.

u-l. There is a negative relationship between polymorphism consistency of
Opinion leadership and agricultural innovativeness.

69

u-l. There is a negative relationship between polymorphism consistency

E.H.

G.H.

G.H.

scores Of Eastern Nigerian leaders and their agricultural innovative-
ness scores.

u-2. There is a negative relationship between the number of roles in
which leaders receive sociometric mentions and their agricultural
innovativeness.

u-2. There is a negative relationship between the number of roles in
which leaders in Eastern Nigeria receive sociometric mentions and
their agricultural innovativeness scores.

5-1. There is a negative relationship between polymorphism consistency
of Opinion leadership and economic rationality.

5-1. There is a negative relationship between the polymorphism consis-
tency scores of Eastern Nigerian leaders and their economic rationality
scores.

5-2. There is a negative relationship between the number of roles in
which Eastern Nigerian leaders receive sociometric mentions and their

economic rationality scores.

5-2. There is a negative relationship between the number of roles in

E.H.

which Eastern Nigerian leaders receive sociometric mentions and their
economic rationality scores.

GOH.

6-1. There is a negative relationship between polymorphism consistency
of Opinion leadership and knowledgeability about agricultural innova-
tions.

E.H.

6-1. There is a negative relationship between the polymorphism consistency
scores of Eastern Nigerian leaders and their scores on knowledgeability
about agricultural innovations.

G.H.

E.H.

6-2. There is a negative relationship between the number of leadership
roles in which leaders are mentioned and their knowledgeability about
agricultural innovations.

6-2. There is a negative relationship between the number Of roles in
which Eastern Nigerian leaders receive sociometric mentions and their
scores on knowledgeability about agricultural innovations.

GOH.

7-1. There is a positive relationship between polymorphism consistency
of opinion leadership and Opinionatedness.

70

7-1. There is a positive relationship between the polymorphism consis-
tency scores of Eastern Nigerian leaders and their Opinionatedness
scores.

G.H.

7-2. There is a positive relationship between the number of roles in
which leaders are mentioned and their Opinionatedness.

E.H.

GOH.

7-2. There is a positive relationship between the number Of roles in
which leaders receive sociometric mentions and their Opinionatedness
Scores.

8-1. There is a negative relationship between polymorphism consistency
of opinion leadership and cosmopoliteness.

E.H.

8-1. There is a negative relationship between the polymorphism consistency
scores of Eastern Nigerian leaders and their cosmopoliteness scores,

8-2. There is a negative relationship between number of leadership roles

G.H.

in which leaders receive mentions and cosmopoliteness.

E.H.

8-2. There is a negative relationship between number of leadership roles
in which Eastern Nigerian leaders receive sociometric mentions and
their cosm0politeness scores.

9-1. There is a negative relationship between polymorphism consistency

G.H.

of Opinion leadership and mass media consumption.

E.H.

9-1. There is a negative relationship between polymorphism consistency
scores of Eastern Nigerian leaders and their mass media consumption
scores.

9-2. There is a negative relationship between the number of leadership

GOH.

roles in which leaders are mentioned and mass media consumption.

E.H.

GOH.

E.H.

9—2. There is a negative relationship between the number Of leadership
roles in which Eastern Nigerian leaders are mentioned and their mass
media consumption scores.

lO-l. There is a positive relationship between polymorphism consistency
of Opinion leadership and formal group participation.

lO-l. There is a positive relationship between polymorphism consistency
scores Of Eastern Nigerian leaders and their formal group participation
scores.

71

G.H. 10-2. There is a positive relationship between number of leadership
roles and fbrmal group participation.

 

E.H. 10-2. There is a positive relationship between the number of roles in
which Eastern Nigerian leaders received sociometric mentions and
their formal group participation scores.

Method of Analysis

 

Zero-order correlational analysis was used in testing the
hypotheses. The hypothesis tested is that the zero-order correlation
between polymorphism consistency and each of the independent variables
is zero. The statistical hypotheses fer the second dependent variable
is that the zero-order correlation between the number of leadership roles
and each of the independent variables is zero. The alternative hypothesis
in each case is that the zero-order correlation is not zero.

The test statistic used was the F test. The data were coded as
described in the present chapter, and the indexes and analyses were
carried out on the 3600 Computer in the Computer Center at Michigan State
University. The levels of statistical significance are l per cent and 5
per cent, and the size of the sample is 83A. Table 10 in Chapter IV is

provided to Show the linearity of the relationship among variables.

CHAPTER IV

FINDINGS

In Chapter III, the general hypotheses for each dependent
variable and the empirical hypotheses have been stated and the measures
to Operationalize the concepts were described. The measures are intern ,
correlated and the hypotheses are tested fer statistical significance

by the method of zero-order correlation with the F test. The purpose

 

of this chapter is to report the results-of the relevant statistical
tests of the data concerning each empirical hypothesis. Because of the
need for clarity, the hypotheses fer each dependent variable, as well as

the levels of the hypotheses, are stated again in the following pages.

Statements and Tests of Hypotheses

General Hypothesis 1-1. There is a positive relationship
between polymorphism of opinion
leadership and the life cycle of
leaders.

Empirical Hypothesis l-l. There is a positive relationship
between polymorphism consistency
scores of Eastern Nigerian leaders
and their life cycle scores.

The hypotheses stated in the null form is: There is no relation-

ship between the Eastern Nigerian leader's polymorphism consistency

scores and.the life cycle score. The computed zero-order product

72

73

moment correlation coefficient is -0.08, which is significantly different
fran zero at the l per cent level. The alternative empirical hypothesis
is not confirmed as stated. The finding shows a significant negative
relationship between the polymorphism consistency scores of leaders

and their life cycle scores.

Thus General Hypothesis l-l is not confirmed.

General Hypothesis 1-2. There is a positive relationship
between the number of leadership
roles for which leaders are mentioned
and life cycle.

Empirical Hypothesis 1-2. There is a positive relationship
between the number of leadership
roles for which the Eastern Nigerian
leader receives sociometric mentions
and the life cycle scores of the
leaders.

The hypothesis stated in the null form is: There is no relation-
ship between the number of leadership roles for which the Eastern
Nigerian leader receives sociometric mentions and the life cycle scores
of the leaders . The computed zero-order product-moment correlation
coefficient in this situation is -O.18, which is significantly different
from zero at the l per cent level. The empirical hypothesis is
confirmed. Life cycle therefore explains nearly u per cent of the
variability in the number of leadership roles.

Thus General Hypothesis 1-2 is confimed.

74

 

 

 

 

Table 10. Selected Attributes Differentiating Leaders by Number
of Roles: Mean Scores by Variables*
Total
Variables Mean _2_ 3 4 5 6
N=305 N=2u1 N=159 N=95 N= 7 N=7

1. Age 47.2 nu.5 us.5 “9.0 n9.1 “8.3 52.1
2. Life Cycle 4.7 u.u u.7 5.0 5.0 5.0 u.9
3. Education 1.0 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.1
u. Socio-Economic

Style of

Living 6.1 6.0 6.2 6.0 6.“ 6.0 6.3
5. Innovative-

ness 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.6 1.9
6. Economic

Rationality «.5 14.». u.5 4.6 4.8 mu 5.7
7. Knowledge About

Agricultural

Innovations 20.0 19.6 20.1 19.3 21.0 23.8 22.7
8. Cosmopolite-

ness 2.9 3.0 2.8 2.9 3.0 2.1 2.1
9. Mass Media

Consumption 12.7 12.6 12.6 12.9 12.9 12.1 11.7
10. Group

Participation 1.7 1.2 1.8 2.1 2.2 2.0 2.7
11. Opinionated—

ness 7.0 7.0 6.9 6.9 7.0 7.0 7.0
12. Polymorphism

Consistency 88.” 89.5 88.9 87.0 86.“ 86.7 88.3

 

*Table 10 provides mean scores by variable according to degree of
polymorphism as measured by number of roles.

the variables are linearly related.

It is given to show that
The sizes of categories five and

six are too small and if combined the tailing of the distribution

disappears.

7ua

Table 11. Summary of Findings

 

 

Dependent Findings
Predicted Re- Variable Role

Independent Variables lationship with Dep. Var. Poly. Comma Polymorphism
2. Education - -0.09* -0.08*
3. Socio-Economic Style

of Living (Status) + -0.07* 0.03
n. Innovativeness - 0.06 0.08*
5. Economic Rationality - 0.01 0.07*
6. Knowledge About

Agricultural Innovations - 0.0u 0.07*
7. Opionatedness + o.ou 0.03
8. Cosmopoliteness - -0.07* -0.05
9. Mass Media Consumptions - 0.0” 0.01
10. Group Participation + -0.05 0.28**

 

*Significantly different from zero at 5 percent level.
**Significantly different from zero at 1 percent level.

75

General Hypothesis 2-1. There is a negative relationship
between polymorphism of opinion
leadership and the educational level
of the leaders.

Empirical Hypothesis 2-1. There is a negative relationship
between Eastern Nigerian leaders'
polymorphism consistency scores and
their educational level scores.

The null hypothesis is: There is no relationship between
Eastern Nigerian leaders' polymorphism consistency scores and their
educational level scores. The zero-order correlation coefficient
obtained for the present hypothesis is -0.09, which is significantly
different from zero at the 5 per cent level. The alternative empirical
hypothesis is confirmed. Thus education explains about 1 per cent of
variance in polymorphism consistency.

Thus, General Hypothesis 2-1 is confirmed.

General Hypothesis 2-2. There is a negative relationship
between the number of roles in which
leaders receive sociometric mentions
and the educational level of the
leaders.

Empirical Hypothesis 2-2. There is negative relationship be-
tween the number of roles in which
Eastern Nigerian leaders receive
sociometric mentions and their

educational level scores.

76

The null hypothesis is that there is no relationship between
Eastern Nigerian leaders' polymorphism consistency scores and their
educational level scores. The zero-order correlation coefficient for
the hypothesis is -0.08, which is significantly different from zero at
the 5 per cent level. The alternative empirical hypothesis is confirmed.
Education explabns about 1 per cent of the degree of polymorphism as
measured by number of roles.

Thus, General Hypothesis 2-2 is confirmed.

General Hypothesis 3-1. There is a positive relationship
between polymorphism of Opinion
leadership and socio-economic style
of living.

Empirical Hypothesis 3-1. There is a positive relationship
between polymorphism of opinion
leadership consistency score of
Eastern Nigerian leaders and their
socio-economic style of living scores.

To test the null hypothesis of no relationship between
polymorphism consistency and socio-economic style of living, the I
product-moment correlation coefficient was computed and found to be
0.07, which is significantly greater than zero at the 5 per cent level.
The alternative empirical hypothesis was not confirmed.

Thus, General Hypothesis 3-1 was not confirmed. However, the
variance in polymorphism consistency explained by socio-economic style

of living is less than 1 per cent.

77

General Hypothesis 3-2. There is a positive relationship
between the number of roles in which
a leader received sociometric men-
tions and the socio-economic style
of living of the leaders.

Empirical Hypothesis 3-2. There is a positive relationship
between the number of roles in which
the Eastern Nigerian leader received

Sociometric mentions and the socio-

 

economic style of living score of
the leaders.

The null hypothesis tested is that no relationship exists betwoen
Eastern Nigerian leader's polymorphism consistency scores and their
educational level scores. The zero-order correlation coefficient computed
for testing the present hypothesis was 0.05, which is not significantly
different from zero. Both alternative empirical hypothesis and
General Hypothesis 392 are not confirmed.

General Hypothesis u-l. There is a negative relationship
between polymorphism of opinion
leadership and agricultural in-
novativeness .

Empirical Hypothesis n-l. There is a negative relationship
between the polymorphism consistency
scores of Eastern Nigeria leaders
and their agricultural innovativeness

scores 0

78

The null hypothesis is that there is no relationship between
Eastern Nigerian leaders' polymorphism consistency scores and their
educational level scores. The zero-order correlation coefficient
obtained for the present hypothesis is 0.06, which is not significantly
different from zero. The alternative empirical hypothesis and
General Hypothesis u-l are not confirmed, however, since the relationship
found was positive rather than negative.

General Hypothesis u—2. There is a negative relationship
between the number of roles in which
leaders receive sociometric mentions
and their agricultural.innovativeness.

Empirical Hypothesis u-2. There is a negative relationship
between the number of roles in which
leaders in Eastern Nigeria receive
sociometric mentions and.their
‘agricultural innovativeness scores.

The null hypothesis tested is that no relationship exists between
the number of roles in which leaders receive sociometric mentions and
'their agricultural innovativeness. The zero-order correlation coefficient
computed to test the present empirical hypothesis was 0.08, which was
significantly different from zero at the l per cent level. However,
the empirical and the General Hypotheses are not confirmed as stated
since the relationship found is positive rather than negative as predicted.
.Agricultural innovativeness explains only about 1 per cent of the

‘variances in degree of polymorphism as measured.by number of'roles.

79

General Hypothesis 5-1. There is a negative relationship
between polymorphism of opinion
leadership and economic rationality.

Empirical Hypothesis 5-1. There is a negative relationship
between the polymorphism consistency
scores of Eastern Nigerian leaders
and their economic rationality scores.

The null hypothesis is that there is no relationship between

the polymorphism consistency scores of Eastern Nigerian leaders and
their economic rationality scores. The zero-order correlation
coefficient computed is 0.0 , which is not significantly different from
zero. Besides the relationship found is in effect zero, rather than
negative as predicted. The empirical hypothesis is not confirmed.
Thus, General Hypothesis 5-1 is not confirmed.

General Hypothesis 5-2. There is a negative relationship
between the number of roles in which
leaders are mentioned and their
economic rationality.

Empirical Hypothesis 5-2. There is a negative relationship
between the number of roles in which
Eastern Nigerian leaders receive
sociometric mentions and their
economic rationality scores.

The null hypothesis is that there is no relationship between the

number of roles in which Eastern Nigerian leaders receive sociometric
mentions and.their economic rationality scores. The zero-order

cnorrelation computed is 0.07, which is significant at the 5 per cent

80

level. The alternative empirical hypothesis is however, not confirmed

and the General Hypothesis 5-2 is also not confirmed because the

predicted relationship was negative rather than positive. Economic

rationality therefore explains less than 1 per cent of degree of

polymorphism as measured by number of roles.

General Hypothesis 6-1. There is a negative relationship

between polymorphism of Opinion
leadership and knowledgeability

about agricultural innovations.

Empirical Hypothesis 6-1. There is a negative relationship
between the polymorphism scores of
Eastern Nigerian leaders and their
scores on knowledgeability about
lagricultural innovations.

The null hypothesis that there is no relationship between the
polymorphism scores of Eastern Nigerian leaders and their scores on
knowledgeability about agricultural innovations was tested. The zero-
order correlation coefficient computed was 0.0u, which is not significantly
different from zero. Both the alternative empirical hypothesis and
General Hypothesis 6-1 are not confirmed.

General Hypothesis 6-2. There is a negative relationship
between the number of leadership
roles in which leaders are mentioned
and their knowledgeability about

agricultural innovations.

81

Empirical Hypothesis 6—2. There is a negative relationship
between the number of roles in which
Eastern Nigerian leaders receive
sociometric mentions and their scores
on knowledgeability about agricultural
innovations.

The null hypothesis tested is that no relationship exists between
the number of roles in which Eastern Nigerian leaders receive sociometric
mentions and their scores on knowledgeability about agricultural
innovations. The zero-order correlation between number of roles and
.agricultural knowledgeability is 0.07, which is significant at the
5 per cent level. The alternative empirical hypotheses as well as
General Hypothesis 6-2 are not, however, confirmed as stated since the
relationship found is positive rather than negative. Agricultural
knowledgeability explains less than 1 per cent of variances in degree
of polymorphism as measured by number of roles.

General Hypothesis 7-1. There is a positive relationship
between polymorphism of opinion
leadership and opinionatedness.

Empirical Hypothesis 7-1. There is a positive relationship
between the polymorphism consistency
scores of Eastern Nigerian leaders
and their Opinionatedness scores.

The null hypothesis is: There is no relationship between the

polymorphism consistency scores of Eastern Nigerian leaders and their

82

opinionatedness scores. The zero-order correlation coefficient
between polymorphism consistency and Opinionatedness is 0.0n, which

is not statistically significant. The alternative empirical hypothesis
is not confirmed and so General Hypothesis 7-1 is not confirmed.

General Hypothesis 7-2. There is a positive relationship
between the number of roles in which
leaders are mentioned and their
opinionatedness.

Empirical Hypothesis 7-2. There is a positive relationship
between the number of roles in which
leaders receive sociometric mentions
and their Opinionatedness scores.

The null hypothesis is that no relationship exists between the
number of roles in which leaders receive sociometric mentions and their
Opinionatedness scores. The zero-order correlation between number of
roles and opinionatedness is 0.03, which is not significantly different
from zero. The alternative empirical hypothesis is not confirmed. Thus
General Hypothesis 7-2 is not confirmed.

General Hypothesis 8-1. There is a negative relationship
between polymorphism of opinion
leadership and cosmopoliteness.

Empirical Hypothesis 8-1. There is a negative relationship
between the polymorphism consistency
scores of Eastern Nigerian leaders .

and their cosmopoliteness scores.

 

83

The null hypothesis is that no relationship exists between
polymorphism consistency scores of Eastern Nigerian leaders and their
cosmopoliteness scores. The zero-order correlation coefficient computed
is -0.02, which is not significantly different from zero. The al-
ternative empirical hypothesis is confirmed so General Hypothesis 8-1
is confirmed.

General Hypothesis 8-2. There is a negative relationship
between number of leadership roles
in which leaders receive mentions
and cosmopoliteness.

Empirical Hypothesis 8-2. There is a negative relationship
between number of leadership roles
in which leaders receive mentions
and their cosmopoliteness scores.

In the null form the present hypothesis mayle stated that there
is no relationship between number of leadership roles in which leaders
receive mentions and their cosmopoliteness scores. The zero-order
correlation coefficient computed is -0.05, which is not significantly
different from zero. The empirical hypothesis as well as General
Hypothesis 8-2 are not confirmed.

General Hypothesis 9-1. There is a negative relationship

between polymorphism of epinion

leadership and mass media consumption.

84

Empirical Hypothesis 9-1. There is a negative relationship
between polymorphism consistency
scores of Eastern Nigerian leaders
and their mass media consumption scores.
The null hypothesis is that there is no relationship between
polymorphism consistency scores of Eastern Nigerian leaders and their
mass media consumption scores. The zero-order correlation coefficient
computed is o.ou, which is not signficantly different from zero. Thus, "

both the empirical hypothesis and General Hypothesis 9-1 are not

 

confirmed.

General Hypothesis 9-2. There is a negative relationship
between the number of leadership
roles in which leaders are mentioned
and mass media consumption.

Empirical Hypothesis 9—2. There is a negative relationship
between the number of leadership
roles in which Eastern Nigerian
leaders are mentioned and their mass
media consumption scores.

The null hypothesis is that no relationship exists between the
number of leadership roles in which Eastern Nigerian leaders are
mentioned and their mass media consumption scores. The zero-order
correlation coefficient is 0.01, which is not significantly different
from zero. Both the empirical hypothesis and general hypothesis 9—2

were not confirmed.

 

General Hypothesis lO-l.

Empirical Hypothesis 10-1.

The null hypothesis is that
polymorphism of Opinion leadership
zero-order correlation coefficient
significantly different from zero.
as General Hypothesis lO-l are not

General Hypothesis 10-2.

Empirical Hypothesis 10-2.

The null hypothesis is that

85

There is a positive relationship
between polymorphism of opinion
leadership and formal group
participation.

There is a positive relationship
between polymorphism consistency
scores of Eastern Nigerian leaders
and their formal group participation
scores.
no-relationship exists between

and formal group participation. The
computed is -0.05, which is not

The empirical hypothesis as well
supported.

There is a positive relationship
between number of leadership roles
and formal group participation.
There is a positive relationship
between the number of roles in which
Eastern Nigerian leaders received
sociometric mentions and their formal
group participation scores.

no relationship exists between the

number of roles in which Eastern Nigerian leaders are mentioned and

their formal group participation scores. The zero-order correlation

86

coefficient computed is 0.28, which is significantly different from zero.
The empirical hypothesis was confirmed. Thus General Hypothesis 10-2
is confirmed. About 9 per cent of the variance in degree of polymorphism
as measured by number of roles is attributable to social participation

in formal groups .

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS

Summary

The present thesis examined the relationship between polymorphism
of opinion leadership and.modernizing behavior. The sample of 83k
leaders in the present study was drawn from the most densely populated
.agricultural areas of Ibo and Ibibio in Eastern Nigeria. The main
objective of the present study was to examine the extent to which
polymorphism is related to modernizing behavior in a developing society.
Another objective was to explore the extent to which polymorphism is a
useful tool in studying the diffusion and adoption of new agricultural
practices. Polymorphism is defined by Merton (1957, p. nin) as the
degree to which a single leader is sought for information about a
variety of issues which are sometimes unrelated. It is otherwise
defined as the degree to which an individual combines leadership
activities for different issues or types of roles.

The basic assumption of the present analysis was that polymorphism
or generalized opinion leadership (as evidenced by previous studies re-
viewed) is a social fact; that is, that polymorphism does exist as a
social characteristic of leaders. This assumption was borne out by the
fact that of the 83“ leaders in the study, 529 (62.2 per cent) were
mentioned in more than one leadership role. The underlying notion of
the sampling and analysis is that there is nothing static about

generalized leadership, that it is a dynamic process whose main element,

87

88

like that of diffusion, is time. If generalized opinion leadership exists
at all it is constantly subject to the perceptual and evaluative flux of
society. However, there is a definite trend in polymorphic behavior
transformations from more specialized to more generalized forms; thus
the present study sought to uncover any such existing trend in relation
to specific behavior types as measured by the independent variables.

0f the eight roles considered in the present study, the highest
number of roles perceived fer any of the respondents was size; seven
persons or 0.82 per cent of the leaders were so mentioned. The
respondents were drawn from 71 villages, about half of which had
successful agricultural innovation projects, and the other half were less
successful villages. A factor analysis of roles shows that all of the roles
are significantly related with six forming two viable factors of three
roles each; the third factor consists-of only twO‘roles. This finding
appears to support Merton's need for underlying relationship among roles.*
The sampling design was adopted because one of the aims of the larger
Diffusion Project was to find what kinds of programs were most
successful in various Specified kinds of villages.

The data were coded in Nigeria, and punched on IBM cards at the
Computer Center at Michigan State University, where error checks were
also performed.

Polymorphism was measured in two ways. Polymorphism consistency

was measured by variations in sociometric mentions of leaders across

 

*Role factors are not cleanly split into modern and traditional but are
formed of mixed elements as follows: administrative traditbnal,
educational, and religious modern for the first factor; administrative
modern, religious traditional and village affairs, and thirdly, civic

and village affairs roles.

 

89

eight roles using weighted (percentile) scores. The second.method
used the number of spheres of leadership activities in which a leader
received sociometric mentions. There is a significant relationship of
-0.23 (significant at the 1 percent level) between polymorphism con-
sistency and number>of roles in which leaders were mentioned. This
finding shows that the two concepts of polymorphism considered in the
present study are largely tapping different dimensions, the one ex-
plaining only about 5 per cent of the other.

'Some of the independent variables have relatively high correlations
with self-perceived opinion leadership in both agricultural and village
political communication. For instance, knowledge about agricultural
innovations explains nearly 86 per cent of the variance in selfeperceived
Opinion leadership, and socio—economic style of living explains over
25 per cent. However, these independent variables (and all the others)
have low correlations with polymorphism; group participation explains
about 9 per cent of role polymorphism.

Four of the independent variables analyzed in the present survey
of Eastern Nigerian village leaders are significantly related to
polymorphism consistency. These are life cycle, education, socio-
economic style of living and cosmopoliteness. These are four of the
five variables, including social group participation, that had negative
relationship with polymorphism consistency. The other five are
positively and not significantly related to polymorphism consistency.
The four significant relationships have relatively high significant
relationships among themselves while the non-significant variables

have comparatively low significant and non—significant inter-relationships.

90

Two of the four significantly related to polymorphism consistency are
contrary to hypothesized relationships. These are life cycle and socio-
economic style of living. It is found that both of these variables are
negatively rather than positively related to polymorphism. This is
contrary to expectations and indicates that the younger leaders are
perceived as more consistent. The hypothesis that there is a negative
relationship between polymorphism consistency of opinion leadership and
the educational level of the leaders was confirmed. This is a negative
relationship indicating that leaders who score high on consistency tend
to have less education. From this finding the observation that highly
polymorphic leaders in general have less formal education than their
peers tends to be substantiated.

Six of the ten independent variables are significantly related
to the number of roles, a second measure of polymorphism. These are
formal group participation. life cycle, innovativeness, education,
economic rationality and knowledge about agricultural innovations. Only
education has a negative relationship with number of leadership roles.
The hypothesis that there is a positive relationship between the number
of leadership roles for which leaders are mentioned and life cycle was
confirmed. This means that older people tend to occupy more leadership
roles; that is, the older peOple tend to score high on role polymorphism.
It was also found that there is a positive relationship between number

of leadership roles and formal group participation.

 

91

Discussion

It is important to note that these relationship tend to show an
indication that polymorphism consistency is most strongly related to
demographic variables: life cycle, education, socio-economic style of
living, and cosmopoliteness. 0n the other hand, number of leadership
roles (or a measure of consistency) is more strongly related to life
cycle, education, innovativeness, economic rationality, knowledge about
agricultural innovations and group participation.

0f the ten variables, eight have significant relationships with
polymorphism measured in terms of'hgth_consistency scores and number of
roles score. One of these, education, is in the predicted direction for
both notions of the dependent variable; education shows a negative
relationship with both polymorphism consistency and number of leadership
roles.

A basic assumption about polymorphism is that it is characteristic
of traditionalism, both in the structure of society and in individual
social behavior. Three variables, innovativeness, economic rationality
and knowledge about agricultural innovations , are considered highly
characteristic of modern societies. Thus, a negative relationship was
predicted between polymorphism and these modernizing variables. If the
assumption is accepted that polymorphism is traditionalistic, then it
may be generalized from the present study that polymorphic leadership
in Eastern Nigeria is relatively less traditionalistic than in societies
that have not adopted innovations in agriculture. However, the fact
that these variables are not significantly related to polymorphism

consistency (but are to the number of leadership roles) points to a

reservation.

92

The demographic variables of life cycle, education and socio-
economic style of living show somewhat lesser departure from our ex-
pectations in terms of correlates with the number of roles measure
of polymorphism. The negative relationship between polymorphism
consistency and life cycle indicates that persons who are younger tend
to be perceived as holding fewer formal leadership positions for various
issues. Life cycle increases with the number of leadership roles. The
combined generalization about life cycle is that younger people tend to
be more consistent in polymorphism, and leaders in fewer roles than
older people who tend to occupy more leadership roles and are perceived
as relatively inconsistent. This agrees with the general notion that
younger’peOple are perceived as more monomorphic while older people
are seen as more polymorphic.

Education is negatively related to polymorphism consistency and
to number of leadership roles. This means that most of the plural leader-
ship roles are occupied by persons of relatively low education who
are perceived as more consistent in their leadership activities.

Socio-economic style of living shows a significant positive re-
lationship with polymorphism consistency. This may result from the fact
that prestige, esteem and.influence are commonly associated with style
of living and, being relatively wealthy, the leaders are approached
for assistance in solving many different kinds of preblems. A higher
level of living may indicate success in solving problems and therefore
also serves as an index of perceived general competence. However, high

status persons tend to be more concentrated on their areas of activity,

93

by choosing relatively few interests in other words they tend to be con-
sistent.at the lower degree of polymorphism by number of roles. Thus,
number of roles is not significantly related with style of living.
Specialized leaders thereby become strongly associated with their own
interest activities rather than others. In this way they are selected

as sources of advice in those areas in which they are perceived to be
most interested. The positive relationship indicates that socio-economic
style of living is one of the factors that may be used in selecting
persons for polymorphic leadership roles. High status persons also
maintain their social salience by giving information; thus, socio-
economic style of living is found in the present study to be positively
associated with such variables as agricultural knowledge, cosmopoliteness,
social participation, and opinionatedness. These factors are particularly
important in maintaining status and the tendency for'persons to be looked
upon as competent, expert and strategically located in the village social
hierarchy. In any case, the number of leadership roles does not increase
with socio-economic style of living. Thus, the nature of the perception
of the leader by the community, that is, polymorphism consistency, rather
than positions or activities that he engages in becomes the main relevant
factor that could be predicted from socio-economic style of living.

The other two variables significantly related with number of
leadership roles are economic rationality and knowledge about agricultural
innovations. Formal group participation is positively related with
the number of roles, as predicted, but is not significantly related with

polymorphism consistency. This means that group affiliation is not

91+

important in determining how the leader is perceived. This may result
from the fact that participation does not always come befbre leadership
behavior especially in areas of informal leadership which tends to be
strongly associated with issues rather than with social participation.
At the same time, seeking one's Opinion on certain matters at the level
of interaction is influenced more by attractiveness and affect than by
how the person sought actually participates in social activities
especially as participation in this study is very heavily weighted by
office holding or formal activities.

On the basis of these findings the adequacy of the general
assumption of a relationship of polymorphism to traditionalism needs
modification. Polymorphism has been fOund to be associated with
modernizing behavior in a transitional society in three hypotheses dealing
with the number of roles. A greater incidence of polymorphism is ex-
pected in the less developed societies than in the advanced countries
because of the greater deficiency in the availability of specialized
knowledge. In both societies there are both highly consistent
specialist leaders and highly consistent general leaders. On the basis
of the stipulation more significant relationships should occur in
advanced societies between polymorphism at the less generalized levels
than at the more Specialized levels. The low correlation coefficients
may explain the fact that modernization is at a very low level. The
differences in the direction of association indicate that the polymorphism

is not exclusively traditionalistic.

95

CONCLUSIONS

Consistency of polymorphism among leaders is a measure of the
extent tO‘WhiCh perception of a leader's role pattern remains unchanged
across several roles. In other words, it measures the extent to which
a leader is perceived in a similar way across various role sets. The
fewer the role sets and the more similar the scores among the eight
roles, the higher the consistency score. This present concept of
polymorphism is similar to the balance concept in-so-far as it is
relevant to the cognitive and affective consistency with which people
perceive their leaders. The present study generalizes that given the
social orientation and personality factors that quality a person for
leadership, consistency of role combinations is associated with the
leader's life cycle, education and socio-economic style of living. There
is a possibility that the more relevant the criterion of choice of
leaders (during a study)is to the purpose for which the group selects
its leaders, the more consistent will be their perception of leadership
role combination (Mouten, 1955, p. us). Finally, it may be concluded
that polymorphism of Opinion leadership and modernization behavior are
not necessarily antithetical elements of behavior that are diametrically
opposed. Both can exist together depending upon the underlying structure

of the society at the time rapid change begins to occur.

IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH
The implications given here are mainly suggested as ways of further

exploring polymorphism in local communities, both urban and rural.

 

96

1. There is need to find out gh§t_leadership roles tend to be
combined and what the characteristics of these kinds of leaders are who
combine them.

2. Polymorphism could be’a useful tool in differentiating between
different kinds of communities in terms of their levels of innovativeness
as well as socio—economic development. Thus, a categorization of
villages on average leader polymorphism could be used in relating
leadership perceptions to the level of development of the village. In
this case, the village would be the unit of analysis.

3. There is need to further explore the relationship of
polymorphism to additional demographic and social variables fer
predicting polymorphism of leadership structures in societies. These
also would indicate the major criteria of leadership acceptance within
communities.

4. Polymorphism consistency, when used in a correlational study,
may serve as a useful tool in structuring the public image of leaders
that the individuals hold. Theciarity of role definition within the
community tends to be indicated by the consistency in sociometric choice
and expectations that individuals have for particular roles or role
combinations in leadership. Where leadership activities are well defined,
there should be more_agreement as to who the functioning leaders are,
therefbre, higher consistency which may also indicate village inte-

. gration.
The present study suggests that inconsistency or consistency in

leadership perception as measured by polymorphism inconsistency or

97

consistency scores may indicate both sources of conflict in a community
as well as conflicting expectations. This is apparent in respect to

the present results obtained with age and social participation, the
variables most strongly associated with polymorphism in terms of number
of roles. There is a need for further exploration of leadership poly-
morphism along these lines in order to isolate areas of established and
conflicting expectations. Such a study might be able to isolate variables
about which conflicts develop.

The notion of polymorphic leadership could be explored in more
advanced societies in order to determine its presence and the relevant
variables for comparative purposes. The overlapping of generalized
.leadership has been found in the United States by Polsby (1959) and
Form and D'Antonio (1959).*

In summary, although polymorphism is not strongly characterized
by modern behavior, it is clearly not an exclusive feature of
"primitive" behavior. It can therefOre be considered an element of
established behavior system in a leadership situation in both
traditionalistic and.modern communities. Polymorphism therefore varies

with the social behavior of the individual.

 

*Form and D'Antonio found the presence of "overlap" in some Mexican

border communities of the United States. Polsby feund the same thing

in New Haven, Connecticut. There is, however, a much lower degree
of polymorphism than was found in the present study in both investigations.

-93-
BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Barnard, Chester, Organization and Managgpent, Harvard University Press,
Cambridge Hassousettes, 19ua.

Bass, E.H., Leadership, Ps chol , and Organizational Behavior,
Harper and Row, New York, 1960.

Bennis, H.G., "Authority, Power, and the Ability to Influence,"
Human Relations, Vol. XI, No. 2: May 1958.

 

Bentenutti, B., Farming in Cultgral Chan , Assen, The Netherlands,
Van Gorcum, and New York, The Humanities Press, 1961.

 

Berlo, David, K., The Process of Communication: An Introduction To
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pp. 133-167.

Bienstedt, "An Analysis of Social Power" in Coser and Rosenberg,
Sociological Theory, McMillan Coy., N.Y., 1969.

 

EaQFOPG'J- The Chicago Snowball: A Study of the Flow and Diffusion of
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and Family Study Centre, Chicago, 1967.

Chapparro, Alvaro, Role Expectation of New Farm Practices, Ph.D.
Thesis, University Park, Pennsylvania State University, 1955.

 

Corry, J.A., The Changing Conditions of Politics, University of
Toronto Press, 1963, Ottawa.

Durkheim, E., in Talcott Parsons et al Theories of Society, The Free
Press, New York, 1965, p. 678

 

Evans, K.H., Sociometry and Education, Routledge and Kegan Paul,
London, 1951.

 

Form, H.H., and D'Antonio, H.V., "Integration and Clea-age Among
Community Influentials in Two Border Cities,", American
Sociological Review NO. 6., Vol. 2n, Dec. 1959.

 

Fronkenberg, R., Communities in Britain: Social Life in Town and
Country, Penguine Books Ltd., Harmcndsworth, Hiddlesex, England,
1966.

 

Fruchter, Benjamin, Introduction of Factor’Analysis, Princeton, N.J.
D. Van Nostrand Co., 195a.

 

-99-

Gibb, C.A., "The Principles and Traits of Leadership" JOurnal of
Abnormal Social Psychology, #2, 267-284, 19n7.

 

 

Harding, John et al., "Leadership and Participation in a Changing
Rural Community" The Journal of Social Issues, Vol. XVI, No. n,
1960.

Hartley, E.L. and Hartley R.E., Fundamentals of Social Psychology,
Alfred A. Knapf, New York, 1961.

Homans, G.J., Social Behavior: Its Elementary Forms, Routledge and
Kegan Paul, London, 1961.

 

Hevland, C., Janis, I.L., Kelly, H.H., Communication and Persuasion,
Psychological Studies of Opinion Change, Yale U. Press,
New Haven, 1953.

 

 

Hyman, Martin D. "Determining the Effects of Status Inconsistency",
Public Opinion Quarterly, Spring 1966:30 120-129.:

 

Jamais, Juan F., "The Effects of Belief System Styleson the Communi-
cation and Adoption of Fhrm Practices" Ph.D. Thesis, Michigan
State University, East Lansing, 196a.

Jackson, E.F., "Status Consistency and Symptoms of Stress," American
Sociological Reviews, Vol. 27, No.u., August 1962.

 

Jones, Gwyn, ’Ez , "Leadership Among Farmers" Paper presented at a
Conference on theCommunication of Scientific and Technological
Ideas in Farming Under the Auspices of the Agricultural Education
Association, Seale Hayne Agricultural College, England, 196a.

Katz, E., "Two-Step Flow of Communication: An Up-to-Date Report on
an Hypothesis,‘ Public Opinion Quarterly, Spring, 1958, p. 61-78.

 

and Lazarsfield, P.F., Personal Influencg: The Part Played
by PeoPle in the Flow of Mass Communication, Free Press of Glencoe,
1055. '

 

 

Kenny, Charles D., Readings in Social Science, M.S.U., 1958

Kerlinger, F.K., Foundations of Behavioral Research: Educational and
Psychological Inquiry, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., New York,
Chicago, 1965.

Lazarsfield, P.F., Berelson, B., and Gaudet, H., The People's Choice,
2nd ed., Columbia University Press, New York, 19u8.

 

Lerner, Daniel, The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing_the
Middle East, the Free Press, New York, Collier-Macmillan Limited,
London, 1958.

 

 

-100-
McCollough, C. and Van Atta, L., Statistical Concepts, McGraw Hill
Book Coy, MC. N.Y., 1963,

MacNemar, Quinn, Psychological Statistics, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
London, 1962.

 

Malinowski, 3., Magic Science and Religion and other Essays, Free Press
of Glencoe, Illinois, 19u8.

Marcus, A.S., and Bauer, R.A., "Yes, There are Generalized Opinion
Leaders, Public Opinion Quarterly, 28, No. u, Winter, 1964,
628-632 e '

 

Merton, R.R., Social Theory and Social Structure, Free Press of
Glencoe, 196u.

 

Mitchell, R.E., "Methodological Notes on A Theory of Status Crystallization"
Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 28, Summer, 196a.

 

 

Moreno, J.L. et al The Sociometry_Reader, Glencoe, Illinois, The
Free Press, 1960.

 

Mouton, lane 8., Blake R.R. and Fruchter, Benjamin, "The Validity
of Sociometric Responses", Sociometry Vol. XVIII, No. 3, August
1955, pp. 181-206.

 

----- The Reliability of Sociometric Measures Sociometry, Vol. 18,
pp- 7-“8.

 

Niehoff, A., and Niehoff, J., "The Influence of Religion on Socio-
Economic Development" University of Nigeria, Enugu, 1966.

Parsons, Talcott, "On the Concept of Influence" Public Opinion
Quarterly, Spring, 1963.

 

Polsby, N.H., "Three Problems in the Analysis of Community Power"
American Sociological, Review, No. 6, Vol. 2a, 1959.

 

Pye, L.H., Communications and Political Development, Princeton
University Press, New Jersey, 1963.

 

Rogers, E.H., Diffusion of Innovations, Free Press of Glencoe, N.Y.,
1962

 

Bibliography on the Diffusill of Innovations, Department
of Communication, Michigan State University, July, 1967.

Rogers, E.H. and Cartons, D.G., "Methods of Measuring Opinion Leadership"
The lublic Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 26, Fall, 1962.

 

-101-

Revised Operational Plan for Research Project On Diffusion
of Innovations in Rural Societies, Department of Communication,
M.S.U., 1965.

Silk, A.J., Overlap Among Self-Designated Opinion Leaders: AtStudy
of Selected Dental Products and Services, Journal of Marketing
Research, Vol. III, August, 1966.

 

 

Smullyan-Boinoit Emile, "Status, Status Types, and Status Interrelations,"
American Sociological Review, Vol. IX, No. 1-6, 1989.

 

Troldahl, Verling, C., Face-to-Face Communication about Major
Topics in the News, Public Opinion Quarterly, 29, Winter, 1965-
1966, p. 226-239.

 

Van Es., J.C., "Opinion Leadership in Columbian Veredas With Different
Norms On Social Change," M.S. Thesis, Ohio State University, 196“.

 

-102-
APPENDIX A

SELECTED QUESTIONS FROM
PHASE I INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

 

SCHEDULE
VARIABLE QUESTION QUESTION

 

Life Cycle
1 2 How old are you? (YEARS: )
Are you.married? CIRCLE 1--YES
-O--NO
(IF YES) How many children do you have?
(Number: )
How many of your children have
ever attended classes in
school? (Number: )
What is the highest class or
standard that anyone of your
children has reached in school?
primary (incomplete)
-- primary (complete)
secondary (incomplete)
secondary (complete)
-- university (incomplete)
- university (complete)
(Changed Code 0-6 to include never
went to school 0)

U'I‘RCDNI-‘O

Education
3 5 Did you ever attend classes in school?
CIRCLE 1--YES ASK What class or standard
did you reach?
IF YES 0--NO CIRCLE .

-- primary (incomplete)
-- primary (complete)
secondary (incomplete)
-- secondary (complete)
university (incomplete)
5 -- university (complete)
(Changed Code 0-6 to include never went
to school 0)

RQMHO

ADDITIONAL 1 -- teacher training/certificates
ANSWERS 2 -- other professional schooling

 

~103-

 

SCHEDULE
VARIABLE QUESTION QUESTION

 

Socio-Economic
Status n ‘ 7n Finally, do you own: CIRCLE EACH ITEME
HE OWNS
(a) wrist watch? (b) cushioned chairs?
(c) camera? (d) clock? (e) house?
(f) radio? (g) cupboard? one/two
(h) framed photo- CIRCLE:
graphs? (i) bicycle? stoney; mud,
(j) iron bed? (k) laced concrete, '
shoes? thatched,
(l) kerosene lamp? ainc roof?
(m) 1966 calendar?
(n) long trousers? (o) drinking tumblers?
(p) Do you ear bread? (1--Yes)
(O--NO)
(q) Do you drink beer? (1--YES)
(0--NO)

5 11 Do you hold any positions in the village?
CIRCLE 1--Yes ASK What positions?(PROBE)

2--No (a)

(b)

(c)

6 1n Are you a member of (GROUP NAME)
(The group with the most influence
in village affairs today?)
CIRCLE 1--YES ASK Do you hold office in
(GROUP NAME)
O--NO CIRCLE 1--YES O--NO
Do you yourself, actually
help make the final
decisions of (GROUP NAME)?
CIRCLE 1--YES O--NO

 

 

 

Innovative-
ness ‘ 7 32 Did you, yourself, ever join or parti-
cipate in any of these agricultural
extension programs?
CIRCLE 1--YES O--NO
IF YES Which ones? WRITE PROGRAM LETTERS
BELOW
When did you join (EACH PROGRAM JOINED)?
WRITE YEAR JOINED
Program Letter: ( ) Year Joined: (19__)
Program Letter: ( ) Year Joined: (19 )
ngmLumm( )Yarhmw:U{j
Program Letter: ( ) Year Joined: (19_)

-1ou-

 

VARIABLE

SCHEDULE
QUESTION

QUESTION

 

Rationality
8

Opinionated-
ness 10

Self-Perceived
Opinion
Leadership

28

29

68

69

7O

16

21

23

CIRCLE

CIRCLE

Here is a different kind of question.
Do you work to have peace of mind; to
be respected; or to be a rich man?
O--to have peace of mind
DETERMINE ONE 1--to be respected
ANSWER ' ‘ 2--to be a rich man

If you had all the money you needed,
what would you do with it?

How did you get your farm land?
0--given by family 2--bought
1--rented pledged 3--other (SPECIFY:
)

During the busiest month of this year,

what was the highest number of labourers

you hired to work on your farmés)?
(Number: )

 

Do you hire any permanent labourers
to work on your farm(s)?

1--YES ASK How many? (Number: ;___)
2--NO

What do you think are the three most
important problems for the peOple in
this "village"?

a.

b.

c.

 

 

 

In all villages there are sources of
disagreement, what do people in this
village disagree about?

During the past six months have you

told anyone about some new idea
concerning village affairs?

CIRCLE 1--YES 0--NO

During the past two weeks, has any person
in the village come to you to ask your
opinions or advice on village affairs?

Compared with your friends in the
"village" are you more likely, or less
likely, to be asked for advice on
village affairs?

~105-

 

SCHEDULE
VARIABLE QUESTION

QUESTION

 

2a

25

26

#7

M8

49

50

51

CIRCLE

CIRCLE

CIRCLE

CIRCLE

CIRCLE

CIRCLE

Thinking back to your last discussion
of village affairs, were you asked for
your Opinions about village affairs, or
did you ask someone else for his
Opinions?

2--I was asked fer my Opinion

1--don't remember/no one asked Opinions

0--I asked someone else/s Opinion

When you and your friends talk about
village affairs, do you mainly listen
to their ideas, or do you try to con-
vince them of your ideas?
2--I mainly try to convince them.
1--we listen or try to convince equally
0--Imainly listen to their ideas

Do you feel that your neighbors think of
you as a good source of advice about
village affairs?

2--YES 1--don't know 0--NO

During the past six months have you told
anyone about some new idea in farming?

During the past two weeks has any person
in the "village" come to you to ask your
Opinion's or advice about farming?

Compared with your friends in the "village"
are you more likely, or less likely, to
be asked for advice about methods of
farming?

2--more likely

1--about same

O--less likely

Thinking back to your last discussion of
farming, were you asked far your Opinions
about farming, or did you ask someone
else for his Opinions?

2--I was asked for my Opinions

1--I don't remember/no one asked opinion

0--I asked someone else's Opinions

When you and your friends talk about
farming, do you mainly listen to their
ideas, or do you try to convince them
of your ideas?

2--I mainly try to Cinvince them

1--we listen or try to convince sum-11y

0--I mainly listen to their ideas

-106-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

SCHEDULE
VARIABLE QUESTION QUESTION
52 Do you feel that your neighbours think
of you.as a good source of advice about
farming?
CIRCLE 2--YES 1--don't know 0--NO
Knowledgi-
biliby 11 30 Now let's talk about farming. Can you
think of any of the new agricultural
extension programs being sponsored by
the government?
a. d.
b. e.
c. f.
31 Of course, there are many agriculture

programs; I have a list of some of them.
As I name each program, just tell me if
you have ever heard of it.

USING CHECKLIST BELOW, READ EACH PROGRAM,
CIRCLE LETTERS OF THOSE KNOWN.

FOR EACH PROGRAM KNOWN, ASK: CIRCLE "YES"
a. What have you heard OR "NO" IF
about...? INFORMATION
b. How Long ago was it, IS CORRECT
when you first heard about?
WRITE YEAR
c. How did you FIRST learn about...?
WRITE IN SOURCE OF
FIRST INFORMATION

CIRCLE Has Correct Year heard of
Infermation Program
(A) Aldrinfi dust yes no 19__
(B) Cassava (improved)
yes no 19___
(C) Cocoa planting
scheme yes no 19__
(D) Community
plantations yes no 19

(E) F.A.I.D. credit

loans yes no 19

(F) Farm settle-

ments... yes no 19

(G) Fertilizer

programs yes no 19

(H) Livestock

(improved) yes no 19

~107-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

SCHEDULE
VARIABLE QUESTION QUESTION
(I) NS-1 Maise yes no 19
(J) 011 palm (reba1.) "'—
yes no 19
(K) Poultry ‘—
(improved) yes no 19
(L) Rice develop- '_.
ment yes no 19
(24) Rubber plant- _
ing yes no 19
(N) Stork oil ‘-
press yes no 19
(O) Vegtable '_.
growing yes no 19___
12 u Have you ever lived in a place outside
this "village" for more than one year?
(PROB)
CIRCLE 1--YES ASK Where?
2--NO
TIRCLE APPLICABLE NUMBEE
Within County Outside County Outside
_( E. Region
Village/
section 0 3 6
town 1 u *7":
city 2 5 a
10 In the past twelve months did you travel
to any towns or cities away'from this
"village"?
CIRCLE 1--YES O--NO
IF YES Did you travel to places in this area,
in Eastern Nigeria, or outside
Eastern Nigeria? (PROBE)
CIRCLE APPLICABLE NUMBERS
Within County Outside County Outside
E. Region
Village/
section 0 3 pg
town 1 u 7
city 2 5 8
18 Would you like to live somewhere else

outside this "village"?
CIRCLE 1--YES ASK Why?
O--NO

 

 

 

 

-108-

 

VARIABLE

SCHEDULE
QUESTION

QUESTION

 

13

Mass Media
Consumption
13

73

38

39

no

#1

H2

#3

Are you a member of any groups,
societies, or organizations outside
this "village"?
CIRCLE 1--YES ASK Which group a.
0--N0 b.

 

Does anyone in your house receive a
newspaper?
CIRCLE 1--YES O--NO

Can you read a newspaper to yourself?
CIRCLE 1--YES 0--NO
IF YES About how often do you read a.newspaperI
IF NO Do you ever have someone read a.news-
paper to you?
CIRCLE 1--YES 0--NO
IF YES About how often do you have someone '
read a newspaper to you?

NEWSPAPER EXPOSURE
5--every day 2--twice/thrice a
u--twlce/thrick a week month
3--once a week 1--once a month
0--less than once
a month or never

IF PERSON READS, ASK

Have you ever read one of the govern-
ment pamphlets or newsletters about
agricultural extension programs?
CIRCLE 1--YES 0--NO
ASK EVERYONE

Does anyone in his house own a radio?
CIRCLE 1--YES 0--NO

How often do you listen to the radio?
RADIO EXPOSURE 5--every day
n--twice/thrice a week
3--once a week
2--twice/thrice a month
1--once a month
O--less than once a month or
never

IF PERSON EVER LISTENS TO RADIO, ASK “
Have you ever listened to radion programs
about agricultural extension programs?
CIRCLE 1--YES 0--NO

-109-

 

 

 

 

SCHEDULE
VARIABLE QUESTION QUESTION
Group 12 Are you a member of any group, society,
Partici- or organization in this village?
pation CIRCEL 1--YES ASK Which groups (PROBE)
O--NO a.
In B.

 

C.

d.
ASK IF HE HOLDS OFFICE IN ANY GROUPS, fiRCLE
THESE GROUP LETTERS

 

 

ITEHS FOR.INDEPENDENT VARIABLES INDEXES

~110-

APPENDIX B

PRINCIPAL AXIX

ROTATED LOADING

 

VARIABLE ITEMS LOADINGS 1 2 3
1. Life Cycle ' Age i 0.7735* 0.6960* -0.36u2 ------
Marital Status 0.7290 0.1787 -0.962u ------
Number'of
'Children 0.7u92 0.8955* -0.0652 ------
2. Economic
Rationality Reasons for
Using
Money: First 0.5789 0.7117* -0.1539 0.0552
Second 0.6621 0.6998* -0.0878 0.2218
Third 0.6959 . 0.2667 -o.oo1u 0.7723
Fourth o.u711 -0.0923 -0.0088 0.8122
Method of
' Acquiring
Farm Land -0.18u9 -0.0n36 0.5208 0.0228
Number'of
Laborers -0.2170 0.11M7 0.7399 -0.1522
Hired (Total)
Number of
Penmanent . -O.1u33 -0.1010 0.SNG1 0.1531
Laborers ‘
Hired.
Reasons fer
0.2570 0.5690* 0.2385 0.1221

working

 

.Scale items

-111-1

PRINCIPAL AXII ROTATED LOADINGS

VARIABLE ITEMS LOADINGS 1 2 3
omic Style '
of Living Wrist Watch 0.6963 0.7258* 0.0538 -0.0365
CushiOned
Chairs ‘ 0.7681 0.7369* 0.1609 -0.1603
Camera 0.1994 0.2382 0.0800 0.1459
Clock 0.7566 0.7676* 0.0690 -0.0992
House" 0.0974 0.1394 0.8473 -0.0600
Radio 0.7212‘ 0.7670* 0.0419 00.0003
Cupboard 0.7904 0.7703* 0.1590 -0.1312
Framed Photo-
graph 0.7661 0.7502* 0.1087 -0.1557
Laced Shoes 0.7463 0.7113* 0.0497 -0.2647
1966 Calendar 0.7345 0.7494* 0.0048 -0.3171
Trousers 0.6876 0.6365* 0.0403 -0.3133
Drinking
Thmblers ‘ 0.3660 0.2016 0.0889 -0.5565
Eating Bread 0.2106 0.0314 0.0314 -0.6131
Drinking Beer» 0.1939 0.0263 0.0211 -0.5818
Kind of House:
Size 0.1893 -0.0269 0.8355 -0.0268
Construction 0.5289 0.3620 0.7238 -0.0508
Roof 0.5412 0.3733 0.7156 -0.0641
Bicycle 0.5631 0.4708 0.0300 -0.4227
Iron Bed 0.7562 0.7616* 0.0887 -0.1004
Kerosene Lamp 0.2809 0.1319 0.0162 -0.5479

 

Scale items

-112—

PRINCIPAL AXIS ROTATED LOADING
VARIABLE ITEMS LOADING 1 2

4. Mass Media** Newspaper
Receivedlin
House 0.8132 0.8896* .0.2055

Leader Reads
Agric. News-'
Letter 0.8312 0.8315* 0.3027

Radio Owned in
House" 0.7879 0.4669 00.6690*

Frequency of
Radio
Exposure 0.7350 0.1920» 0.9137*

 

**

Mass media as measured in the present study normally consists
of two dimensions: newspaper or print and radio.

* Scale items

-113-

PRINCIPAL AXIS ROTATED LOADINGS

VARIABLE ITEMS LOADINGS 1 2 3
5. Opinion- Success depends ‘
atednese" on luck . -0.1560 0.0213 -0.2294 0.5921
Trust most
peOple 0.1967 0.5826* -0.2601 0.1218
Epidemic is
bad luck 0.0154 0.0096 0.0121 -0.0404
People Cannot
be too careful -0.5273 -0.0077 -0.7027 0.1890
Ways of ancestors 0.1112 0.3175 -0.1365 0.4187
Life is
determined -0.2988 -0.0139 -0.3898 0.5587
PeOple are
interested -0.0255 0.4379 -0.4287 -0.1271
Mostly in
themselves
To get good crops
use
Machined, not
weather -0.2067 0.3375 -0.5821 ' 0.0739
Mind own Business 0.1652 0.3982 -0.1363 0.1853
Life changes
fast -0.1112 0.3705 -0.4835 0.2882
Win pool to
better life 0.1631 0.6445* -0.3609 -0.0434
Trust and care
for self 0.4849 0.5595* 0.1486 0.0302
Man can plan
future 0.2412 0.4456 -0.0636 0.5572
Danger exists in
joint ventures -0.l794 0.2353 -0.4535 0.1466
Changing times 0.4346 0.7269* -0.0699 0.4332

VARIABLE

5. Opinion-
atedness
(Cont.)

-11u-

PRINCIPAL AXIS

ITEMS LOADINGS
Accept what

cones' 0.0567 0.5303*
Friends gossip 0.4199 0.5738*1
Plans cause

unhappiness 0.0273 0.3336
Illness punishes 0.2197 0.3568
Love everybody 0.4882 0.7439*
First village probe :

lam. -0.3704 0.1258
Second village

problem -0.5032 0.0479
Third village

problem -0.5058 -0.0077
First source

of disagreement 0.0762 0.0623

Second source
of disagreement -0.0146 -0.0406

-0.4012

0.0484

'0 e 0444

-0.6117

-0 e 6738

0.0462

0.0167

0.2628
0.4076

-0.0709

0.0345

0.0364

0.0059

0.4037

0.3378

 

Scale items

-115-

PRINCIPAL AXIS IOTATED LOADINGS

VARIABLE ITEM LOADINGS l 2 3
6. Cosmopolite-
ness Lived in village
or section within
county 0.9476 0.9489* -0.0395 0.0086

Lived in town

Lived in city

Lived in village/
section outside

county 0.9684 0.9684* -0.0325 -0.0196
Lived in town
outside county 0.5179 0.4933 0.0271 -0.6853
Lived in city
outside county 0.2790 0.2461 0.2517 -0.0148

Lived in village/'
section outside
E. region 0.9280 0.9281* -0.0363 -0.0648

Lived in city
outside E. region -0.1278 -0.1449 0.3074 -0.4177

Travel to village
within county in
past 12 months 0.9358 0.9399* -0.0358 0.0545

Travel to town
within county A 0.6888 0.6815* -0.0449 -9.1325

Travel to city
within county 0.9696 0.9700* -0.0637 -0.0001

Travel to village
outside county 0.1357 0.1797 0.3933 0.6129

Travel to town
outside county 0.7394 0.7282* -0.1066 -0.1803

-116-

PRINCIPAL AXIS ROTATED LOADINGS
VARIABLE ITEMS LOADINGS l 2 3
6 . CosmoPOlite-
ness
(cont.) Travel to.city
outside county 0.5461 0.5405* 0.2931 -0.2310

Travel to village
outside E. region 0.9696 0.9700* -0.0637 -0.0001

Travel to town
outside B. region 0.9009 0.9041 -0.0022 0.0269

Membership in one
fornal group -0.0918 -0.0798 0.6981 -0.0595
outside village

Membership in second
formal group -o.0303 -0.0183 0.6865 —o.ouen

 

Scale items

~117-

PRINCIPAL AXIS ROTATED FACTOR LOADINGS

VARIABLE ITEMS LOADINGS 1 2 3
7. Formal
group
participa-
tion Membership in most
important village
group 0 . 8284 0 . 9320* 0. 0720

Participation in
decision-making 0.8325 0.6320* 0.5596

Number of village
positions held by

leader 0.8695 0.9354* 0.1441
Number.of village
‘ groups leader

belongs to 0.5125 0.1601 0.7107

Number of village 1
offices.held by
leader. 0.4612 0.0438 0. 8000

 

Scale items '

-118-

APPENDIX C

DISTRIBUTION OF DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTIC FOR

947 EASTERN NIGERIAN LEADERS AND INNOVATORS*

 

 

 

 

 

 

VARIABLE CATEGORIES Per Cent
1. Age Under 29 11.52
30—39 20.57
uo-ug 26.72
50-59 18.86
80—89 2.80
90-99 and over 1.10
Total Percent 99.41
2. Marital Status Single 7.20
Married 92.80
Total Percent 100.00
3. Number of
Children None 9.40
One 4.80
5- 7 31.60
8-10 15.10
11-15 6.80
16-20 2.50
Over 20 1.60
Total Percent 100.00
4. Education Never attended School 39.00
Primary School (uncompleted) 31.00
Primary School (completedo 21.00
Secondary School (uncompleted) 2.00
Secondary School (completed) 2.00
Post Secondary or University
(uncompleted) 5.00
University Completed 0.00
Total Percent: 100.00

in

This sample includes 88 innovators, 25 veterans and

834 leaders.

-119-

 

 

VARIABLE CATEGORIES PER CENT
5. Innovative— Number of Programs Joined .
ness 0 53.00
1 16 . 60
2 13.20
3 7.60
4 5.70
5 2.20
6 1.40
7 0.20
8 0.10
Total Percent 100.00
6 . Economic
Rationality Working for Peace of Mind 60.30
Working fer Respect 15.70
Working to be Rich 24.00
Total Percent 100.00
Use Money for Personal-Good 27.30
Use Money Mainly for Family-Good 40.50
Use Money fer Benefit of People
Outside Family and Village 31.80
Don‘t Know 0.40
Total Percent 100.00
Number of Laborers Employed
Permanent 0 89.40
1 3.00
2-5 6.00
10-32 0.70
Total Percent 100.00
Temporary 0 14.40
Some 85.64

Total Percent

 

 

 

 

100.00

-120-

 

 

 

 

VARIABLE CATEGORIES PER CENT
Method of Land Acquisition
Prom Friend or Family (A) 64.70
By Rent, Pledge, Lease (B) 7.20
By Purchase (C) 7.40
Common or School Land 2.90
Combination of A, B, C 16.60
Total Percent 100.00
Opinionated-
ness Kind of Village Problems None DK Mentioned
First Problem 0.60 0.50 98.90
Second Problem 4.10 0.40 95.50
Third Problem 10.80 0.50 88.70
Total Percents 100.00
Average 5.20 0.50 94.30
Disagreements in Village ANone DK Mentioned
First Disagreement 7.20 0.80 92.00
Second Disagreemetn 55.30 1.00 43.60
Total Percents 100.00
Average 31.20 1.00 67.80
Belief Structure Showing
Attitude and Feeling_ DA DK A
Luck 17.70 0.50 81.80
Trust 58.00 1.30 40.70
Anomie 80.50 1.10 18.40
Fatalism 63.50 1.30 35.20
Total Percents 100.00
D.A. e Disagree
D.K. = Don't Know
A = Agree
Agricultural No. of Programs
Knowledgibility Mentioned (Aided Recall)
1 5.00
2 9.20
3 16.60
4 16.30
5 16.20
6 19.50
7 4.00
8 1.50
9 0.50

Total Per Cent

88.80

-121-

 

 

VARIABLE CATEGORIES PER CENT
Awareness of Programs
(unaided Recall)
Incorrect
Aware Knowledge Correct
% % %
Aldrin 51.00 6.70 42.30
Cassava 48.20 17.70 34.10
Cocoa 14.50 43.10 42.40
Community Planation 45.50 13.40 41.10
PAID Credits and
Loans 54.50 13.10 32.40
FARM Settlements 43.20 17.10 39.70
Fertilizer 11.70 7.40 80.90
Livestock 39.30 18.70 42.00
NS-l Maize 31.80 14.70 53.54
Oil Palm 5.20 19.40 75.40
Poultry 15.70 21.30 63.00
Rice 39.70 23.80 36.50
Stock Oil Press 76.10 7.00 16.90
Vegetable Growing 52.40 14.60 33.00
Cosmpolite- Would not leave village 74.30
ness* Would leave for:
Better Jobs 12.30
Better Land 0.10
Education 1.80
New Ideas 8 Environment 4.70
Dissatisfaction with village
anenities 1.30
Dissatisfaction with living
conditions 1.50
Job transfer 4.10
1st Mention 2nd Mention
Extra Village
Group Memberships:
None 53.50 82.20
Educational and
Professional 5.10 3.40
Agricultural Co-
operatives. 4.90 1.10
Improvement Associa-
tion 18.70 6.20

Others 18.10 7.10

-122-

 

 

 

 

 

 

VARIABLE CATEGORIES PER CENT
COUNTY REGION OUTSIDE REGION
Village Towp. City, Village Town City Village Town City
fivedin% 8.8 4.5 0.2 12.0 23.3 19.8 1.00 6.6 11.7
Travelled to % 11.5 8.7 0.0 7.7 36.0 44.0 0.0 1.7 5.3
Mass Media No Yes
Consumption Received Newspaper in House 153.50 46.40 (100%)
Reading Frequency:
Less Than once a month 4.70
Once a month 3.00
Twice a month 3.90
Once a week 4.20
Twice a week 8.20
Every day 21.20
Someone reads newspaper
to respondent 42.90 11.90
Ability to read
newspaper 54.80 45.20
Exposure to Agricultural
Newsletter 16.30 28.90
Radio ownership in house 59.50 40.60
Radio Exposure Frequency
Less than once a month 31.50*
Once a month 3.40*
Twice a month 3.90
Once a week 8.60
Twice a week 13.40
Every day 39.10
Not applicable 0.20
Exposure.ee Agricultural Radio
Pregrams 36.90 63.20
Social Hold Offices in Groups
Participa- Ist Group ' 59.00 40.10
tion Second Group 72.50 27.50
Third Group 87.90 12.10
Fourth Group 95.00 5.00
Total Number of
Offices Held 46.90
One . 31.70
Two 13.10
Three 6.30
Fbur 2.00

* Categories with doubtful exposure because of the low rate of contact with

”'8

03'

-123-

 

 

VARIABLE CATEGORIES PER CENT
Self Perceived VILLAGE AFFAIRS: NO YES DK
Opinion Told someone new idea 32.2 67.8 14.4
Leadership Asked for opinion 49.3 50.7
Likelihood of being asked 13.1 72.5 14.4
Role in discussion was;
Asking someone 22.7
Asked by someone 57.4 19.9
Listen to others 10.2
Others Listen 36.0 53.8
Source of Advice 3.8 83.6 12.8
VILLAGE FARMING:
Told someone new idea 47.5 52.5
Asked for opinions 62.4 37.6
Likely to be asked 35.8 53.6 10.6
Asked in discussion 28.8 42.3 28.8
Others Listen 23.0 34.9 42.1
Good source of Advice 16.0 66.8 17.2
POSITIONS HELD IN VILLAGE
None 27.2
One 46.0
Two 18.9
Three 7.7
Four 0.0
Five 0.1