THE UTILIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF WILDLIFE RESOURCES IN EASTERN NIGERIA Thesis for the Degree of M. S. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY INNOCENT OKWUDILI KANU ‘ I975 i'HE‘SIS .L If} R A R Y v ‘ , Michigan Stat: “L. *1 “may“ .. . Umvcmi ,, “2.. .. ”if“ ‘ This is to certify that the thesis entitled THE UTILIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF WILDLIFE RESOURCES IN EASTERN NIGERIA presented by Innocent Okwudili Kanu has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Masters degree in Fisheries and Wildlife 6;? /( 64:44.. Major professor Date / fl:7%"”fiz. / € 7/ 0-7639 OVERDUE FINES: 25¢ per day per item RETURNING LIBRARY MATERIALS: Place in book return to remove charge from circulation records fr} :1 I. ‘ IUQ-vw - ‘ '5. J .g ‘ -A W W V.- ABSTRACT THE UTILIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF WILDLIFE RESOURCES IN EASTERN NIGERIA by Innocent Okwudili Kanu An analysis of the wildlife resource was conducted between October 1974 and January 1975 in the Eastern States of Nigeria, formerly the Eastern Region. Under the sponsorship of the Federal Department of Forestry at Ibadan, 1,200 family heads were interviewed and 12 local markets were surveyed. The value of bushmeat in Eastern Nigeria was about N17 million (U.S. $27.76 million) and wild animal skins harvested were worth about N6.9 million (U.S. $11.2 million). Evidently, these values represent only a fraction of the total, since some exchanges of commodities were reported (by those interviewed) to take place outside organized markets. The processing and marketing of bushmeat and skins generally are conducted under unsanitary and inefficient conditions. Bushmeat comprised 25.84 percent of all animal protein consumed and could be an even larger proportion if spoilage was reduced. Some wildlife products sold in the area come from other parts of Nigeria and from the Cameroun Republic. r p. lie :1) i or *dconstit ,. - A...‘ . AU. ‘1‘, an Y'o XI E .' i A III. Innocent Okwudili Kanu Bushmeat was the second most preferred source of animal- protein, following domestic chicken. 61.5 percent of those interviewed preferred bushmeat to livestock meat. In descending order, bushmeat Species preferences were grass-cutter (Thryonomys swinderianus), bush pig (Potamochoerus porous), various antelopes, and brush-tailed porcupine (Atherurus africanus). Apart from a few species protected by local custom, wildlife seems to have no proper legal place in the society. Exploitation of wildlife for meat is excessive and by no means on a sustained-yield basis. There are no properly organized and constituted national parks, game reserves and sanctuaries in these states and existing wildlife laws are totally inadequate to maintain animal numbers. Only 38.5 percent of the people interviewed were aware that there were wildlife laws in Nigeria. Other factors affecting wildlife in the area include habitat destruction, lack of trained management personnel and a negative public attitude toward natural resources. The number of visitors to the existing zoological gardens is on a steady increase, however, and this and other observations indicate that there is considerable public interest in the wildlife resource. Suggestions are made to improve the management and adminis- tration of Nigeria's wildlife reSource. These include creation of a National Conservation Commission, a Department of Wildlife and National Parks, and an Environmental Protection Agency. Local peOple should become involved and local districts should retain part of the revenue that comes from parks and reserves. Conservatlor life manager of authentic Commercial i would prever mane bilShmeg Innocent Okwudili Kanu Conservation education should be undertaken at all levels. Possibly in cooperation with other English-speaking West African countries, Nigeria should establish a school for wild- life management. Handicraft schools aimed at the manufacture of authentic Nigerian articles would contribute to tourism. Commercial food processing and improved storage and transportation would prevent insect infestation and other spoilages and would make bushmeat more attractive and valuable. vv-fi T>1H --w "IT I" II J} in Pa:- THE UTILIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF WILDLIFE RESOURCES IN EASTERN NIGERIA Innocent Okwudili Kanu A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Fisheries and Wildlife 1975 0 PE. .3 1 v 1 n1 0 O a a .1 O at .l C. v ,.. it o C t D. so C 3 t u n“ .l .C e D .l C e e e ._. S as n m.” 3 1 Co as w . v“ hi L o .L m...“ an-“ e no u . 3 9 LL u. ,- ma AC » m .71. .44 h L. v a r. DI. .rI r“ so «.U .L I . cu . w. n... E vs U I 'f I .L. 31" ome t I‘QY‘A ‘ ,. (1L «\‘(l 'hn . ‘ Q‘J‘QH ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The financial and material support of the Federal Govern— ment of Nigeria is deeply appreciated. Special appreciation is extended to Dr. George A. Petrides of the Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State University for his advice and assistance in the development and execution of this project and in thesis preparation. The cooperation of the Director and staff of the Federal Department of Forestry, Ibadan, the Chief Conservators of Forests in Enugu and Calabar and their staff is gratefully acknowledged. The assistance of all lQOO people who reSponded to inter- views and in collection of data and preparation of this thesis is sincerely appreciated. Finally, I wish to extend my gratitude to Dr. Jovi Scott- Emuakpor of the Department of Human Medicine, Mr. Obi Okafo of the Department of Forestry and Mr. Emeka J.C. Okafor of the Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, all at Michigan State University, for their advice on the preparation of this report. ii IKTTO A1“ . I n V-‘U"‘/.o» 1n- 1‘- P. I" r.‘ ‘ r~ - - ”V x‘ .. 4— ' v 92': L11 0; _) Ln (2 +—'- H- 03 f’ #7 c r [—4 I-’- p) CL. C3 TABLE OF CONTENTS IntrOdLICtiOl/‘loooooooooeococoo...000000o.o.ooooooooooooo‘oeooooool StUdy AreaOOOOIO ......... OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.00.00.00.00 ClimateOO0......00......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO Soils.................................................... Vegetation............................................... Land Use and Animal Life................................. Objectives of the Present Study.......................... \OQDUTJZ‘IUID I‘Iietl’lodSOOOOOOOOO0.......0O.0.0.0...OOOOOCCOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0.10 IntCrTVTieTNT SChedUleoo0000......0.0.000...OOOOOOOCOOOOOOVOOlO anPICGt Sur\rey..0...0.0.0.0000...0.0.0.000...0.00.00.00.013 iOUIqismOO0....OOOOOOOOOOCOOO00.00.0000...0..0.0.0.00000013 AdTflifliSthalL—Iionoooo00.000000000000000oooooooooooooooooooolB ResultSOOOOOOO0....OOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0.0000000014 Wildlife as a Source of Meat and Marketable Products....1u TourismOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.0.0000000000000000028 PUbliC AttitUdeS TOT‘Jan Wildlife 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O 34 DiSCUSSionOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00......0.0.00.0...39 Meat Production.........................................39 Administration of Nigeria‘s Wildlife Resource...........A2. Tourist Traffic and Wildlife............................AA Export of Wildlife and Wildlife Products................A5 Factors Affecting Wildlife..............................A6 Sociological.......................................A6 Inadequate Legislation.............................A9 Overhunting........................................50 Habitat Destruction................................5l Lack of Personnel..................................52 Recommendations for Management of the Wildlife Resource.OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.0.0000000053 Administration..........................................53 Legislative Protection..................................55 Education...............................................55 Food Technology Research................................56 summaryOOOOCOOOOOOOOOO....0OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO57 Literature CitedOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00....OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO62 iii me 3?“; ‘ {tans - A_‘ r .<"I La. Vie cl}; . 1...- V.A.. El. 0? :1 I r o l ww......o. ”L... -.;L-Cl ale na‘ -\'\ *KJ.’ S INTRODUCTION Smith (1967) indicated that the principal nutritional problems for Nigerians involve widespread deficiencies in protein and in the vitamins thiamin and riboflavin, particu- larly in the southern parts of the country. Deficient caloric intake and protein malnutrition is widespread especially among children. The nutritional pattern for the whole country is not uniform. In Northern Nigeria, the staple foods, millet (Pennisetum typhoidum) and guinea corn (Sorghum spp.), are better sources of protein than the root crops, cassava (Manihot utilissima), yams (Dioscorea spp.) and cocoyam (Colocasia asculenta) commonly eaten in the south. In addition, in the north some milk and beef are available from the cattle herds. In all regions, the high—protein foods needed for balanced diets usually cost more than starchy foods. In consequence of these difficulties, there is a great pressure everywhere on wildlife resources to supply the population with the necessary food elements. Bushmcat is the term used in English—speaking West Africa to refer collectively to animals, ranging from snails and reptiles to birds and mammals, which are harvested from the wild for use as human foods. Eastern Nigeria is used throughout this paper to denote the area formerly known as the Eastern Region or the Eastern Group of Provinces. The same area was called Biafra between May 1967 and January l970. I‘O Study Area Eastern Nigeria is currently divided into East-Central, South—Eastern and Rivers States. With 22.27 percent of the country's population, Eastern Nigerians occupy only 8.27 percent (29,48A square miles) of the nation's land area. While in 1963 Nigeria had an average population density of 156 persons per sqiare mile, Eastern Nigeria averaged a concen- s {D t tion of 420 persons per square mile. In some parts of this region, population densities were found recently to exceed 1,000 persons per square mile (Nelson et al., 1972). Eastern Nigeria is the most densely settled area of troaical Africa {3 J .9 with the censest road network on the continent (Floyd, 1969). astern Nigeria‘s population is approximately 99.8 percent W African, divided into more than ten ethnic groups. Major groups are Ibo, Ibibio, Efik, Annang, Ijaw and Ogoja. 45 percent of the population is under fifteen years and the annual population growth rate is between 2.4 and 2.8 percent. The official literacy estimate in 1970 was 25 percent (Nelson __t__ag., 1972). Climate Climatically, Eastern Nigeria is tropical with year—round high temperatures. Four seasons are distinguishable: the rainy season starts in February along the coasts and moves SPadually northward with heavier rains continuing through July. August has a decline in rainfall. Rains are again heavy from September to early November (Nelson §§.§l3: 1972). .153 OF." .3 C 1.1 'ns 0 ,. . foil. 54., x.‘. q WI‘ " ‘JIU ya u .4 I ‘v‘ V )7 5\ I I‘LL.“ u--.¢.'.L.I wn.-' A L. Ft 1“. v e per .1‘ A" A Q I'\ . d.‘ .53 UK; \ {JP-e Le LU The dry season lasts from mid—November to February but occasional rains occur even then. Seasonal climatic variations are governed by the major airmass movements that affect all of West Africa. These include a tropical-maritime airmass that comes from the southwest across the Gulf of Guinea, is monsoonal in character and composed of moist, relatively cool air. It blows between February and mid— November. The harmattan or northeast trade wind originates in the Sahara region and blows from the northeast between mid— November and February. It is hot, dry and dust-laden. Cool temperatures occur at higher altitudes around the Obudu Plateau (nmmimum elevation 6350 feet) and the Oban hills with maximum elevation of 3771 feet (Floyd, 1969). Available data show that mean maximum temperatures of Eastern Nigeria do not exceed 90°F while mean minimum temperatures do not fall below 65°F. Mean annual temperatures are everywhere above 75°F although they do not exceed 85°F (Floyd, 1969). The relative humidity throughout Eastern Nigeria is high, between TO percent and 80 percent. In general it is higher in the vicinity of the coast and decreases inland (Floyd, 1969). Average annual rainfall is 80 inches except in the Niger Delta where precipitation averages over 140 inches (Floyd, 1969; Nelson 33.31., 1972). Because of its latitudinal location, Eastern Nigeria experiences a high intensity of solar radiation and daylight hours are nearly constant from month to month (Davis, 1965). .nwtcrt; Ida 149.4; 1 7717' _..L|. Y‘t rrWOi r. L P.4- ls l O R\~ to ere A y- w n --‘ l «\u r is. all. .1 «C In Eastern Nigeria, the lepe of the terrain, together with the mineral properties of underlying rocks, have been important in resolving the broad characteristics of the main soil groups (Floyd, 1969). Floyd distinguishes five main classes of soils on the basis of their morphology and the degree of profile deveIOpment. Lithosols are shallow, stony soils occurring on steep slepes where profile develOpment is retarded due to erosion. Such soils are formed over resistant rocks ~ranite and gneisses, also sandy or silty shales. :i ,s‘ o :3‘ n) U) C'} Lithosols are found on the steep, rocky slopes of the Oban Hills, the Obudu Plateau, the Nsukka-Okigwi-Arochuku escarpment and northwest of Awgu. Alluvial soils are young soils that lack well—developed horizons. They are derived from recent alluvium deposited by river or sea water, and are subdivided into three mapping units. Pale-brown loamy alluvial soils are soils of the freshwater swamps. These are found at the northern section of the Niger Delta and within the flood plains of the Niger and Cross River. Soils of salt-water swamps are also called dark grey mangrove soils. These occur in the lower Niger Delta and the Cross River estuary. Extending along the coast from Calabar to the western border is the third type of alluVial soils that are brownish- yellow sandy sclls derived from beach ridges. Ferruginous tropical soils are partially—weathered soils which contain a certain amount of weatherable minerals such as silicates and sesquioxides. They are also referred to as l .- y57 all .8 . i I I II . .ra '( (\ . 4i. 1!. .WIa I 1.1. J _ :1. IL .1 F P "A P t P e H O .C C S t e T C. O C h 3 S F e e f d C O S S v e a S .1 be fr .r. .. I 8 e n n h ._ I n e n .1 so a C O E l R t G .1 .l G e o R. F .l .C or. Um e w. .23. F. X .s I W1. .C Le (\ 8. 3 V. F .n. p. S e m J. P E .1 a an“ a .. e b so D. P A”T. k at... r“ P . i E To :3 n .. C. R E t w r a e O .. a a o S w” a e «I C. a To n . a. .. . . ~ k .. n : C. e E w.“ 0 a 0 int. n . a...“ w .ii 0 0I 0 e c .1. 5. .3». e _ C a»... if. .L 1.. . o O .. . .l C I. O r.“ .C 3 r ... (I .. , a L t L a V1 0 fersiallitic soils. In Eastern Nigeria, these soils are rich in free iron and they occur over basalts and acid crystalline rocks. Ferruginous tropical soils are found in Ogoja Division. Ferrallitic soils are completely weathered soils. In Eastern Nigeria, these soils are rich in free iron but have a low mineral reserve and consequently a lower natural fertility than the ferruginous tropical soils. Ferrallitic soils cover over fifty percent of the entire Eastern Nigeria (Floyd, 1969). Hydromorphic soils are mineral soils whose morphology is influenced by seasonal waterlogging caused by underlying impervious shales. They are reddish—brown gravelly and pale clayey soils derived from shales. Although subject to water— logging these soils have been used for substantial production of yam, cassava maize and some legumes (Floyd, 1969). Hydro— morphic soils are found in Onitsha, Abakaliki and Ogoja Divisions. Most of these soils are poor and no suitable technology has been developed for farming them. They are, however, very suitable for growing tree crops such as plantain (Musa), raphia palm (Raphia spp.), iroko (Chlorophora excelsa), mahogany (Khaya spp.) and could also be useful for game ranching. 'Vegetation Vegetation of Eastern Nigeria varies according to climatic, topographic, edaphic and biotic factors. Keay (1959) mapped the principal plant zones and reviewed the factors affecting their distribution. In general, climatic factors have been most influential in governing the original vegetation cover of na (a 8.3-" 1; RD .I* ab 8 TC 1N“ Yr. i Y1 0“ L ' fwnvsfl“ :I /“ ’ ‘-\.~-é ‘ ms wh -of‘LA F—d v S l" M~¢ Inl» \ “UV ,- ‘\ ks ar. CL a» h. Eastern Nigeria (Keay, 1959; Floyd, 1969). The five main vegetation types are mangrove swamp on the coast around Calabar, freshwater swamp around Ahoada, rainforest, derived- savanna (a result of forest clearing) and montane rainforest and grassland. Mangrove swamp forests develop where deltic muds and silts accumulate, usually in tidal creeks and around brackish lagoons. Mangrove trees are unique for their stilt—root systems which raise the trunks above the high-tide mark, and permit growth of trees in soft mud and swampy environment. Some mangroves are adapted for greater salinity in the soil. Rhizophora racemosa is the pioneer species and the commonest mangrove in Eastern Nigeria. R. harrisoni dominate the middle area and R. mangle occupies the drier inner margins of mangrove swamps (Floyd, 1969). Inland from the mangrove swamp and around freshwater creeks and lagoons, freshwater swamp forest appears. This comprises an irregular growth of many trees, shrubs, herbs and grasses. Many freshwater swamp trees are upheld by systems of curving and ramifying adventitious roots. Trees found in freshwater swamp forests include raphia plam (Raphia Spp.), Abura and mahogany (Khaya ivorensis). This zone has been cleared extensively for rice production (Floyd, 1969). The rainforest contains the most important timber trees of Nigeria. The rainforest to the east and south of the Cross River has somewhat different characteristics than that over the rest of the region (Keay, 1959; Floyd, 1969). West of the Cross River, for some smaI is more abunc‘ The pres extended muct “en‘— .4 nature c limari :IDv-‘L . “III; aSSOCia EPASS (T~ "afar d Deg. a, u‘lua Erna- :L‘v'yle 8: t}]e dSte» IIat.- tau. T1 . He :'EV;L rt Cross River, virgin rainforest has virtually disappeared except for some small, remote and isolated stretches. Secondary growth is more abundant, particularly north-west of Port Harcourt. The present rainforest zone in Eastern Nigeria formerly extended much further north and covered areas now classified as derived savanna. Only in limited districts can remnants of mature climax rainforest be found. Traditional methods of farming have resulted in wholescale destruction and decimation of the tropical rainforest. The preservation and cultivation of the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) has produced a man-induced plant community called oil palm bush (Floyd, 1969). Derived savanna is a product of persistent slashing and burning of second-growth rainforest to create farm plots. As the fallow period between repeated clearing is shortened, the soils become increasingly impoverished and the vegetational cover develops into an open woodland. Grasses then invade the farmlands until the original high forest is replaced by a scrubby derived savanna, with only vestiges of the former plant associations. The savanna grasses Andropogon, spear grass (Imperata) and elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum) are ravaged annually by fires. With increasing invasions of plant species, the fires become fiercer until, among trees, only the most fire-tolerant species remain. Derived savanna covers much of the northern part of Eastern Nigeria. In Eastern Nigeria, montane vegetation occurs on the Obudu Plateau. The forest vegetation ceases at about 5,000 feet elevation and is replaced by montane grasses. The grasses represent the fire-climax vegetation resulting from many cen— turies of human influence (Floyd, 1969). Land Use and Animal Life Shifting cultivation is characteristic of the region. The agricultural economy is mainly one of individual small- holder farms which average between one and five acres. Hand tools are employed in most cases; there are very few mechanized farms. The basic food crops of cassava, yam, cocoyam, rice (Oryza sativa) and maize (Zea mays) are supplemented by cash crops like oil palm, cocoa (Theobroma cacao), and rubber (Hevea brasiliensis). When the high forest of tropical hardwoods is destroyed and put under cultivation, the open land created is useful especially for root crops. The original fertility lasts for two or three years. Arboreal animals tend to disappear and the ground-dwelling mammalian fauna consists mainly of small rodents which can easily find shelter in holes and under fallen trees. Farmlands, however, may ve visited by hcofed and other larger mammals (Rosevear, 1953). When farm plots are abandoned, a dense tangle of herbs, shrubs and tree seedlings rapidly occupies the ground and become woven together by creepers. As the ground becomes shielded by encroaching vegetation, humidity rises and growth opportunities are afforded also for climbing vines and an increasing number of wOody species (Rosevear, 1953). Fires occur in the derived savanna zone during the dry season. After the fires, the grasses sprout even before the arrival of the first rain showers. Except for goats and some muturu cattle, diseases carried by the tse-tse fly (Glossina spp.) have prevented large scale cattle—rearing in the Eastern States. Government-Sponsored agricultural projects have been concentrated on plantations of oil palm, rubber, cashew (Anacardium occidentale) and coconut (Cocos nucifera). In forest management, the trend is toward replacement of wild timber with plantations of teak (Tectona grandis), gmelina (Gmelina) and Eucalyptus. Objectives of the Present Study Of the several meat—production studies of African wild- life, only those conducted in West Africa and Botwana (see discussion) have attempted to analyze the harvest of the small fauna by indigenous peOple. This study is an attempt to stimulate further investigations and adequate management of the important bushmeat and other wildlife resources in Eastern Nigeria. It was'conducted in order to learn more about: 1. The extent of bushmeat use and the economic values of bushmeat and wild animal products. 2. Wildlife's contribution to tourism. 3. The attitudes of local populations toward wildlife. A. How administration and management of the wildlife resources might better be accomplished. METHODS In light of the resources and time available for this survey, it was considered best to employ a random sampling technique. Care was taken to sample the states and districts in proportion to their varied population densities. It was not sensible, however, for rural and urban dwellers to be represented in their correct proportions. Since it was easier and faster to sample the concentrated urban inhabitants, only about 30 percent of the sample were from the rural pOpulation. Rural sampling involved a lot of travelling in areas that often were inaccessible. In 1970, a literacy estimate of 25 percent was obtained by the Nigerian Government. This survey yielded a literacy estimate of 3A.58 percent. The difference may be an indication of inadequate sampling but the literacy rate certainly has increased during the past few years. Interview Schedule A total of 1,200 family heads from all political divisions, and covering urban and rural areas, was interviewed by detailed questionnaire. Housewives were interviewed but where a male 10 ll householder occasionally did grocery shopping, he was consulted for figures. Where the respondent was literate, two question- naires were used so that both interviewer and interviewee could read simultaneously. The interviewer was accompanied by a local resident in each locality visited. These assistants acted as interpreters where necessary and also assured the local people that the project was in their interest. In East Central State 738 Family heads were interviewed, while 277 in South Eastern State and 185 in Rivers State were questioned. Using a table of random numbers, streets and houses were selected in urban areas. In each house, the first two family heads with whom the interviewer came in contact were interviewed. In rural areas, families were selected from church or tax registers, again using random numbers (Fig. 1). To determine the total value (B) of bushmeat and animal products for all of Eastern Nigeria, average values of bushmeat p§§_§§_and of snails, skins and products made of skins were determined per sampled household. These were applied to the average number of households in the region according to the formula: EXT: H h B: Here E is the sum of expenditures for the pepulation sample; H is the number of households sampled; P is the total population and h is the mean size of all households. Data on meat pref— erences and public attitude toward wildlife were based on the 1,200 households sampled. samenessb mflzmssb Como om: poxm ooooo atom .H: ..__~P 1...... smomamo Rand Hsfl83m< osooxm oosH mpg nma pssoosmm whom mEeon momsCow sonooa .0: .mm .mm .mm .mm .mm .qm .mm .mm .Hm eHeHm mansoxo msflpo 3x5£oop< fisheso epsem smosmflocoso onH mowb ogzflm< .om manspo .mm osmwxo .mm :Hso .Sm mHmHQH .om swag .mm wsosz .sm menowso .mm oss< .mm fie: .Hm Hossxo ooscflpsoo I H .mwm onm SpSQO mmowo flxflamxmnd oXmEm Esflmmm smmaoxz soxH meannz Swasm O r-I COSLGKONKDON (\l 12 \0 OH 0 \L o 8% o N, o ‘i o ._ H Ho mefiwfiflt t r 10 \V Q ~ 9 e .1 e; .j o ./ .\.W¢./ m o o .\ \ be e of. ‘o‘\o)o\o\ A \NWIW'NJVOV o /..l b .l\ ./ sew. .\ semen ./ L IFS: a-.. we 2-1mm. 0. 3%.»... ....__Hsom. i mm H Ema: ##5de mo :...:.,.Hm mdo Q\ 0 m: 0 H: o O x or. .. amo a o .330 @m o .\ mm o . _ mmo .- m cmo rmo 0H-§Dmmd 2:38.20 \ i o \ “Mi—NO x mm o 1 J mm 0 33m. . rso . am 0 » ma 0 80 .T o mmo J? .\ omo bc>yeu still eat bushmeat? Yes (100%) No —— IDC>you eat snails? Yes (76.92%) No (23.08%) Tiaye you eaten eggs from game birds? Yes (100%) No -- 130 you prefer bushmeat to domestic meat? Yes (61.5%) No 38.5% thy do you prefer bushmeat to domestic meat? (Taste 75.1%, more nutritious 3.8%, other reasons 21.1%) VVhat species of wild animals do you eat most often? (cane rat, bush pig, wild birds, antelopes, porcupine, snails). ”That wild animal meat do you like to eat most? 26 27 (cane rat 69.25%, bush pig 15.33%, wild birds 7.65%, antelopes 3.9%, porcupine 3.83%) 9. Do you prefer game eggs to domestic eggs? Yes ( 3 8- %) No (46.17%) 10. Do you prefer bushmeat to chicken? Yes (30.75%) No (69.25%) 11. Do you prefer bushmeat to beef? Yes (81. 0%) No (19.0%) Food Expenditures Per Family 1. How much did you spend on food for the past month?* (Average of N42.38, U.S. $69.20) 2. Out of that amount, how much did you spend on protein foods? (Average of N25.10 or 59.24%) 3. Out of the amount spent on protein foods how much did you spend on domestic meat (36.66%) other fish (27.31%) bushmeat (19.36%) stockfish (10.19%) snails (6. 48%) insects (0%) Had) £10 o‘fl? 4. How much did you spend on game eg.s during the past month? (Average of N2.07; U.S. $3.38 *including food produced by the interviewee and his family. Tourism Eastern Nigeria has a good potential for developing a tourist industry based on its wildlife heritage. By 1974, the Enugu Zoological Garden had 95 reptiles, 138 birds and 380 mammals. In 1966, it recorded a total of 43,500 fee—paying visitors with a revenue of N2,000. The 200 was not functioning between 1967 and 1970 because of the Nigerian civil war. For the 1971—72 year, there were 8,000 fee-paying visitors and gate fees of N145.00 were collected. By 1972—73, the number of visit rs had risen to 53,000 who paid N3,807.O5 (Game Conservation Unit, Enugu). During 1973—74 period, fee-paying visitors had increased to 77,294 and fees collected at the gate amounted to N5,583.81 (Table 7). The Forest Department's Game Preservation Unit in Enugu has no wildlife expert and is seriously under-staffed, with only 59 personnel in 1974. Its annual budget was about N14,000 for 1970—71, N30,000 in 1971—72, N35,000 in 1972—73 and N122,000 in 1973-74. Since the end of the Nigerian civil war in 1970, this unit had Spent about N201,000 reconstructing the zoo and re—equipping its outstations (Game Conservation Unit, Enugu). The Game Department in Calabar has a staff strength of about 50 most of whom are deployed in the 200. In 1972, the Calabar Zoo recorded 27,116 feeepaying visitors and by the following year the number had increased to 48,200 (Table 8). By 1974, the total number of visitors to the 200 including fee-paying and non-fee-paying visitors was 75,316. Of this, 55.38 percent were children (Table 8) (Calabar Zoo Records). 29 TABLE 7. ANNUAL NUMBER OF ZOO VISITORS AND REVENUE OF THE GAME CONSERVATION UNIT, ENUGU. FEE PAYING VISITORS AMOUNT N LICENCES OTHERS TOTAL YEAR TO THE ZOO COLLECTED/ZOO N N N 1966 43,500 2,000 — ——————————— 2,000 1971—72 8,000 382.05 145.50 —————— 527.55 1972—73 53,000 3,807.05 104.50 28.65 3,940.15 1973—74 77.294 5,583.81 143.50 33.53 5,760.84 Source: Extracted from Annual Reports of the Game Conservation Unit, Enugu, East Central State, Nigeria. 30 TABLE 8. ANNUAL NUMBER OF VISITORS AND REVENUE, CALABAR ZOO NUMBER OF NUMBER OF TOTAL NUMBER ADULT VISITORS OF YEAR VISITORS CHILDREN VISITORS REVENUE N 1972 (Oct.—Dec.) 15,815 11,301 27,116 1,073.00 1973 25,896 22,304 48,200 2,956.00 1974 33,605* 41,711* 75,316 3,575.00 * Fee—paying and non fee-paying Source: Extracted from the records of the Calabar Zoo. The number of zoo Visitors is increasing annually in both Enugu and Calabar. 20 percent and 15 percent, respectively, of the peOple interviewed have been to zoos and game reserves. This indicates that there is a growing public interest in the wildlife resource and tourism. Operating costs for Enugu and Calabar zoological gardens exceeded the total revenues by a wide margin. This is expected because the two zoological gardens have been under reconstruction since the end of the Nigerian civil war. However, a steady reduction in capital expenditure aid better efficiency should make the two zoological gardens self-supporting within a few years. There are still wild areas of potential value as tourist attractions in the Eastern States if their remaining wildlife resources could be protected and managed (Holsworth, 1970). Such areas include the Anambra Forest Reserve which still has a number of manatee (Trichechus senegalensis), hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius), buffalo (Syncerus nanus), African elephant (Loxodonta africana), kob (Adenota kob), bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), waterbuck (Kobus defassa), grass cutter, 1e0pard (Panthera pardus), possibly chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) plus small reptiles, mammals and birds (Henshaw, 1971). Other areas with similar wildlife species include Umuaro in Isiuzo Division, Onu Anyim Agelagu Forest Reserve in Izzi Division, the Udi—Nsukka proposed reserve, Ukpom Bende Forest Reserve and Mamu Forest Reserve. Abadaba Lake in Etiti Division has crocodiles which have been accused of being man- eating. 32 In the South Eastern State the prOposed Boshi—Okwango game reserve has a population of wildlife sufficient to make it both a tourist attraction and a source of bushmeat if management can be planned to coordinate the two endeavors. Mammals in this area include the bay duiker (Cephalophus dorsalis), yellow-backed duiker (CephaIOphus silvicultor), red-flanked duiker (Cephalophus rufilatus), bush pig, and various small mammals, birds and reptiles. In the Rivers State there are two proposed areas known only as Game Reserve A and Game Reserve B. Large mammals found in these areas include the buffalo, hippopotamus, elephant, lion, leopard and situtunga (Limnotragus spekei). Crocodiles, manatees and possibly the pigmy hippo (ChoerOpsis liberiensis) are inhabitants of the Niger delta (Heslop, 1944, 1945; Okafor personal com.). The last species is unique because it occurs only in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Nigeria and southeastern Guinea except for zoo and museum specimens in different countries (Rosevear, 1953; Robinson, 1970). It has not been confirmed in Nigeria (Robinson, 1970). QUESTIONNAIRE RESULTS 2 Tourism, Trophies and Rare Species Have you ever been to a zoo? Yes (20%) No (80%) Have you ever been to a ame reserve? Yes (15%) No (85% Do you own any wild animal skin or product made of wild animal skin? Yes (38.4%) No (61.6%) How much did you spend on wild animal skin and products in the last one year? (Average of N2.62; U.S. $4.27) Do you own any ivory or elephant tusk? Yes (23.0%) No (77%) Do you still have the following animals in your Village area? gorilla Yes 2%)* No 98% elephant Yes 20% No 80% lion Yes 15% , No 85% leopard Yes 4.5%) No 95.5%; crocodile Yes 48.5%) No 51.5% *These reports require confirmation. 33 IhflDZLic Attitudes Toward Wildlife The common Ibo term for wildlife is "anu ofia", meaning botfla untamed animal and game meat. Apart from a few species Vduosse killing is forbidden by local custom, others seem to haxme no place in the society. Lion hunters are highly re— spexzted and admired in their communities and the name "Ogflouagu", meaning lien or leopard killer, is a special prerog- atiAfe of those who have killed one of these beasts. Of 1200 Deople interviewed, 7.67 percent regularly hunt IEH°Lfood and money. Among Eastern Nigeria residents 69.25 percenit were aware of animals whose killing is forbidden accorxiing to local culture. Only 38.5 percent, however, were aware of the existence of wildlife laws in Nigeria (Table 9). 62 pelacent would support the restriction of hunting if bushmeat Specieas were scarce; 88.5 percent would support the establish- ment CDf'game reserves in their areas and 88.4 percent felt that wildlfigfe should be preserved for future generations. About 92 pel?cent agreed that Nigerian wildlife should be managed for tourisnn. 96.2 percent felt that wildlife management should be Inainliy'used for meat supplies. There were varied opinions (Questionnaire Results 3) on how'to increase the supply of bushmeat in the region. While 7°5 19ercent of those interviewed did not know what should be dorma, 4 percent favored improved processing and refrigeration, 7'7' percent wanted urban expansion limited and 19.2 percent feldl that hunting should be restricted. About 23.08 percent, hOVRever, thought that unrestricted hunting would result in TABLE 9. PUBLIC ATTITUDES TOWARD WILDLIFE IN EASTERN NIGERIA YES % N0 % 1. Aware of cultural restriction on killing of some wildlife 69.25 30.75 2. Aware of existence of wildlife laws 38.5 61.5 3. Aware of illegal hunting methods 34.6 65.4 4. Support restriction of hunting when bushmeat species are scarce 61.5 38.5 5. Support establishment of game reserve in their locality 88.5 11.5 6. Wildlife should be preserved for future generations 88.4 11.6 7. Wildlife should be managed for meat supply 96.2 3.8 8. Wildlife should be managed for tourism 92.3 7.7 increased bushmeat supply. For this group hunting pressure has no effect on animal numbers. To another 38.5 percent, the answer lies in domestication of wildlife. 10. QUESTIONNAIRE RESULTS 3 Public Attitude Toward Wildlife Do you know of the existence of any wildlife law in Nigeria? Yes (38.5%) No (61.5%) Do you know of any animal whose killing is forbidden by your culture? Yes (69.25%) No (30.75%) Where bushmeat species are becoming scarce are you in favor of the government (or laws) restricting hunting until the supply is restored? Yes (62%) No (38%) Do you approve of the establishment of a game reserve in your area? Yes (88.5%) No (11.5%) Do you think that wildlife should be managed for tourism? Yes (92.3%) No (7.7%) Do you know of any illegal hunting methods? Yes (34.6%) No (65.4%) Where overhunting is identified as a cause of scarcity of bushmeat, do you feel that the government should regulate hunting to ensure that the supply is maintained? Yes (80.75%) No (19.25% Do you think regulations of hunting should be left to the local communities? Yes (47.57%) No (52.43%) What do you think should be done to increase the supply of bushmeat? (Domestication of wildlife 38.5%, unrestricted hunting 23.08%, restricted hunting 19.25%, limit urban expansion 7.66%, im roved processing and refrigeration 4.0%, don't know 7.5%? Do you think wildlife should be managed as a source of meat? Yes (96.2%) No (3.8%) 37 ll. 12. 38 Do you think that the government should protect Nigerian wildlife for future generations? Yes (88.4%) No (11.5%) What is your education background? Literate (34.58%) Illiterate (65.42%) Hunting Do you hunt? Yes (7.67%) No (92. 33%) If so, do you hunt for fun or for food or for money? Fun (0) Food and Money (100%) All ---— Do you have more or less professional hunters in your village/community now than ten years ago? More (11.6%) Les (88 4% 03 None --—- Do you think that the decline in hunters is due to decreasing game? Yes (47.8%) No (52.2%) DISCUSSION Meat Production Intensive studies of utilization of the wildlife resource in Nigeria are lacking. Petrides (1965) was evidently the first to report on the importance of bushmeat in Nigeria. Apart from his paper and a rural economic survey by the Nigerian Federal Office of Statistics in 1966, there seem to be no other works on the value of this important resource. Elsewhere in West Africa, Jollans (1959) studied the meat preferences of the people of central Ghana and revealed that the giant African snail and fish were liked better than other forms of animal protein. Riney and Hill (1967) found that bushmeat accounted for over 80 percent of the fresh meat consumed in Ghana. Clottey (1958, 1969) investigated the production and utilization of animal products there as well as the protein value of the cane rat and the giant rat (Cricetomys spp). Asibey (1965a, 1965b, 1966a, 1966b) carried out valuable studies on Ghana's wildlife resources and natural reserves with particular reference to bushmeat. In the Butouri region of Cameroun a consumption of bushmeat of about 18 pounds per person per year was estimated (Riney and Hill 1967). Congo Brazzaville had a rough estimate of bushmeat consumption of about 8 pounds per person per year or 50 percent of the fresh meat consumed in that country (Riney, 1964). In Botswana, 39 40 Butynski (1973) reported that reliance upon wildlife as a protein and revenue source was very significant. The total contribution by wildlife to Botswana's economy amounts to an estimated U.S. $4.4 to $5.5 million per annum (Von Richter and Butynski, 1973). Von Richter (1969) estimated that about 60 percent of the protein consumed within Botswana is derived from wildlife. In South Africa, more than U.S. $1,120,000 worth of bushmeat is sold annually on the Transvaal markets alone. In other parts of the world, too, wild animals are managed for harvest. Introduced species like the red deer (Cervus elaphus) are slaughtered commercially and their meat exported from New Zealand. The production of tinned tails of wallaby (Macropus rufogriseus) and kangaroo (Macropus giganteus) tails is a growing export business in Australia (Riney, 1964). Studies dealing with the utilization of hoofed animals as an economic resource were reported as early as the 1950s. Petrides (1956), Darling (1960a, 1960b, 1961), Talbot §§_gg,, (1961, 1965), Harthoorn (1961), Riney (1961), Simon (1962), Stewart (1963), Ledger (1963), Dasmann (1963, 1964), Brown (1963, 1969), and Talbot (1963, 1964, 1967) all have discussed this topic. Petrides and Swank (1958) earlier advocated and, after them, Longhurst (1957) detailed a population reduction program for the Queen Elizabeth (now Ruwenzori) National Park, Uganda, and discussed the utilization of meat of harvested animals. Mossman and Dasmann (1962) demonstrated the feasibility of cropping and marketing wildlife in Rhodesia. Ledger 22.23: (1967) discussed wildlife and food production with special 41 reference to the semi-arid areas of the tropics and subtropics. These biologists concluded that wildlife could often have important place in extensive agriculture and that there is marked fundamental difference in carcass composition between wild and domesticated ruminants, namely that the former do not lay down fat when gaining live weight, but maintain a high and constant level of muscle in the carcass. A rural economic survey (Federal Office of Statistics, 1967) showed that by 1966-67 bushmeat accounted for about 25 percent of the animal protein supply for all Nigeria. A later survey of annual consumption of animal protein revealed that bushmeat constitutes as much as 30 percent of animal protein consumed in the country (Henshaw, 1970). In the West and Mid—Western states the resource accounted for 20 and 25 percent respectively of animal protein diet. In Eastern Nigeria, bushmeat was also significant especially in Yenagoa, Enugu, Calabar and Ogoja provinces where it provided 14 to 18 percent of the animal protein eaten (Federal Office of Statistics, 1967). This study, however, indicated that bushmeat supplies 25.84 percent of Eastern Nigeria's animal protein. In the southern states of Nigeria, bushmeat was valued at more than N18 million (U.S. $29.39 million) annually. For the same area, the rural economic survey of 1966-67 indicated that domestic animals provided only N22 million of meat annually. The 20 million people consuming bushmeat represented 80 percent of those in the south, or 40 percent of the total population of Nigeria (Holsworth, 1970). The value of bushmeat in Northern 42 Nigeria was estimated at N6 million to N12 million and N30 million in Nigeria as a whole. In addition, the production of fish and shellfish was valued at N70 million. The total value of naturally-produced animal protein was about N100 million annually or nearly 4 percent of the gross domestic product of ligeria (Federal Office of Statistics, 1967). PrOper management is necessary if wildlife is to continue to provide badly-needed protein foods especially for the rural pOpulation. It will be difficult to persuade people with a 34.58 percent literacy rate and living near a starvation level to refrain from capturing a vital part of their already very low protein diet in the interest of conservation. The principal need will be to give practical and convincing evidence to the people that prOper management will result in more meat. An estimate of post-harvest spoilage of bushmeat and wild- life products is needed in Eastern Nigeria. Bushmeat consumption by urban and rural residents in the region Should be determined. It is equally important that the existing Game Reserves in Nigeria should be reviewed and their successes and contribution to conservation ascertained. Periodic survey of these reserves is necessary in order to monitor the status of wildlife and trend of the ecosystem. Administration of Nigeria‘s Wildlife Resource The Nigerian government will gain economically and culturally if it undertakes wildlife conservation and the management of bushmeat for sustained production. To begin 43 with, in Nigeria the production and marketing of meat even from domestic animals are very inefficient processes. It has been determined that raising meat animals to market age takes twice as long there as in Europe and the animals are twice the age and half the carcass weight of those of the United States or Australia (Johnson 23.232: 1969). In an area of serious protein shortage, wildlife could be managed as a primary or secondary product of the land either as wild, semi—wild or even as domesticated stock (Petrides, 1965). Wild animals Show a very rapid growth rate and early maturity as compared with livestock (Petrides, 1965). The meat content of a carcass of a wild animal is higher than that of cattle or sheep (Riney, 1967; Curry-Lindahl, 1969a). The killing—out percentage (dressed carcass expressed as a percentage of the animal's live weight) for seven Species of antelopes varied between 52.5 and 63.2 percent, while it seldom exceeds 50 percent in cattle, 45 percent in goats and about 44 percent in sheep (Curry-Lindahl, 1969a). A higher proportion of wild animals can be culled annually and some combination of wildlife can thrive on land where domestic animals waste and die (Curry-Lindahl, 1969b). In the tsetse fly infested areas of Nigeria, wild animals will be a more reliable and cheaper source of meat than domestic stock (Petrides, 1965). Wild animals tend to move more freely to avoid grazing heavily in any one place. In dry areas some species of wild— life do not drink water for long periods, obtaining much or 44 all of their water from their food. Those species that do drink do not require as much water as cattle. In the long run, wild animals make less demand on their habitats than livestock. Most wildlife is immune to tsetse fly—borne diseases that constitute an overwhelming obstacle to livestock production in southern Nigeria. Tourist Traffic and Wildlife In 1966, Kenya recorded 225,000 tourists who came primarily to View wildlife. These people brought Kenya foreign exchange worth N24.2 million or $39.5 million (Denney, 1968). In 1970 Kenya had a total of 262,000 tourists who brought K 16.7 million in foreign exchange and provided jobs for about 40,000 people. Income from national parks in East Africa probably yields a greater economic return per unit area than would any other use to which the land could be put (Petrides and Swank, 1958). The increase in the number of visitors to the Zoological Gardens at Enugu, Calabar, Port Harcourt and the University of Nigeria in Nsukka indicates the desire of the pOpulation to view wildlife. Zoological gardens are a good initial avenue for raising interest in wildlife conservation among government Officials and urban inhabitants. The Yankari Game Reserve in the North—Eastern State has been recording increasing number of visitors since it was opened to the public in 1962. Whereas during the 1962-1963 year 220 visitors came to Yankari bringing a revenue of N240, by 1968—1969 period the number of visitors had increased to 2,731 and the revenue was N4,340 (Chief Game Warden, 1969). At the end of the Nigerian civil war in 1970, a national Strategy for Agricultural Development 1970—85 emerged. This program, among other things, dealt with the contribution that the wildlife resource could make in the welfare and economy of Nigeria. This culminated in the birth of a National Committee on the Conservation of Wildlife and Recreational Forestry. The committee projected that by 1985 Nigeria should have about one-tenth of the annual number of tourists currently visiting Kenya. These 25,000 visitors would bring N3,050,000 ($4.9 million) in foreign exchange and create jobs for about 4,000 people (Nigerian Federal Department of Forestry 1971). It is expected that national parks and reserves will attract money to the rural areas where the local population will provide goods and services to tourists. Jobs in anti—poaching and cropping schemes would become available to local professional hunters. Export of Wildlife and Wildlife Products The export of live wild animals for medical research, private collections and zoological gardens is big business in West and Central Africa. From Kano (Nigeria) airport alone during 1959-1960, over 6,500 gray parrots, Canaries and love- birds were exported officially. The actual number of animals exported was probably considerably higher since from an earlier report, where official figures showed 23 monkeys, one British firm alone exported 250 monkeys a week from Kano airport 46 (Riney and Hill, 1967). Between 900 and 7800 live wild animals have been exported annually from Kano airport (Table 10). Revenues from export taxes and from trOphy and hunting fees must be considerable Since the license for a chimpanzee requires payment of a N200 ($327.00) trophy fee and a N20 ($33.00) hunting license, in addition to the export tax (Holsworth, 1970). An export fee of N6 was charged for each gray parrot, mammal and reptile and N2 for other birds. In 1966, Nigeria exported N30,000 worth of undressed reptile skins and made a total N1,450,000 from wild animal skins (Table 11). In that same year, revenue from wildlife amounted to 0.2 percent of the total export duties earned by Nigeria (Holsworth, 1970). Illegal export of skins and trophies from any country means considerable loss of revenue as well as possibly endangering species survival. Revenue is also lost through faulty preparation of skins and hides. The next wildlife law for Nigeria must ban the killing and export of animal products and live animals that are listed as endangered species by international authorities. Factors Affecting Wildlife Sociological Meat from livestock is expensive and the poor peasants in the rural areas, who constitute about 80 percent of the Nigerian population, have resorted to indiscriminate slaughter of wildlife for their meat supply. Each person considers wild animals as resources he can utilize freely and for his Table 10. 47 Export of Live Wild Animals From Kano Airport, 1959-1969 Species Year 1959-60 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 Mammals Patas monkey 48 1511 2056 1231 1012 671 500 269 Chimpanzee 27 14 17 11 5 0 0 0 Baboon 18 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Mandrill 17 O 0 0 1 0 O 0 Misc. primates 36 O 16 8 O 0 0 9 Lion 0 0 0 0 l 0 0 0 Cheetah 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 Misc. cats 0 O 0 0 0 0 1 0 Misc. civets 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 2 Other carnivores 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 2 Other mammals ll 4 5 O 2 0 4 10 Subtotal (Mammals) 158 1539 2094 1250 1021 671 507 294 Birds African gray parrot 1587 523 646 481 349 102 66 109 Misc. Psittacidae 1234 1 1 155 4 12 1 0 Crowned crane 428 109 590 222 192 177 310 189 Ground hornbill 0 2 4 0 0 0 0 15 Other hornbills O 0 0 2 0 24 0 0 Bustards O l 0 4 0 10 2 0 Secretary bird 0 8 13 20 35 10 13 5 Ostrich 0 2 3 0 0 l 3 0 Pelican 0 0 0 4 7 3 16 8 Darter O 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 White (European) stork 0 0 0 24 26 56 14 14 White-bellied stork 0 0 10 8 19 8 13 74 Woolly-necked stork O 0 2 0 1 0 5 0 Open-bill Stork 0 0 0 0 0 6 9 0 Jabiru Stork 0 25 17 11 21 6 14 3 Marabou Stork O 9 10 34 18 11 41 28 Wood ibis 0 2 4 6 O 14 9 29 Unspecified Ciconiidae 0 0 3 14 17 7 0 0 Hammer kop 0 17 11 5 8 12 15 0 Sacred ibis 0 2 0 0 0 6 16 8 Spoon bill 0 O 0 O 0 2 0 0 Other Ciconiiformes 0 0 0 0 19 8 0 0 White-faced duck 0 119 92 10 29 74 122 36 Pygmy goose 0 11 35 18 32 4 113 5 Knob-billed goose 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 5 Spur-winged goose 0 2 0 10 0 0 O 0 Other Anatidae 0 0 1 0 54 4 0 1 Falcons, kestrels, hawks 0 2 0 0 6 27 117 36 Bateleur eagle 0 0 6 4 7 26 44 22 Misc. eagles 0 0 12 l9 13 17 1 1 Vultures 0 0 O 0 0 1 12 17 Guinea fowl 0 4 0 0 O 0 1 2 Other Galliformes 0 0 0 0 4 10 4 0 Misc. Columbidae 0 12 0 0 0 0 4 1 Purple gallinule 0 0 2 3 0 0 0 0 Thick-knee 0 0 0 4 0 7 0 0 Croodile-bird 0 76 ‘ 10 155 1 92 30 6 Other plovers 0 0 O 2 10 6 0 0 Plantain eater O 4 6 8 1 24 18 12 Long-tailed starling 0 2 6 0 O 18 0 0 Crows 0 64 0 2 4 0 0 0 Canaries 3695 0 O 0 0 10 0 0 Other finches 784 0 0 0 0 20 0 0 Misc. birds, unidentified 0 248 0 2 2 9 17 4 Subtotal (Birds) 7728 1245 1484 1227 785 814 1030 630 Total 7886 2784 3578 2477 1806 1485 1537 924 *Source: Holsworth, W. H. 1970 wildlife Management (Table 7, p. 19). FAQ, Rome. 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