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ARSTRACT

AECCL 351C AAD RCMALTIC FAIflTIflG
IN LATE EIGHTEEATH AfiD EARLY EIfiLTEEATH7
CEfiTURY EiGLAfiD AhD FRALCE

by Arthur Lincoln Harshman

Body of Abstract

This thesis is concerned with the fleoclaseic and Roman-
tic movements in painting in the late eighteenth and early
nineteenth centuries. Primary consideration has been given
to those countries in wnich these movements reached their
highest intensity, England and France.

The basic problem involved was to trace the deueiorment
of Romanticism from heeclassicisn, and to place enchasis
on the similarities as well as the differences between the two
moveMents that have often been regarded as distinct and sep-
arate entities.

Primary consideration has been given to the aesthetics
of fieoclassicisn in the eighteenth century, and its develop-
ment into the Rbnantic theory of the early nineteenth century;
this has been QUCOMleSth by comparing neoclassic theory to
neoclassic and Pre-Rovantic painting in England. fieoclnsaic
theory is then traced in its development into the Pre-Ronantic

fainting of England, and to its fulfillment and exhaustion in

Arthur Lincoln Harshman

the French neoclassic painting of David. Romanticism has
been traced in England and France with special enphasis on
the works of Delacroix. Two brief chapters on Ingres and
Goya follow to stress the differences in terms of individual
style that developed within the movement of Romanticism.

This thesis has combined a stylistic and sociological
approach to these two movements in painting to stress the
inrortance of external as well as internal influences on
the deseZOpments in their general art styles.

Where possible, personality f ctors influencing the
work of artists have been discussed, in an attempt to evidence
both similarities and differences between a personality and
its creations.

Sir Joshua Reynolds has been discussed in reference to
his aesthetic theories, which evidence the evolvenent of
'Neoclassical into Pre-Romantic theory in England; David,
Delacroix, Goya, and Ingres have been studied from a basic
stylistic approach. In these latter cases tneir most impor-
tant works have been given preference for discussion.

Conclusions reached have been that the personality of
an artist is not necessarily reflected by his artistic style,
that external social and political movements do not bring
acout styles in art, but do influence then when they coincide

in respect to subject matter, and, in many cases, technique}

that stylistic terns such as "Eeoclassic" are only arplicable
to broad movenents within the history of art, are often misused

and misspelled, and must be constantly clarified and reinterpreted

Arthur Lincoln Harshman

when an individual artistic style within such a movement
is being approached for understanding.

One of the major considerations of the thesis has been
to stress the importance of sociology and psychology in
studying any stylistic problem in art history, and that
when a stylistic approach alone is used, the reader or
student has a resulting understanding only of comparative
techniques, but is without any understanding of how and why

such iconology and iconography came about.

MI‘OCLASS I C A AD ROHA :1."ch PA I AT] NO
IN LA TE EIGHTEEA'TH A MD EA RLY A’Ih‘ETE-‘EA‘TH
CE l‘sz’U R Y EhGLA ND A AD F'RA ACE

By

Arthur Lincoln Harshman

A THESIS

Submitted to
Hichigan State University
in partial fulfillment of'the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF' ARTS

Department of Art

1964

CCfiTEfiWS

Chapter Faye

I.
II.

III.

IV.
V.

VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.

Introduction..........................................1
England: Neoclassicism and Pre-Romanticism in Painting
and Aesthetics........................................5
Eighteenth Century Influences on French Neoclassicism
and Romanticism......................................23
Jacques-Louis David..................................33
Iron Pre-Romanticism to Romanticism in England and
France...............................................44
£ugene Delacroix.....................................61
Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres........................71
Francisco Jos‘ de Goya y Lucientes...................77
Summary & Conclusions................................84
footnotes............................................91

BibliographyOOOOO00......O0.0.0....0.00.00.00.000000095

-tt-

I
INTRODUCTIO”

”Classic" and “Romantic" are two terms that have been
adapted to an almost universal application within the various
disciplines of the Humanities. Art, Literature, and husic
are three fields that imnediately cone to mind when these
labels are mentioned. This universality also applies to
many other academic disciplines outside of, but connected to
the Humanities by many direct and indirect means of'interdis-
ciplinary study and research.

In being so universal, and in being so general in defi-
nition, these terms have brought about as many problems as
they have helped to solve. As is true of the terminology and
methodology of other academic fields, they can be applied to
practically anything within the realm of'human experience, and
they are constantly reinterpreted and redefined, thus acquir-
ing new meaning, but also often further unclarity at the same
time.

Thus Herbert Read distinguishes classic from romantic
art in stating that one is involved with "character", the other
with "personality": Heinrich wolfflin speaks of the "linear”
and the "painterly" style? and Waldemar Deanna lists the
differences between 'classicism" and "primitivism'. Even in
Psychology, Otto Rank utilizes the terms to trace relation~
ships between artists and their work. Jaccues Rarzun has
written an entire book to again redefine the terms, and their
relationship to the term "modern”, and his conclusions have

-1-

-2-
shown prinarily that the two terms must be applied within
a context of relativity depending upon the artist, his
work, and his culture.

In effect, "classic" and ”romantic” serve only as
general categories within any field, and within the Hunani-
ties they serve either to narrow down our attention to the
two historical periods in art that they designate, or to
describe the general traits of an artist and his work as a
means of differentiation from other artists and works within
the some historical period.

This thesis is concerned with that period in the history
of painting that roughly extends from the mid-eighteenth to
the hid-nineteenth century-and is characterized by the two
styles, Neoclassicism and Romanticism.

Having been unable to take courses in this area in my
graduate work, one of the central purposes of this thesis will
be to evidence my knowledge of it by tracing the develOpnents
that occured within these styles. But the more important goal
of this thesis will be to stress the relativity between these
two styles by discussing the similarities as well as the
differences that exist between them. This will be done pri-
marily through stylistic interpretations, but much weight
will also be given to the Sociological and Psychological

6
approaches to Art History as described by Arnold Hauser.

The major achievements in these two styles of painting
fall within England and France, and they will thus be the

major countries under discussion; but this will not rule out

-3-
the necessity of considering various influences on the
heoclasstc and Romantic painting of these two countries
from other European nations, notably Germany, or of dis—
cussing prominent painters outside of England or France
who contributed importantly to one of these styles, such as
Goya.

Consideration of developments within these two styles
of painting will be done in terms of the outstanding artists
of the neoclassic-Romantic perioda—Reynolds, David, Delacroix,
Ingres, and Goya. In discussing some of these painters, more
emphasis will be placed on aesthetic than on stylistic de-
velopments, and this will be.nost obvious in the section on
Reynolds. Other minor painters will also be discussed fer
further clarification of the styles, but within reference to
the major painters under innediate concern.

It is my opinion that the art of any period in history
need not necessarily be suoported by the many other social
and Cultural developnents of its time to ensure an understanding
of it, but that such data can certainly give a much deeper
understanding of it that would otherwise be true, and that
the latter case, when possible, is to be desired in preference
to the former. This thésis will thus consider the painting
of this era in constant reference to the other social and
cultural movements of the tine; for indeed, these other ibuen
ments have in many cases been just as responsible for the

fainting that come about as were the painters themselves.
Stylisticaily, most of the discussion will focus on the

.4-
early nineteenth century, as at this tine the two trends'
become manifest, and evidence the first great changes from
neoclassic into Ronantic painting. On the other hand, the
aesthetic implications of this period will be discussed in
terns of the eighteenth century, the century of acadenies
and acadexic theories.

Some examples of’"classic" and "romantic" trends in the
arts previous to this period will also be discussed, but
again only as a means to clarify and better understand the
painting of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.

fio artistic period is really worth exanination without
some reference to the art of our own times, a process that
brings about more understanding of both areas; but the major
body of this thesis will be concerned with the years roughly
between 1750 and 1850, and any Inention of‘the present day
ranifications of this period will be largely confined to the

sunmary and conclusions.

II

ZNGLAWD: KEUCLASSICISX A50 FRE~RCEA3TIC13£ IN FAILTIKG AHD
AESTHETICS

During the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries
the art of'Europe energed from the grand and often overly-
ponpaus Baroque style into the intricate and often highly
affected Rococo; and within the eighteenth century the Rococo
gradually merged into the novenent of Neoclassicism.

The rapidity and intensity of change from one artistic
style into another is dependent in varying degrees upon the
social and political novenents within a country, and upon
past develOpnents within each artistic field of a country.

Eighteenth century England provided no exception to the
fact that in many cases a new style in an artistic discipline
did not cone about abruptly, but gradually, and often existed
simultaneously with its predecessor during many phases of its
development. In English architecture of the early eighteenth
century, for exanple, the exteriors of buildings were evol-
ving from Baroque into Neoclassic stylization, while the more
intieate Rococo had begun its domination of the interiors.

This basic classic-ranantic paradox is one of the most
typical features of the eighteenth century, and it is found
in some degree in alsost all of its cultural manifestations.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Voltaire are two excellent exanples
of this dichotomy; and even within each of these men, as in
all of us, it exists. Rousseau, the great precursor of
Roeanticismf lived in an eighteenth century France dominated

.5-

.5...
by rationalism, and a conflict between internal enotionalism
and external rationalism is evident in many of his writings:

The worship God requires is that of the heart;
and when this is sincere, it is always uniform.

The English poet Alexander Pope, although he used a
style that could be called Rbcoco in effectioalso stressed
the classical concepts of order and simplicity in his rhyme
construction and in his ideas.

And who but wishes to invert the laws
Of Order, sins against th' Eternal Cause

w 22 5.25. 173:
Pope pleads for a ”nature to advantage dressed”, a world
subject to rules, where a past idea, the "Great Chain of Being",
binds together everything from the smallest grain of sand to
the planets in a universe of ordered harmony.

The advances of scientific investigation were also
indirectly leaiing to more eapnasis on the theories of the
ancients, Aristotle in particular, and to all of the resultant
inplications of a revival of classicism- a desire for order,
stability, and static rather than dynamic qualities, and above
all a striving for simplicity through an economy of means and
execution and directness of effect in form and content. The
core of'Aristotelddn.philosophy-tnat all the parts of any-
thing must be joined in such a manner so to form a whole, no
individual part detracting fron the effect of that wholes-was
beginning to be realized in varying degrees in the sciences
and hunanities of eighteenth century England and France.

Classical aesthetic theories mere laiently present for

the first half of the elonieenin century in these two countries

-7;
before they were consciously applied to painting; yet they
were being applied to the architecture, music, literature,
and landocase gardening of both Countries during OHd after
the age of Boileuu.

In French painting of the eighteenth century, the roccco
dominated alaost up to the beginnings of the revolution.‘ For
in France, the upper classes were still in control over the
means of artistic expression; the French Academy had retained
the sane powerful position it had held during the era of
Louis XIV. French Rbcoco was a reflection of the isolation
of the upper classes from the cannon people; it was infused
with a nostalgic sentimentality and sweetness and a total
essence of the dranatic effects of baroque, which had died

with the Roi Seeil. The canvases of'tatteau and Fragonard

 

abound in pinks, pastel greens and blues; the peeple portrayed
are the personnages of the aristocracy, dressed either in the
elegant fashions of the day, or in costumes influenced by the
Italian theater. They exist as tiny figures in flowery
costunes in a fanciful world of escape and sublimation from
the cares of daily, cannon life.

In contrast to France, where Rbcoco existed as a dominant
style in art for much of‘the eighteenth century, in England
many subtle changes led to elements in the neoclassic style
even prior to the midpoint in that century. English painting
of the eighteenth century was not under such an obvious
stylistic doninatton as in France. England had been through

her social—political revolution, and although the unper class

 

‘ (With notable specific exceptions such as Chardin and Greuze).

.3-
still enjoyed the comforts of life to a great deal more
than any other, those who composed her lower and middle
classes were also coming into prontnence, and in painting
they were scanning tnoortant as subject matter.

The eighteenth century is in fact a great epoch in the
history of fingltsh painting, if only because the painters
were Englishmen.11 Previous to this time, painters in England
had been imported by the court. During the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries notable painters such as Holoein,

Van Dyck, and Lely had been imyorted from the continent to
execute portraits for the English royalty. It was in.fact
Van Dych's influence that led the English to value color
aoove line in their aesthetic theories.

It is Hogarth who evidences many of the differences be-
tween early eighteenth century English and French painting.
While the English aristocracy and cultured elite was finding
expression in the portraits of'Sir Joshua Reynolds, the lower
and middle classes were being portrayed in Hogarth's canvases
and engravings. In Hogarth can be seen one of the first
reactions to the classical revival that was gaining in power
and prestige among the Enalish upper classes. Quite often
the zeal for classical model: and devices introduced them
where they were Quite often inappropriate, and often led to
a slavish and unimaginattoe imitation, as in the Palladian
style in architecture. Hogarth reacted against this by
playing down the Italian masters that Reynolds and the artists

of the aristocracy upheld as norms, for he realized the y -

-9-
ultimate folly of convention. Like the atdfile class, he
was realistic, moralistic, and anecdotal; and he discovered
the expressive force of the brushstrohe as well as that of
color and its harmonieafe The fifigifig'gigl coubines the

color influences of Van Dych with a subject fron the lower

class; The Rake'g Progress, The Harlot'g Progress, figrriqge

 

 

2 lg iggg'vall of these narratives evidence a saintcr dealing
with satirical social realism.-

Desnite his disgust with classical conventions, Hogarth
was also lihe William Etake in his intense sincerity and
conulete originality; he also used story-telling devices
such as symbolism. In,his EglfnPartrait (1745), the bulldog
mirrors Hogarth', watchfulness, the volumes by Swift in the
foreground reflect his satiric tent, and the idea of "line of
beauty and grace“ is illustrated by the curve of the palette-
a concept found in his own aesthetic work, the énnlysis 91

15
Beauty. His profound psychology‘and fresh rendering reveal

 

a great painter behind an eighteenth century intellectual.
His portraits of the upper class also reveal the greater fluidity
in terms of painting classes that existed for the English
painter; but Hogarth presents us with an urper class more
relaxed and natural, without any needless ornamentation or
affectation.

Reminders of the dominance of neoclassicisn can be indir-
ecily seen in HogarthA-the classical architecture, now éiidbnt
in both interiors and exteriors; nd to a certain extent the

Rococo can be seen in many of his works. Besides the sharp

-10-
characterization and pictorial satires on the social scene,
Basia Garric; Egg ££§.ELZ$ is full of descriptive ninutae
and a profusion of playful forms, vibrating outlines and
gestures, and an abundance of carvings and lace frills.
Some concession to convention is also euident here in the
fact that Garrick', wife is positioned like a muse. Yet
despite these intriclcies, the effect of.Hogarth's portrayals
is much more direct and pungent, and more reserved than the
Rococo—dominated portraits of the sane period in France.

English aristocratic patronage usually limited its
artists to portraits; when landscapes were desired, they
were usually limited to the patron's own estate or to the
estate of another he desired.‘4 Among the fashionable portrait
gainters were Thonas Cainsborough, George Romney an} Sir
Joshua Reynolds. Landscape painters did not develop in number
until the latter part of the century; anong these were Wilson,
"the father of British landscape painting", Sandhy, Girtin,
and Cozzens;

Gainsborough painted landscapes as well as portraits, and
he was often in apposition to the painting theories of‘Reynoldst
His filgg‘figg,.for example, uses a bright blue as the central
color of the composition, wheres Reunclds believed only red,
yellow, gold, or brown as suitable for this position. The
background “are is strongly reniniscent of rococo, but now the
figure has grown in scale to dominate the caepooitionl In
his portrait of £53. Siddons (1794), the sitter is portrayed

as a fashionable woman of society, naturally at ease, and as

-11-

in the gigg‘ggg, there is an aneistahable Van Dyck influence
in these qualities. The sunbolisn of Hogarth is absent here,
however, and the textures of fabrics, furs, and feathers are
translated into colors to make a fitting frame for the
intelligence and nobility of the actress. Gainsborouoh's
portraits were far more unassuming and eloquent than Reynolds',
which are often full of pretentiousness; even though different
demands were probably made uton these two painters, much of
Reynolds' work reflects the doninance of Neoclassical theory
in eighteenth century English painting. Through an examina-
tion of ease of his works and his aesthetic theories as revealed
in the Discourses, it will be possible to see the gradual
change from Neoclassicisn to Ere-Roaanticisn in English painting.

Reynolds was the most fashionable portrait painter of
his time, and was the action, of the well Cultured, aristoc-
ratic Englishman. He founded the Turh's Head Tavern and
was the only man besides Parke who could vie with Dr. Johnson
in conuersationfs

In 17%9 Reynolds made a voyage with Koppel to the Eadi-
terranean, and studied the great Italian masters of the Ren-
aissance for three years. Although his portrait painting
dininished after 1720, and he then turned to inaginatiue
subjects, and to fanciful studies of children and beggars, he
is best renenbered as a portrait painter. He patiently
studied the Venetians and Van Dyck and acquired a facile and
dazzling style, one of dependable effects, which enabled him

to arrange human likenesses in sin lifted harmonies of white,

-12-
black, and red against settincs of autunnal verdare, and
with this style he ushured in the great era of English
portrait painting.

In contrast to Gainsborough's portrayal, Reynolds
painted the actress Sarah Siddons (1784) as a "tragic muse”;
here she is portrayed in what came to be known as the "grand
manner", with a heroic and somewhat theatrical air. In all
of his portraits and historical themes Reynolds eclecttncllv
combined qualities from the Italian Renaissance masters with
those of the Flemish and Dutch nastersf6 The pose in his
portrait of‘Sarah Siddons was stimulated by hichelangelo's
gaggg in the Sistine Chapel ceiling.

His ggLL—Portrait of 1768 shows,‘however, that unlike
his pretentious allegorical and historical pictures and most
of his fashionable and flattering portraits, he could make
serious attempts at nature likenesses of men, unspoiled by
flattery and the dictates of fashion. Even here the con-
trolled liyht, fresh brushworh and stylistic limitations
evidence the influence of past nasters being integrated into
his own style.

Since the seventeenth century in EurOpe in general, pain-
ting hagzgzen judged by the standards of the ancients, par-
ticularly the Greeks; history painting was the most obvious
example of the almost total permeation of the painting of
the early eighteenth century by ancient standards. As was
true of the epic poetry of the times, subjects were greatly

confined to only the loftiest and east heroic examples; even

-13-
the costumes were usually derived from Greek or Roman
styles. English painting also continued to follow the
French Academy's tradition of portraying fanous generals
and controls in the armour of the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries; this had probably also been an indirect influence
of Van Dyck.

Richardson, Tflfllbull, and other aestheticians and painters
of the age constantly drew parallels between the Greek painters,
whose works they knew only by the descriptions of the Greek
poets, and the painters of'tne Italian Renaissance to set up
an ideal for their England to follow.

With a solemnity that is as irritating as it is
ludicrous, Turnbull draws a through parallel
between the two ages, finding a parallel in Italy
to each one of the Greek painters, whose works he
had never seen. 17

The ”grand manner" continued to exist in theory even

during the period of English ore-romanticism:
The grand pose was widely expected-TUrner was
- criticized for not using it in Hannibal Crossing
the Alas, and Goethe thought Plaxnan’s Ills for
Efifitg were not heroic enough. 18 """

Haphael was the main painter of the Italian Renaissance
upheld by the acadenists for his ideal of beauty and grace,
his rich invention, his refined imagination, his sublinity’,
and, above all, his ability to conoine various perfect parts
into a harnonious whole.

On January 2, 1769 the Royal Academy was founded in

London with Sir Joshua Fey side as its President. From this

year until 1790 Reynolds delivered an annual address to his

-14-
pupils, and it is in these Discourses that a change takes
place which foreshadows the Ere-Ebnantic period of painting
in England. Reynolds' theories about the 'subline"and
painting were not essentially different from those of the
men who proceeded him. The idea of separate parts coming
together to form a perfect whole is one of'the nain themes
throughout the Discourses, and stems, as did previous
similar theories in his age, from the Poetics of Aristotle.
The Qiscourses also evidence the influenceighe standards of
the French Acadeny that the Royal Academy was largely modelled
upon; thus Reynolds stresses the necessity of young students
working from models of the past great masters of painting,
an idea that has continuel to sane extent into the semi-
acadenic practices of our own timefg
But the Discourses also reflect a gradual change in their
author's aesthetic theory, which can be seen in his choice
of past masters to follow. Reynolds begins by upholding
Raphael as the greatest of painters, as his predecessors had
done, but ends the Discourses by transferring this distinction
to hicnelangelo. "His theories were in accord with those of
the past, but his taste began to be more in accord with the
work of Hichelangelo', Honk staiesfo but I believe that these
two areas are inseparable, that in fact he was upholding
hichelangelo in theory also, in an indecisive manner.
Reynolds shows the indecision of the pre-ronantic3-
Blake could not understand his many contradictions.
"Practice will be rewarded" he promises in the first
Discourse; at the end he speaks of an acadenic stu-
dEnt w§6“"had a narrow idea of nature” and did not

suffer ”his taste and feelings, and I may even add
his prejudices to have fair play". 21

-15-

And so Reynolds also evidences a classic-ronantic paradox
in the ”koalassic age. Because fitchelangelo was the
epitony of 'subjective art, of power, force and genius,
of a depth of feeling and stormy emotions, he was almost
the exact opposite of the innersonal, stately taste of
Raphael, of emotions that were usually expressed in
rhetorical gestures and pastures. One may assune, as hank
assumes, that Reynolds' cannon-sense conception of genius
may have been firmly held, but may also have been adapted
simply for the purpose of encouraging young students into
the Royal Academy.

The idea of supreme beauty in art, which Reynolds in-
decisively held in theory, came originally from the French
Academicians; it was implicit in the works of haphael—ra beauty
that transcended nature and could be attained only by transcen-
ding rules. Despite the fact that Reynolds put‘ extreme
enphasis on rules and models, he did this in relation to the
young, developing painter, and left the accomplished pointer
to his own inagination, providing of course that he had de-
velooed by the conventions of academic art.

Reynolds was one of the leading champions of the "grand
manner", the neoclassic norm fulfilling the ideals of sim-
plicity of effect and unity of execution, the ability to
impress the mind at once with one great idea. In stating,
for exanple, that the subtle coloring of the Venetians goes
against thelsubliney because it is "too harmonious to produce

that solidity, steadiness, and simnlicity of effect, which

-15-

heroic subjects require, and which simple and grave colors
only can give to a work", Reynolds shows his debt to the
French Academy.

He divides painting into parts, as did his contempor-
aries, and thus treats color only as ornament, with no
regard to its organic effect in aiding expression; yet in
practice, his painting does not conform to his strict
theories to the degree he probably thought it did. This
paradox in his feelings about Raphael and fiichelangelo is
actually a paradox between rules and grace; these two views had
been harmonized in.Fbpe's Egggy’gg Criticism, but gradually
imagination and originality were coming to be recognized more
in the developing eighteenth century; after the founding of
the Royal Academy, Joseph Warton, Hurd, Young and Johnson
had all begun to uphold fire-Romano views on art.

The last word uttered by Reynolds in the Royal Academy
was "Michelangelo", and this shows a greater interest in
individualistic and potentially emotional art than had before
been possible in eighteenth century English art theory. Thus
aesthetic emphasis shifted from the admiration of perfection
in Raphael th that of the dynamics of Michelangelo; the "sublime"
was now beginning to transcend rules, diSplay imagination, orig-
inal genius and energy, and in fact was beginning to be based
on "terror". The Neoclassic system in English painting was
beginning to be transformed.

The "sublime" in English painting began to be expressed

by Claude and Rosa in subject matter of huge mountains, rocks,

-17.
and other objects that relied on size for dramatic effect.

the English connoisseur was actually admiring these works

in the majority of cases for everything but their aesthetic
effect - for the story they told, the passions they expressed,
the awe they produced.

The Swiss painter, Puseli, living in England, marked a
further phase in the disintegration of the strict Neoclassic
system in English painting. He provided a further interpreta-
tion of Hichelangelo, viewing hifi as an artist who painted
"the genuine forms of nature", unlike Raphael, who portrayed
forms and characters of society diversified by artificial
wants - thus Raphael and the system he used, according to
Neoclassic interpretation,gwere gradually drOpped; the an-
cients were no longer exclusively followed as norms. Puseli's
term "elementary fire" describes the new "sublime", the new
ideal of painting wild and rugged nature that is perceived
not in an ideal form, but in the intensity and depth of
feeling that produced the painting in which it lies.

Burke's contention that "the great ought to be dark and
gloomy", also consistent with classical tenets, was impor-
tant in leading to a wider range of subject matter in painting -
shipwrechsfjstorms, battles and conflicts between men and
animals. This heavy English melancholia was called the "fig;
anglais" on the continent, and indeed it foreshadowed many
of the works of the French Romantics. The violence of West's
gggth on a Pale £3533, for example, is a preview of Delacroix.

Fuseli's own works, notably The Nightmare, evidence this

 

-13-
new Pre-Romantic trend in the eighteenth century — visionary
forms, "terrible" subjects and distorted figures,temin~
iscent of the Sistine Chapel. It is not merely non-Neoclassic,
but fantastic and in fact almost surrealistic in effect. In
fact, many aspects of twentieth century'surrealism were being
explored in the eighteenth century:

Alexander Cozzens in the 1780's advocated the use

of accidental ink blots for the suggestion of land-

scape motifs by the aspiring amateur. 24

In gardening also, the well-ordered gardens of Neo-

classicism gradually gave way under the influence of Salvator
Rosa and Burke, along with the increasing knowledge of
Ossian, to the beginnings of rocks and ruins, and the first
traces of what would be a Gothic revival in the architecture

of much of the nineteenth century began with Walpole's

§trawberry Hill.

 

The painter Richard Wilson exhibited his giggg in 1760,
and within it is found, even though classic in treatment, not
the expression of resignation, but violent emotions, expressed
in the tossing of arms and strained postures. Gloomy landscape,
lightning flashes, a huge rock surmounted by a huge castle,
storm—tossed trees and fleeing figures are all symptomatic
of pre-romantic "terror” and convulsion, in Opposition to the
calmness and tranquility of Neoclassicism. In his final gig-
course, Reynolds devoted space to an attack on Wilson's £1223.

This violence of effect, the portrayal of energetic
passions and dynamic themes in general sums up well the latter

eighteenth century's concept of "sublimity" in England. Other

-19-
painters in the same category of'partraying ”terrific"
subjects were.rortiner, hast, William williams, and many
others. A small list of'the titles of several of these
works, done from the 1770's to the 1?90's, will evidence
the presence of romantic themes and subject matter long
before the age of ananticism in nineteenth century France:
Paul Sandhy's Storm £2.23 £23. .‘l'inter'g mg (1774); Fuseli's

3'".

W31 in,

        

Lady hacbeth in her Sleep (1734); Wegt's Rattle

 

between E chael and Satan (1782); Hortimer'; gfitan and Death
(1779); West's Racbeth‘ggg‘tgg hitches (1795); Lawrence's
Satan Callina his Legions (17979; Beechey’s hitch gt Endor
(1785) and Furies tgrning tie Z£££.g£ Rattle (1794); westall's
Surprise hireg with Terror (1791).?) Most of these works
evidence a change in subject matter rather than the idfrasion
of a completely new style of painting, and this is what pri-
narily separates them from the later French Rbnantic movement.

During the 1730’s the so-called’"§bthic terror” seepi
into the old eighteenth century conception of the suhlime,
disrupting the neoclassic gggg‘igfigl originally prepcunded
by the French Acadeny. This new conception of the sublime
was an intermediate stage of English fire-flbnanticism that
had begun for back in the beginnings of the century, and
would gradually emerge into the Englishlflbmanticism of Con¢
stable, Turner, ant the English landscacists of the nineteenth
century.

It showld be stressed that in England there was no

I'battle of styles" between. Ahoclassicisn and Rmanticism; much

~20-

of the reason for tfiia lies in the fact that in England
there had leen no officially entrenched clcssicistic
tradition forlflpnnnticisn to react to; in the sane manner
that Rococo had euolued into neoclassicisn, so neoclucsicisn
euoluea into Pro-Rbnarzticis:n and Rsncnttcisn. Individual
artists such as Hogarth had carried on inis eoolution in
t.eir own styles, and England's social recolction had been
fought in the sebenteenth centuru, alloai n;3 no external

ectors for extreme chances. It was in France that a social-
peliticel raval3tton was to be mirrored in a reociuticn
within painting.

There are many ct or rear one for tne absence of a
"tattle of st3les" in Em gml nd as c eiocs as tie one to cone
elect in rnrtce. Even te o; e t’e n.30r :iicn the visual

26
arts 53: been in eclipse in England, largely because of its
rezsteness from the continental centers of crtictic creation
and incubation. t13land'a greater eccial nobility and a
reaction to t .e French reJolation also bron,;t afo3zt a new
stress on morality.

At he turn of tne century £n;la.nd was pervaded by an
atnosphere cf 0 highly discouraging nature for the creation
of art. A growing ntlitant rethodisn led to a general

ctional repression, and this had serious ramifications for
English painters. This new «torality intensified tne passion
for the reeyectabelity that had become apparent in the last
two decades of the eighteenth century with the rise 0' the

new manufacturing classes from the industrial revolution.

.21-
This respectability brought about a low opinion of the
painter as one who actually engaged in and did not merely
contemplate the sensual and "useless" occupation of
painting; a lazy, informal person who wasted valuable time.
I myself remember when I thought my pursuit of
art a kind of criminal dissipation and neglect
of the main chance, which I hid mu face for not

being able to abandon as a passion which is
forbidden by Law and Religion. {27

- a’illiam Blake

Even successful artists remembered a hesitancy to
create and thus 90 against the social standards of their
cultlre. Although the founding of the Royal Academy in the
latter half of the century fostered a flowering of art, it
was still not abledo survive this enotionally repressive
atmosphere and the flimsy support of tradition and instituu
([0918.

English landscape probably become the main vehicle of
English Romantic painting precisely because of this constric-
tive morality- it was in effect a sensuously disguised genre.

The very weakness of state patronage freed artists
from an entrenched position of figure painting, which
was associated with the Acadeny of France. Landscape
painting nay also have been fostered by the greater
dependence of English artists on wealthy private
patrons who, because of their manner of life, were in
general more attached to the land than their French
counterparts. 28

But because of these institutional limitations, the

English
English landscape painters created the most advancedhprt of’
their time, an art which allowed for more individuality
through subjective interpretation and in a greater degree than

was the case in France, where, although art was better supported,

-22-
the old and new institutions of art restricted the artist
in the process of sponsoring him. This was probably the
reason that Hogarth protested against the founding of the
Royal Academy based on the French model in England; to him
it only meant a systen of art education leading to a large

number of bad painters, thus causing the price of pictures

to dt‘OPe

III

EIGHTHEfiTH CENTURY IWPLUE#CES ON PHSflCH 550CL453IC13H AND
ROMA .K’TICISH

Before entering into a detailed discussion of the
Kboclassic movenent in French painting, it will be well to
discuss many trends in the eighteenth century that formed a
preparatory ground for that movement. It will be seen that
in some cases these trends also prepared the way for many
aspects of flbmanticism.

The eighteenth century first drew attention to the
irrationality and the irregularity of artistic creation; it
was the first age to deny that the artistic intelligence and
the critical faculty had any part in the origins of a work

29
of art. Aesthetics hadbecone a part of metaphysics, and the

work of Kent is the clearest evidence ofithisgo Gradually,
the concept of "storm and stress" beagn to change the core
of classicisn andfihe enlightenment, a higher intelligence
bound by reason, theory, history, tradition and convention,
into a pre—ronantic ideal characterized by the lack of all
such ties. This BFe-Romanticisn had first been clearly

evident in Edward Yeung's ggnjectures gn_gg_0riginqugpm—

 

position (1759): but Young's essentially unnatural, "magician"
type of genius soon changed into a genius with a world of its
own, subject to its con laws. It was in Germany that this
type of conception of genius developed, characterized by an
extreme subjectivism unknown to the ideas of genius and

.23-

~24-
originality tn the worlds of ancient Greece and the Renais-
sance.
31
m points out the relativity of Romanticism and Glas-
sicism to the political terms conservative and liberal, and
the mistake of ascribing one of these stylistic terns too
fixedly to one of these social terms:
The peculiar situation of the "storm and stress"
between the enlightenment and the romantic move-
ment is conditioned by the fact that it is im-
possible siaply to identify rationalism and anti~
rationalism with progress and reaction, and that
modern rationalism is not an unequivocal and
specific phenomenon, but, to some extent, a general
characteristic of modern history. 32
Classicisg (heaclassicism)

The rationalism of Voltaire and the fire-romantic theories
of Rousseau are the most striking exanples of the classic-
ronantic paradox in the eighteenth century, often easily
labelled as the "age of reason". And as the eighteenth
century was full of rational and anti-rational contradic-
tions in philosophy, it was also full of classic-romantic
tendencies in its art. Like its rationalism, its classicism
is hard to define, because it was upheld altcrnately by the
courtlyuartstocratic and middle class elenents of society
and ended by developing into the depresentative artistic
style of the French revolutionary bourgeoisie. The fact
that David's art became the official art of the revolution
becomes unexplainable only if we think of classtctsn too
narrowly and restrict it to the intentions of the upper, con-

servative classes of society. But in fact, the aristocratic

outlook often found its best expression in Baroque art, but

~25-
the rational-minded, moderate and disciplined middle class
often favored the simple, clear and uncomplicated forms of
classic art and was "no more attracted by the indiscrimin-
ate and shapeless twitation of nature than by the whinsical
imaginative art of the aristocracy".

This new classicism arrived by several stages; between
1755-1789 was what is called 'Rbcoco Glassicism", in which,
as mentioned, Rococo interiors were combined with classic
facades; this phenomenon alone shows the basic inability and
indecision of the age to choose between two alternatives.

In this period there was no attempt to reduce the different
stylistic elenents to a cannon denominator, and this at least
Baroque had done. Per the most part, the Rococo style domi—
nated, and the new classicisn was in the hands of only a few
amateurs.

As was the case in England, the classicisn that arrived
on the scene in France near the end of the eighteenth cen-
tary was a reaction to the Rococo style- a style that had
become too flexible and fluid; and this new classicism that
arrived around the middle of the century in Europe in general
brought back the classicisn of the Grand Steele of fifty
years before; and the anti~sensualisn it stressed, as was
the case in England, was not primarily the result of taste,
but of morals. The new classicisa signified the triumph of
a new puritanical idealism, most noticdbly in England, direc-
ted against the hedonisn of Rbcoco. The insinceritg and

saphistication, the enpty virtuosity and trilliance of the

.25..
Rococo, were now regarded as depraved and degenerate, dis-
eased and unnatural qualities.

The new classicism was first reflected in archaeological
excursions, and was dependent on an antiquarian approach to
Greece and Rome; pilgriaages to the south began. In many
cases, with the exception of France, this aaounted to
simply a fashionable imitation of antiquity in a superficial
way, even similar to the Rococo superficiality it was re-
acting to. This return to antiquity, although dealing with
classical forms, was in eflfect a romantic drive, and foresha-
dowed the return to the hiddle Ages of the romantic involve-
ment with the past.

The new cult of antiquity is, precisely like the
simultaneous enthusiasm for the kiddie Ages, an
essentially romantic movement; for even classical
antiquity now seems to have become an inacessible
springtime of'hunan culture, that has, as Rousseau
would have it, disappeared forever. 34

Rousseau and Winchlenann were Contemporaries, and the
new classicism and romanticism were thus nostalgic in charac—
ter-one returned to antiquity, the other to the Riddle Ages,
and they were both inspired by the bourgeois outlook on
life reacting against the Rococo age. The classicism of
the revolutionary period in France was dependent on the
stoic ideals of the progressive and recualican middle class
and reaained faithful to them in all of its manifestations.

Only after 1780 did classicisn eeeroe fron the
sinole status of being a theoretical factor in

a dispute with state art to cone into its own
and vanaaish the Rococo concletely. 35

.27.

The ”Heroic"

 

Between 1725 and 1735 there was a large increase, in
England as well as in France, of raintings that depicted
great men, generally Biblical or Greek or Radon, at the
moment of heir deaths; in Encland, where the tragic tra-
dition was not as firmly established in painting, the
transition from ritual to reality cane about considerably
earlier. After West's Heath 3; solfe, recently dead or
contemporaneous heroes were deified by death or pain; these
instances of placing a hero in extreme situations and quali- 6
fying his grandeur were quite conpatible with classical theory?

In the eighteenth century, with a new outlook on the
unrld as a system in which man-no matter how strong willed,
heroic, or endowed with genius-no longer occucied a pseudo-
or sent-divine position, it CQCOWQ necessary either to
eliminate or to renovate the heroic:

Painters created new images as carriers of grandeur
and heroism by blending the traditional rlatonic
idea of the desirability of using the actions of
gods and heroes as themes of art with the newer
ideals about the nature of hunan beings which en-
veloaed all classes. 37

Thus these conflicting desires were reconciled in art
by the infiltration of mere mortals, endowed with human
feelings, virtues and vices, into the superhuman franework
of the history piece. Ehile the Ebcoco and the English
"conversation riece" eliminated the epic hero, in historical
painting the ordinary mortal steered from his artistic pro-

vince of the genre picture to invade the realn of the great

and sacred in striving to become a being who can partake of

-28-

the naroellous, and he eventually made of the hero a mere
protagonist.

It was the official French position that one of

the objects of painting was to transoit great

exanples of heroism. Partially a patriotic reaction

to the colonial wars, this position was strengthened

by the excavations at HerCulaneun and Pompeii. For

about forty years before the revolution conditions

encouraged pointers to portray the ancient classical

world and aodern patriotism. 38
Vien's Hector Urqing his Frotner Parts to take an Ares [or .
the Defense‘gz his Countrq is a typical exawrle of this
heroic style.

fiest's Oeoth gz’eolfie (1771) is an indication of a new

type of historical painting coming about, for here ancient
costunes have been supplanted by modern uniforms (the Indian
still carried on the desire for the marvellous and remote),
and this type of historical painting soon became popular in
France. In being a death scene, it also set a new style for
tnis type of situation in content, retaining classicalisn in
other ways:

These death scenes not only put the mortal in the

position of classical heroes, but often put him in

the aura of the superhuman by making the death scene

conform to the pieta design of Christian iconography. 39

In France, both the past and the modern age were thus

subject to various degrees of importance in painting, and were
often combined; in France, where historical painting was so
steeped in tradition, the new rage for authenticity of’cos-
tune and decor was concentrated in the past, combining reality

and remoteness. In contrast with the formalized rendering of

classical subjects, the new interest in authenticity also

~29-
inoolved greater attenpts at realism through variations
in the erg-ressicns and a.'t-,;..earances of historical persomjages,
extending even to hair and beard siylesfo
france

On the eve of the French revolution, these tendencies
were present in French painting: the tradition of sensualistic
coloration in the Rococo of'Fragonard, the sentinentalism of
Grease, the bourgeois naturaltsn of Chardin (who, incidentally,
had been treasurer of the French Academy from 1735-1774, thus
indicating that the middle class had been invading the arts-
tocracy in France even befbre the revolution), and the
classicisn of Vien.

The last style was chosen as the style of the revolution,
for it w-s best able to portray the ethos of the revolution
with its patriotic~heroic ideals, its Ronan~civic virtues and
republican ideals of freedom. The moral concepts developed
by the French bourgeoisie on its climb to pacer were now
supplemented by love of freedon and fatherland, heroics and
a spirit of Spartan self-sacrifice and stoic self—control.
Being unable to rely on the easy~going, patriarchial, unheroic
bourgeois attitude of earlier centuries, this bourgeois saw
that its aims could be promoted only by an absolutely mili-
tant artsrana thus the school of Vien was chosen.

But contenporary with Vien, there had also been a revival
of seventeenth century trends in France, with subject matter
depicting scenes fron the national past. Such, for example,

was Vincent's President solé'§eizeg during the Fronds (1779).

 

-30-
This painting is without the sensuousness or prettiness of
a Rococo work; it is essentially core activated and avnacic
in effect. filthcngh sore hat tenperrd down in contrast to
rcnantic painting, there are nevertheless strong thrusts
and ccuntcrthrusts {resent in the mass of enercetic figures
at the right, and in depicting one particular incident, it
evidences a growing concern with realism, one of the primary
concerns of Romanticism, as apposed to the idealism of ”ea-
classicisn.
Pelles refers to this style as "flea-Fareqe" and states:

If the revolution had not cassava and mode Abo-

classicism its official style, French fibnanticism

might have developed directly out of the revival

of fs’eo-I:?aroqe painting. In this light, Romanticism

even appears to be a reversion to are-revolutionary

trends as much as a revolt against classicism. 41

Diagonal gestures are the keynote of President £313, and

in anagoot's Death 9;: Logger-ab 533 mg (1731), the deathbed
is not horizontal to the picture plane, hat extends into the
picture space. This work also shows the beginnincs of a
more subjective approach to the Renaissance, inasmuch as it
is concerned uith the depiction of a famous individual of
that time, and teis of course would come into cocainence in
the ace of Romanticism. Medieval themes anr subjects had

also been popular before the revolution- Scott and "gothic'

tastes in France spread them further. Even in David's

 

Bonaparte Crossing the §;. fiernarg floss (1801), the names of’
ancient and medieval heroes are inscribed on the rocks in the
foreground.

The classicism that the revolution chose as its art can

.31...
be traced back to the French seventeenthcentury classicism
of Poussin; with.Baroque procticallytriunphant in the
seventeenth century, this classicism that had looked back
to antiquity and Raphael had been preserved by Italian
eclectics and by French painters in Italy?2
[fig French Revolution

The revolution in France contributed many assets as well
as many deficits to painting. Unlike England, the revolution
Opened the previuusly restrictive Salon to all artists in
1791, and many English artists were dismayed with their own
country because of this; yet the new Salon had only twenty-
two menbers in contrast to the one hundred fifty members
prior to the revolution. The Academy no longer exclusively
dictated on matters of art in France, and two years later, in
1793, it was a mpletely suppressed. Rome continued to be
the place to study classical art, but Paris now became the
center of "modern" art. fiany museums, the forenost being
the Louvre, were opened in 1795, and all of these changes
contributed greatly to the denocratization of art education.
It Must be remembered also that the rrvolutton was not
sinrly a revolt of the "proletariat”, but also of the rentiers
and con erctal contractors, which helps to eXplain these new
attitudes towards art. The revolution had also received an
enormous impetus from the end of the Concordat, the Catholic
revival, and Chateaubriand-many of these very elements were
to later provide an impetus to romantic art as well. As far

as the French artists were concerned, they were both favorable

-52-
and antagonistic about the revolution:

Altfbre the artists had only been regarded as domestic
servants, and now they were getting material rewards-
but now also the enigration of others had robbed them
of their wealthiest and most competent buyers. 44

The neoclassic painting of the French revolution made

something concrete of the eighteenth century "beau ideal",

 

based not on observation but on a priori principles, and to
examine this painting and the ideas that produced it’eill be
two tasks that can be nproached through the work and person-

ality of David.

IV
JACQUES LOUIS DAVID

Jacques Louis David was born near Paris on April 50,
1748. ”is art career began when his guardian placed him
in the studio of Roucher. Recommended by Boucher, he soon
began to study painting intensely as a pupil of J. H. Vien,
the French pioneer of the classical tradition in painting.

He studied under Vien for some years, won the ggigflgg‘flggg

in 1775 with mg. m 91 Antiochius 23;: Stratonice. and then
went with Vien to Rome, where Vien had been appointed as
Director of the.French Academy in that city.

At this time the classical reaction in France was in
full farce; Winchlenonn was writing, and Raphael hengs,
whose axiom was "The Beautiful is what appeals to the Eajority'
(Thoughts ganeautg ggg‘Zggtg, 1765) was pointing. These
influences, Vien, and his studies of the treasures of the
Vatican galleries determined David’s later role as the chief
exponent of the classicism of the revolution and the Empire
of France.

After his first paintings, 93;: obolunyfielisario (1780),
and 1’13 M 91 Andronachwg (1783), he became the chief
advocate of Neoclassicism anong the young "Romans" sojurning
in Rome during the revolutionary period with his masterpiece,
21!. 9.9.9.3 9; 1.2.2 Horatii in 178 .

The floratii is a typical exploitation of the antique in
a restrained style; here the final death blow was dealt to

.53-

.54-
the Rococo, in that the women portrayed in the work have
been desensualized, their femininity fully clothed and
their sorrow revealed; no longer do we see the "sweet sad-
ness" of hatteau. The scene portrayed was reduced to a
few figures without many accessories. The three protagon-
ists, joining together to vow to die for their homeland,
were brought together in a single unbroken, rigid line, an
extreme exanple of formalism.
The triumphant progress of the work began instantly
when David exhibited it in his own studio. Flowers
were placed before it, and Vien, Baiioni, Angelica
Kaufmann and Wilhelm Tischbein, that is to say, the
most esteemed artists in Rose, joined in the universal
praise of the young artist. In Paris, where the public
became acquainted with the work in the Salon of 1785,
the triumph continued. The Heratii was described as
"the most beautiful picture of the century" and David's
achievement was regarded as really revolutionary. The
work appealed to the contemporary world as the most
novel and daring feat inacinable-as the perfect rea-
lization of the classicistic ideal. 45
Here we see no physical and enotional relaxation, as
was the case with the painting of rococo, but a labored com-
position and strained relationships between the figures that
creates a feeling of high tension. As is true of much neo-
classic art, we see no basic self-expression present here]
rules have been inposed fron without, and the figures are
more like corpses, more similar to sculpture, than living,
breathing beings. This reflects the academic method of the
time of studying from plaster casts made from the sculpture
of antiquity- the sane method advocated by Reynolds in his

early gjscourses; indeed, artists were unaware that the

 

sculpture of ancient Greece had been painted, and the theories

-35-

of'Winchlenann made the ”noble simplicity and quiet grandeur"
of classical sculpture the magic farmula for paintinng

The qualities of classical sculpture are clearly evident
hereeésevere beauty of line and firm modelling with precise
contours-Alight and color were still being regarded as ornam-
ental, as actually nonessential fluctuations; form was the
goal, and the central goal of David. Artistic merit was
believed to be implicit in the ideal subject itself.

Due to the widespread reformistic mood in French society
for many years before the revolution, David was hailed as a
”session", and was preferred to other contemporaries who
also pointed didactic ancient themes. His style, in form and
content, was a more completerealization of the neoclassic
mood. The fact that his themes corresponded with the symbolic '
frame of reference of the leaders of the revolution led them
to select his painting as their official art, rather than the
subjects of such contemporaries as Vincent and Menageot, which
evoked the old monarchy.

In contrast to the art of England at this time, which
was actually pro-romantic, and was involved with realistic,
fantastic terror as its subject matter, the art of the French
Academy teaediately prior to the revolution viewed only what
was perfect and heroic to begin with in subject matter as
worthy of great art, and what was "cannon", painful and ugly
in people or subjects was rejected.

In the first years of the revolution the fashion of

imitating the ancients even in dress and manners went to

-36...
extravagant length and it was at this time that David
returned to Paris. The success of his sketch Qgtg‘gfi‘tgg
Tennis £925; and his republicantsn secured his election to
the Convention in Septenter of 1792.

In 1788 he had completed the £323 of figgig,gggwfig£gn
and the Eggtflng’Socrates, and in 1739 Brutus. Brutus
marked the neigii of his fame; by this tine Roman costume
and patriotisn had become universal symbols of the heroic
ideal; but of course these were means being used by a defen-
sive revolutionary France surrounded by enemies. Art was
now beginning to be used for the service of the state, and
was no longer to be "more ornament on the social structure"
but 3a part of its foundations". Art had now accepted the
position of teaching and improvement, of setting an exanple.
Thus the u per classes and the government itself joined in
the support of David and the Aboclassicists, astonishingly
even befbre the revolution.

The general attitude to the subversive tendencies
in art was just as unsuspecting or undecided as in
politics. 48

From 1792 until his exile in Brussels upon the return of
the Bourbons to power, David's art was inseparably tied to
the politics of France. He was elected to the Convention
by the égglggt‘gg Euseum, and in January of 1793 voted for
the execution of Louis XVI. His revolutionary ideas led to
his election to the Presidency of the Convention and to the
Connittee of General Security.

During these uears he painted further classical works

-37-
inspired by antiquity-m £13 91“ L3 Schines, £33; allot-tents
91 Legelletier g3 W—Psrnecu, and m issassinated.

{he Egggflgfilthg,8obines resembles an almost "stucco”49
composition. It appears that David was here trying to paint
with the eyes of Poussin and the Academy. Even more than in
the Horotit, intent eyes, pressed lips, and a strong control
over intense feelings are evident in this work. It also
reflects the new moralistic role of art arising cut of
the waning of religion in revolutionary France. 2:3.Eggg
9; the Sabine: is almost like a stage scene-the actors are
frozen in their gestures and poses, and few casualties are
present. This, plus the emphasis an archaeological detail,
makes the painting lacking somewhat in integration. A
moralistic theme is present both in the unreal, almost
statuesque forms and restrained enotions (at most showing
crinkled brows and parted lips) and in the very choice of
the scene, for the rape itself is not portrayed, but the
following reconciliation of the two tribes. Perhaps this
reconciliation was also an indirect a real to the peeple of
France for the need for reconciliation after the Reign of
Terran!)o The unleashed horse was included as a symbol of
unleashed passion, and this is a perfect example of the ex~
trcne neoclassic transference of dynamic associations into
static Symbolism. The moral intent of such works was attested
to by David hieself:

?he arts should contribute strongly to public educa-
tion. It is thus that characteristics of heroism and
civic virtue, offered for the inspection of the peonle,

will electrify their soul and nurture in it the passions
of glory and devotion to their country. ~David 51

.38.
David thus assumed the role of a moral teacher that
the poet had held in antiquity and the Riddle Ages.
£353; Assassinatgg evidences most clearly the neo-
classic idealism and rigidness of design. The design consists
of two horizontal sections, the upper one a neutral bach-
ground that acts only to frame the lower scene. Karat,
almost an "overly dead" corpse, lies like a piece of statuary
in his bath strictly horizontally parallel to the picture
plane. fhe event of the assassination has been bypassed
for the calnness after the deed (this may be due to the fact
that David and Marat were friends, but neoclassic tenets no
doubt played a large part here) and ornamentation is reduced
to only a few important essentials-hnife, paper and inhwell.
David may, in fact, have supported the revolution
as much from disgust with the official art orga-
nization as from political idealism. 52
Yet the painter's own words leave little doubt that ho
was as aristocratically oriented and rigid in personality
as in his style:
éziiging y g‘éfiiilluingnw£3°§315itigoiidrougcn¥
$2}!gusgflgraiflngsaitTésflggizzrbihgi in tho goons

of the School of Painting, where it is seen only
by anateurs. 53

His further comments in this letter evidence a desire
to repair and change already completed works, and a high
emphasis on craftsmanship, which has sujfered considerably
from modern art's many misinterpretations of the romantic
era in painting.54

Upon the caning to power of Napoleon, David arranged the

.59-
programs of the principal republican festivals, and also
designed costumes and settings which the revolutionary
leaders hoped to use to teach moral virtues, as in Sparta's
pageants for mass education, which Rousseau believed could
be used for the modern state. In these festivals many
elements of the eighteenth century were stilbbresent- pyramids,
obelishs, etc.- and all were part of the religious nillenarism
and hunanitarianism that perceived the revolution as a possible
method of universal regeneration.

David generally renounced all pictorial effects and
developed his classicisa into a purely linear art; even color
was highly toned down due to a false interpretation of‘an-
tiquity. He enploued strictly rational means in his craft-
methodical, puritanical and precisely rendered. These
factors plus a reduction to the barest essentials work in
most of his paintings to subordinate the overall effect to
the principle of economy. The Horatii was and still is
renolned as the supreme exanple of neoclassic painting, yet
its form was only a means to the end of republican civic
virtues.

Within ten years the study of the antique will be
abandoned, and all these gods, these heroes will
be replaced by knights and troubzndors singing
beneath the windows of their ladies, at the foot
of an old turret. ~David, 1808 55

This statement anazingly forecasts the aprroaching
romantic movement, but also reflects the changes David's art
was undergoing under the new Empire of Napoleon. flow that

the integrity of the revolution was becoming more compromised,

~40-
the more austere images of Neoclassicism began to appear
less convincing. Thus David beaan to turn from the Romans
to the Greeks for his subject matter, and his style softened
somewhat to meet the tastes of Napoleon.
Anong his Empire works are the Coronation and the £33-

trioution g; the Eaeles, both works somewhat more softened

 

in technique and with trighter coloring and a relaxation
of his earlier strict formalism, but bpth also enviously
state art in content,
Hts portraits cear the characteristic Davidian statp
of extreme fornalisn and rational design. honsieur 222 Enigma
lovoisier (1?£8) evidences the new influence of the bourgeois;
it contains all of David's linear clarity, and yet there is
enough of the rassing eighteenth century spirit present in
it to lend it a certain genre warmth and charm, later to
be surpressed for cool classical dignity. The same is true
of another earlier work, Pierre Denmaisgg.
hadenotselle Charlotte 23 Kgl‘gflggggg (179?-1800)'shows

his arran?eneni of successive horizontal and vertical planes
within the rainttnq parallel to the picture plane, the most
canon motif of neoclasstc painting. (David)is not interested
in the roan as an interior here, but, as in £353; fiszgvsinated,
it is only a backdrop for the subject- walls, window, and
even the entering light have been used merely as descriptive
details to form a screenlihe backdrOp. Here strong verticals
and horizontals again simply serve to outline the figure

more precisely, and the cool light illuminates the girl but

 

‘(This work is no longer attributed to David, but lies within
French Neoclassicism).

-41~
does not fill the room-the interior serves as an appro-
priate frame for a portrait without receiving attention as
a subject in its own right. David's aversion to landscape
is evidenced by the fact that he painted only one landscape
during his lifetime, and executed that one while in prison
for his connection with Robespierre.

Hadame Recenter (1800) again exhibits the primary neo-
classic element of design-line-a'eating cool, relieflike
forms against the common neutral background. The portrait
is developed by means of outlines whose calm perfection
contrasts with the profusion of the color of the oldfiflpcoco.
Environment and sitter are completely unified here by static
horizontals and verticals. The objects included represent
the austere antique fashions favored by the Enpire style.

ibr the most part, David looked down on portraiture and
believed that historical compositions were more worthy of
his art. His Portrait‘gf Napoleon in many ways fulfilled
both of these pursuits, yet the historical emphasis far
outweigh: the portrait elements present. The furniture and
settings have been distorted purposely to give the little
Corporal more stature, and idealistic techniques have
cancelled out any realistic qualities in the figure of the
Enperor. The strong vertical of the clock is rigidly
balanced by the horizontal table, and all of the furniture
and other objects halEbeen reduced to the barest essentials.
From the chair to the quill pen, everything evidences overly

"careful carelessness"; no relaxation in figure or objects

.42-
has escaped a rationalistic metaaorphosis, and the net
result is that the conhosition becomes more of a historical
acounent than a portrait.

Bgt for the most part his portraits not only represent
the climax of his spectacular droftsnanship, but their
heen observation and insight into character are adaired far
more today than his pretentious historical CanUOSOS. His
portraits gave grave expressions to the seriousness and dignity,
to the stern, simple, absolutely untheatrical outlook on
life of neoclassicism, and in historical works such as
§2553‘(1805-08) and the gistribution{g£‘thg Eagles (1810),
we see him as an artist who restored narrative painting and
the pictorial representation of great occasions. What these
pictures loch in verse and dramatic quality they make up
for by the more simple treatment of the subject matter.

- After the return of the Bsurbons David was exiled along
with other regtcides. lhile in Brussels he returned to his
pre-Empire classicist style and produced such wads as 539:
_guitttng Psyche and £g£g_ggsaraed 53 genus. host of these
later works were just as affected and mannered as the Sabines.
(Sagnho 1809, Leonidas 1812). He rejected the offer made
to him by Baron Humboldt to be Hinister of Fine Arts at
Berlin, and died in Brussels on Deceaber 29, 1825.

In David there was a conflict between his idealistically
conceived mythological and antique-historical coupositions,
and his relatively naturalistic portraits.

Not since Le Bran had an artist been so involved in

politics as David; he was virtually the artistic dictator of

~43-
the revolution, and ithis 9R5volution Dabidienne" marks to
some extent the beginnings of modern art. His art shows
the transformations through which the society and govern-
ment of France were going; during the Directoire, the Sabines
evidences a softer and more pleasing character, and turns
away somewhat fron the uncompromising severity of the
revolutionary period; during the Empire, his style again
changed and evidenced the internal conflicts of Napoleon's
reign. Just as Napoleon did not altogether deny the goals
of the revolution, but did deny them by mahing the bourgeoi~
ate all powerful, and by making himself dictator, so the
Empire art of David is also full of contradictions in which
the ceremonial and conventional outweigh naturalisn and
soontaneity. The various portraits of Napoleon he executed
acquired a stiffness and furnality of effect, in contrast
even to the earlier Horatii.
aims
David shows that political/and artistic quality are not

incompatible, for the more he placed his painting at the
service of the revolution, the greater was the artistic
worth of his creations. When exiled in Brussels, he was out
of politics and sank to the lowest level of his artistic
develOpment; but of course we must also realize that by this
time he was also advanced in age.

The revolution more or less found classicisn ready-

aade when it came on the scene, but gave it new

content and new meaning. The real stylistic crea-

tion of the revolution is, however, not this clas-

sicisn but roaanticism, that is to say, not the art

that it really oracticed but the art for which it

prepared the way. Art in fact longed behind political
developments in the old antiquated forms. 56

V
PfiOR PRE-;?EAWTICIS£ TO ROXAETICISH IN KHULAND AhD FRANCE

Hear the end of the eighteenth c ntury in England
artists had begun to regard themselves as a professional
group, and looked upon.French artists as a social group
separated from and above their patrons. In contrast to
their continental neighbors, English artists tended to
be from the lower classes of society; Turner's father was
a barber, Lawrence's an innheeper, Blake's a hosier, and
Wilkie's a poor minister, and they could only enter the
anger vlasses by way of the Royal Academy. Artists in
France, many of them having been given titles in the arts-
tocracy, were beginning to form their own society, and were
becoming an elite group separate from and above their patrons.

Even in the late eigiteenth century Wilson and Girtin
had used landscape in painting to convey feeling and enotion:
now Constable and Turner were using the some means more
cephalically. Their works cannot really be sanded up by
any one category; their landscapes are felt to be in the
ronantic mood, but they were rendered with strong overtones
of a classical tradition.

Turner did not anticipate impressionism as much as he
looked back to combine Lorraids color effects with the
seventeenth century landscapist’s delight in broad expanses
of water, but his typically roggntic overdranatization and

desire for more and more color represent a strong impulse

44-

~45-
toword the liberation of color which took place in the
later part of the nineteenth century.

"Luninisn" would probably be the best descriftive
tern to apply to Turner. He none the typical trip to Italy

made before by nany of his felloi English artists in the

E:

eighteenth century, but develoned his can indeeendent

vision instead of integrating the styles of £59 great

Italian masters into his own style. A certain child prodigy,
he was adnittet to the Royal Academy as a fellow meile still
in his twenties, yet the advanced nature of his conceotions
left his works largely unknown even in his native country
until the end of the nineteenth century. His seclusioe and
unconventional personal life helped fore the stereotype of
the modern artist, and in large pert detracted from the recog-
nition he failed to receive in his own tine. Even his adnirer
Ruskin at tines failed to see the achievement of his works

by refusing to look past their subject matter, and in general
he suffered dearly at the hands of critics who were steeped
in the traditions of the eighteenth century.

His giggg EEEEL EL Venice reflects the topical Turner
interest in light, and toe water, sates and buildings he used
so often to convey all of its multiforn prooerties and
variances. This work marks an intermediate stage in his
eXpboration of liminosity. The scale of the work is rewinis-
cent of the Fbcoco style, but here all prettiness and flippancy
has been superanlded by a startling revelation of the interest
in color to be explored so deeply by the impressionist: in

the later nineteenth century. On.the day of his death, Turner

~66-
asked his faithful servant to omen the window of his bed-
roon so he could enjoy the beautiful light of the rising
W33

”is flaning and emotive use of color in such works

as Steamer in g gnomstorm, The Slave Ship and Rain, Steam

 

agglégggg anticipated Delacroix as well as the Iapressionists,
and he expressed in a visual manner the sane romantic ideas
found in the poetry of his contennoraries Colridge and Shelley.
Wear the end of his life his style was completely destroying
subject matter to explore the properties of light to their
fullest brilliance, and this unusual foresight in his time
continues to defy any attempt to classify his style by any
convenient label except the general and too-inclusive terms
”Ere-lbmaniicisn” or 'Rbnanticism".

Constable became popular in England only after 1840,
this was generally the case with many English romantic
painters; in fact, they were often received with more enthu-
siasm anong the French Romantics than among theinbwn country-
men, and in most cases the French had to cone to England to
see their works.

Constable's painting placed grenter demands on his
personal excerience in the tradition of Fritish empiricism,
and as painting was beginning to become more of’a record of
creative experience, greater denands were placed on the
spectator, and concentrated more attention on the artist's
style of life and personality as related to his style of art.

As Constable's painting became popular only posthumously,

‘47“
it would at,ear that ”realise" or "n:turnlisa" «as not a
sure route to tne artists for the understanding of the
public. Constaole greatly foresc flowed later develop-
ments in painting. His interest in lijnt and directness-
drnnatically laninoas clouds, abrupt Contrasts of large color
areas flecned sitn inpressionist toacfies, a ousted to a

change in the traditional way of seeing; no longer a priori

 

rules, but his can vision was caning to be wore tenurtant

in his work. The gay gain greatly inspired and influenced

 

many French romantics.

And get it is also a rarent that the standards of taste
in his time led Constable to change rang of tee innovations
in his enetcnes mien transjerrina teen to a painting. The
style of his painting was sell afiarted to the conventions of
his period, halfaay 2.19t':‘.-C‘§n Classicist‘. ans-i Razz-.antiCisn. In
his painting he subordinated his personal vision to the one
aporoved by tradition. In many corporisdns helmeen his
onetcnes and the finished paintings tia were derived from
them, stylistic enanaes go for legend the chances usual
aetm en t ese two stages. Fe;"§;th :31 s; an excellent exaeple
of this obviously reluctant conforeISM.)

fits genius lay soseunere toteeon the tygical and the
heroic, an! tfie fact that he L03 fierhaea the first fainter
in Europe to strike this balance in terns of romantic
netoralisa assnres sin a unique position in the history of
painting.

Constable ride his art of deriadtioe or eclectic
mannerisn- he went tack to the nataral fact and

built up his work on an intnitive a-rrehension of
fact, and a coe;li3ned a revolution in art. 60

. ~48—

In England where there was loss 0 portunity in life,
due to constrictive aorality, for eaotional axiarnalization,
romantic painting was freer than in France. This freedom
is ahead in Constaolc's own words, and clearly coldenoos
that the fiboclassic age of art in England was soonding its
last breath:

The laxyuaae of tho hoart is the only one that is
"universal”. Painting is with me but anothor word
for fooling. 61

If the term "roaaatic" is hard to apply to Warner and
Constable, due to the many other oopacts of their aorh, it
can catty be arpliad to tho English artist,Jillioa Elaka.
In Blake the myotic, the poet and the artist were so inex-
tricably Cowhinod tool they cannot well be canaidarod apart
froa each othar. Hi3 cfiaracioristic pictures are ”other-
wonaly" and he "sought to sea oégar than by reason, which
is limited to temporal things". “ He is an example of the
fooling that caaa indirectly out of the French revolution's
affect on Englandw-that all men could be artists, that this
field of activity was not liaitod to one type of man from
one social Clara.

Blake actually scans the neoclassic-roaantic period
of painting in England; he had written considerable criticism

on Ragnola’s Biscaurnas, mainly pointing out their many

 

lcontradtctions, daring the late eighteenth century. As

the liberalism of the eighteenth conturg had been based on
freedom and equality, and this had been seen as iafioosibla
to attain even by social revolution, the resulting loss of

faith in those two ideals led to a post-rauolutionary pessimism

-49-
in both England and France, and Blake was one of the first
artists to champion the cause of individuality. hang of
his statements seen to imply a "superiority conclez"
undoubtedly caused by an extreme defensiveness born in an
age of industrial revolution and conformity:

in Address to the Public

hen inlnh that they can capy nature as correctly
as I copy imagination. This they will find im-
possible; and all the copies, or pretended copies,
of nature, from Rembrandt to Reynolds, prove that
nature becomes to its victius nothing but blots
and blurs......I know my execution is not like
anybody else's and 1 do not intend it should be 80.
None but blackheads caag one another. no concep-
tion and invention are, on all hands, allowed to
be superior; my execution will be found so too. 63

 

Blake is one of the extreme exannles of a "romantic"
artist who developed his style before "his movement" was
born, and this has been explained by the fact that he was
undoubtedly mentally deranged to some extent. Yet this
does not alter the fact that his art is an intense expression
of a particular individual, and in all ways combines a
balanced composition and econ my of means to produce a
strong aesthetic effect in the svectator.

Although Turner and Constable had been criticized,
fibnanticisn in England never became a serious issue; yet
French criticism was chauvinistic, for many Frenchmen con-
sidered Romanticism Enclish and’Gflassicisa French- in this
defensiveness and conformity in art caused by the the Revo-
lution, Napoleon had ordered fiadane de Stael's first edition
of gg.£flllennane, one of the primary influences of'flbnanticism
coming from Germany, destroyed, for it introduced writers to

the complex of German romantic ideas and feelings. Even after

950-

Napoleon's fall, the Mbdieval epics which had fascinated
his in private lost favor because they were identified
with the English.64

The Birth 31 Romanticism.ifl.France

 

The classicism of David and French Fbwanticism had
a common source in the revolution. This is most obvious,
because flbmanticisn did not begin in France as an attack on
“Loclassicism, and did’not undermine the school of David
from the outside, but first came on the scene in the works
of David's pupils- Uros, Girodet, and Guerin.

The rigid separatism of the two trends does not
begin until 1820 to 1830, when ibmanticism becomes
the style of tne artistically progressive, whilst
classicism that ofithe elements who still swear by
the absolute authority of David. 64

Napoleon's synpathies were in fact with the "anecdotal"
painters- Gros, Ogrard, Vernet and Prudlon. Gros was the
greatest of these and was the first to portray hunanitarian
battle scenes, in wzich he depicted more realistically
than ever before the miseries of war. Through his use of
jornalistic subject matter, but bright coloration, he is
a hybrid of ctassicisn and romanticism.

Although the general norms of the neoclassic style
were continued ty David's pupils, who were outstanding pain-
ters under the Empire, they used brighter colors and, as in
the works of Gros and Uiradet, more excited movements and
even fantasy. Girodet and later Ingres devel0ped a more

undulating, sensuous manner, anticipated and inSpired by the

English sculptor and designer John Flaxman.

.51-

In the battle pictures of Gros the individual was
lost among the spectacles in general, and this is another
reflection of the nationalism and mass sentiment of the era
of napoleon's campaigns.

The some interest in "terrible" and death-like subject
matter that had been witnessed in the pre-romantic painter
Fuseli and others were reflected in Empire painting after
David; the revival of history painting in France reinvohed
the images of death that had prevailed so much in seventeenth
century French painting, and was gaining dominance ouer the
English Pre-Romantics near the turn of the eighteenth century.

Classical doctrine (in France) was often relaxed;
works like those of Fuseli, James Barry, and Blake
were commissioned from French painters by hapoleon
and his retainers. 66

Although napoleon retained Daéid and the Empire painters
to create a state art for the peOple, he had his own bedroom
decorated with scenes from Ossian, the eighteenth century
Hedievally-inspired epic that had a strong influence on Roman-
ticism; even in the classic French Empire, the seeds of Roman-
ticism were present. Girodet, who pointed these scenes for
the Emperor, told his pupils to‘prefer the bizzare to the dull";
David replied that he "had no common sense".67

In reviewing the Neoclassic movement in painting in France,
and indirectly in England, where the movement was not as
closely allied with politics and society, and was thus not as

extreme, it should be stressed that the Neoclassics were

not totally anti-Rbmantic; indeed, the Neoclassics often

.52..
also depicted intense enotions in their paintings. They
actually considered that enthusiasm and esotionality on
the part of the artist were indispensible ingredients in
the creation of art. But they did not feel that enotion
should come freely from the painter and dontnate his work;
they thoughtit could be achieved by a few recipes, and this
is one of the primary factors that separates the neoclassic
and romantic movements in their fullest intensity-the
elenent of individuality on the part of the artist, and
the problem of rules. By no means should the'lboclassic
painters be held inferior to the Rbnantics, for easy
comnunicability is not a sign of swperficiality, and strong
individualism does not preclude works of artistic merit.
In.France,tare—Rbnanttcisn and Romanticism did not
have much in cannon. They were in no sense close to a
uniforn movement, as in England, which happened to be in-
terrupted in the course of its developnent. Fre-Rbnanttcism
in France suffered a final and decisive defeat at the hands
of the revolution; and when antiarationalisn again revived,
it was without the sentimentality of the eighteenth century.
There were many factors in post-revolutionary France
that contributed to the rise of Romanticisn. The freedom
and individuality which the middle class had begun to further
in business and industry, embodied in the doctrine of laissez-
1&3153, did not extend to the personal enotional life of the
individual; even after the revolution, De Tocqueville saw

68
France as a land of conformity. The artist was again

.53-
becoming hostile to the bourgeoisigbecause he again saw
himself being looked down upon as a manual worker, a
feeling that had persisted as a carry-over from the earlier
social stratification. In England, where non-conformity
had been recognized in individuals, French non-conformity
on the part of the artist was maintained in groups such as
the Jeunes-Frnnce.

In dress, the simple neoclassical patterns of the
revolution and Empire, patterned on Greek and Roman robes,
were beginning to become bulbous again, and the flashing
glances and flowing hair that had in fact apneared before
the revolution and had even characterized the young Napoleon
and his generals were beginning to be adopted by these
groups of artists.

In painting, more daring brushworh and crowded of pre-
cariously balanced conpcsitions had already arceared under
the Directory and the [moirew-but the romantic stale in
French painting did not fully materialize until after Waterloo.

Religion had also waned considerably in France. "In the
official Salon of 1851, only twenty-five of the three thousand
entries dealt with religion".69 Ronanttcism was in fact not
recognized for alnost twenty years in post-revolutionary
decadent France because the ”art machine” had returned to
nornal all too Quickly; old institutions were revived, and
those who revived then had no artistic criteria of their own.
The new young romantic painters, however, had less Opposition
to put up with than their predeccessors, due to the liberal

policies impressed upon the art institutions by the revolution.

.54-
The "hero” of neoclassic art had also been denocratized,
and this made possible
the transference of qualities he had embodied to
the artist himself and even to the ordinary man
as carriers of truth, intensity, and the tragic
character of the human condition- a process that
in art later reached a climax in Expressionism.
With their ascension to the throne of the hero,
they partooh of his sufferings as well as of his
glory. 70
This transference is seen in the Opening work of roman-
ticiss, Gericaalf's §Q£1,g£ the hefiusa (1S19). There is no
longer an ingortant figure here to give the Iicture a dignity
by association; the heroic has here been shifted free the
individual, as had been the case in many of his earlier
portrayals of single soldiers in action, to a group, which
thrusts unward in a doeinant triangle to the horizon, where
a rescue ship a pears. The painting is a masterly study of
the human form, and the subjects portrayed work the he-
ginnings of realistic concerns. Besides the dynamic and
drawatic nature of the con osition, the subject matter-
a raft of shipwrecked survivors, many of then bleeding and
seni-nude-—narha the end of neoclassic domination of subjects
saitahle for painting. Gericault stedied the bodies of
corpses and made sang preliminary sketches of then for the
52:3; but here, in contrast to Constable, the sketches have
been increased and not lessened in dramatic effect. The man
with his back turned toward as near the center of the painting
was painted from a study g; the artist's y angfriend and

\
aduirer, Eugene Delacroix. Gericault's service in the Bourbon

aray plus his achievements as a pupil of Guerin had also led

.55-
to his portrayal of realistic battle scenes, and this
method has here been transfered to the survivors on the
raft. The survivors and dead on the raft have been por-
trayed with no attenpts at idealization or sublimation;
clothes are torn asunder, sexual organs displayed in full
view in many places, and dynanic gestures and pastures
pervade the work. Even the raft's placenent within the canvas
in a position that almost breaks the franc does not lead to a
disturbance in scale, but intensifies the restless charac-
ter of the details in the composition. The theme of the
painting was not so new; Conley's sateen and the fhcrh and
sang other neoclassic and pre-ronantic works had foreshadowed
it; the host strihing and controversial effects of its new
stress on individual feeling were primarily achieved through
form and technique; and through wavy outlines, strong
diagonals, heavy accents of light and shadow, and intersper-
sed and overlapping forms, Rbmanttc art, like the.5broque,
was again beginning to envelop the spectator, for Rbmantic
art wanted to change the world not only through subject
matter, but through the creativity of art itself. The vast
size of this canvas also set a precedent for the French
anantics, and nay reflect a desire to maintain the tra-
ditional heroic through scale, if not through subject matter.22

In his study of Tessa in the flgdhouse, Gericault shows

 

an interest in the exploration of mental abnormalities bearing
on the impersonality of automate, the beginnings of one of

the sane central intentions in the romantic movement of

.55..
'SUrrealism in our own century. His art reflects and
tracks the dichotomy of the classic-ronantic developnent
in painting in post-revolutionary France.

Now society and the public were no longer being
arrealed to as authorities by the artist- as utth Blane,
romanticism was creating a new interpretation of the idea
of artistic freedom; it was open to all, and all subjects
were available as subject matter.

Although the Romantics did not emulate David's severity
of style and theme, they did study Gros as well as the
early Italians and the masters of the High Renaissance,
Baroque and Rbcoco. Some of them were tremendously in-
creased by Constable's painting, which they first became
acquainted with through an exhibition of the figy,£2£5 in
Paris, but at this time Stake and Turner were unknown in
France.

As orposed to the neoclassic painting in England and
France, there was no oroanized prooram in the Rbnantic
movement inbeneral as was the case, for exanple, in sur-
realism. The Romantics at times admired classic and des-
pised romantic works. Delacroix saw the romanticism of
his rersonal values in the works of Gros and Gericauli
because of the sizes of their canvases, a carry-over of the
Cult of the colossal as one of the qualities of the eight-
eenth century sublime, but called the music of Berlioz ”a
heroic mess"f3and found the works of Turner, Dumas and

Hugo too extravagant for his taste.

.57;

Romanticism in general was characterized by an escapism
into the past or the future. But in its return to the
figdile Ages and the Renaissance, it differed from neo-
classicism’s use of antiquity, for neoclassicisn used an-
tiquity as an examale to follow, while romanticism used
the Riddle Ages and Renaissance in a "deja on" manner-
that is, as if it were returning to a previous exocrience.

Romanticism has been given various origins from the
serpent of Eden to Kant; it was long used to refer to
sonetfiing reminiscent of the Mbdieual romances, and did
not designate an art style until the early nineteenth cen-
tury. The term was originally literary, and is entangled
in a web of political, psycnological and sociological
meanings. In art, it has come to mean rebellion against
the stability of "classic" periods, periods canonized by
admiration of their inportant men and events.

In Germany, Konanticism fell on fertile soil. It
was quite congenial to the German temperament and appeared
as a genuine style in the works of‘Fnilip Otto Range, Caspar
David Friedrich, Moritz von Schwind, Carl Spitzweg, Alfred
Rethel, and many others. In Germany romantic painting
was highly tied in with romantic poetry, as had been the
case in England with Blake, William Hunt, and Edward Burne-
Jones. Heroic themes of hLoclassicism, which still lingered
in English and French romantic painting, disappeared com-
pletely in Gernany. Gernanigonantic painting appeared in

atmospheric interiors, poetic genre scenes, tender fairy

.53-
tales, and delicate portraits, but reached its greatest
fulfilleent in eaotive landscape, charged by a midfle
class desire for a return to nature.74

By its constant questioning of the present, the
Konantic movement also indirectly contributed a great
deal to the nethodaof hbtory in the later nineteenth
century. Man was studied as a dynamic and many-sided being.

The Samanticism of the early nineteenth century was
essentially a middle class movenent; it was Sponsored by
the first group to believe, no matter how each its indi-
vidual nencers might protest, that the bourgeois was the
true neasare of man.

French Konanticism renained the anathoiece of the
restoration until after 1820. In contrast to the English
Fonanticism that had been pro-revolutionary, and then became
conservative after the revolution, as was the case in
Germany, French Romanticism becaae liberal after Napoleon.

French Romanticisu is another exannle in the
history of art which aches it so clear that a
conservative political disposition is directly
compatible with a procressive artistic Outlook,
indeed, that conservation and progressiveness
are, properly sneaking, inconnensurable in the
two atheres. 25

In France the rosantic movement was also nore in the
.ature of a literary school than in Germany, and a large
rroportion of the reading public sup orted the romantics,
in Contrast to the revived Academy. The young were now

looked upon as the representatives of progress (no doubt

due sonewnat to the persistent inage of Napoleon), and

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lamenticisn became politicized and identified itself with
with liberalism, but after the victory of Romanticism
there was no standard "romantic taste" in the sense
that there had been a normative classic taste.

The age of Romanticism appears as a strange spectacle
of jacobinisn and conformity, a struggle for liberation
that was not consisted until much later, with the Impres-
sionists. Technically speaking there actually is no
such thing as "romantic art", but only rcnantic artists,
who were tied together only in the common desire to
revolt, cast off, and reject precedent.?6

Realisn was strongly tied in with loaanticisn (Courbet
and Delacroix were contemporaries), and by the middle of
the nineteenth century these two trends had become alnost
indistinct fron one another; the realism inherent in the
ronaniic period is clearln evident in portrait painting,

a "hard core of prose within the poetryz7of painters like
Delacroix and Gericault.
Rushin's criticisn shows it is hard to detach
ronantic fron realistic attitudes- the roman-
tics were always trying to transcend nature by
feeling; yet they succeeded by better than the
realisis in detaching thenselves from nature. 78

If we describe the idealian of’”eoclassicisn as
harnenising contraiiciory tendencies in one form, and realism
as pretending to merely record then in their multiplicity,
then we must also remember that the realism of'Ibnanticism

has individual feelings, and does not merely record, having

more diversity than the limited tyres of'Nboclassicism.

)per

~60-

And thus we find this combination of realism and
romanticism in rowcnttc rainttng, for the public, dis-
enchanted with its living reality, was attracted to realistic
art dealing with too [wooiiat2, utilitarian uorld, but also
to the historicaliy remote (also influenced by fiapolcon's
exploits), and, as soohisticatea and aristocrats of the
midi! clans hoi been in the previous century, to the
exotic. Nanoleon's campaigns in Egypt and other for dis-
tant lands also contributed to this feelino, cnfl dotcrained
many aspects of romantic painting- the "Oriental" iwflacnce,
for oxanplc, soon in the Odcltsques of flalacroix and Ingres;
and this provided an impetus for artists to travel to
foreign lands and study their peoyle and custons; in effect,

to "escape" from their conteflpornry, unbearable reality.

VI
sac-23m: DELA cs0 IX

Like Hichelangelo, Delacroix has made oatnting

his unique muse, his exclusive mistress, his

sole and sufficient pleasure.

-Baudelaire
To discuss all of the French ronantic painters would
anount to a book in itself} thus, to show the inherent
contradictions and progressive elenents in the forms and
content of'French‘Romantic painting, and to also indicate
the complexity of a "romantic" personality, I have chosen
the "lion" of’French.Ronantic pointing, Euaene Delacroix.
Delacroix was born in Charenton-St. haurice, near Paris,

on April 26, 1798. Supposedly the illegitimate son of
Talleyrand,72e entered the atelier of Baron Guerin after an
education in the Lyc‘e Napoleon. He studied the works of
Rubens, ultimately his real masterfoand Paolo Veronese at
the Louvre. His first painting, W 2.23 Virgil in M
(1822) shows the strong influence of Gericault; again the
scene is set upon a turbulent sea, but now mythology has
replaced realism, insofar as subject matter is concerned.
But the figures are full of dynanic turbulence and energy,
and the composition is intensely dramatic. His new color
techniques began in this worh,also; a close inspection of
the torso of the wonan below the barge shows that the drops
of water about her have been conposed of Juxtaposed slashes
of bright red and green pigment. Seen from a distance, they

work together to form an image of transparent wetness. His

~61-

.52-
Hassacre gf‘ggigg_of 1824 marked the victory of the ronantic
movement in painting (a victory not realized at the time,
however; even Q33£g_ggg Virgil had been purchased for the
state through Adolphe Thiers, acting far a secret patronage
which helped Delacroix survive despite continuous antag-
onisn from the Academy). gfiigg was inspired as a reaction
to the Greek wars of independence, and gave visual realiza-
tion to the humanitarian sympathy far a land sufferina from
the atrocities of the Turks. It strongly paralleled Byron's
poetry and exploits in Greece, which had spread through
France in the previous wave of’Anglonania at the time of
French liberty. There are strong elenents of realism in it,
but these have been greatly overshadowed by glowing colors
and a preoccupation with the fabrics and textures of foreign
clothing. The child laying at his-mother's slashed breast
in the lower right and the bleeding Greek in the center of
the work are lost entirely in the overall effect of bright
color and dynamic gestures. The old woman at the lower
right marks the conrletion ot the transference of the heroic
to the common seaple. The only obvious classical influence
is the Poussin-like spiral recession of the spit of land
into the background. The large group of figures in the
foreground dominates the picture, and they have been I"cut
off" at both sides of the frame to suggest that they are
only a fragment of a large massacre. This selection of an
incident within a larger spectacle strongly foreshadows

photography. The same Gros who had so highly praised Dante

-53...
and Virgil called this work the "massacre of painting", and
classical apposition was strongly roused against it.

The Massacre was a much larger painting than £3333,
and from its idealistic treatnent it is often hard to realize
that it dealt with a contemporary event. greece Exoiring
25 ng‘flgigg‘ L Eissolonghi (1826) presents an allegorical
figure that conprises realism according to the rules of
Salon aesthetics and yet treads periously close to sentim-
entality. It was exhibited along with many smaller works
for the benefit of the Green patriots. This work is basically
a triangular composition, derived from the High Renaissance,
and it is found constantly inroaggg Delacroix; although
broken up by a more impressionistic technique, the classical
triangular structure remains underneath as a basic format.

In 1825 Delacroix visited England and became a dedicated
AnglOphile. Shakespeare, Byron, Constable and Bonington were
the decisive influences in his life. He admired the English
school in general, and cauld never forgive the neglect in
France of such artists as Reynolds, Gainsborough, and Hogarth,
and even minor artists like Hilhie, Elly, and Haydon, in
whom he found something to adaire.81 Returning to France
with fresh inspiration from the poetry of Byron, he painted
Karina Faltero gecapitated an the M's {itaircase 91 _t__h__e_
Qucal Palace in 1826, a painting full of strong baroque
drana and sensational effects of coloration and composition.

Since the success of Qggtg 93g Virgil in 1822 Delacroix

had Kept a journal, and tats work stands as one of the greatest

~64-

documents of modern art. Through it we see that Delacroix
'as a more solitary and isolated figure than the other
Kendrics. He began his journal as a "way of calming the
emotions that have troubled me for so long"éaand his in-
ability to attain in his major paintings, as distinct from
his drawings, his ideal of spontaneous creation, oas con-
sistent with his double ideal of strongly controlled and
yet passionate exoressiveness resulting from the imposition
of order on what he felt to be disorderly coagosiiions.

his ideal of spontaneity is recoreded many times in his
Journal; he once told Baudelaire that an artist should be
able to do a good sketch in the time it takes a man to fall
from a fourth floor window, yet it was never completely
realized in his rainting.

This ordering of spontaneity is seen in the impression
of an overly-ordered life recorded in the Journal, in which
accounts are heat of trifling expenses, which his inheritance
had node unnecessary. This inheritance was in fact what
Kept him alive, far he refused to paint in two styles in
order to none 0 living in a classically-dominated market,
as Puselt and Turner had done, and as a result of this, after
the 222$2.2£ Sordenopalas in 1E27, he received no more
commissions for five years. A conscious ordering is also
evident in the obvious composition of many of his works,
wherin the design works merely as a franeworh for his pas-
sionate color and brushworh. This sane classicnronantic

dichotomy was present in many "ronantic" figures of the period,

~65~
notably Goethe and Stendhal.

The Death g£j§ardanapalus in 1827 again evidence: on
impressionistic aoproach to color] the shoes of the slave
in.the lower right section of the picture, for example, when
viewed closely are but patches of brushworh of a few tones
of red and orange.

Only an excess of egotism can account for the con~
vulstve failure of the Death 9; gardanapalus, an
Operatic fantasy of thrashing nudes, warriors and
men dooned to die with their stricken hing. Dela»
croix was twenty-nine when he painted it, and it

was a premature effort to stand on the some ground
with his heroes, Rubens and Veronese; its innaturity
is evident in the may the structure lags behind its
story«-a frequent failure in a nunber of his lesser
works. 83

This huge showpiece of an Oriental potentate catching
from his funeral pure as slaves slaughter his wives and
horses, and gather his treasures, all to share in his selfb
inoolation, was :atnted five years oefore his Horoccan trips
After the trip, Delacroix was still dissatisfied with the
work, and repeated it in 1944 in a ssaller and freer version.
The painting presents a dark-light pattern of three simple
diagonal bands, and the weakness of this design lets the
subject overwhelm the painting and turn it into illustration;

After his patrimony inheritance he continued large
historical works, still retaining the large canvases due to
Salon influence as much as to the influence of the past
masters he admired; the middle class of the 1830's was also
now in search of comfort more than reform, and aeSired a grand
but relaxed romantic art; ££EE£$£.££Z§£32 333-532233.°f 1831

was a political reaction on Delacroix's part to the July

~66-
rcuolution against the fionurchr. Despite its literary
overtones, a factor always present in French romantic
painting, the painting was saccoosful in uniting an alleg-
orical figure :ith a realistic scene. The y ung man with
a musket is thought to be a self-portrait, again indicative
of the new cgotisn and individuality of the romantic artist.

All of theso works eviconce wncloeod outlines, strong
diagonals and overlapoings, and asyanetry and a multiplicity
of planes to produce depth in nouonont, bcaides bright
coloration, impressionistic ight, and dranotic Chiaro-
scuro. Delacroix produced an unleashed tension through his
ordering of spontaneity, rather than the relonsod_tcnsion
of the Baroque.

In the early 1330's he made a visit to Horocco along
with a rcprcsentatiuo of the fionorchy, and this trip pro-
foundly influenced his technique and ideas. Here he found
the light and color which flood his later work. ‘Zflg Entry
_5 ”£3 Crusiiors into Constantinoplw’is a powerful color
harmony, fulbbf’dranotic diagonal thrusts and impressionistic
brushwork. During this sane period he visited fiadrid and
studied the methods of Voléoquoz and Goya, evident in his
£923 Juice of 1839.

Delacroix and other romantic painters Painted Hamlet,
Ecrthcr, and Faust, mirroring the underlying literary subject
matter of their art. Besides an interest in nocrorhily§4many
of them felt drawn to an art imagery of strongly aggrcrsivo

sensations, in which they or the spectator were tnnodiotoly

~67-
involved. This was often combined with aninal imagery,
as in Delacroix's M in g m, anticipated by the
English pointer and specialist in animal anatomy, George

Stubbs, in his finite horse Frighteneg £3 3 Lion.

 

Delacroix was the master of men and boost: in conflict:
By the identification of man and beast, as well
as with the high valuation he placed on fantasy,
he seemed to assert a more modern view by locating
the excellence of man in many traits which had
often been regarded as abnormalities. 85

This also reflects the "modern besttory' of the runantic
poets-Keats snake of human qualities in the I'lion“', "eagle",
"tiger", and "dove", and Blakeflbfifiygg5,11yggg’ innedictely
comes to mind.

After the decensvaltzation of woman in the Horntii, two
types of women now appeared in painting-either the innocent,
submissive type or the sensual, dangerous type. Both types
can be seen in Delocrotx'c George gggg and Egg Abduction 31
Rebecca ( a literary subject from.3tr cotter Scott). [fig
Egggg‘gfilfllqiers evidence a strong preoccupation of the
Oriental, the some Orientation that was to strongly influence
Eatisse and many other nodern painters. Hts harem women, as
well as the nodes of Ingres, represent an odalisque type
whose lanyorovs passivity, seductive yet aloof, is remote
from the actively enticing, happy mistresses of the Rococo.
Such subject matter was also a reflection of the courtly love
of the niddle Ages and the strong moral restrictions in
France during the 1550's.

In 1835 Delacroix was commissioned to decorate the

-53-

Chamber of Deputies and from 1835 to 1851 he created the
Triumph 21 Aoollo, the panel in the center of the Galleria
d'Apollon in the Louvre, subjects from the Divine gogggg
in the library of the Luxembourg, mural paintings in the
church of St. Sulpice, and in the Salon de Paix in the
fidtel de Ville. He died on August 13, 1353, at Chanprosay,
having devoted all the later years of his life to painting.

One of his later works, Lg file-:iplgin Ease-ms of
1852, reflects the theatricality his later painting de-
generated into. The curtain behind Christ, sw spiny
staircase, too-attentive servant and the disciples all
picturesquely outlined combine to prodxce a staged effect.
The composition is similar to the grand Baroque designs of
Rutens, although the drwmatic use of light and shadow goes
back to Rembrandt. Delacroix handled organization, color,
texture, and light with great virtuosity here, being more
interested in the aesthetic than the religious significance
of the work; the subject matter appears to have been only
a means for his greater interest in aesthetic effect.

But Neoclassicisa still had its influence on khan-
ticism, even in the painting of Delacroix. In gaggg_grestling
gg£§.tfigwégggl, the arrow in the lower right section of
the cosposition presents an all too-obvious classical

for the spectator.

U

means of direction to the main incident
The technique in this painting is very similar to Van Gogh's
in its impressionistic use of color, and the same theme was

to be used by Sanguin.

~69-

Dalocroix made his m at advanced innovations in
his use of color-ha rarely used block in nis palette,
but instead substituted shades of violet. Ho regarded
color as a means of expression, and not in the neoclassic
sense as sixply a means of conposiiion. Tits is not to
$35 that he wns not well skilled in technique; indeed, he
piiies the loss of technique in many rcnantic painters, as
had fires and Girodoi. And though he thought thorn was at
times too much pretension in Ingres, be regarded Javid as
"a singular convosits of realism and tgg ideal” which made
him "the foiser of the modern sonool", evidencing his
nooclassic sympathies.

Delacroix was an artist of ossinnate enotional ex-
pression, and next to Constable in England was the most
progressive artist of his age. In Delacroix nan became dis-
placed from the center of art, and the "how" of painting
became more inportont than what was painted. In him the
economic distinctions between the differnnt subjects and
genres came to an and; His statement that "a pointing should _
is a feast for the eyes" echoes satteou, and to a great extent
he did continue the "painterly" tradition of that painter,
which became the gospel of pointing until after Impressionism.

In Delacroix vibrant dynonics of composition, the
aovsmont of line and form, the baroque convulsion of bodies
and dissolution of colors into their components gave forth
a sensualism that carbinsd classicism with flbmoniicism and

Oprosed both to Elassicisn;

-70-
sodcrn pointers claim Ingres, not Delacroix, as their
ancestor; his large canvases representing romantic epics
have not created a foll0uing. Eat it was by his major
color harmonies that he contributed to the develoonent of
pointing; his subtle deconpositivn of color was one of his

prim ry lessons taught to the Impressionists.

VII
JEAN AUGUSTE DCEINIQUE INGRES

Ingres presents a unique_personality full of contra-
dictions and similarities to the French neoclassic and
romantic movements in painting. Born in.hontauban, France
on August 29, 1780, he was eighteen years older than Dela-
croix, and was much more heavily influenced by the French
neoclassic tradition.

In 1792, as tradition tells us, a copy of Raphael's
Hodonna gg£Lg_§gng cone to him as a "revelation" and con-
firmed his desire to become a painter. After four years of
study in David's studio he won the Grand Prix in 1&01. The
work that secured this prize for him was the Ambassadors‘gf
Aganennon is £22 M g; Achilles, a typical neoclassta
painting in subject matter and treatment. Until the re-
establishnent of the French Academy in Rome in 1806, he painted
in the Empire style of David, creating flattering works for
the Eaperor and the state. Among these were Eortrait 2Lߣߣ
£i;gt_Consvl (1&04) and his Portrait 3; the Engeror (1806).

Both David and Home produced a strong neoclassie drive
in Ingres, and he became the leader of conservative painting
in France for over half a century.

But Ingres went beyond David; while absorbing the
neoclassic master's clarity of form, he also developed a
profound feeling for nature. ”is forms are not stiff or
reniniscent of sculpture, but full of life. Although he always

-71-

-72-
chose classical poses, he carried further David's emphasis
on line to make it his principle medium of expression. He
continued to choose only "apprOpriate" subjects for his
art in a neoclassic manner, however, until late in his
career, when he underwent a romantic influence in subject
matter.

Oedipus 32g,tflg Sphinx (1808), Ronulus‘gggligggg (1812),
and other neoclassic works of this period in his development
were soon being produced alongside of his best portraits, and
his portraits in general reveal his style at its best. fits
portrait of his friend honsieur Bertin (1832) is infused
with more life than David would have arproved of, and here
even the classical pose has been abandoned for a more spon-
taneous posture.

One of his greatest masterpieces, The Grand Odalisque,
was completed in 1814. In this we can see the passion for
draftsnanship he shared with David, and an only limited
interest in color. His line here is not static like David's
often is, but varies in thickness and direction, adding a
fluid, rhythmic quality to the model. His chaste beauty of
balanced line and devotion to Raphael produced here a work
of lucid composition renote from colorist or psychological
aabition. It is an idealization realized through a per-
fectly achieved linear organization. This work also reflects
the some interest in the Oriental that theIRonantics were
involved with. Because of his increasing senSualization of

hkoclassicism, he was beginning to be looked upon as a renegade

-73-

by his fellow neoclassic painters. Thus, although works
such as the Zggg‘gg Eggig‘iglg (1824) gained insediate
recognition and popularity throughout France, [flg‘ggggg
Qdalisaug became popular only through Sudre's lithograph
of it in 1826, twelve years after its conpletion.

Although he studied at the Beaux Arts and was elected
to the Institute and the Legion of Honor, Ingres was
insensely unpopular in his time. Much of this was due to
his non—acceptance among his fellow Nboclassicists, and,
although Delacroix and the flamantics appreciated many of his
qualities, he thoroughly rejected them.

Anong the celebrated painters of all times, none

has ever had so much the air of a fat, snug, narrown
minded bourgeois as Ingres. People who met the
portly little man from southern France carried away
the inage of a provincial notary rather than of an
artist. 87

He was a suprene introvert, and his isolation made
him quite unstable and defensive; often he would break
into tears, and his model or patron would have to com-
fort him. But his complaints have often been taken literally,
making him appear to be the prototype of the long-suffering,
misunderstood genius.

To the end of his life he was antagonistic toward
flbmanticisn; he would purposely have his students avoid
the pictures of Rubens when taking then through a gallery,
and in retaliation the Romantics would turn up their coat
collars when passing his worhs in the 1E30's and 1540's, as
if seeming to shiver free the coldness of his closed outlines,

limited color range, and snooth finishes; yet the young

-75-
Delacroix found his work charming.

His elegant nudes gave a receptivity to simpler forms
patterned after the turbvleni art of Raphael, but were
still exciting in their sinuous outlines.

In his portrait of the Contesee‘g'fiaussonville of 1845
line and linear structure are primarily taportant, but
here he has used richer coloring to provide a stronger
three-dimensional effect, esoecially with the back of the
subject reflected in the morror. Like Boucher and David, he
integrated personality aith a cultural environment to achieve
a ”furnished portratt'?9 Unlike Delacroix, he did not seek
to achieve a captured mood, but subordinated his emotions
for an objective and precise rendition. But deepite the
classicist scheme and the reticent color here, there is
actually no cool acadenicisn about this picture, but the
fullness and liuiiness of youth.

His most obvious classical work was :23 Apotheosis‘gg
flgggg in 1826; here composition, subject matter and technique
are almost identical to the mythological works of David.
Homer, seated on a pedestal, is being crowned by Victory;
at the base are allegorical figures from the gligg and the
Odyssey; among classical heroes he has placed his hero,
Raphael. An obvi as balance in the two masses of figures
and the horizontal steps and vertical columns make this work
quite similar to David's style; yet even here the figures
are infused with more life than even the non-allegorical

subjects of David.

-25-

Considering himself of the line of Raphael, Ingres
fought to preserve the classical tradition against Dela-
croix; yet his own unconscious liberalization of the
strict classical style of David tends to make us regard
him in terms of labels as a "flea-hannerist" rather than
as a strict classicist. He was especially conspicuous
and reached his highest excellence in his prodigious
drauings, and was actually working under a double program,
through which realism was to be achieved by idealism, and
by means of a probity that scrupulouslyrafrained from
"cheating" in the presnce of what was seen, in order to capu
ture it with the shill of'a Flemish primitive. His idealism
sought to subject art to the laws of beauty, in order to
extract from reality its deepest harmonies. These were
the ates of the classical Renaissance.

The intellectual passion, the fervour of reason,
the artistic productivity of rationalism have
been so completely forgotten that we are only
able to understand classical art itselj’as the
expression of a romantic feeling. 90

Upon his return to Paris he began his since uncompleted
decorations in the great hall of the Chateau de Danpierre
in 1349, and in 1853 continued his involvement with neo-
classic subject matter in the Agotheosis o hapoleon g,
painted for the ceiling in the hall of the Hotel de Ville.
In 1662 he completed Christ and £13 floctors, one of his
few religious works, and died five years later at the age
of eighty-eight oh January 14, 1867.

Generally, Ingres' works have no depth nor force of

- 75...
color or tone; they are wholly based on form and line.
He was driven by the ronantic movenent into an attitude
of stricter protest, evident in his latest works of
neoclassical influence in all of their qualities; yet in
his early and n dile years his constant and heen study
of nature prevented his becoming an eclectic. He had many
pupils, the most important of whom was Chasseriau. He
was worshiped by Gauguin and Degas and the Cubists claimed
him as.a kindred Spirit.
Although he stressed draftsnanship, he did not mean

ty this were technical profeciency:

Tordnaw does not simply mean to reproduce con-

tours; drawing does not merely consist of lines.

Drawing is also exsression, the inner form, the

plane, modelling. 91

But despite his own words, it is his works that caused

the link between Picasso and himself across half a century
of Impressionism; their underlying abstract qualities, first
pointed out ty Roger Fry and Clive Bell, have made Ingres

and not David the grandfather of modern abstract art.

VIII
I
FWMKC 3C0 JOSE DE'GOYA Y LUCIFNTES

The Spaniard Goya created an art of psychological
realism within the romantic movement. Born on Karch 50,
17%6 in Puendetodos, near Saragossa, he fled hadrid at
the age of nineteen after being involved in a street
skirmish and journeyed to Rome as one of a troupe of bull-
fighters.

In Rome he continued an early interest in studying
painting, and a marked Tiepolo influence can be seen in
his frescoes in the cathedral El Pilar and the Carthusian
church Aula dei. He won a prize for his work in 1771 and
returned to Hadrid four years later.

At this time Henge was decorating the Spanish royal
palace with classicist pictures of the Clynpian gods, and
he persuaded Goya to do cartoons for the FradO. the crown
prince's residence. from 1776 to 1780 the genre weeks that
resulted from this influence resulted in a new chapter of
decorative history in art. flow fully recognized by Hengs,
royal patronage quickly followed for Goya. In 1785 he
was made the Director of the Academy of Arts and one year
later becane the court painter to Charles IV.

During this period he painted the Faoilu g; Chorles ix,
the Qgggg,£gwg,§antilla, the gig: in Uniform, and several
equestrian portraits of the King and Queen. All of these
works were under a heavy classic influence in subject matter,

.. 77..

 

 

. l£., A 33.! 53‘ ‘H

-73-
but even in this early stage in his career we can detect
a searching and often cruel analysis of character. Be-
neath these lifelike, even realistic, brilliant and strong
interpretdions lies the cynicism of an onlooher of a
decadent court.

By the turn of the eighteenth century he was pointing
portraits of many famous sen and wonen in Spain; among these
were Guillenardet, the ambassador of the French Directory,
wellington, and the Duchess of Alva, around when the maja
legend has originated.

£3 Condeaa g3 Chinchan is an exanrle of the triunph
of’realisn in his portraits at this time. The lady is
dressed in rococo fancifulness, but these fashions have
not been portrayed in a sentimental rococo manner, not in
a mood of neoclassic aloofness, but are presented to us in
an achievement of realistic recording. The textures of
the dress have not been minutely detailed, but are depicted
in aslmnner so as to convey a suggestion of their qualities,
and the facial exoresston has been transfered from an
attitude of rococo sentimentality to the beginnings of
realistic character.

Goya viewed his world as a mixture of arson and farce,

and in his series of etchings L03 gaprichlos and £03

 

flyoverbias (1797, 1805) he recorded the vices ad'a degraded
society with relentless satire conveyed through an ad-

mixture of striheng realism and fantasy. The Disasters

 

g; ear, begun in 1810, remain as one of the outstanding

-79-
artistic protests in an age of'innunaniiy. From Gloom“
Presentinents g; rhinos 32,933; to the Infamous Frofiit
we are reminded of all the atrocities and crueltied of
war that existed before and after Napoleon's invasion of
Goya's Spain.

During this period Goya actually joined the "Josefinos'
and worked for Joseph Bonaparte, but that his feeling were
clearly for his reaple is evidenced by The Shooting; QI
Egg 25g and figy_t§g Second, 1303, in hadrid. In these
wvrhs can be seen his involvenent with Romanticism. Brill-
iant coloration, flashing, dramatic gestures, and, above
all, the nature of the subject matter here speak strongly
of the romantic movement. Yet in these works there is
also a more realistic aporoach to the cruelties present
in contenporary events, and this is what primarily sep-
arates then from the subdued picturdlizations of past
events in the Romanticism of Delacroix. Goya was a painter
of the coeds in his own time, and his roaanticisn in these
paintings resided primarily in his technique, and not in any
underlying literary subject matter. He followed these

Mm: Lilith a series on the bullfight, the Taurov-armia.

 

All of these etchings were later works in his life, done
tetwwen the ages of fifty—three and sixty-nine.

Through then we pass from tragedy, sctiee and higéorical
fact to allegory, pictorial metaphor and pure fantasy. Much
of his symbolism foreshadowed that of Picasso; he continues

to use the horse, for exanple, as a symbol of passion as David

-30-
had done in the gpbines, and as Pic 330 was to do in his
teentieth century condemnation of war, guernica.
Goya had renatned faithful to the doctrines of ideal
beauty of Hangs in his early career, but would occasionally
break away from then in a noment of unrestrained satire.

Saturn Seoovring One 21 His Own thldrcg strikes us as a

 

ferocious portrayal of a detesfltble mythological occurence,
but was actually done as a parody of a similar cork by
93
Rubens that was in the collection of the Spanish court palace.
He possessed an extraordinary ability to assimilate the
styles and moods of other painters and yet remain entirely
hinself. From his earliest works to .is etchings, influences
from Raphael to Velasquez are obviously present from lesser.
to greater degrees in his developnent of style.
His two famOus paintings of inc atrocities committed

by the soldiers of napoleon against his fellow countrymen
reveal a powerful but wellnintegrated influence of Gros and
other French Empire painters. He constantly changed and
enriched his style while constantly switching back and
forth from beauty to horror.

He obviously protested in derisive and macabre

terms against a reality which failed to conform

to his own ideals....Geya lived indeed in an

age when the contrast between an artistCs ideals

'nd the realities wnich he faced was more shocking

than in the age of Velasquez, who never eXpected

to witness Heaven on Earth in his own lifetime. 94

In The Eicnic of 17fi0 all of the rococo traits of

iatteau have disapreared from his technique; his figures

here have conscious attitudes toward one another, and the

~81-
picture exhibits an intense psychological concern. Goya
has here subordinated nature to the human group, and
nature exists as only a vaguely indicated impressionistic
background. The sane inpressionisn is evident in the
costumes of the figures, the picnic cloth, and other ac-

censories.

 

The haja Desnuda of 1795-1800 is one of his nest famous
works; using the reclining pose of Giorgione, for the first
tine he brings realism to the face of a nude subject, in-
stills it with rarsonality and life, and anticipates the

Clumeia of Manet. It is realistic and it anticipates

   

Impressionism, and thus reflects both the eighteenth and

the nineteenth centuries. Its basically modern aprroach lies
in the fact that it creates an interest in the beholder for
both the physical form and the psychological makeup of the
subject.

His Self-Portrait (1808-1813) stands as a hallmark to
Goya's anticipation of realism with a revolutionary sub-
jectivism, his interpretation of life via the scepticism of
nineteenth century psychology, the psychology of Flaubert
and Halzac. Even when portraying himself he did not re-
linquish his cruel frankness and scepticism; here is an old
man, deaf and dirty, and the abrupt nose, harsh light and
shade, and dry colors create a document of disilluston
quite unlike Chardin's tranquility and the heroicism of
fibeclaasicism.

Goya was the last artist to enjoy roual andiaristocrattc

patronage in Spain, and this was a fozcast for Eurorean

~82-

arttsts of the nineteenth century in general. Within
the career of this one man we can trace a develo sent foam
the neoclassical doctrines of yengs into his own par-
ticular ronanticisa, infused with a satire and psycholo-
gical realise unrealized to such a high degree in the
ecoenent itself. f

Goya is always a great and often a terriiying

artist. To the joviality, the gaiety, the

typical Spanish satire of the good old days of

Cervantes he unites a spirit for more modern,

or at least one that has been far more sought

after in modern tinesw-I mean a love of the un-

graspable, a feeling for violent contrasts, for

the blank horrors of nature and for human coun-
tenances weitdly animalized by circunstances.

" Baudelaire 95
In comparing any of GLHG'S portraits to one of Dela-

croix's, for example his Lgrtrait gfi Ucorfe fiend, or of

 

 

Chopin, it can easily be s-en that Delacroiz's "insight"
into character is largely a matter of technique, and that
in each of his c NUOSGS ue receive more of an insight into
Rosanticisn in general than into the rersonalitg of the
subject; his subjects have not been portrayed so much for
an exhlcraiion of their own characters as such as they have
been used as a means for ronantic techniques. Host of
Delacroix's fa ous portraits are those of famous Romantics,
and he seens to have chosen these resale as means of in-
spiration to association. Goya's subjects, hosever, range
from the royalty to the lowest classes of Spain; and each
portrait reveals different qualities in the unique indivi—
duality of the sitter or the subject. Yet Goya also used

aany of the techniques in painting that Delacroix was to

-83-
later discover. In many of Goya's early frescoes, he used
the technique of "diuisionism" in juxtaposing strokes of
color to merge at a distance that Delacroix e played in

95
Davie £51 Virgil in 1822.

Gogfs career is almost a stereotype of that of the
wadern artist's; {row modest keyineings he stuties under
a: indijterent painter, fails for three years to win any
prizes, then journeys to Italy and his eyes are c ened, "he
finds himself". His new accompliafitents place hie in the
cuurts of Charles III and Charles IV, he weets and goints
the famous and imrorizni peerle of the Stanish aristocracy.
And in the light of the mudern axiom that ”Suffering produces
genius" he producea his Greatest works after physical illness

ad daring tfie hapoleonic campaigns in Spain.

But it is the paintings of tfiis nan that will ul-
timately prevail above the record of his life, a life in-
creasingly stretched and distorted by Lresent day'fibmantic-
tats.

GOyO died in Bordeaux on April 16, 1828, in the early
stages of the great ramantic movement beginning in France.
He was one of the greatest influences on modern paintinc;
Delacroix and the French Finantics greatly admired him. As
with many m dern artists, his best works, the three sets of

etchings finihhed after Lee Caprichoe, were not teamed

 

widely until after his death, in the mid-nineteenth century,
in time to be studied and cjmtred by fianet, Daumter, Sargent,

and Zuloaga.

IX
SUfifiARY & CCNCLUSIGNS

During the latter part of the sixteenth century and
the entire span of the seventeenth,.5broque art had
followed two divergent trends. One was the "painterly”,
Alfielangelesque style accepted by most painters throughout
EurOpe; the other relied on cool static acadenism and was
known as classic Ibroque; it derived its sanctions from
classic aesthetic theory and archaeological research.

The former of these two trends prevailed for the first
two-thirds of the eighteenth century in the loose but
dynamiciflbcoco. The latter was only fully realized in the
last third of the eighteenth century as.ueoclassicism. The
Akoclassicism that was to be fully realized under the French
revolution had begun in England a half century earlier.
Hogarth was one of the first to abandon a fresh, impression-
istic aroroach in his earlier canvases to create moralizing
scenes of theatrical character; his aesthetic writings
support the idea that he was more interested in the didactic
value of the content of a painting than on any direct visual
experience for the spectator. Almost all of the English
tainters of this era.-Hooorth, Reynolds, even Blane, wrote
aesthetic treatises, and their feeling for art was first
passed through a screen of intellectual, literary, and non-
vi3val preconcertions.

But deepite this intellectualized arproach, the English
artists of neoclassicism were genuine painters and sound judges

.81.-

~85~
of the masterpieces of the past. Their borroaings from
the styles of Van Dych, Titian, Rembrandt, and Raphael
were incorporated into a recognizable national idiom, and
each of these artists, along with Gainsborough and Romney,
still preserved their individual stylistic develornent along
with their incorporations of the past great masters.

These English painters were producing quite different
works from the "Nbo-‘aroque’ painting being done in France
at the some tine; although they were closer to the life of
their own times, particularly in their historic bottle
scenes, in which the ”heroic" was being replaced with con-
tensoraneity, they still seemed to place a greater distance
between the canvas and the spectator. Their paintings
were more informal and casual than the French Heo-Saroque
works that were leading into the Neoclassicism of David.

Trumbull, dest, Peale, and Badger, among other
artists in America, were carrying on the European tradition
of historical painting and bringing more of the American
democratic spirit into their works.

deoclassicism blassoned between 1780 and 1820 and was
largely a reaction to the hedonisn of'flococo. It was cham-
pioned by the French Encyclopedists, Diderot, Voltaire, and
d'Alembert. Like the Renaissance, it was inspired by an
archaeological revival of the classical world; yet it differed
from the fienaissance's recognition of humanism in antiquity
in searching in ancient Greece and Rome for the prototypes

of its own new nriacirles of reason and democracy. A truly

 

J!\lllll||llltt.vlr:h
I .(I . : . . L... . .
LV‘I

~86-
unbiased research would have revealed to the maker of a
"new order” in EurOpe the fact that antiquity was very
much like the'flkcoco they were reacting to in having its
slaves, lower classes, and dominant dictators.

And thus it wns that the basic changes in classic and
romantic art were reflected in subject matter and rendering,
changes stimulated by the new imagery of literary, political
and philosophic thought. These two styles were largely
literary derivations, interesting in the history of ideas,
but not overly decisive in the history of painting.

Romanticism found its original impetus in the French
Enlightenment; in Rousseau's enotionalisn and his "return
to nature". In England, whose social-politic revolution
had oocured earlier than in France, the first precedents of
Rbnanticism also appeared earlier, with the eighteenth century
poetry of Killian Collins, Thomas @harton, and Thomas Gray.
Their stress on melancholy and the inagination were re-
echoed by the German poets and writers of Sturg und Drona
who had a profound influence on French romanticism. In
English painting the neoclassic style evolved subtley from
the Bra-Romanticism of Blake into the naturalistic Korean-
ticism of Constable and Turner.

Neoclanstcism was expressed to its fullest in the sharp
angularity and lack of interest in snace of David, and re-
mdined an inportant novenent throughout the nineteenth cen-
tury, while being gradually softened and relaxed in technique

and subject matter, beginning with Ingres. Its effects were

~87¥
still present in the trite works of the late nineteeth
century French Academy. In the some manner English
floaanticism persisted in the nineteenth century until its
ultimate exhaustion by the Pre-Raohaelites. Romanticism
in general in the nineteenth century eventually succumbed to
the sane anecdotal, literary fallacies and intrusions that
classicisn had undergone, but its original expression in
painting, particularly in the works of Gericault, Delacroix,
and Goya had been far more forceful and organic than its
predecessor.

Goya was by far the most original of these artists in
placing more value on psychological than on descriptive
means. He was in many respects the first romantic painter,
and is the one romantic painter who has proven most inportant
for modern painting. he realism he brought to romantic
painting often reached brutality, in his effort ID record
the hypocrisy and cruelty in his own world; a different
a rroach than the lbmanticisms of the last that the French
romantic painters became involved with. Goya could not
escape as easily. nor did he desire to.

The French were primarily important in helping to
bridge the ion between the baroque and Impressionism. Later
French romantics, however, disregarded the visual dis-
closures nate by their predecessors and relied on their
sensational and dranatic effects to produce an art of theat-
rical mediocrity, relying on subject matter and literary

influence to a higher decree than Caricault or Delacroix

-88-
had desired.

As Pelles has made clear, it becomes meaningless and
useless to describe types of art by means of social classes;
this has been apparent in Aboclassicism and lbmanticisn; both
styles occuned among many social clas es; in the arse of
France, it has been obvious that even a revolution could
not destroy the influence of the urier or lower classes on
art; those very artists who were creating an "art of the
people" during the revolution and the Empire were quite often
from the arrer classes; Napoleon himself admired romantic art
and themes in his private life, where he did not have to
present a stately classic inage to the people.

Delacroix, the great champion of individuality that
“ceanticism bequeathed to the modern artist, was quite likely
the can of the aristocrat Talleyrand, and enjoyed the patron-
age of'the state in his trip to Morocco and an aristocratic
inhelritance to enable him to continue his anti-conventional
painting. In France, even more than in the more socially
mobile England, allegiances in terms of art styles were hard
to identify with particular social groups. As the French
middle claes had come to power later than the English, it
had a more varied character and underwent many subdivisions
in successive violent changes.

Because of these many publics within the reputation
and the greater freedom of selection for artists of their
styles due to the areater separation of art from many social
institutions, many styles of art existed together. Thus there

was no strict "Ebnanticism" as had been the case generally

-89-
with Akoclassicism, but only romantic artists; Gericault,
Delacroix, and Goya have been conveniently classified by
art historians as ”romantic" artists within a "romantic"
period, but in their individual styles they could have lived
in different centuries. 'fiore than anything else, the
. elements of Komanticisrn have determined the use of the word
in deSeriEing a style. Although the painting of’Nkoclassicism
and flbmonticism came before the politics involved in each
case, they would have certainly been different in their
eanifestations if tfie rolitics and other socioloa cal
influences had not occuned and afifected them.
It has been obvious from this study that a certain

type of personality Cannot be deduced with accuracy from

a certain tyne of art style; a style encompasses many did
vergent individuals in many fields other than painting.
Neither do art styles always mirror life; French ”eccles-
sicism came about during one of the most turbulent periods
in history; dynamic French Romanticism occuned in a period
of relative calmness and tranquility. In many cases we

also look anon the artist as a kind of prophet; but more
often than not, as evidenced by Reoclasnicism and Rmanticism,
he expressed what most peoole know unconsciously.

The flourishing of a group style and its rivals show

a deep public effectiveness, and stylistic terms such as
”Classicism" and "fibeanticism" are primarily useful as a
means oj'distinquishing one broad navenent from another; in
t=is sense the descriative value of such labels is vitiated

cg iteir use to explain categories of yrohlems w ten actually

-90-
have no existence outside the dialectics created by the
terms
the V! thenselves.

This thesis has been concerned with two important
moveavnts in the history of painting. As in all problems
of art history, the factual recording of stylistic ae-
veloyments has been much easier to acconrlish than a
*deialled account of why it happened.

To the extent that is has been possible, the "why”
of this problem has been approached through various means-
socioloyical, political, and, to some extent, psychological.
Any attempt to further exslain the various differences be-
tween the individual artists within these movenents in
terms of stylistic differentia must rely on the understanding
of the fields of psychoanalysis and exoeriaental psychology.

"Classicism" and "Romanticism" exist as general terms
to explain the constant creation of new movements in art
against those already established; but as for as the specific
movements of Neoclassicism and Romanticism are concerned,
their subject matter, and to a great extent, their techniques,
have disappeared into the past; it is primarily their ideas
thet remain with us today, whether in the state art of the
U.S.S.R. or the individualisn in artistic choice created
by‘Romanticisn, the latter of which, hopefully, will con-

tinue to exist and even begin to influence the former.

9.

FOOTNOTES

Cf. Herbert Read, Egg Nature g1 Literature.

Cf. Heinrich Wolfflin, Principles 91 513 History.
Deanna, 11?. 13 £2.95! 91 Art Histor , Researches #2.
Rank, £££w221 Artist, pp. 46-51.

Cf. Jacques Barzun, Classic, Roeantic, 93g Rodern.
Cf. Arnold Mauser, 12! Philosophy gliizt Historg.
Cf. fl. Peosner, Acadenies gfi Art, fast and Present.
f. Irving Babbitt, Rousseau and Egggnticism.

Lovejoy,'The Parallel of Beism and Classicism", Essays in

the Historq 9L Ideas.

10.
11.

Sypher, From Rococo Lg Cubism, pp. 27334.

Tuberuille, Enqlisn Ken nj Manners igtthe Eighteenth

CQHtUP , p. 357.

12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
‘18.
19.
2o.
21.
22.
23.

Protter, Pointers 33 Painting, p. 157.

Zucher, Styles in Paintin , p. 166.

Tuberville, 9g. £1£., p. 373.

133g., p. 323.

Zucker, 22..g££., p. 150..

Honk, Egg Sublime, p. 179.

Whitley, _A_5_t_ jg Enoland, gig-w, p. 71.

Cf. fl. Peusner, Academies gt Art, Past and Present.
Honk, ggig.

Bfirzun’ 2g. Cite, p0 1940

 

Reynolds, Discourse I, 95-97.

 

Shipwreck scenes may have been stimulated by the increase

in sea travel, qaite hazardous in tits time.

24. Palloa, Art, Art‘Sts’ and SUCiQty, p. 690

 

25. Cf. Honk, 93. 011., pp. 260-201.
260 PellQB, 9-2. City, p. 460

270 Wit-90’}, T59 Life 2L Willie?! Plflke’ p. 50

 

28. Pellos, 93. 911., p. 47.

29. Hauser, Igg'Social Histor“ 95 5:; (III), p. 116.
30. Cf. Kant, Critique gliJujgemept.

51. Mauser, 953. 313., p. 122.

32. £313.

53. £§£§., p. 152.

34. £313., p. 143.

55. £QLQ., p. 145.

36. Pelles, 23. gL_., p. 128.

57. gagg., p. 100.

38. Locqutn, £3 Fetntugg'gfhistotre g3 Prnvcc gg_;zgz‘§712§2,
p. 164.

39. Folios, 22. gi£., p. 103.

40. Wind, "The Sources of David's Horaces", Journal gf‘iflg
Harburg gig’Courtauld Institutes (IV), pp,124-38.
41. Pollen, g5. 213., p. 26.

42. Zucker, 23. gLL., p. 204.

43. Hauser, 23. g££., p. 159.

44. £££3., pp. 162-163.

45. gg£g., p. 145.

46. Christansan, I53 History 21 Western 45;, p. 282.
47. Hauser, 3;. 213., p. 147

48. 12£3., p. 146.

49. Syphor, 22. cit., p. 152.

50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.

72. Cf. Sidney Tillim, "Delacroix: A Century After",

-95-
Pelles, op. cit., p. 106.
Deléoluze, Louis-David, pp. 158-159.

Dowd, Pageant-Master 91 the Republic, p. 23.

 

Protter, 22' cit., p. 34. (P. Fosca).

Cf. Jean Cassou, The Nostalgia for g fiéyier.

 

DeléEluze, 22. 31£., p. 234.
Hauser, 23. gi£., p. 152.

Cf. Camille Hauclair, Turner.
ggig.

Zucker, 32. 213., p. 217.
Read, 2523 Meaning 9; 453., p. 182.
Fretter, 280 313., p. 74.
Turberville, 23. 313., p. 362.
Protter, 32. g££., p. 103.
Pelles, 22. gi£., p. 15.
Hauser, 22. g££., p. 164.
Pelles, 23. gi;., p. 59.
Delépluze, Journal, pp. 66-67.
Pelles, 22. 211., p. 83.

Heine, The Salon, pp. 51-52. (London, W. Heinemann, 1893).

Pelles, 22. dpi., p. 122.

Cf. Pierre Courthion, gelacroix.

zine.

 

73. Delacroix, Journal, February 19, 1850. (p. 210).

74.
75.

Cf. Pierre Courthion, Delacroix.

”01139", 280 Cite, p0 1860

Arts Maga-

-94-
76. Sypher, 33. git., pp. 66-?0.
77. gig” p. 73.
78. Mi, p. 78.
79. Cf. Yvonne Deslandrea, Delacroix.
80. Read, 223 Mewning 2:;151, p. 183.
81. Houser, 33. g££., p. 185.
82. Delacroix, JOurnal, September, 1822.
83. Tilltm, 29. 313,, p. 64.
84. Alford, "Romanticism Via Ruskin", Art News.
., p. 132.

N

85. Pelles, 23. ct

86. Ibid., p. 58.

87. Werner, ”A Second Look at Ingres", Arts flagazine, p. 84.

88. Pelles, £3. g£;., p. 38.

89. Zucker, gg.‘g££., p. 157.

90. Hauser, 29. gl£., p. 165.

91. Werner, 2g. £1£., p. 85.

92. Huxley, 233 Complete Etching: g£_§ggg, p. 13.

 

93. Roditi, ”The Prado: Ideal Beauty and Horror”, 4512.5g33-
5133, p. 44. (This work was hung in Goya's own dining room).
94. Rodtil, g2.‘g££., p. 46.

95. Protter, 23. gL£., p. 98.

96. Baro, ”The Legendary Goya", Arts Magazine, p. 19.

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The Nature gfi Literature. Universal library, 1960.

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S. Racheblave, Preach Fainti" M
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French Painting _gi fiineteenth Qanturg.
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£23 Eighteenth genturg.

 

 

Helen Rosenau, The Painter Jacaues-Louis David. London: Nich-
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Rona Wilson, The Lifeo QLLWilliam Blake. Oxford University
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Frederick Antal, "Reflections on Classicism and Romanticism",
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Gene Bare, "The Legendary Goya", Arts Eaaazine, Earch 1964.

H.P. Clark, ”Eighteenth Century Elusiums", Journal 31 £32
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Hic.fiael Plorisoone, "Constable and thfle' assacres de Scio' by
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E.fi. Gronbich, "Imagery and Art in the Homantic Period", The
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Arthur C. Louejoy, "The Parallel of fieism and Clasézicism", Essass
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-93-

Edouard Rodttt, "The Prado: Ideal Beauty and Horror", Arts
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Sidney Tilltm, "Delacroix: A Century After", Arts fiagaztne,
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Alfred Werner, "A Second Look at Iagres', Arts Hogaztne, June
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