GAMMA‘RAY $PECTROM£YRIC SYSTEMS OF
RADIOACTIVE FALLQUT ANALYSIS

Thesis {or ”10 Degree 0‘ M. S.
MICHIGAN STRTE UNVERSETY
Ronaid L. Hangen
1963

THESIS

This is to certify that the
thesis entitled

GAMMA-RAY SPECTROMETRIC
SYSTEMS OF RADIOACTIVE FALLOUT ANALYSIS

presented bg

Ronald L. Haugen

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Masters degree in Mechanical
Engineering

 

 

_/J Major professor

Date z/z/(lm'b/V/ /@

0-169

   
 

  

LIBRARY

Michigan State
University

3.1—3.1. :72.- A- .» ‘

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Th. nochmfim of tho fallout radionuclide trench: rm tho a‘lmccphcrc
“E1111! nudicdbyucinga gums-ray spectrometric cyctcmcruulysic.
Tho Misti" ncccurcmnt of scrotal long-lived "fallout radicicctcpoc'
inbothaircndnincamphcmdctcmd. Tho syltmctcmlycic tor
tum-Worth“. icotcpccm devised usage octet simul-
tamcnc equations for making tho necessary mutual comment. A computer
program for than solution is included.

rho game-cw spectra of the samples (colloctcd at daily marvels)
arc wanted. The Winn mum-nu. method of isotopc and
11mm calibration. and tho calculation of thc isotope mutations
from flu Mn an discussed.

ThomflydsofcbothBSdaflyaircamplumdhsmsamplcafrom
tthuisingmampnscntcd. Grccsbctamlymotthcurmdrain
samples m described and their sciatica to tho WW analysis is
gmptdcally presented. Finally. a prcthccic on the transfer mechanics
of tho radicmclidcc is propane! based upon thc cremation of tho field
study.

GAIQWRAY SPECTROI'E‘I‘MC SYSTWS OF
RADIOACTIVE FWD? W

By

Ronald L. Hanger;

A THESIS

Buhuittcd to '
Pacifigan State University
in partial Want of the rcqvircnents
for the degrcc of

imam OF SCIENCE
. Deparmmt cf mohanical mgmeemng
1963

'.‘ ;)

ABLE CON ‘13‘1‘3

Abstract‘...’OOOOOOiOOOOICO..0.

matafFimcccccccccccccccccc‘ccc

Chapters
IIntrodmtim23é..........ac...

HHWtWStWoccccccccclcccccc-

9

III Atmocpha'ic Radioactivity and It: transfer to Rain.

IV The Gama-ray Scintillation'Spmmctcr. . . .
V Quantitative Analysis of Gama Spectrographa. .
VILaboratmInstmmtationmdPrcccdurc....
m Collecticm mum-icy a: filtering Walt. .
‘Eiimmsisandnicmcian......i.....
IIGoncluaims..................
fierce-mans....'......-..u..........
Appmdiccs F
A Gama-ray Spectra at thc Fallout Radioisotopca.
BeanpntwrProms...............
GAnaJyucchMplu..............
DWtUacd..-.................

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[.19
”34

..36
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”to
'..52

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3 OF GUREB

Figure

Page

1.0rosaSectimVicwcttthdntillationW611Mcctors..u c c c"

LWdAbcorbtimofawmad-aywaumbymm

DW...¢..-.ou...o.......2.3.......13

3.mflclntillztm3pmm....s..g..........15
a. We 3pm at we.“ a. Obtained on a acmmmm spec-mm. 11

5c wwmflloccoccccceases-cocccccccfa

6 Mamaavmmsmmwmwmm

Fallout...........o..u....a....¢.....20

LWWMMctatimSmnplccmminingwmm

moutcccccccoccoccubclccccccccccccczt

8. Gama-m Spoon-m 03' chctcticn Smplcd M Hacks after Fresh

fallen-ticsccucccccc-cccccccccicccccoczz

9.6cnmw5pcatnmofthcranontfiadicisctcpccchovingthcmerw

mwmtmmpmmmrwmmmdm

1391301).chcocciccoccccccccccccccconn02“

10. Mental Values for the Caspian and Photopak Gorrcctimc

.Sampnngmmmtm.
12.6cmtingi‘quipnmi...................
13.3mIch’occaMEquipnmtsooaa....s..
£6.2295ih95mm1m1mWWWH
:7. ca‘373a‘37 mmmnm WSW .
18.1‘3‘Wy8pwm..............
19. «mam Wrim Wm 032M spam-m .
20.M’°3Wy8pm..............
2t. Baflfu‘“ Equllihrim mm. W spam .
22.0:t0mm-mr5pm..u.n.u..u
23. 213°6sz “when Mixbm Wy spectrum .

21-h mwmgmffiraghtthc c o o

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Ccsnputm‘ Program for Four Component Systen .
DailyCa‘oscBetafidxActiirity. c .5 . . . .
my m1103.406 and Gamma-n Mr Activity .
Daily arr-Q5 and as”? Air Activity. . . . .
em Versus 2m- Aotivity (Gross Berta). . . .

c‘

0

Pain Versus Air Activity (Individual Isotopes) . . .

Gross Beta M: Activity Versus mm” and Ru‘°3“°5 m Activity

0

O

0

Gross Beta Mr Activity Versus as”? and oem‘w‘ An- Activity.

Fain/Mr Activity Versus wind Velocity . . .
Rain/Air Activity Versus Rain Depth. . .w . .
Rain/Mr Activity Vm‘sua Cloud Height. . . .

C

Predicted Verena Measured Aulzlain Activities.

DEL-13130110” Percentages. . c 3‘. c c b a c

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38.Listo£M.randRamDatA...........

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W

Th- proscncc of fission product radioactivity has been rcpor'bcd in
sitcoms and watcrways. foodstuffs. and mags ”comm. plants. This
world uido distribution of radioactivity docs m tapas-st an imam.
healthhazczd. butitwrcsultinlongtcminjmytohwmhcalthm
income). deposition.

Prosoutly. tho cmaphcxio radioactivity M018 arc but a fraction oi‘
tho lml. labeled 'cafs' by tho U. 3. We However. the "safe"
level ismsrclyotompomswflardandtcndingtobcndwdbymrthsr
understanding of tho macs]. effects of radiation. Also. with expected
incmscs in tho us. of radioisotope. in industry. mm. and research
institutions; mixing and chemical prccccsing of uranium on; mclsar
reactors for power pmductlon and march: clinical processing of spent
roommate! formflmofmclcarm: and falloutductoths
use oi.‘ nuclear toatihg devices: the presence of fission product radio-
activity in our cnvimrmzt will. We. It may possibly increase into
the dam levels of concentrations.

Evan tho prcssnt “low” low]. of anvizormcutal radiation w present
a curious probm. who has tons imam-y possible through ecu-tic effects
may be tho most mm of ps'oblcmc to Mun Mons. Radiation is
known to In tho camp of mutations. Sons of thou mutations on for tho
goodbutthcmjoritymmrttwworsc. Inflicpast, mtmmowcdcnly
the mo: survivc axdthuswcdcdoutthcunwamumtstions. However.
today at}: tho advanced stats of tho medical. profession. the weaker. un-
WWWM‘VIe mummummmmmum
majority. tho long tom “toot m In dmlutionszv. For thcsc roams.

studios such as that pmsontod in this thesis arc desirable.

The idmtification of tho radioactivc matcrisls prooont in the fallout
1:! noocssary hr 3 marinara]. comm of the potential. health hazard of
the continuation prosont. m morn difficult and yet important problem
concorxmig tho radioactivo pollution of our cnviromsnt is to understand.
quantitatiwly. transfer noclmdms of the who mclidcs in the environ-
mentalmcdia, inparticiflar. mum-tam

mmmnummgaummmmmumdimmdotmrer
mm tho stmsphorc to tho rain. Gama swims: 53ch is
applied as a possiblc moons of analyzing the transfer merchant's: of in-
dividual radiomolidoc. .It is attomptod first to dmlcp smothod forths
quantitative analysis of names containing mfimn amounts of gonna-ray
mitting radioisotopom sodomy.“ Marian of tho fallout Momma
transforfromthcmicsphmtotmrainio studied.

Intholshutow.bothmssbctacountardmnascdrtillation
spectrompha of air and an miss an analyzed. in amm- carnation
is found batman ruin commit-stun of a cortsin radimmclidc and atmo-
sphcrio constitution of tho cams mclids 1hr all tho radionuclidcs analyzed
in this study.

In addition to tho direct air to min activity uhtionship. addi.
tionsl pas-motors of important innocuous haw hm invcstigatod. such as
wind ”loony. slow height. climtobacal auditions and others.

this studyisbasodosdailyavorago samples. observed mm
1962 to July 1963 on tho mctdgan Stats Mir-nit? comm. Also. the opacicc
orthorodlmlidosamlysodmlhmodtcthcfwrlonghalfuh
new products; Comm“. cssa “37 NOW“. and 2m”.

2m

M1957. Gmnflem (13) made a th'ccmtical analysis of the rain scan
waging of radioactim particulate matter nun the aimcSphcrc. A two step
pmsa m imalvoiin the mm rcr- m «mm of partials: by
water-cloud droplets and subsequent dcpcdtisn by rainfall. It was can-
cidcred that (a) a certain percentage of particles would be captured by
tater-cw drcpltts. and (b) a certain montage of ths droplots would
be Subsequently captured by falling rairximps.

It was concluded that. as a result of tho collision of falling rain--
crops with particles. particles uith dimtora less than tm‘Mcmns muld
be retrieved in only nimb- mncmrta. depending an the amount of rainfall.

Also. the pmbabmw was very mu that cater-mom droplots would
pick up significant quantities of partial“ with cimnctcrs greater than
0.08 microns. and tho'mcchanism of 6:013th capturo by Wraps would occur
in a mm: mm tel the direct captun a: radicactiw particles.

Assuming a mean partials dimer 391‘ We mimns, Greenfiold showed
thcaroticauythaterpemntcttMt radicactivity is mngodby
direct interaction with mining». For all practical purposes. the rem ~
naval is by direct inquingment cf falling mirth-cps with particulate
nutter.

Itagaki and Roma (11$) intcrprcted the Greenfield analysis to mean
that tho prodmdnant transfer mechanism was collisions batman mirrlrcps and
radibactivo particles during tho mecca of rahadrcp descent. They mea—
sursd tho radioactivity of seven mine at five diffomxt auctions and
found that the specific activity amend with altitude.

W. at. «1.. (15) mm the mum at tar-90 1a pmpi-
taticnrocultdmgmlargoacalsuplmmmctiw stem. my

3

interpreted Greenfield's analysis as mezming that the predommnt deposi-
tion mechanism was by cloud-droplet capture and subsequent raincoat. This
1: in apparent. contradiction to the mrk of Itagaki and Room. By
mimng three rains thy found evidence of oomlation between cloud
ceiling and the concentration of 81590 in the rainwater. The cloud ceiling
was interpreted to be a measure of the concentration of the radioactivity

_ resulting mm the. evaporation'er the rainirop 1n the unsaturated layer of
air war the MN , ‘

Conn: (16) eaqalaine this pheromomn on the basit of certain meteoro-
logical hmootheaos: briefly, that precipit‘ion‘that origmatea from air
nth lees miaturo eon produce higher concentrations than air with greater
hoisting since more air is needed to make the some depth of rainfall. The

mmmpfim is mm. that arid regions obtain rain from drier air and
that raindrops falling in. arid regions madame more evaporation than in
hmid' moo. thus onrlomng the Sr-90 in the ramming liquid water.

l-fiyake. at. a3... (17) have proposed an equation for the deposition

of radioaotivity in items of the concentration in the air and the amount
of pmdpit'a’oiono Their data are Wisely represented by the equation
When Mapherio ao‘hifitgr is taken as a constant om an extended period
of time. Homer; in MI by mm: (18) large fluctuations in the con--
centrations of radioactive Aduste are observed. Fluctuations 91‘ $11.21*
activity may be due to these fluctuations in the oonoentrations of
radioactive dust in the air: Norris monoludoo that in the case of armor
rains. Groenflold'o model does not apply. No rain was extensive to the
demo that tho penning. of particles removed mm a.~ vertical cylinler
was equal to the percentage of Mules W from the entire radio-
active cloud. The speoii‘lo activity of rain did not appear to be related

to either cloud height or rain intensity. This tends to support Gmfiold's
proposition that the fraction scavenged w be oonaidered to be indepament
of rainfall intensity. Norrie proposes a relationship, between specific
min activity and the specific activity of air at. the time of the rain.
oftho rm (33:22: CA .

M the WWW a: mohigan. Dangle (19). has undertaken to model
the rain process in Mt more detail, accounting for the size spectra
er cloud droplets. or rename. and of mm particle: in integrating
the Wmn and :1an We”: layer by me:- though a
Wool atmsphm. unfortunately. the ”ligation of data is not
811111de at this time to make oompnhm'vo omiyses. Dingle claims
hisdflflholdsamotdoalofprmisomdplmstomm further
details and mm: in the m M.

Kruger save that in general. the fallout radioactivity oonoontration
in precipitation which reaches the ground is 111:on to be deponionh upon
the paramtoro noted below. (15)

1. The height of the precipitation generating level.

2. The precipitation mutton and growth mohanime in the aloud.

3. The mum: 0d radioactivity mum in the air masses participating
in the precipitation moose. V

5. The previous precipitation madame of the air at the generating
lml.

6. The descent modem. or the predpitation 15mm the cloud. in which
precipitation originates, to the wand

the data out Kruger (is). show that in each ease the grown 1m].

31590 concentration follows cleanly the trends in the height or the cloud

ceiling. A poorer correlation is noted for the average precipitation rate .
and very little comlation is noted for the influence of previous prea-
cipitation more. at the generating level. Variations are seen in

the individual showers. The largest Bra-90 concentrations are in the rain
which falls after the cloud has acMevcd its greatest vertical dmlcmnt.
Showers which occur mm fmm frontal atom systems cm lover concen-
trationsbut stillvith venetian: dmtothe mm height atthe
predpditation generating level. '

In all the works performed to date: San-90 or gross beta analyses are
used. With the vast mm of debris deposited in the atmosphere by
'nucleartcsts. motherisotopcsmpnscnt. Alscbecanse cfnatural
decay the relative amounts are constantly changing. It is thus possible
thatasnflycfthcixflividuaiieotopcswfllbemremealingthanthe
was me analyses. 08.111113 scintillation spectrmtry offers a possible
means of analyzing the transfer alcoholism of air activity to the rain.

Beginning with the work of Greenfield. s sexier of authors have pm
pared plausible accruing mother-sec on the transport of the radicnuclides
in air to rain. However. nearly all authors have restricted their view.-
point to one basic parameter: Itegaki, with transfer via direct collisions
between reimnops and radioactive particles: Kruger, with chm-droplet
capture and subscqmnh raincut; Me. with the correction for the wind
velocity- _

In mmining Greenfield's work. the author feels that the emphasis is
placed on the direct collision appmoh as furtheni by Itagaki and Koemma.
Itagaki and Kcemma's proof is dependent upon the observation that. the
specific radioactivity of rain was icon! to decrease with altitude. How.-
e'vcr. as described by Collins. the observation does mt automatically impr
such a generalization. Raindrops may begin their descent with an initial
common. The change in concentration ehsemd by Itegski and Koemzma
maybednetcthemmmtormpcraticnaraindmpwerimdmdngits
fall. Thus. the specific activity or the rain would decrease with in.
cream sampling altitude. I: the direct. collision of raindrops with
radioactive particles is an important Wm. the spedfic activity
ctreinsrmuldbedepementupcnthe specific activitycttheeires
WetthetMecrthel-ain. mammmmwupmm
later which tends to W this proposition. Itagaki. Kama. and
Kruger all observed an influence of cloud height upon the final specific
rain activity . Their observations are unfortunately only qualitative .
Although their resume are och used for proving opposite viewpoints. it is
hrrportarrt to establish or disprove aw relationship. Further study on this

mechardsm is presented in this report.

It nger and Collins are correct. e eermlstion batsmen specific
rain actiflty and specific hmrlidity 5mm exist. is judge such e son's-
lation it would be necessary to know the specific activity of the rain at
the cased height. Mth only ground level observations available. this
mild be impossible. However. the relative hlmidity idea may be of
assistm in qualitatirely whining extme points round in the angler}.-
mental s‘tudics. ' '

milerthesssmptibnthatthebasde mhaflmfltransportisvia
dimt collisions. Norris prcpoeed a actuation for diifereneee in gmund
lwsluimspeeds. However. themmbercfreimm small. MoreSlnPor-r
tantly. the velocities used were daily averages measured fire miles distant
fans the rail! smapling location. It is quite probable that air turbulence
increases the possibility of e ranch-op a pal-timetafmatter collision
andthatwilflvalocitiesmsybeussdasanindicatienefthis effect. flow-
ever. the data and meats presented by mm: were insufficient and 3.
else:- leek at us; mechanisms justified.

The amount of proclamation is listed by myske as an impsrtant
pm. Altlwugh this mid not be ac asserdlm to Gmeni‘ield, its
effect may actually met. For this reams. the amount of pnsipitation
and its effect upon the specific activity or rain water is seam and
will be discussed later. ‘ I . *

m'previeue experiences! the air at the generating level was pre-
amtedbyxrugsrasapeesiblyimpex‘tantparameter. itpresemt. itis
only possible to look at us; emu: qualitatively. W. it my be of
some impertame and theretere its effect will. be detemined.

In the process of evaluating the possible parameters. both gross
beta and mvidual isotope analyses will be used. Gross beta. comts are
made 6: all beta emitting isotopes. mum 1mm rm bo more re.
veaJng since the mount and propérhions a: each radioisotOpo changes
because of the addition of new radioactive debris and natural decay of the
old.

 

The! gamma scintillatian spectrometer is used to analyze the spectra
otgmmtung radimmclides. Thoma annalnthnaedfortho
detaotion 9! radiation in a gain: Miniman spectrum“: is 3 Wm
activated sodimn iodide cmstal. In being absorbed in such a crystal.
gmphotonstransfaralloraportionoffiheir awtoarbital
aleabmm of the mlmles managing the metal. These mm lose
their mom by exciting and Wing the minerals: mung tha crystal.
The wary received by the mleoules is. in turn. am of! in the form
of pulses at light, .part of which are 00.1le On the photomflmdo or
a multiplier tube which is optically aouplod tn the metal. The can»
binatian or crystal. phmmupnar tube. and ampnmr act as a scin-
tillation cantor. (5) A diagrmn at. the datum! and aomrpaming phato—
mnltipliar tube is sham in Figure 1.

WWI: is absorbed in the metal by £11m. principle processes:
(a) Human“ (b) Compton flattening. and (0) Pair production. These
moses m scheaucalk diam in Flam-e 2.

Absorption of gm photons in the metal by the photoahahrio pm.
Mssmfltsmwmesossmifllyflpflmtingmmafm
mam pMans. In th. pm: effect. mat. of the W at the
gm 18' am to an m:- shdll atomic alsotmmhiah W m
the pm when. This atomic Wu mm the pawn: atom with an
mhnmmmrwcfthegamaphotm (lassbyanamtmtoqual
to the hitting W at the 315011110 shell mm which it escaped). The
.pmwnwgummwmmncalpulsobytm adnmntian
«mm. pmmnu- m. m parent atom. being lam-~11: an mm

10

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12

state. soon gives off the moining emery when an electron falls into
the shell from which the photo-electron come.

In Conmton scattering. some of the energy of the incident gamma
photon is transfered to enozbital electron, the remainier of the energy
being carried away by the scattered photon. The scattered photon may or
may not be further absowed in the crystal. Again. because of the
relatively long resolving time of the detection oquipnent. any series of
Camber: Mutations follms'ed by a final photoelectric capture within
the crystal v1.11 produce the signal proportional to the anew of the
incident photon. The photmvmltiplier tube can not distinguish between
two separate light flashoe if they are Simultaneous. 3rd in the“ in.
stances a current pulse representing their sum results. (1) Thus.

Compton scattering ecmasfied by phytoelectrio absoxiation of the
scattered photon may yield a pulse representing the energy of the original
game mdiatian. In general, however; absorptions involving Compton
scattering yield a spectral}: of pulses with a madman emery less than

the emery of the incident 33mm photon.

Inpairproduetion, ameitmamanohetmmmatd.‘ This
creation mm: 1.022 New my. the remixing at the inddant gamna
plntonappearlngeekimtiaomrwehandbetmenthepeadtmnufithe .-'
elem. The poeitmamtho Whacthdrkinetio Wmugh.
com with molecules composing the crystal. After it is brought to
rest. thopesitmnnmnhnateewithaneerbyelwtmziflng meetom
photons. not: possessing 0.511%" m. It the M amihilation photons
”capotmmam. mmflngpfilnmflaom the emgyotthe
Wmmmiwzzm. Ifhthmabaexbodvdthintho

a(0'1PMO'I’OEL.E¢'I’RO N)

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FIGURE - 2
PROCESSES OF ABSORPTION OF GAMMA
RADIATION BY THE CRYSTAL DETECTOR

1h

motel. flmpuleowillropnuntthowgyotthoinddmtgmphotomw)

Through use of suitable electronic oirmfite and discriminators. it is
poedbloto oomrtomypflueuthinamvenonorgymngo. Suehan
instrmmtel sot-up constitutes 3 gm scintillation spectrometer. Its
baeio oompormrta are shown schematically in Figure 3.

The Olootxical 31ml output of the photomzltiplier tube is directly
proportioml to tho mnt which caused the scintillation. Bovevor.
mrtlnr anplinoation is meow because the pulse is of the order of
minivans. and the pulses are in the order or volts when used for the
munting prams. (9). is described here. the spectnm is a curve showing
themnbeofpuloeo Orwam onerw asai‘unotionofenerg. mammal-
yzer contains two diocxiMnatoz-e. Unless the voltage pulse is higher
than the setting on the lower discriminator. the pulse is rejected.

The second discrhuinator is set to reject voltage pileee above its
setting. The circuits are arranged so that the second disorhflnator
setting is a voltage slightly higher than the first discriminator setting.
The second setting is rat-ems: to as the ”Charmel width". The output of
the pulse analyzer is oomectm to a scalar to record the mortar of
when observed in a specified time.

To calibrate the curve in terms or raw eorresponding to am given
pulse height setting. a redioaetivo sample with a lawn anew epeotrum
is used. Ost- 137 flth its angle peak at 0.661 Nev is a very oomon
source material.

The Na «zit Spectrm is an excellent illustration of the priviously

mentioned prindplee. A study of the Ha-Zh epoctnm reveals that there
are peaks at W W Of “ut- 0051. $002. i073. 2023.. 8:11 2.75 M".

 

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16.

Thefsotthatthorempesksattheseenergiudoeemtneoesssulyirdioste
that “3“ emits game photons with all. these Woo. It does indicate
that the sdnfillstisn mpment observed a considerable umber of events
having these various Wes; To explain the various peeks it is
mpmhmsh Ra-Zhdoes mt mphomhavmgmuo:

1.36 and 2.75 Move. The peaks at these margin indisste the likelihood

that sonsiderable numbers of M game-rays are completely absorbed in

s Compton phtoelectrio series of events. The 0.51 Mev peak is produced
asth otpairproduotionend subsequent amdhilstism butwhere

one of the photons escapes the orystsl. The 1502 Nov peak scours nth
gig/he woman of both 0.51 Kev photons. The 1.73 MW pus is the kinetic
wary of the pair production from s 2.75 Mev gems-my (2.75 «1.02 - 1.73).
The 2:7.23 M'ev peak is evidently the observation of s 0.51 event and a 1.73

* event where both events assured in less than the resolution time of the
equipment and thus were observed as s singls event of my. 2.23 Mev.

This is called a m peak. (9) ’

The broadness of the peaks is attributed to a certain extent to
Wenoestteringwhemonlyspartoftheensryms givenuptethe
crystal while the reminder escaped and was not observed.

Because of the Wm of its operation. the gm sdutfllafion
spectmeter affords an excellent means for the study of the basis processes
by such gamma radiation interacts with matter; (1) More importantly.
the spectnanoter makes possible on analysis winch does not denand distruo.
tionortho maple: Also. ornament ofthepeak ores ( etlesst tor

ample spectra) gives a direct imtioation of the isotope sonoentmtion.
The sizing of s ma of isotopes greatly oomliestes the analysis and

unhediswsaed htsrintrds report.

—._.. a--__—o.-———.A—- --.—.. - -

RELATIVE GAMMA ACTIVITY, cpM

lll'lTl

I I
3

N
g,
01

 

O
‘-
N
N
U1

I fl rnl
3
."

 

I

 

I

IIIIIII

l

I

 

: l l l J

O 20 4O 6O 80 IOO
PULSE HEIGHT (VOLTS)

FIGURE-4
GAMMA SPECTRUM OF Na-24

coum’me an:

WINDOW

—-n~—
||

GATE ;; GATE

II
I!
new ,,

SCATTERING“ .
u COMPTON

    
   
 
  

 
   
  

 

0 IO 20 so 40 50

'l
60

PHOTOPEAK

 

\\\\\\\V\\\\\\\m\ \\\\\\§

 

 

V
O
O
O
0
O

PULSE HEIGHT (vane)

FIGURE' 5

GAMMA- RAY SPECTROGRAPH

 

We resulting from the decay of maioiatopes are emitted in
Wmmmmmcnlymghtetminm
with m ewe more. These properties have panned qmutitstive
spectrometric analysis of certain We e: radioisotope: in Bengals:
oftiseueembone WWW. invasions Mutts-isle.
and else is lame». (5.6) m sinist- Mined: or analysis it is possible
to quantitatively m radioisotopee roaming from fallout oat-other
sacrum. Thepmblenotneuuringrsdioutintalloutis summed
bythefestthetthemotintopesiemrmynetnstedtc I
rather donut. compositions.

mama-monstrous: 'msh tallest“ ndiodootopes. wanton
ngehtiomthreeto burden sites-fission (usflgure 6) istherosult
otaoomploxmcommsM‘rt lived radioisotopse. Aquam.
itative game-m We: mm of the individual SM
mtmmmmupuinmhendxtmwfldbemdirfloult.

About on week after fission. new or the short lived radioisotope
handmade sndslessccmplugm-rcyspectmiscbeened.(sse
Figure?) morethnstsmurmkdessypsricd, the elm-blind
radioisotope have decayed is insignificant concentrations and the gums-
ray spectrum possesses five characteristic phctopeaks (see Figure 8).
due to com. con-m. m‘°3"°5. um”. and Baum. rm this time
mmimsmamodbmnddemumit is possibleto

mflmwith assemble seem-sq mathegarmna-rayspectrmorm
V owls.
ammuwmmmgammtrmummmmte

19

COUNTS PER MINUTE‘ PER 0.03l MOI! CHANNEL
0

 

Te

 

 
    

I32

/
//R0Ios

'I32
/ . so
I40
Bc-Ls
W— A 17'1“, I

 

 

 

3

4O 50 6O

CHANNEL NUMBER

FIGURE- 6

GAMMA-RAY OF A VEGETATION

' SAMPLE CONTAINING 3-4
DAY- OLD FALLOUT

23

asinNevada.thcreisecontimslslowfallcutofradiciootcpesmm
atmic detonation at more wan/to locations on the globe. The material
from these tests consists largely of the longer 11m isotopes: 63311137 .
091M. Ce‘m. 311103,"!!nm6. and ZrNb95; and does not usually contain
sigxiilcant amunts or sm‘m or 1131. ('7)

The general method employed for measuring the concentrations of the
musiootoposis graphicallyimstrctedinfimeh. Thocounting
rate at the Baum protepeak is direct): pmpcrtionsl to the mum.
of this isotope present. The test counting saw at the new” photo-
poak requires a correction for the contrlh‘xtbn iron Edema as well as
for some of the other isotopes. Similar corrections are required for the
maidngiootopes. After these “Compton Corrections" have been made.
the not ccmrting rate of each characteristic photOpeak is proportional
to the mum at imp. present.

A discussion or the specific conditions for making the game-ray
spectrograph and the methods used in calibrating the equipnont are
Unified in the mammal section.

rho graphical method is not sufficient since it produces many
additional errors. Another 3.1mm methOd might be to algebraically
handle the 'Compton Motions.“

InacasewhcreedghtisotOpesmtcbeneasuMMmsgm-w
spectnnn and each Offers 3 contribution t0 the counting rate. the
calculation o: the net phOtOpcak coming sates or ths'individual has.
tapes rcqiflres tho sOlutiOn of eight eimltsneoue equations 1°: the
fight We

i amoral solution for the cyst-m m be calculated as follows:

COUNTS PER MINUTE PER 0.03l Mcv CHANNEL

 

IOO —

 

I4l-l44
CO

 

IISI

/

l03-l06
Ru

 
  
  

 

95 I40
’ZrNb Bch

    

 

 

l l 1
20 3O 4O
CHANNEL NUMBER

FIGURE-'7

GAMMA-RAY SPECTRUM OF A VEGETATION

SAMPLE CONTAINING WEEK-OLD FALLOUT

25

Lee A,B,¢,D.E.I.G, and a reta- to tho activaty in micro micro curios
for ouch of tho tight radioisotope: proaom. respoctivoly.

P1"1 I111 rotor to tho ratio of the count rate in channel ”1" with the
total activity of isotope “1", mg.

PM =- Count rat. in channel one as caused by ieotopo A

 

Activity (one) of isotope A

Thomtoro eight simultaneous equations may be written and their
aolutione yielding A,B,C,D,E.F.G,and H. Lot K1. K2, K3, K4, K5, K6. K7.
and K8 reproaont the total count in channolo 1.2.3.b.5.6,7,8 rcepocttivoly.
'I‘haz‘otoroa

K11" P18A+P1bB+P1¢C+P1dDiP103+P11F+P13G+P1hH

XZ'PZEA +P2hB+PZOC+P2dD+P203+P2fF+PZgG+P2hB

K3” W1+P3b3+P3°G+P3dD*P303+P3!F+PBEG+P3hH

Klu- Noe+m8+moc+mb+mn+mfr+mgo+fimn

x5:- Psai+rsb3+pjec+MD+P503+P5£F+p5go+p5hn

x6:- PoaA+P6bB+P6ec+P6dn+P6ex+Pérr+P6gG+P6hH

l7. Wai+m8+floo+mn+nofl+fitf+P7gG+P7hH

18!- P83A+P8bB+P8oC+P8dO+P8¢l+PBtF+PBgG+P8h3

mammotPunuetbocbtaimdupmtam. Fortbospcotroe
graph as um for that-port. tho Value to! P13 am given in Figure 10.

Sincoalltbommumaayudtorthicnportmtainodwmur
www.mmommmaimpmidbyudngmlytm
mltanmoqum.

:1:- .5559A + 359$ + $561! + .086th

.Rfi.0083A+-.26h60+.3fl31+.02503

:6.- .008“ + .fi69b+.66&sr+.zih93

W'.M+.12750+.8703P*9W

For can in canputation. a Fortran columnar program was used in
solving those equationu. mo program for both eight and tour cmponmt
We is am in the appendix.

FIGURE ‘0
WWW VALUE FOR THE COW!
AND HiOTOPEAK commons
Itotopo P1 r2 P3 In P5 P6 PI P8
a cam .55589 .oflm .00916 .oosso .007» .008» .00596 .0055!)
B sen-“M .36270 .ormo .0321: .0275: .0255: .03050 .0203 .01872
a 1m .16891 .1521 .69832 .oms-z .03036 .02119 0.0000 0.0000
12 mm .115“ .mm .ohoza .25800 .1’4063 .01370 .0107: .00881
R we“ .25979 .192»: M913 .26‘69 .02154 .01h68 .0127: .01096
r we” $5610 .58592 .uzsav .3112? .1373! we: .87030 .018st
9 seem .mse .2036b .2133? .35052 .20153 .mos .16515 .07982
a case”? .08639 .09369 .0590? .0250? .omm .zmaa .00018 .00032

LiBOIUe T mmmmm on MID - ~

   

Folloum are descriptions of the air sampling, rain sampling. and
counting arrangsnmte and procedures. The apparatus is shown in Figm‘ce
11, 12. and 1,3.

We

Two techniques of air sampling were unplflyed. One method was used for
gross beta Wee uhilc amther for the W spoon-metric anajyeee.

Forthegroeebetaonalyeie. aWemnm-tywbiem ofadr
were sampled every twmtynfouv hours through a mnipore filter. This
small volume results in a slightly reduced reliability due to cmmting
statistics when. empared to the ”stormed” high volume fibrous filter
method. The fibrous filter introduces an error as the result of parti-
mfla’co matter which pmctratce and in stored within the filter matrix.
i’hese particles are nevee counted who: the gross beta method at analysis
is used, and according to Cotton (10)t1d.s ' tide'effcct camot be accurately
compensated by calculations. " {the P3131130?! filter has the characteristic
erratainingontboeurfacemparticlcewhicharclargerthauthe
specified pore size. men-crotch.- there in negligible absorption of ’
radioactivity by the filter matrix.

Air samples for beta counting were tale: on a twenty-forn- hour basis
at a flow rate or 25 libero perminutc. meme rate was then
corrected for pressure drop. into filters were mounted and stored in a
deesicator until counted.

for gamma-ray eointflletim ommting a large counted-ate is necessary.
For this reason a larger volume of air nae used than that. produced by the
Hilliporc filter system. Instead a. model (MS-It Atcmio Products Corp.)

28

high volume air sempler with a (one 2133) felt filter was used.
, Air samples for gem co‘mting were taken on a totality-four hour basis
at a flow rate of 35 cubic foot per nflznzte. The filters were then placed

in one ounce bottles for commuting.

  

Under the asmmption that a Immoledge of the distribution of radio-
activity in rain would be ramming, a. collection basin was eitneted
on the roof of the mgineoring Building. the basin one designed of
16 gauge sheet metal with an area of 36 square feet. Rain samples were
1151mm about thirty liters in values.

one liter of the rain sample was evaporated emd its residue placed
on a oomting pinnchet for beta ommting. The procedure wed was in all
essentials the same as that described by Setter. Hagoe. and Straub. (1‘!)
Toolmiquee for preparing radioactive emupleo on planchete is described by
the finoloar Chicago Corporation. (12)

The retaining rain was mad for gamma oomting. mie large volume
of rain we evaporated in shallow pane, one meter square and heated by
Si: 250 watt infra-red heating 1.8311339. ‘Ihe residue was then washed into
a mall glass bottle for emmting.
enema

All bate cmmmng wan performed with a. gas-flow preportional
cmmter with a 2.5 minivan sensitivity. A blanket (:01th efficiency
of flit‘y percent was named for all samples.

Ineffitvaomtmasemedsothat that-emits couldbeoon-
pared. at the same order of magnitude. with other data. If "absolute
Women rates " were needed, eeperate efficiencies would have to
be determined for each sample. However, fifty percent closely amend.-

29

rmtes the efi oimc'y of gas flow counters or this type as well as
aga‘eoing with aizpezinmtal values for hidividual isotOpes.
me £011me procedure was used.
1. A background coma’c. of 500 counts was taken before each. 001111th
86331011. 1315.3 was mlbtracted from the total coating rate for each sample.
2. the thousand counts were taken on each ammo 14-7 days tor
sawing. Two or throe additioml counts were taken at 1+4? day batman.
3. The sample ooxmting rat-es Hero extrapolated back to the tins of
53221313 collootion. The axtmpolated ommting rates were converted to

micro micro curios per liter according to:

 

 

 

e in

A I-hmleau‘ Ohicago ems channel War with a 2m ('11) deteo'tor
was used for the gmmxaway Spectrmetria measuraaents. A plwtogmph
of the analyzer. detoctor, associgted lead. .shield, and sealer is sham
in Fig-giro 12.. The general Operations of the analyzer is included in
the fastmtion normal. m detaotor is a three inch by times inch 1m
('11) well crystal (flax-shat: menial Gmpamr) mounted on a Dtfiizmt rmlti.
plior phototube. The sample oontainar, a one ounce glass bottle, is
placed directly within the mom moose.

A high voltage of about 2000 volts was: used on the multiplier
phototube and was adjusted to center the 0.661 Hexr as"? photome with
a. alumni width of 0.060 New...

Known mtg, or each muted isotope, were ommted with the
Spectmneter so as to deteming the counting affidmcy of: each. The
rosulto of this analysis are shown in Figxn‘e 5. The procedure used

30

was essentially the same as used for beta. counting. mm 1000 counts were
taken in each of the Bixtem .060 Mm.” channels. A180. the gm counting
was performed only once. this bong filmeflata‘iy after each sampling

period ended.

 

 

 

 

3!

32

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

33

 

 

5—- _—————_—.
_ .» fii... 7—.--H_ _
gym—«h--- _.A w“
.

mgoaainSmpleaforOMAnaJms

 

 

The efficiency of 3.1V partimalar smupler. eSpocisJJy one used to
detect radioactive matter, is ultimately determined by the type of filter
material used. The detection of high charge, law penetration ytrticulate
matter such as alpha particles requires the use of a tight weave, fine
grads filter while beta particles and germs radiation are best counted
from more porous filters pcmitting greater air flow.

Despite the availability of more efficient air sampling filters. felt
filters were used for air sampling for gamma counting. Because of its
cacpcrativehr low resistance to flow. it was selected over the cellulose
papers. However. for a mearfingful analysis to coast, the efficiency of
the filtering system mt be Imam.

this chapter describes work performed to dctcminc the collection
Efficiency of 'I'FA 2352153 felt filters.

The AA Pfilhpcre filter was chosen as the standard of measurement
because of its near perfect efficiency; However, allomncos were
necessary since the bullpen filter operates in the velocity range of
200 rpm wlflla' the felt filters in thawv’olocity range of £300 fpn.

A. Boots (10) used Cobalt Oxide fume particles of size 0.01 to 6.02
. microns at the rate of ten liters per mimte. With this he dmmstmtcd
that one particle in 500,000 passed the filter mmbrane. Merrill
Esa'fout (11) measured the officimcy o! the IflJJiporc filter as 100
percent dam to 0.1 micrm.

firms for partimflato mattm‘ greatsr than OJ micron. one may use
I'Iilliporo filters with confidence that its efficiency is $00 pcrcmt.
However. for atmospheric fission products, the particle size distribution

35

smears to contain a percentage of matter which is moller than the 0.1
micron lbzit. filese particles may not be efficiently trapped by the
I-fillipore filter matting Crude, qualitative meammeuts of these parti.
cles show that their effect is neglfilfible. This is due, probably since the
' fine particles have ins7 ficieat inertia to pmetrate the falling rail“:-
drop, and are instead merely pushed aside. ”fimoughout this report the
effect of these fine .sxfmicron particles is assumed neflig'iblc. Further
and more emet work will be neeesswy to completely establish the true
extent of the subsicron particle's Mumce. At erg rate, when com.
pared to the I-fillipore filter's high efficienqr; that detemined for the
felt filters should be meemimmfl.

O":

- merits“

       

it? us 0

The felt filter was placed in an Atomic Products Corporation
model ELM high volme 8111131631“ and run at 3 5 cfm. in AA- I=flllipore
filter W118 placed in a filter holder, witch was then placed directly
in the high volume sampler' s ordnaust sud mm at 2 511m. Simfltaneoashr,
another rallilmre filtering systeu was placed rec eiving fresh air frcm
outside the mgiueering Building.

Each filter was then run for tz-renty-four hours. The two I-Iillipore

filters were mounted and beta counted with a gas flow proportional

counter.

Doria-m1 g the filter efficiency as :

 

For the mug aent used here. this efficiency was n = 87.675.

 

 

Using the method of aimlysis as described in chapter five it. ms
possibio to quantitatively meamxro radioisotm resulting rm mutant in
both air and rain samples. The laboratory setup meets all criteria of
mmpucity and adaptability. me data produced is both quantitatively
and statistically reliable»

__ when young fission products are mooted {such as in Ms 6),
quantitative annoys“ booms quite mics-om since approadmatol: sight
11:31am mt. Baum. amen amines arc mods at wig-dived radioamya
fallout. only four mm are needed to deems tho aamplo. mu:
only in: mama” the resulting simultaneous equations may be solved
directly using detmmmts. This results in Native]: m Wm: M
m the tour Wm activitioo after 41 1133111111311 of «madam. However,
for we W. calculations would approach the impossible and oonputor
prom pron to be Mimiblu. In dflieu‘ case. tho umputor serves
meantimoandmuadmgimtthisrw.

Ibohookthoaacuraayofflxflmethod. Wmmtaofaovm isotopes
17mm mo amplom the: treats-clan anmlmonn and thoactivity
or each isotope calculated. Tho rosultdng mm am all within or near
ten percent which is quite good Mulder—lag the difficuty of preparing
seawater samples.

min method is mom than adequate for the quantitative Wis of
mixtma calming whim mm of gammy matting radioisotopes.

36

37

Activity Activi

Isowpe (calculatod) (actual Error ($0
com 214,791+ 22,600 9.?
Gen-m 18.010 18.200 4.0
1131 2.534 2.300 10.2
2111121905 , 9.989 10.120 4.3
ZrNb95 2mm 25,200 4.3
Baum 9.090 9.760 .5.6
Gena”? 27.100 28,600 -5.3

 

Itagaid, tom, and We each claim an Monaco of cloud height.
upon tho final Specific rain activity. Itagald. and Koemma measured the
radioactivity of mm min: at five different elevations and. found that
the specific activity deorosood with altitudo. On the other hand, . the
author has undo“ ground level obsmations: the spodfio antivitjsr~ of
which is plotted versus cloud height. (mm. 35) 1121: data show no
relationship between the specialities rain activity and the cloud height.
Tins appamt contradiction may be winked by archer of two possible
causes; first. the author 1180:! only aloud cooling measuremmm, and since”
this makes no allmnoo for the cloud Mimosa,‘ the possible error in
moments may cause the Apparmt discrepmoy. Secondly. as mqalainod
by was. at. 91.; the distanoo a mindmp tans may b. 1mm to
be a measure of tho oonosntratim of Monetiviw resulting tron rain-
drop evaporation through tho @321th layer of air nom- tho grow-1d.
Fm precise cloud height ammonia or. needed to clear this point.

Norris' interpretation mggosts that. tor Sumner precipitatim, an
equation of the form

OR :- Km + kf‘cA

mam. be more descriptive. In this equation . Km is a constant for the

spocfiio suscepheric activit , and V is the wind Speed, CR and CA are
reapootively the specific: rain and air activities. and. k and n are
adrhtional constemts. Figure 33 00:1st mat some relationship exists
bets-roan rain activity and wind Speed. Ibr-xevm', the relationship is
linear in natwto.

In addition. the specific activity of rain did not appear to be related
to the W of rainfall. This tends to support Greenfield’s proposition
that the fraction scavenged may be considered to be indopsidmt of
rowan intmwity. V

Figures 29 and 30 show a direct correlation Esteem air activity
and rain activity. The gross bots analysis shows two curves, one for
early spwxg rains and anothsr for tho armor rains. The curtarwoo is
probably due to the additional upper atmospheric Wanna; as typified ‘ ‘
during the early spring monthS.

Since only Spring rains were Wed for the individual isotoyes,
may do not eafiiiblt the two curve characteristic, see Figures 29 and 30.
Howsvar. in each moo the relationship between air and rain activity
appears to be linear.

This it appears that. rain activity depends basically upon two
parmetors, air activity and wind speed. Using the data of figures
29 and 30, it appears this relationship is at the torn

‘Rain/Am ' (G1 + ‘32”-
If metalocityismmodinmiluperhour. this equatimbeomos
ARIAA '- 190 + 15.1w. Unfortunately. the only wind speeds available
were averagedaflyvaluast thomewind speedmayvary grostlyuith
time. More closely measured velocities may show a better correlation

39

Using the average daily values, a bettm- fit to the data. is found if the
equation is used as
133/31 2 321; + 10v (see Figure 36).

sing the field stucbr as described above, it is possible to hypo-
thesize about the ~ ansi‘er mechanim of fallout radionuclidos flora the
atmosphere to the rain. Since the amount of radioactivity captured by
the rain was found to be proportional to the mom’s of radioactive
particles preseated to the falling raindrop. it is 5113* ”5.31316 to assume
tint the mechanism of wanszaort is basically thromgh direct collision.
However. a. certain percentage of particles may be captured by mter
cloud droplets. It does appear that this percentage is mall. A more
complete Wants-.1 prom will be necessary to establish the acts-a
amount. Also. the usage of daily averages has reduced the some}; of
the EtUdy. It is recommended that averages of mailer time duration be
used in any firther studies.

 

me rollmdng general conclusions are drawn from this atmiy.
(1) The Sammy Spectrme’crio systen of anaflysia and the laboratory setup
meets an criteria of simplicity and are both quantitatively useful and
statistically reliable.
(2) The relauonship batman rain activity and air activity at the time
ofminappearsmsmablywlldescribdbyflr'33hc‘. '
(3) son. mum betwem rain ammo and. was speed at the one
ofmdnappeas-I mm. W. mmmmuuaom seam
madam. Possibly. wind wane.“ amen! during the mm would
be more descriptive. its data is described. quite; accurately. by the
relatioMp, Gr :- 33b Ca + 10 V.
(It) no specific activity of rain did not. appear to b: ralatd to either
cloud height or rain intensity.
(5) In: mm of fallout mammda transfer tron: the amosphm
taminilbasioanytmghdirmwmsimsbmtmgraindmps
and the mom” particulate matter. ‘
(6) may averages of air activity. rain activity. wind W. cloud
taught. mflfiinintmitymoftoomaunodmetim. Further
studies should use $313116? time average: of the above W.
(7) WWW of Wm radioactive particle are presmt in the
amaphm. However. filsyaromtacavmgadbythorainaxflmsythersforu
be neglected in consida‘atima an the mechanisms of radionuclide transfer.

 

R. E. Comm, Instrmnental Methods of Gama—ray Spectmnetry, Anal.
Chm. 28. 1&7‘539 “956). .

P. 1”. Wm, Argonne National Laboratory.

L. B. Inckhart, Jr. R. A. Bans. R. L. Peterson. and A. W, Saunders,
31%. m 130. $61. (1959). ,

'1‘. Wm B. vadmg. A. mnegraven, and 3. Small. W185.
805. (19605.

G. L. Bromell and W. H. Sweet. Smflng of Positron-Mum IsotOpes
in Diagnosis of Interorazfial and other lesions . Proceedings of the
Intemtional Conference on the Peaceful Usae of Atomic Energy. Geneva,
1955, 2/181. Velma 10. page 249. United muons, New York (1956).

R. W. Patina and J. D. McComack, Ihe Determination of 01164 in
Reactor Effluent Water by Coincidmce Gomting of the Positron
Atmflfiletion Radiatim, Iii-M5636, (12 Gotcha, 1956).

1. Kaplan, "finale” mica, " Addison wesley Publishing Cmnpany,

, Cambridge he, Mass. pages ans-.349. (1955).

'9.
10.
11.
'13.

1.5 9

'3. A. Reynoldsk'imalg‘rtlcal Radioohenietryz' Record of Chanical Pro-

, Number 2, pages 99-119. 1955).

B. Xahn and W. s. 1am, “Use of a Scintillation Spectrane‘bm' in
fidégcihmioal finely sis.“ unclean » cs, Volume III, Number 11, pages 61.62,
9 ¢

R. A. Gotten, Research Director. Ellipore Filter Comoration, in a
letter to the author. 15 October 1962.

L. R. Setter, G. R. Hagee. and C. P. Streub, ”Analysis of Radio»
activity 1:: Surface Waters an Practical Laboratm Methods,“ Marleen
Society for Testing Material: mnetin Emba- 227, January 1958.

Melee:- Gdoago Comparation, *Hew to Prepare Radioactive Samples for
counting en Plandxetefl Techfical Bulletin Weber 7 and 7B. 1960.

S. M. Greenfield, ”Rain Scamewlg Of Radioactive Partimflate
butter from the Ahmaphere,” * I»? .. 11+: 1957.

P. Krugw, L. Salter, and 0. Easier, ”Meteorological Influmees of
Sta-90 Fallout Concmtmtion in Precipitation . ” WW

gross, Velma

 

.. War. “1962.

1.4.

I. Itagald. and 3.. Emma. “Altitude metribution of Fallout Gen.
tained in Ram or m..' 391mm]. 01‘ Geophyaical Rees-rah, 67310,

1962.

41

11-2.

16. w. R. Collins, "rimmed and Predicted Contributions Fm Fallout to
Want}. Radiation Levels,” TED-7532, Novenber 1961.

17. I. lfiymce. X. Hanmaohi. I. Katmu'agi, and T. Kamzm, "Radioactive
Fallout in Japan and Its Bearing on Meteorological Commons, "
‘ a 432‘ 7 Eat r f 3.; 33607130 XI. ‘. ‘9500

18. w. E. Norris, "en Investigation of Relationships Beteem Meteorology
and Radioactivity Levels 111 Rain. " Unpublished masters Thesis.
mobigan State University. East Lmsing, 1963.

i9. A. Dingle. ”Run Scaveugmg Studies,” QED-7632, Novauber, 196.1.

      

4" LRAY SPECTRA OF ' V
W

its way Spectra of saw. Cam-”‘1‘. 113‘, Rum. mm105, we”
and Memo are presented as Fig'tn‘ea 16 thrwgh 23.

43

 

I4l-l44

 

0
c
'F

 

 

 

_

H

15225.8 30.0

_ _ -_ _

cum 9.52.! cum mhzaoo

 

30 4O 5
CHANNEL NUMBER

20

IO

 

F

FIGURE- 8

CHANNEL
‘0’ 3
O O

8
q

coum's PER MINUTE PER 0.03: Mev
on
8:

 

§

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

' T

(“Ml-I‘M
/
F
r R IO3-I06 95
n\ /ZrNb
l3! 1 I
' l

 

 

 

 

IO 20 3- 4. " .. :-

CHANNEL NUMBER

FIGURE - 9
GAMMA‘RAY SPECTRUM OF THE FALLOUT

RADIOISOTOPES SHOWING THE ENERGY
INCREMENT AND COMPTON CORRECTION
FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF EACH ISOTOPE

 

COUNTS PER MINUTE PER BO KW CHANNEL

g,

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CHANNEL VOLTAGE. o-I Nov

FIGURE- I6

5 E UILIB TRIUM MIXTURE

-RAY TIUM I?
US SOLU , luuc r- 95

COUNTS PER MINUTE PER 60 Kev CHANNEL

0.3

0.2 ..

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6 l8 304254667890

CHANNEL VOLTAGE

FIGURE- l7

CS‘I37 GAMMA-RAY SPECTRUM
loz. BOTTLE AQUEOUS SOLUTION

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PER MINUTE PER 60 Kev CHANNEL

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CHANNEL VO LTAGE

 

COUNTS

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

FIGURE - I8

I-l3l GAMMA-RAY SPECTRUM
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luuc.

COU‘NTS PER MINUTE PER 60 Kev CHANNEL,

 

0.25 _.

0.20 _

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o “l—I—I—III III

6 I8 30 42 54 66 78 SO
CHANNEL VOLTAGE

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

FIGURE- l9

CePr' I44 EQUILIBRIUM MIXTURE
GAMMA-RAY SPECTRUM, IOUNCE
AQUEOUS SOLUTION, luuc Ce'l44

COUNTS PER MINUTE PER 60 Kev CHANNEL

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.ue E

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FIGURE-20

RU'I03 GAMMA'RAY SPECTRUM
loz. BOTTLE AQUEOUS SOLUTIOI

I we

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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FIGURE '- 2'

BaLa'I4O EQUILIBRIUM
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COUNTS PER MINUTE PER 60 Kev CHANNEL

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0.3

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FIGURE- 22

C0-I4l GAMMA-RAY SPECTRUM
I02. BOTTLE AQUEOUS luuc
SOLUTION.

COUNTS PER MINUTE PER GOKov CHANNEL

 

0.2

0.I5 _

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

6 IB 304254 6678 90
CHANNEL VOLTAGE

FIGURE '23

RuRh-IOG EQUILIBRIUM
MIXTURE GAMMA-RAY SPECTRUM

loz. BOTTLE AQUEOUS SOLUTION
loz. Ru-IOG

.0231on B

 

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FIGURE- 27
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ATMOSPHERIC ACTIVITY. mm! M 3

 

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APRIL I MAY

 

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FIGURE ' 28

DAILY AIR ACTIVITY

Cs-l37 BI ZrNb-95

 

RAIN ACTIVITY flue/l.

 

 

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FIGURE " 29

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GROSS BETA

RAIN ACTIVITY . uuc II.

 

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(INDIVIDUAL ISOTOPES)

 

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GROSS BETA AIR ACTIVITY. uuc/M 3

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ZT-95 B Ru-I03 AIR ACTIVITY-

GROSS BET» Mia ACTIVITY.

 

 

 

 

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GROSS BETA AIR ACTIVITY
VERSUS Cs-l37 BI Ce-I4I,l44
AIR ACTIVITY.

RAIN ACTIVITY
AIR ACTIVITY

 

 

 

  
 

  

 

 

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Sample Preparations
1, Type AA, 1+? m diameter buyers filters and holder
2. TF1; 232133 ”mgh Volume" felt filters
3. Rome’cer, 30 liters per minute capacity
13-. nanometer
5. Building Vacmnn systan
6. M high Velma” air mpler
7. min Collection Basin
8. Rain evaporation pants
9. 250mm infra-red lamps

Counting

1. Iiuclear Chicago single channel analyzer model #1810

2. tholear (fracaga Model 186 scalar, (3-1 1013 automatic: sample changer
and c.1313 panting timer.

3.- 69.8 flow mportional commuter with preamplifier and normal
W, N. 0. model aMED

4. Sample mounts, copper scrapie pans. and one ounce bottles or glass

72

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STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES

MICHIGAN
3

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15 0196