A CONCEPTUAL PLANNING THEORY FOR THE ATMOSPHERIC RESOURCE Thesis for the Degree of _M. U’. P. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY MICHAEL K. HAVILAND 1 9 7 l ..... .Alballgdll Si; te University f BINDING BY IIIJAII & SIIIIS' BIIIIK BRIBERY IIIII. LIBRARY muons IPIIIIBNI! IICIISII ABSTRACT A CONCEPTUAL PLANNING THEORY FOR THE ATMOSPHERIC RESOURCE Michael K. Haviland The past few years have witnessed an increased concerg for the nation's resources. Many of the programs developed to deal with the natural resources have been largely ineffective in resource management. One of the major causal factors of these ineffective resource man- agement efforts has been the haphazard formulation and direction of the programs, which have lacked a guiding comprehensive long-range plan. The situation with regard to the atmospheric re- source typifies a resource management approach in which planning has been noticeably absent. The focus of this tiééié is an examination of planning as applied to the air environment and the development of a conceptual plan— ning theoriZ} Major deterrents to comprehensive planning pro- grams for the atmosphere have been the underlying concep- tions on which past programs, practices, and philosophies Michael K. Haviland regarding atmospheric planning have been based. These past efforts are examined in a comparative analysis, which is preceded by a descriptive analysis of the complex re- lationship of man to the atmosphere. A second major barrier to atmospheric planning is the lack of a planning theory. The remaining effort of the thesis is directed towards developing a conceptual planning theory and process for the atmospheric resource. The atmospheric planning problem is expressed as the need for a comprehensive understanding of the man to atmosphere interrelationships. The structure of the relationship is described by applying an ecological systems approach. This in turn serves as a basis whereby a proposed atmos- pheric utilization plan can be developed to direct the use of the atmospheric resource. Also included is a broad framework of air quality parameters which would be recog- nized in the development of an atmospheric utilization policy plan, the final product of the suggested planning procedure. A CONCEPTUAL PLANNING THEORY FOR THE ATMOSPHERIC RESOURCE BY ,r; Michael Kf'Haviland A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF URBAN PLANNING Department of Urban Planning and Landscape Architecture 1971 To my wife Eleanor M. Haviland TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES . . . . . LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . INTRODUCTION . . . . . . Clarification of Terms PART I. THE NATURE PROBLEMS Chapter OF ATMOSPHERIC RESOURCE AND PLANNING I. PROBLEM DESCRIPTION--THE MISUSE OF THE AIR ENVIRONMENT . . . Climatic and Weather Change . . . . . . . Emissions and Contaminants . . . . . . . . Conflicts in the Use of the Atmosphere . . II. MAN'S RELATIONSHIP TO THE ATMOSPHERE . . . . The Atmosphere Described as a Natural System and Process Atmospheric Composition . . . . . . . . Properties of the Atmosphere . . . . . . Spatial Character of the Atmosphere . . Role of the Atmosphere in Natural Processes . . Interaction of Man with th Atmosphere . . Introduction of Atmospheric Utilization Concept . . . . . . . . . The Atmosphere as a Component of Man's Cultural Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . Political/legal considerations . . . . Economic considerations . . . . . . . Psychological/physiological considerations iii Page vi vii 13 18 21 21 23 23 23 24 25 29 31 31 34 35 Chapter Page III. PRESENT ATMOSPHERIC PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT THEORIES AND PRACTICES . . . . . . 37 Urban and Regional Planning . . . . . . . . 38 Natural Resource Planning . . . . . . . . . 45 Meteoroloqy . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . 50 Air Pollution Control Programs . . . . . . . 54 Comparison of Four Orientations to Atmospheric Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Differences in Orientation . . . . . . . . 62 Differences in Influence on AtmOSpheric Planning . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Evaluation of Four Orientations to Atmospheric Study . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 PART II. PRINCIPLES OF ATMOSPHERIC PLANNING IV. CONSIDERATIONS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF A PLANNING APPROACH FOR THE ATMOSPHERE . . . . . 69 Terminology Clarification . . . . . . . . . 69 Air Defined as a Resource . . . . . . . . 70 The Atmosphere Defined . . . . . . . . . . 72 Pollution Defined . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Development of Atmospheric Planning Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Need for an Improved Planning Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Atmospheric Utilization . . . . . . . . . 79 The atmosphere's use as a medium . . . . 81 Consumptive uses of the atmosphere . . . 81 Conflicting uses of the atmosphere . . . 82 Capacity uses of the atmosphere . . . . 82 Systems Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Systems approach to atmospheric planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Contribution of a systems approach . . . 86 Need for New Institutional Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Lack of agency existence . . . . . . . . 88 Lack of policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Purpose and function . . . . . . . . . . 92 Organizational relationships . . . . . . 93 iv Chapter V. ATMOSPHERIC UTILIZATION PLANNING: DESCRIPTION OF A PLANNING METHOD FOR THE ATMOSPHERIC RESOURCE . . . . . . . . . Planning Approach for the Atmosphere . . Description of Conceptual Planning Method Problem Statement and Theory Formation Goal Formation and Objective Specification . . . . . . . . . . Survey Research and Fact Finding . Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plan Determination (alternatives) Policy Making (program) . . . . . Program Effectuation . . . . . . . VI. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Page 96 96 97 97 101 105 105 106 108 108 110 110 116 118 121 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Climatic changes produced by-cities . . . . . . 9 2. Atmospheric changes produced by cities . . . . 15 3. Annual emissions of pollutants in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 4. National source distribution for selected air pollutants in millions of tons per year . 16 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure ' Page 1. Breakdown of the problem: relationship of man and atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 2. Comparison of relative influence of four disciplines on three elements; man, man- made’ and the atmosphere 0 o o o ' o o o o o o 63 3. Comparative description of four study approaches and their influence on atmospheric planning . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 4. Pollution spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 5. Coordination needs of various agencies and interest 0 O O I I I O O O O O O O O O O I O 90 6 0 Planning process 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 98 7. Model of atmospheric planning theory . . . . . 100 8. Quality parameters for atmospheric planning . . 103 9. Survey, research and fact finding phase of planning process . . . . .'. . . . . . . . . 107 vii INTRODUCTION The atmosphere, like the land and water, is a basic natural resource whose properties and functions directly affect man's existence and his environment. Despite its importance, man has increasingly misused and altered the atmosphere. Major reasons for this can be attributed to (l) a minimal awareness of the atmosphere as a basic resource, (2) a lack of an official policy for the resource, (3) lack of a planning theory and technique, and (4) the com- plexity of man/air environment relationship.w‘ Although in the past years public awareness of the degradation of the atmospheric environment has remained somewhat vague, within recent months there has developed a much stronger public concern for the problem. This concern for the atmospheric environment has followed in the wake of a larger nationwide environmental quality issue, now described as the issue of the seventies. The purpose of this thesis is twofold. First and foremost, it proposes a conceptual planning framework for managing the atmospheric resource. The second purpose of this thesis is to develop a generalized planning concept which describes the larger atmospheric system and the impact of man's "total" relationship to it, the emphasis being placed on man and on the significance of his inter— action with the resource. The contribution of the thesis is its realization that an understanding of the exceedingly complex relation- ship between man and the atmosphere is essential in order to improve the quality of the atmospheric resource and consequently to enhance man's welfare. The significance of the thesis lies-in its defini- tion of and subsequent approach to the problem and in its potential operational use. The thesis aims at the initial formulation of a new perspective, theory, and procedure and not at any given agency reorganization or at an ulti- mate solution to the problem. The planning concept is intended to be aligned closely enough with real world in- stitutional frameworks and problems so that, given approp- riate adjustments, it represents a meaningful and poten- tially workable direction in the solution of the problem. Direct treatment of the concept of atmospheric resource planning remains non-existent within current planning literature. Although planning techniques appli- cable to atmospheric resource problems have been developing in a limited segment of planning literature, urban and regional planning have largely ignored atmospheric resource planning within formal and informal activities. Pursuit“ of a planning concept for the atmosphere requires drawing upon contributions in closely related fields of study. The interdisciplinary approach used in developing the thesis is central to the suggested planning theory, which attempts to incorporate the various physical, biological, and behavioral science disciplines in a balanced framework. Inherent in the development of the thesis are sev- eral assumptions. (1) It is assumed that planning is ac- cepted as a valid concept in management and its usefulness need not be validated. (2) It is assumed that it is de- sirable to plan and manage atmospheric use and maintenance with respect to various public and biological interests.2 (3) Based on the current national commitment to environ- mental quality, it is assumed that the issue of managing the quality of the atmospheric resource is important enough to warrant changes in existing practices. Such changes involve the development of new management concepts and organizational relationships and the adaptation of existing agencies and techniques toward accomplishing these ends. (4) It is assumed that the principle of a general planning concept for the atmospheric resource could be adapted to any scale of operations or geographic location. The thesis is broken down into two parts. Part I "The Nature of Atmospheric Resource Problems and Planning," consists of problems of and past efforts for the atmos- phere. Chapter I represents a general problem statement with regard to the atmospheric environment. The purpose of this chapter is to acquaint the reader with the wide range of problems associated with the atmosphere. Chapter II introduces man as a critical determinant of air resource quality. The intent is to examine the intimate bond between man and the atmosphere and to examine how his vast array of interactions with the atmosphere is the underlying causal factor in atmospheric resource problems. Chapter III presents a descriptive examination and analysis of current and past philosophies and approaches with regard to atmospheric planning. Part II, "Principles of Atmospheric Planning," focuses upon the development of a planning process for the atmosphere. . Chapter IV brings together the analysis of the "total" interaction of man with his air environment de- scribed in Chapters I and II with the analysis of the limitations of past planning efforts described in Chapter III. The purpose is to suggest some principles from which a desirable planning approach can be conceptualized. Chapter V is devoted to the description of a sug- gested planning process for the atmosphere. Also included are criteria for air quality parameters for the atmosphere. Chapter VI is a summary-of the thesis. The essen- tial parts or conclusions of each chapter are restated in a condensed form. In addition recommendations are made on the develOpment of the planning theory and on the limita- tions of the theory's usefulness as a guide for the solu- tion of atmospheric planning problems. Clarification of Terms To aid in the development of the planning concept certain terms are used in a sense somewhat different from ordinary usage. The following definitions attempt to clarify certain key terms as they are used within the; thesis. More complete definitions are included within the text of the thesis. the words atmosphere and atmospheric resource are used interchangeably throughout the thesis. the term air pollution-is limited to a description of undesirable chemical/physical properties of the atmosphere. Air pollution as used in this thesis is descriptive of only one aspect of the air re- source planning problem. It is important that the reader does not restrict his understanding and application of the suggested planning theory to the traditional definition of air pollution. other terms such as contamination, modification, and alteration are also used to describe undesir- able qualities of the air environment. atmospheric utilization is a term develOped.to describe the manner in which air is used and is a concept which could be applied as a planning tech- nique to control air use patterns. Atmospheric utilization categories will consider (1) consump- tive use (a reduction of the potential use of the atmosphere), (2) capacity use (capability of var- ious uses to take place or operate within the atmosphere), (3) conflicting use (given uses which are detrimental to each other), (4) medium use (manner in which the atmosphere may be serving as a medium or vehicle to transport light, sounds, chemical waste, radiation, aircraft, electronic communication, etc.). PART I. THE NATURE OF ATMOSPHERIC RESOURCE PROBLEMS AND PLANNING CHAPTER I PROBLEM DESCRIPTION--THE MISUSE OF THE AIR ENVIRONMENT This chapter will examine the nature and effects of man‘s interaction with the atmosphere and the extent to which he modifies and utilizes it in a detrimental manner. Specific examples from a wide range of literature are cited to substantiate the deterioration of the atmosphere as a fact of our present day society and to illustrate it as a problem in need of attention. It will become apparent that man has directly or indirectly created many changes in the natural atmospheric environment; these changes result primarily from (1) the growth in industrialization and urbanization and (2) the increasingly complex modes of utilizing the atmospheric medium as a consequence of man’s conflicting biologic, social, and economic needs. The description of man's intervention is presented in three categories of change and influence: (1) climatic and weather change, (2) emissions and contaminants, and (3) atmospheric use conflicts. Climatic and Weather Change Certain climatic changes produced by man-made mod- ifications in the environment are a result of radical re- arrangement of the surface topography which, in turn, alters temperature and wind speed. Table 1 illustrates the way an urban setting af- fects its atmospheric environment. Solar radiation balance is altered by pollutants reducing the total duration of sunshine and thus the intensity of radiation. The result is that cities are darker than their environs.l Much of this is due to the "heat island effect" whereby circulating air that rises over the hot center of a city and falls upon the cooler edges traps smoke and other pollutants and produces the familiar "dust dome" or "haze dome."2 Alteration of the surface (as in the case of ex- tensive deforestation for agricultural purposes) is a direct causal factor in temperature changes, since greenery absorbs moisture and cools by the process of evaporation. Thus vegetation creates a cool, humid climate and prevents the warmer drier air and ensuing dust formation which re- sults from the exposed soil. 1H. E. Landsberg, "City Air, Better or Worse?" Symposium on Air over Cities (USPHS, R. A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center, 1961), p. 6. 2William P. Lowry, "The Climate of Cities," Scien— tific American, CCXVII (August, 1967), pp. 115-123. Table l. Climatic changes produced by cities. Element Comparison with rural environs Radiation: Total on horizontal surface Ultraviolet, winter Ultraviolet, summer Cloudiness: Clouds Fog, winter Fog, summer Precipitation: Amounts Days with .2 in. Temperature: Annual mean Winter minimum Relative Humidity: Annual mean Winter Summer Wind Speed: Annual mean Extreme gusts Calms 15 to 20% less 30% less 5% less 5 to 10% less 100% less 30% less 5 to 10% more 10% more 1 to l.5°F more 2 to 3°F more 6% less 2% less 8% less 20 to 30% less 10 to 20% less 5 to 20% more Source: Donald H. Pack, "The Status of Meteorological Knowledge as a Factor in Air Pollution Control" (National Conference on Air Pollution Control Proceedings, 1962), p. 269 as quoted from H. E. Landsberg, Physical Climatology_(Gray Printing Co., 1958), p. 446. 10 Similarly, buildings, streets, parking areas, and other masonry materials which characterize our city envi- ronments alter the urban micro-climate since these mater- ials tend to retain and radiate heat, absorbing higher levels of heat during the day, remaining warmer longer into the early evening. Because the concrete pavement and other building materials of the city are better heat con- ductors than open land with vegetation and provide no natural cooling as does the foliage in the country, it is evident that they can have a pronounced influence on the climate, particularly since the streets alone may consti- tute from 20% to 50% of the surface of a city.3 One direct effect of the warmer city-climate cited-bnyandsberg is a reduction in seasonal snowfall.4 Changes in climate as a result of carbon dioxide pollution are noted by the President's Science Advisory Committee in the report "Restoring the Quality of Our Environment" which states: Carbon dioxide is being added to the earth's at- mosphere by the burning of coal, oil and natural gas at the rate of 6 billion tons a year. By the year 2000 there will be about 25% more C02 in our atmosphere 3C. P. Rydell and G. Schwarz, "Air Pollution and Urban Form: A Review of Current Literature," Journal of_ the American Institute of Planners, XXXIV (March, 1968), 4Landsberg, p. 8. 11 than at present. This will modify the heat balance of the atmosphere to such an extent that marked changes in climate, not controllable through local or even national efforts, could occur. Possibilities of bringing about countervailing changes by deliberately modifying other processes that affect climate may then be very important.5 Recent findings relating effects of-the urban environment on precipitation note cities "have (1) more rainy days, (2) more thunderstorm days, and (3) more total 6 The three principal precipitation" than rural environs. causes of increases in precipitation are water vapor addi- tion from combustion processes and factories, thermal up- drafts from local heating and turbulence from increased surface roughness, and additional condensation nuclei.7 Man-made changes in the t0pography also greatly, affect intensity and direction of circulation patterns.' Streets and buildings alter the micro-climate by creating new land shapes. Various building configurations create, with respect to winds, different air movements around the structures. A row of uneven roofs creating rough surfaces 5"Restoring the Quality of Our Environment," Report of the Environmental Pollution Panel of the Pres- ident's Science Advisory Committee, 1965), p. 9. 6A. C. Stanley, Jr., "A Climatological Evaluation of Precipitation Patterns Over an Urban Area," Symposium on Air Over Cities (USPHS, R. A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center, 1961), pp. 37-38. 7Ibid. 12 can slow wind, holding pollution in the area longer.8'9 Building shapes can redirect or even reverse the direction of the wind.10 Where there was once free air drainage, a railroad embankment or an artificially level highway can dam up pools of cold air.and highly concentrated pollution. Also, rows of tall buildings adjacent to narrow street systems can create a funnel effect, greatly increasing the wind speed.11 Large open spaces and parklands also aid in wind formation and create local drainage patterns. Deliberate weather modification by man represents a slowly developing reality which could have dramatic ef- fects on the environment. Although effective weather modification is limited to fog dissipation and to stimula- tion of rain under a very constrained set of circumstances, the repercussions of such changes can be great. For ex- ample, a deliberate change in weather causing increased rainfall could greatly increase the yield from cultivated agricultural lands. However, at the same time it might 8Eric Kuhn, "Planning the City's Climate," Land- scape, VIII (Spring, 1959), pp. 21-23. 9Eric Kuhn, "Air Plow Around Buildings," Archi- tectural Forum, CVII (September, 1957), pp.-166-168. 10Thomas Markus, "Climatology and Architecture," Architectural Review, CXXVIII (December, 1960), pp. 452— 451. 11H. E. Landsberg, "Microclimatology," Architec- tural Forum, LXXXVI (March, 1947), pp. 114-119. 13 greatly curtail retail shOpping or most outdoor recreation activities, which rely heavily on pleasant, sunny days. Beyond the implications weather has for human» economic and social activity, it has a significant bearing on the stabilization of natural biological communities. The reproductive cycles of various species are regulated by atmospheric conditions. Dramatic micro-weather changes could create drastic imbalances causing undesirable, un- anticipated, and irreversible ecological change.12 Emissions and Contaminants A second major change in the atmospheric environ- ment has been the addition, by man, of a wide variety of substances and contaminants ranging from gases to liquids and solid particulate matter. The substances put into the air are both intentional and unintentional by-products of activities in which man utilizes materials and resources for domestic, commercial, agricultural, industrial, and other purposes. The burning of fuels to heat homes or run automobiles, trains, and airplanes, the burning of trash and garbage, the clearing of land and the construction of roads and buildings, the conversion of raw materials into finished goods, the application of pesticides, the 12Weather and Climate Modification (Report of the Special Commission on Weather ModIficatiOn, National Science Foundation, 1966), pp. 60-70. 14 exploration of nuclear energy--all of these activities put foreign substances or excessive amounts of the normal sub- stances into the atmosphere. These changes are associated predominantly with urban areas. Table 2 shows a comparison of four substances commonly introduced into the atmosphere of urban environ- ments with their occurrence in rural areas. When exceeding certain levels these substances are normally_classified as contaminants according to the popular conception of air. pollution.13 Viewed from a nationwide perspective, the concentration of pollutant emissions in the atmosphere over urban areas is, on the average, more than three times as heavy as in rural areas according to a comprehensive study done by Landsberg.l4 Table 3 shows that the annual emission of selected pollutants into the atmosphere over the United States totals approximately 125 million tons.apportioned among six categories.< Table 4 shows the distribution of these emissions from five principal source categories.' Other contaminants 13Refer to Chapter IV for definition of air pollu- tion as applied in atmospheric planning theory developed within this thesis. 14Air Over Cities (Symposium sponsored by HEant Robert A. Taft Sanitary-Engineering Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, November 1961), "Session l:' City Air Better or Worse," H. E. Landsberg, p. 3. 15 and emissions into the atmosphere are (l) pesticides which have drifted onto non-target areas due to faulty airborn crop spraying techniques, (2) exhaust emissions of rockets using new and exotic fuels, and (3) radioactive substances produced by atomic reactors and nuclear tests which could have long-range effects on man and the entire planet. Table 2. Atmospheric changes produced by cities. Elements Comparison with rural environs Dust particles 10 times more Sulfur dioxide 5 times more Carbon dioxide 10 times more Carbon monoxide 25 times more Source: Air Overvgities (Symposium sponsored by HEW at Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center, Cin- cinnati, Ohio, November, 1961), adapted from Table l "Climatic Changes produced by cities" (Landsberg, 1958), p. 3. Table 3. Annual emissions of pollutants in the United States. Carbon monoxide 65 million tons annually Oxides of sulfur 23 million tons annually Hydrocarbons 15 million tons annually Particulate matter 12 million tons annually Oxides of nitrogen 8 million tons annually Other gases and vapors 2 million tons annually Source: Waste Managementjand Control (A Report to the Federal Control Council for Science and Technol- ogy by Committee on Pollution, the National Aca— demy of Science, National Research Council, 1966), p. 126. 16 .oma .m .Ammma .Hwossou noummmmm Hmsofiumz .mosmfiom mo hfimomod HMGOHumz on“ .sOHuDHHom so mmuuflfifiou an mmoHosnoma paw mocmwom How HAOGSOU donusou kumpmm on» on uuommm «v Honusou paw uswammmdmz mpmmg "mousom o.~ o.m o.ma o.mH o.m~ o.mm o.mmH Hence H.o H.o m.o o.H m.o m.a m.m ammommflw mmsmmm H.o m.o ~.H m.o ¢.m m.H m.s madame: mommm H.o s.m v.~ H.o m.oa m.o s.mH unflonnuomam mo coaumnmsmw S.H o.H o.o s.m s.m m.a ¢.m~ mupmsscH H.o a.m m.H s.m m.o m.mm m.¢s coflnmumommcmue mDOmCMHHOOmHE mmUHXO H0##ME mCOQHMU mOUHXO OUHNOQOE HQHOB OUHDOM smmoupflz mamasowuumm Iouohm Mamasm conumo .Hmwm Hem msou mo mCOHHHHE CH mucousHHom “Hm omuomamm How sOHDSQHHumHU mOHSOm Hmsowumz .w magma 17 The effects of the various contaminants being poured into the atmosphere are far reaching. Vegetation damage has been found among citrus, pine, tobacco, grape, vegetable, field and flower crops, and ornamentals. Most damage has resulted in a lower quality of plants and re- tardation of plant growth. Animals, particularly those who consume large quantities of foliage, are subject to loss of teeth and deterioration and weakness of the skel- eton. Pollutants can also cause soiling and the deterio- ration of materials including the corrosion of metals, weakening and fading of fabrics, cracking and loss of elasticity in rubber, discoloration of paint, and the ’(_H erosion of concrete and building stone./ / I A“ There is strong evidence that contaminated air is associated with human ailments. The most widely documented effects are respiratory diseases, chronic bronchitis, pul- monary emphysema, bronchial asthma, lung cancer, and the common cold. The effects of contaminated air on mental health have not been quantified to the extent the physical effects have, but it is widely recoqnized that they exist. Mental depressions frequently result from the psychic sensitivity to the atmosphere, e.g. excessive noise and unpleasant odors and visual effects. Noise affects man primarily as an irritant or annoyance although prolonged exposure to noises of certain frequencies and intensities may adversely affect general body functions such as heart 18 rate and metabolism as well as other sensory and biologic processes whose disruption may be indicated by blurred vision and extreme headaches. The psychological implica- tions of odor and visual contaminants remain unmeasured but, like noise, are considered to fall in a nuisance or annoyance category. These psycholoqical factors are be- coming increasingly significant because of a growing desire on the part of the public to enjoy a scenic landscape with an open sky unclouded by a man—created haze, obnoxious odors, and clamor of noise. Conflicts in the Use of the Atmosphere Lasting effects of man's intervention in the at- mospheric environment have been brought about inadvertently by the construction of urban centers. Their artificial topography, concentration of energy conversion, and use of construction materials whose physical properties are com- pletely different from the natural landscape have effected changes in the functioning of the natural atmospheric processes. Other effects of man's influence which are not normally included in popularized pollution categories can be noted. These result from man's use of the air as a medium for communication and navigation. The use of the atmosphere for the transmittal of communication information is closely regulated by the FCC and does not involve the great number of problems that the 19 use of the atmosphere as a highway system for aircraft does. Conflicts in air transportation seem to exist pri- marily as a result of the physical space needed for air- craft Operation, particularly at the terminal points lo- cated in urban areas. Air_transport congestion is becoming a problem of major proportions in certain airport facilities primarily, due to the larger total traffic volumes and to the capacity saturation of various routes and terminal facilities at certain key user times. The problem stems from an enormous growth in air travel, which has nearly doubled in the last five years with even greater anticipated growth, while the capacity of airways and airports has remained about constant. Air transportation problems are concerned with conflicts within the atmosphere and with conflicts of air traffic as they affect land uses. Air transportation con- flicts involve the allocation to air vehicles of predeter- mined parcels of air space and time. On land adjacent to airports air-land conflicts result from damaging or nui- sance effects (noise from flying too low or too frequently) of aircraft operation. Air-land conflicts also arise from aircraft approach easements which restrict land development and from the high incidence of artificially induced fog produced in urban areas, which severely hampers air travel. 20 An air use conflict which may become more serious in the future could result from the physical space con- sumption in the vertical development of urban areas. In larger cities which have excessively high land values caused by locational advantage and which are beginning to recognize the possibilities of air rights development, this could result as development progresses. Certainly many new complications and problems may result as air rights usage is explored with greater zeal in the future. Not the least of these problems will be.the legal/insti- tutional framework for dealing with atmospheric utiliza- tion which, at the moment, is far from having been formu- lated or worked out. CHAPTER II MAN'S RELATIONSHIP TO THE ATMOSPHERE The preceding chapter has presented a range of specific instances substantiating man's intervention and, in some cases, destruction of the atmospheric environment. The purpose of this chapter is to describe man's direct and indirect interrelationships with the atmospheric envi- ronment. To accomplish this, the effects and problems are discussed from two viewpoints; that of the atmosphere as (1) a natural system and process and (2) as a cultural artifact and a medium in which man operates. This division. is shown graphically in Figure l. The Atmosphere Described as a Natural System and Process The atmosphere should be considered as,a very fun- damental natural resource in the same basic category with land and water and having at least equal importance. Be- cause the atmosphere differs in certain respects from either the land or water environments, an elementary knowledge of the properties and operational functions peculiar to it and of the results of atmospheric phenomena is presented. 21 22 AIR RESOURCE PROBLEM NATURAL AIR CULTURAL ACTIVITY ENVIRONMENT & MEANINGS I. NATURAL PROCESS I. POLITICAL 2. PHYSICAL & 2. ECONOMIC BIOLOGICAL 3. PSYCHOLOGICAL/ FUNCTIONS PHISIOLOGICAL Figure I. Breakdown of the probIem: relationship of man and atmosphere. 23 Atmospheric Composition The atmosphere is unique in that its composition differs from that of other natural resources. The atmos- phere is defined, in its purest sense, as being colorless, odorless, and tasteless. Its composition is generally considered to be a relatively stable mixture of a number of gases. More specifically the atmosphere contains (1) several constant chemical elements, (2) gaseous water vapor which may occur in liquid and solid forms within the air, and (3) a great number of solid particles described collectively as dust. Properties of the Atmosphere \\ The atmosphere does have certain physical proper— ties. Even though it appears to have no definite size or shape, it does have weight, take up space, and exert pres- sure.I Since the atmosphere is essentially a mixture-of I ...—.3 gases, it behaves according to the natural laws-of gas behavior. Its principal characteristic is its extreme mobility, for the atmosphere is a unique media which has movement in all directions. It has a much greater fluidity and movement than water or any other resource, a consid- eration fundamental to its study and analysis. Spatial Character of the Atmosphere The Spatial dimension is of such enormous propor— tions that it is somewhat difficult for many people to 24 comprehend and relate to.I Discussion of the atmosphere LN and its phenomena considers for the most part only a thin layer—-the 12 miles immediately above and surrounding the earthI/It is important to realize that the atmosphere has directmcontact with all surface materials of the earth and all activities of man. Thus it has an enormous range of interactions and interrelationships which can be identified and considered. It becomes apparent that the atmosphere is of great importance because of its enormous capacity for interaction with the total environment of the earth. Role of the Atmosphere in Natural Processes KThe atmosphere provides the medium for the func- tioning of many of the natural processes which are occur- ring daily. The most obvious process of the atmosphere is that of weather. Weather is a condition of the atmosphere at a specific time and is described by temperature, pressure, ’amount of moisture or water vapor present, and air movement or circulation patterns. The atmosphere serves in a key capacity in the transference of water within the hydrologic cycle. Air movement, temperature, and pressure and solar radiation influence the absorption of moisture from the earth's surface through evaporation and transportation, and after 25 condensation the moisture is recycled and redistributed back to the earth in various forms of precipitation. Photosynthesis, which is the fundamental process for plant life and in turn for man's existence, is based on the ability of plants to convert solar energy into plant food. / All of these processes and numerous other sub- processes such as evaporation, oxidation, combustion, etc. are directly or indirectly related in an intricate and sensitive manner to atmospheric phenomena. Interaction of Man with the Atmosphere The atmosphere is a functioning self-entity and basic natural resource unit within the earth's environ- mental system. It has its own atmospheric "process" of weather and its own unique "character" and "properties." It is important to recognize the significance of possible negative relationships which could be developed as man utilizes or alters the atmosphere indirectly as a result of his many land—surface activities, which in turn have a direct contact with the atmosphere. Man's harmful utilization of the atmosphere (such as his utilization of it as a waste media) could poten— tially affect the entire surface area of the earth since the atmosphere is a closed system in relation to the earth. In the short run perspective, the ability or capacity to 26 affect the entire earth by a given contaminant or commodity is probably quite minimal or at least not significantly dangerous. However, it is important to recognize that because the atmosphere does form a physical system imme- diate to the circumference of the earth, the possibility for global interaction is a very realistic one. Secondly, although short-range effects of various contaminants may appear insignificant, the long-range consequences may have a much greater impact. Man's intervention in the atmosphere can be viewed first in terms of how it can affect the natural processes and systems of which the atmosphere is a part. These sys- tems and phenomena include hydrology, climatology, meteor- ology, oxidation, and others. They are unique in that they are all "natural" systems and phenomena which exist and function on their own equilibrium base outside of man's influence. They do not depend on man for their normal functioning. However, to a greater or lesser de- gree man is clearly dependent for his existence on certain of these processes and phenomena. Because these natural systems and processes, in which the atmosphere plays a significant role, have such an intricate relationship with other physical elements such as soils, water, land forma- tions and vegetation, the relationships are easily af- fected and altered by man. 27 An example of man's influence on the natural pro- cess can be illustrated by his alteration of the natural landscape as he has cleared the land for farming activities and built sprawling, paved urban areas. The vast deforest- ation resulting from agricultural practices early in our history has not been scientifically evaluated by a before- and-after analysis to assess its effects, but it is clear that changes in the ground cover on rather large portions of land do affect the meteorological processes of solar radiation, wind movement, and evapo-transportation rates, all of which clearly affect the hydrologic cycle and water availability. A similar example can be cited in the case of urban developments. The increased heat and the "heat island" phenomena of cities, as described in Chapter I, have been scientifically documented as altering micro- regional climatology. Another byproduct of some cities has been the unintentional artificial "seeding" of the atmOSphere resulting from a high level of heavy particulant pollutants which cause a higher incidence of precipitation. The vast power of man to alter the most basic and fundamental natural processes and systems becomes much clearer when his influence is studied not only in terms of the pure physical sciences which are concerned with soils, water, weather, etc., but also is regarded in the context of the biological sciences. The biological sciences go beyond the "non-living" natural systems to include the 28 "living" systems of plants and animals and their relation- ships. Man and the impact of his activities are not con- sidered here although he is certainly a part of the natural biological sciences. The basis for discussion of man's influence on biological systems is the close interdepend- ency of the living biological systems and the natural physical systems operations. A small change in the phys- ical systems can result in a direct change or alteration in the biological systems. Predicted biological responses to weather modifi- cation are illustrative of the dramatic consequences which may result from upsetting the unique balance and the in- tricate, complex interactions that exist between plants,‘ animals, and the physical environment. For example, a relatively small change in rainfall or temperature of 3° to 4° from the present annual average in a given area could bring noticeable alterations in pOpulation levels of many resident plants and animals and the disappearance of some species along with the appearance of certain new ones.1 A minor increase in the average annual precipita- tion could mean either enormous increases or high mortality and the possible extermination of a given plant species,. if the extra rain fell during a period that was critical 1Weatherand Climate Modification (Report of the Special Commission on Weather Modification, National Science Foundation, 1965), p. 65. 29 for survival or reproductive success. The extinction of a given plant species could entail the disruption of the stability of an entire biological community where animals were dependent on the extinct plant species. Further, there is evidence that this same change might result in the flourishing of certain weeds and insect pest popula- tions which would be dangerous to man himself, his crops and domesticated animals, and to the general biological environment. The effects of man's activities--reflected in changes in the atmospheric processes--are many times the result of seemingly subtle and insignificant influences on the biological or physical environment. Careful study and analysis of the ecological linkages that exist are needed to help avoid undesirable, unanticipated and possibly ir- reversible ecological changes that may result from these activities. Introduction of Atmospheric Utilization Concept To describe more fully the impact that man has on the atmosphere, it is useful to consider the ways in which man utilizes the atmosphere within the whole realm of his political, human, and economic activities. A concept of "atmospheric utilization" is used here to introduce a broadened explanation of the ways in which man makes use of the atmosphere. The concept is described more fully 30 in Chapter IV and is briefly introduced at this point only to serve as a basis from which to perceive human interac- tion with the atmOSphere. The utilization of the atmosphere can be divided into two basic categories: use as a "medium" and use as a "consumptive commodity." The atmosphere is used as a "medium" in that it transports sounds, odors, waste, air- craft, electronic communication frequencies, etc. The atmosphere is used in a consumptive manner when the utili- zation (a) changes or alters the atmosphere's normal state, composition or natural processes (such as weather modifi- cation or air pollution), or (b) when it consumes physical atmospheric space (such as aircraft or tall buildings) or (c) non-visible space (such as flight patterns or radio or television broadcast frequency bands). Both of these concepts allow for simultaneous use of the atmosphere in numerous ways. Furthermore a con- sumptive use does not necessarily infer total depletion or destruction of some segment of the atmosphere. For exam- ple, the atmosphere could reflect a partial consumption as in the case where the consumptive use by noise may coincide with consumptive use by an internal combustion engine or by a person breathing air. At times uses may be in direct conflict while at other times they may be compatible or even complementary. 31 For a more complete understanding of the ways man interacts with the atmosphere it is necessary to go beyond the somewhat complicated notion of atmospheric utilization and explore the social meanings of the atmosphere and their effect on man's interaction with the atmosphere. The Atmosphere as a Component of Man's Cultural Systems To study how man affects the atmosphere it is necessary to develop an understanding of the meanings and values which man has ascribed to the atmosphere. Because of man's social systems (e.g. legal meanings, economic values) and man's everyday use of it (e.g. waste dispersal, air transportation networks, deliberate weather modifica- tion, etc.) the atmosphere can be acknowledged as a cul- tural artifact of man. The atmosphere becomes an artifact to the extent that it is influenced, controlled and manip- ulated by man for his own ends. In explaining the manner in which man's social system extends into the atmosphere the following three general categories are discussed: (a) political/legal, (b) economic and (c) psychological/physiological. Politicalllegal considerations.--An important de- terminant of the way man deals with the atmosphere is the legal interpretations of air rights and the control of air space. Basically the legal interpretation of the atmos- phere remains very limited, and thus the legal 32 institutional framework in which we conceive of the air and operate in regards to it is inhibited. The atmospheric resource is still considered to be a free commodity to use as each person sees fit. Although there exists a legal framework for controlling aircraft, communications, weather modification, building heights and other activities, these controls are limited primarily to registration and zoning and do not take in the actual regulation of operations within the airspace. The degree of legal control over utilization of atmosphere is not nearly as restrictive and complete as it is for land or water uses. Yet the conse- quences of misusing the atmosphere can be of a much greater magnitude because of the fact that the atmosphere is not localized to the extent that land and water are. The atmospheric resource has been receiving an increasing amount of attention in terms of formulating and developing a legal framework which will direct and limit man's use of the atmosphere. But as yet the atmosphere has not taken on any stated political meaning. However, as the atmosphere becomes increasingly exploited, a more explicit political meaning and control will evolve. To date political questions on a state or national level in- volve the following: (1) deciding to what degree we may alter atmospheric composition or functional processes and still best serve the public interest, (2) moving toward a recognition of the responsibility of passing on air of a 33 reasonable quality to political neighbors in return for' receiving from other political neighbors air of a reason- able quality, and finally (3) allocating the burden of cost and responsibility for maintaining and regulating a desired quality of atmosphere. An example of deliberate weather modification fur- ther illustrates the political/legal problems which may arise with regard to the atmosphere. Because the benefits or losses from weather or climate modifications cannot be limited to people within a specific geographical area or industry and because there are numerous types and degrees of intensity of weather modification to consider, there result numerous conflicts of interest which must be resolved. Existing weather modification laws are concerned primarily with rules governing property interest or owner- ship of clouds and the responsibilities and liabilities of weather modifiers to the public.2 No firm legal framework has yet evolved, and many legal questions remain unanswer- ed. The inability of the legal system to adjust to and accommodate the implications of weather modification re- flects how our legal institutions as a major policy and implementing tool in man's institutional structure have 2John M. Pierce, "Legal Aspects of Weather Modifi- cation--Snow Peak Augmentation in Wyoming," Land and Water Law Review, II (1967). 34 not kept pace with and reflected today's rapidly-develop- ing, technologically-oriented society. The ramifications of weather modifications will certainly require much re- thinking of many current legal concepts, and it should offer an opportunity for some new variations or, more ap- propriately, entirely new concepts to be introduced if the demand for a new legalistic framework can surmount the "precedent criteria" which prevail today within legal institutions. Economic considerations.—-The extension of man's economic system to the atmosphere is tied very closely to the legal/political system. The operation of economic transactions and the existence of economic meanings and values are premised first on the legal recognition of those ideas. However, the impact of man's extension of his economic system to the atmosphere is probably greater than that of the legal system, due to the fact that we are an extremely economically oriented society and to the fact that the legal system appears to follow after economic questions have been raised in terms of the atmospheric resource. It should be noted that questions of the "eco- nomic worth" of the atmosphere, of clean air, of artifi- cally created weather, etc. are all very recent and remain for the most part unanswered. Nevertheless economic no- tions of the atmosphere do exist. 35 The effects of weather modification on the economic activities of man are noted in economic decision-making by farmers wishing to achieve the highest crop yield or in industry wishing to have the optimal location in respect to its resource base. Weather modification could cause shifts in a recreation industry which is dependent on_sunny weather or the air transportation industry which is some- what handicapped by fog at airports. The most extensive economic cost analyses concern- ing the atmosphere have been made in the attempts to pro- ject cost to be incurred in the correction of air pollu- tion. This cost could then be restated as being the economic worth of clean air to society. There are many other examples which could be cited where economic decisions are being made which are directly linked to the atmosphere and where man's economic value system has been extended to the atmosphere. To the extent economic meanings affect both the atmosphere and man and his activities, this influence must be acknowledged as extremely important to the understanding of the man/atmos- phere relationship. Psychologicsl/physiological considerations.--Man's physiological and psychological relationship-has not been. clearly researched, but it is evident that there are subtle ties. These relationships are most apparent in the human activity patterns which are or are not pursued (e.g., 36 cancelling outdoor recreational activities because of rain), although probably there are many others which will be evident in the consequences of long-term biological health. Human perceptions of the character and quality_of the atmosphere are received through sight and odors. Also a range of "meanings" and "value associations" are deeply- embedded in the human experience of comfort, excitement and esthetic beauty. Most persons show a close sensitivity- to and strong perception of the weather which is revealed in the types of activities they will engage in and their attitudes. The interaction of man with the atmosphere recog- nizes the atmosphere as an artifact of his social—cultural system. Man has put the meanings of his social-cultural system (e.g. political, economic, psychologic, etc.) on to the atmosphere. These meanings are reflected in prevailing socio-cultural patterns of transportation, housing, farm- ing, industries and others. Weather and air pollution stand out as the most illustrative examples of the way man has internalized the atmosphere into his thinking, insti- tutions, and culture. There remain, of course, many other areas which must be carefully researched and studied if we are to have even the most beginning knowledge of the relationships between man and the atmosphere. CHAPTER III PRESENT ATMOSPHERIC PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT THEORIES AND PRACTICES A fundamental reason for the existence of the air resource planning problems is the relative lack of effect- ively organized efforts toward identifying and resolving the problems. This chapter will investigate the involve- ment or lack of involvement of the four principal approach- es which could make the greatest contributions to the solutions of these problems. These four approaches are (1) urban and regional planning, (2) natural resource planning, (3) meteorology, and (4) air pollution control programs. A brief analysis of the representative theoret- ical discipline is presented, followed by an examination of the influence the day-to-day operations of each of these approaches brings to the problem's solution. The chapter will show that each method has its own orientation and perspective in describing the extent of the problem and the method by which to approach its solution. From this comparative study it is possible to understand the present situation as‘a result partly of the ways in which it has been approached. When the 37 38 limitations of the present approaches are placed in con- text with the magnitude of the problem, the need for a new planning approach is clearly demonstrated. Urban and Regional Planning Urban and regional planning have drawn techniques and perspectives from varied backgrounds ranging from the physical sciences to the humanities and social sciences. Urban planning has recently evolved in the direction of placing a much greater emphasis on the social sciences (sociology, political science, etc.). Regional planning has tended to develop planning procedures which are ori- ented toward environmental sciences because they consider the natural environmental processes and the macro-environ- ment of cities. Like urban planning, regional planning has also relied heavily on the social sciences for its development. Urban planning is concerned primarily with the man-made environment such as buildings and surface trans- portation systems and with how these physical artifacts of man's modern-day culture should be directed and guided to realize a desirable pattern of develOpment. Urban planning is closely involved with the cultural and social as well as physical aspects of planning, which together reflect a wholistic approach toward man and his needs. 39 Regional planning reflects the same basic concerns. However, it differs significantly in the physical land area it deals with, this being much larger than is the case with urban planning. Also, because it considers land uses and activity systems outside the immediately urbanized areas, it concerns itself with what are regarded as non- urban environments, such as agricultural lands, woodlands, and large recreational areas. Typically, master plans have touched on only four considerations relevant to atmospheric planning. First, most recent master plans recognize that air pollution is bad and that something should be done about it. Second, nearly all comprehensive plans include descriptive statis- tical data in regard to the climate. Third, most master plans take into consideration airports and air transporta— tion networks in varying degrees, and there exist some basic zoning procedures for airports. Also there seems to be increasing awareness of the conflicts, such as aircraft noise, involved in atmospheric activity systems. Fourth, zoning regulations for housing and land development have required adequate light and ventilation. But beyond the limited zoning for aircraft approaches and housing stand- ards mentioned above, there has been almost no application of planning techniques to the utilization of the atmosphere or, more basically, almost no recognition of the atmosphere as an environmental factor to be planned for. 4O Climatological data could be used much more in planning decisions if it were in a more readily available and usable form. In a regional study prepared by the Southwestern Pennsylvania Regional Planning Commission the use of climatological data is described as follows: Climatological data generally have not been em- ployed scientifically in the region as a land use determinant. The main reason for this is that micro- climatological variations are more apparent on a regional scale. Local and even county planning stu- dies seldom consider the significance of climatic phenomena for locating special agricultural, weedland or recreational areas. Precipitation volumes, fre- quency of early thaws and their impact on water pollu- tion, flooding and erosion must be handled in terms of large drainage areas. Similarly, planning future locations for potential atmosphere-contaminating land uses should be based on in- tercommunity and regional studies which take into account the larger micro-climate and topographic peculiarities which affect air flow. Because the natural climatic char- acteristics of a region are largely fixed, the construction of various facilities and the location of various special land uses should anticipate and plan for the range of temperatures, precipitation and wind conditions prevailing locally. The work of the Northeastern Illinois Planning Commission represents a unique application of planning 1Physical and Man-made Features ofpse ngion, Southwestern Pennsylvania RegionaI Planning Commission (May, 1965), p. 24. 41 techniques to atmospheric resource problems. It was the first planning agency to undertake a study which attempted to explore the potential applications of urban planning development programs for improving the quality of a metro- politan atmospheric resource. The program was heavily structured on the traditional air pollution approach since it was developed in cooperation with the state and public health departments, the Chicago Air Pollution Department, and the Urban Renewal Administration. The study applied planning techniques by identifying human activities that were producing pollution. These were then translated into land use categories, policies, and finally programs which were considered either to lessen the source of pollution or to separate it from potential receptors.2 The following major planning policies were devel- Oped in the course of this study: (a) provisions for mod- ernized space heating systems through urban renewal pro- grams and enforcement of building codes and appropriate zoning controls, (b) develOpment of land use and zoning policies which would locate industrial activities and power generators to regulate the dispersal of air pollu- tion and design transportation and open space systems reflecting local wind patterns and topographic conditions, 2Matthew L. Rockwell, "Air Resources and Planning,“ Planning 1966 (American Society of Planning Officials), pp. 187-193. 42 (c) the encouragement of the development of an economical and efficient solid waste disposal system.3 The application of urban and regional planning to the atmospheric environment should recognize the following differences in their approaches: (1) Urban areas have the highest concentration of human activities. In turn they have the highest level of conflicting pollution sources and of atmospheric utiliza- tion conflicts. The urban areas represent the source of many of the atmospheric problems. Much of the problem solving must therefore be directed at urbanized areas. (2) Urban planning has not dealt in relating urban design or general planning considerations to the natural environment to the degree which traditional regional plan- ning has focused on environmental problems. (3) To the extent that the utilization of an air- shed concept (similar to the natural watershed concept) is possible, its application would be compatible for a reg- ional planning program. Such an approach is consistent with recent planning approaches which have increasingly attempted to deal with larger regional systems for better: control of water, solid waste disposal, parks and open space, and numerous other considerations whose coordination 3Managing the Air Resource in Northeastern Illinois, Northeastern Illinois Planning Commission (August, 1967), p. 43 and administrative functions are best structured on a reg- ional or metropolitan scale. A regional approach gives a much more comprehensive view of problems since it considers general land uses such as agriculture and forest lands in addition to the intensively developed urbanized land. It recognizes that the atmosphere is a flow resource and a media which has the capacity to transport waste products over vast distances and which is not limited to the polit- ical boundaries of a city. Also regional planning repre- sents a more useful study of the larger atmospheric pro- cesses since it considers a much larger territory than the micro-scale of the city and thus affords a more meaningful perspective on the changes in weather and climate. (4) The extent to which urban or regional planning has recognized the atmosphere as a relevant factor in planning decisions has-remained minimal. After reviewing a large number of comprehensive master plans it has become apparent that there is little or no recognition of the atmospheric resource as a basic environmental factor which must be planned for. Yet almost all master plans consider water, flood plains, soil, and topography as major envi- ronmental factors which will have a significant impact on urban develOpment and which should be given prime consid- eration.. Apparently regional planning has not considered the benefits to be gained by planning for the atmospheric resource as important enough to be included within regional planning studies. 44 From the past approaches and limitations of urban and regional planning in dealing with the atmospheric en- vironment, the following conclusions are drawn: Attempts to apply planning techniques to the de- velOpment, utilization, and conservation of the atmosphere have been minimal as has been the recognition of atmos- pheric resource planning as a major element in urban and regional planning. This is due largely to the lack of appreciation by planners of the fact that planning for man's activities should be closely integrated with the natural atmospheric environment. The extent to which atmospheric planning should be pursued as the responsibility of a regional or urban plan- ning program, the weather bureau, or an air pollution control agency is primarily an organizational and adminis- trative question of determining the type of agency best fitted by its skills and resources (i.e., both planning expertise and technical expertise) to do the job. The potential role of comprehensive planning in atmospheric resource management has been limited by data and atmospheric environment measurements that are readily- available and usable by planners. There exists a lack of technical understanding of meteorology and engineering, etc. to properly develop the tools and techniques which would transcribe technical data into useful planning procedures and criteria. 45 The greatest limitation of planners in relating the planning policies, activities and land use determina- tions to the atmospheric environment is their conception of the atmospheric resource and the way in which they should plan for it. They remain oriented toward tradi- tional air pollution control programs which are restricted to a narrow engineering context with control efforts foc- used on correcting existing problems through source controls. Natural Resource Planning Natural resource planning has drawn mainly on the physical sciences in its approach with a strong emphasis on economics in the social sciences. The most obvious aspects of the natural environment are the natural landscape and the water environment of the earth. Natural resources is also defined to include ele- ments not as readily apparent, including minerals below the earth's surface and the atmosphere above the earth's surface. Natural resource planning includes all these things (e.g. water, soil, air) which combine to form the natural environment and is mainly concerned with maximiz- ing biological and human utilization of these resources. However, even though the atmosphere can logically be placed in a natural resource category, it remains largely unrecognized as a natural resource by the general 46 public as compared to their recognition of water as a vital natural resource. Because the atmosphere is all around us (we are in effect living in an ocean of air), the atmosphere is at least as significant a natural resource media in man's use and application of his everyday life and activities as is water. Yet it remains, for the most part, unacknowledged in its existence. The fact that the atmosphere remains unimportant in the general public's eye can be attributed to (l) a limited public indoctrination to the atmosphere, except in a limited physical/chemical definition of health problems as described by air pollution control agencies, (2) the view of the atmosphere as an undiminishing resource in terms of its quantity, and (3) the atmosphere's intangible physical qualities, which permit it to be easily disre- garded simply because it is difficult to acknowledge the existence of a resource which has no apparent physical or visible characteristics. It is not difficult to appreciate the general pub- lic's lack of understanding or recognition of the atmos- phere as a resource, but it is disappointing to see a similar lack of emphasis directed toward the study of the atmosphere as a natural resource by people representing natural resource studies. 47 There has been a great deal more work done in the area of water, land and mineral resource problems by nat- ural resource people in comparison to the limited amount of attention and study directed at the air resources. Most studies of the air as a natural resource have been done primarily in terms of a limited framework character- ized in the popularized definition of air pollution. There remains a minimal amount of study or recognition of the total atmosphere identifying it as a basic and separate. resource component of the total resource system of the earth. Planning for the atmosphere as a resource by people representing natural resource agencies has remained for the most part unfulfilled due in part to the lack of popu- larity that it seems to hold relative to other natural resources (e.g. water), which for various reasons, appear to hold a stronger attraction. Lack of involvement in programs in the area of atmospheric management also result from ineffective analytic techniques which have been de- veloped in the areas concerned with water but have not been developed to deal with the dynamics of the atmospheric environment system. This state of affairs results from its enormous size, vast complexity, and the dynamics of change relative to time and space. The scope of natural resource planning as defined by the various programs administered by state resource 48 development departments or state conservation departments has not included any agency programs to study the atmos- phere within their organizational structure. More funda- mentally, they have not recognized the atmosphere as a basic natural resource which warrants a management or planning program. Nationally, natural resource planning, as.identi- fied under the banner of conservation within this century, has recognized three movements. The conservation movement of Gifford Pinchet and Theodore Roosevelt was directed toward arresting the wholesale exploitation and destruction of American resources for private gain. A second conser- vation movement in the New Deal era led to the establish- ment of the National Resources Planning Board as a result of the poor planning and coordination of the nation's nat- ural resources. Under Presidents Kennedy and Johnson and Secretary Udall, the new conservation as it is now referred to has come to focus strongly on the quality of life and in particular on the quality of the environment.4 In regard to the recognition of the atmosphere as a natural resource, its natural resource planning policies have not developed to the degree which they have in the use of land, water, and minerals. Natural resource 4Ian Burton, "The Quality of the Environment: Increasing Hazards and the EMPAD," Planning 1966 ASPO. 49 planning as it has evolved toward its present "environ- mental quality" philosophy has followed the earlier anal- ysis directed at (1) preservation for future use and (2) a notion of efficient development and use for the present as described in cost-benefit analysis. Although the concept of preservation and efficient use are not as "current" in resource development thinking as environmental quality is, it is important to develop these earlier concepts in the context of our air environ- ment before we proceed to the notion of environmental quality. Ultimately natural resource planning regarding the atmosphere will be focused on the broader implications of environmental quality. Presently there is not a compre~ hensive natural resource policy which considers all the resources together, but rather there exist numerous sep- arate resource policies. However, the objectives of any Isingle resource policy can't be pursued responsibly without considering the physical, biological, economic and social concerns of other resource policies and of other areas of public policy (e.g. national economic policy, social wel- fare policy, international policy, defense policy) to which they are related. Because of these connections it is necessary to aim toward integrated or at least 50 interrelated policies for land, water, the atmosphere and other resources.5 Such an interrelationship of resource policies has considerable merit. However, separate policy for the at- mosphere must first be developed and recognized before it can be integrated into any total resource policy. Pres- ently no such policy for the atmosphere has been articu- lated at the federal, state, or any other governmental level. The lack of any resource development policy for the atmosphere is a key limitation on resource planning for our atmospheric environment. The existence of such a policy is mandatory for it serves as the prerequisite base for any atmospheric planning process. Meteorology Meteorology is the science of the atmosphere and its phenomena. It is restricted mainly to a study of the thin layer of the atmosphere immediately surrounding the earth. Meteorology deals with the physical properties and conditions of the atmosphere, collectively known as the weather, and is the concern of the Weather Bureau. 5Joseph L. Fisher, "Natural Resources--Wise Use of the World's Inheritance," Environment and Policy, The Next Fifty Years (1968), pp. 342-3. 51 Meteorology combines both physics and geography. It deals with the principles of physics in its study of the behavior of air treated as a mixture of gases. Also it considers the whole atmosphere and its movements with respect to the earth. Meteorology deals with geographic factors such as tOpography, land, water, and mountains to the extent that they affect the atmosphere and to the ex- tent that they are descriptive and explanatory of man's physical environment and that they affect his way of life. Climatology also describes the weather, but it is distinguished from meteorology in that it implies the totality of weather conditions over a period of years while weather comprises the condition and characteristics of the atmosphere only at a given time. The main emphasis in meteorology has been on the analysis and forecasting of the weather. The study of weather and climate as an influence upon man and his ac- tivities has been limited in its development. The histor- ical expansion of meteorological studies beyond statistical recordkeeping was developed first for agricultural appli- cations. Agricultural meteorology has dealt with the climate requirements of crops and with the relationships of the sequence of weather to the progress and yield of crops. "This was a period of emphasis on temperature and 52 precipitation reports gathered by a multitude of c00pera- tive stations."6 Much of the data collected today by weather sta- tions reflects a shift from the former days of agricultural interest to a preoccupation with aviation problems. Weather service to aviation was made a primary responsibility of the Weather Bureau by federal leg- islation in 1938. The service was reorganized in 1952 as the Flight Advisory Weather Service, whose function includes all weather forecast and warning services to air navigation.7 This information is provided by a series of forecast cen- ters. There exists a very complete organization for the collection and distribution of weather information for aircraft operation. There has been a lack of meteorological programs geared to the larger range of atmospheric properties and functions which interact with man and influence activities other than agriculture and aviation in his contemporary urbanized environment. There has been no apparent linkage of the meteorological sciences to natural resource devel- opment or to urban and regional planning. Both of these areas could benefit from meteorological studies, but ex- isting data are generally not readily usable in present 6Erwin K. Kauper, Air Over Cities: Problems Asso- ciated with Forecasting Air Pollution Over an Urban Area, p. 269. 7Thomas A. Blair and Robert C. Fite, Weather Ele— ments, p. 247. ' 53 form since it was not developed for use in urban/regional planning or natural resource development. Although the essence of meteorological work has been devoted to an analytical correlation and statistical processing of weather and climate data, with a generally narrow application of the data, the Weather Bureau has recently adOpted a very desirable generalist role in tak- ing responsibility for regulating weather modification. This new role is only now being formalized in legislation within each respective state. Unfortunately, the defini- tion of weather modification is somewhat limited, and due to a lack of meaningful relationships with other official agencies and interest groups using and modifying the at- mosphere for their own purposes and needs, there can be no meaningful realization of an agency operating to control modification of the weather components except in its most immediately harmful and damaging consequences. The develOpment of weather modification in context with a concept of atmospheric utilization and backed by a strong organizational and operational framework could be an extremely effective step toward dealing with the atmos- pheric environment. This new legislation offers a unique opportunity for a policy statement which would express ways in which the atmosphere will be utilized. However, to date meteorologists have not envisioned that their agencies should function in any major capacity in the man- agement of the atmospheric environment. 54 Air Pollution Control Programs Historically, the air pollution problem was first recognized following the industrial revolution as coal replaced wood for house heating. By the latter part of the nineteenth century, the smoke and grit became so ob- jectionable that smoke-abatement ordinances were initiated. Coal smoke became less of a problem as oil, gas, and elec- tricity replaced coal as a fuel during the twentieth cen- tury, and the complexity of the air pollution problem changed to a new focus on relatively smoke-free emissions from stationary and mobile combustion sources and from industrial processes. The measurement needs then focused on measuring trace quantities of pollutant gases and ele- ments in the atmosphere and on measuring solids suspended in the air. Study of the effects of air pollution were extended to include vegetation, livestock, materials, and man. Air pollution control programs have been evolved almost exclusively out of Public Health. This public health orientation has logically been the basis for ob- jectives of air pollution control programs and the strat— egies or approaches used in achieving these objectives. The objectives of air pollution control programs at the federal level have been ones primarily of research, technical assistance, and training of technical personnel. Federal air pollution control programs have come 55 predominantly out of the Public Health Service. However, it is interesting to note that many of the research activ- ities of the Public Health Service have been accomplished with a close cooperation of other federal agencies includ- ing the Weather Bureau, Bureau of Mines, National Bureau of Standards, and the Department of Agriculture. Further, there are a number of other federal agencies including AEC, NASA, FAA, NSF, and the Departments of Defense, Com- merce, and the Interior which have an interest in funda- mental properties of either the upper or lower atmosphere. These may not be directly involved with air pollution as defined by the Public Health Service, but they are recog- nized as having a research interest which is incidental to air pollution, and there exists some level of interaction or interagency cooperation.8 State level programs are concerned primarily with enforcement of air pollution regulations. Also they offer technical assistance to local programs, do monitoring of air quality, and in some instances review and approve plans for certain installations which may cause air pollution. 8Harold Wolozin, ed., The Economics of Air Pollu- tion (A Study of Pollution--Air: A Staff Report to the Committee on Public Works, United States Senate, Sept. 1963), p. 56 Local programs may include some of the state func— tions depending on the scale of operation but are charac- terized by a greater emphasis on control and abatement activities. Having reviewed much of the literature on air pol- lution programs, it is apparent that there exists a well- defined approach to air pollution which is followed quite extensively throughout the public health programs. The following is a brief summarization of the approach. "Air contamination" as defined in the Air Pollution Act 348 of the Michigan Department of Public Health (1965) includes "dust, fumes, gas, mist, odor, smoke and vapor or any combination thereof." This represents a reasonably typical identification of the problem as seen by public health agencies. The principle cause of air pollution is viewed as being a result of combustion of one kind or another. The main recognized sources of air pollution are: industrial and commercial sources including (1) Large-scale industrial installations, only one of which may pollute the air over a large area and (2) small-scale industrial and commercial sources. Munic— ipcal sources may include (1) incinerators, burning dumps, or sewage plants; (2) road construction and maintenance work and unpaved roads; and (3) heating plants in municipal buildings. Three household cate- gories include (1) furnaces, boilers, and kitchen incinerators; (2) outdoor burning of trash, leaves, etc.; and (3) apartment house heating equipment and incinerators. Further sources are transportation: 57 (1) private automobiles; (2) trucks and buses, includ- ing diesels; and (3) ships and locomotives.9 The effects of air pollution are generally considered to fall within three broad categories of (1) aesthetic, (2) economic, and (3) health.10 The measurement and inventory of air quality for purposes of the air pollution agencies falls into three main categories:11 (1) a physical measurement (i.e. tons per square mile) of total suspended particulate matter, (2) a chemical analysis of the atmosphere including sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, oxidant, ozone, carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons, and sulfur oxides, and (3) a measure of odors. It is interesting to note that the measurement of odors has not developed the degree of sophistication that the chemical and physical properties of the atmosphere have. Because of their generally complex nature, odorous pollutants released to the atmosphere can not be easily estimated quantitatively, and up to the present time the most reliable and sensitive instrument available for detecting and judging odors is the human nose.12 9Kenneth G. Bueche and Morris J. Schur, Air Pollu- tion Control, Selected Governmental Apppoaches: Possibil- ities for ColoradofTBureau of Governmental Research and Service, University of Colorado, 1963), p. 5. 10 Ibid 0 11Measurement of visibility by means of Ringleman Charts can possibly be considered a fourth category. 12Interstate Air Pollution Study; Phase IIProject Re ort—-A PrOposal for an Air Resource Management Pro ram (U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1367), p. 58 Because the most frequently detected odors are usually indirect atmospheric pollution resulting from "waste" from combustion and other product processing activities, odors are generally considered to be included in the scope of air pollution programs. A final indicator of the approaches used by air pollution programs can be derived from a look at the comp— osition of the personnel and the types of disciplines em- ployed within the programs. In a survey of positions budgeted by state and local air pollution control agencies in March, 1967, the largest input into the staffing was that of the engineer. The next highest professionally recognized skill was that of chemist, followed by sanitar- ian. Other occupational categories-representing a disci- pline or high level of academic training that were men- tioned included applied scientist, professional manager, meteorologist, and statistician. Clearly air pollution programs are dominated by an engineering orientation in their staffing.l3 Based on the approach and limitations of past and existing air pollution programs, it is evident that his- torically the programs have tended to be narrowly defined 13R. C. Custer, "State and Local Manpower Resources and Requirements for Air Pollution Control," Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, XIX (April, 1969), p. 217. 59 from an engineering/health perspective. Most of the work has involved the application of engineering theory, methods and technique to problems related to the correction and control of air contaminants from a variety of sources. The approach toward identifying air quality has been limited primarily to the chemical/physical properties of the air. Analytical study approaches have involved primarily the application of chemical theory, methods and techniques to problems principally related to the detec- tion, measurement and analysis of air contaminants as the air pollution control agencies have defined them. There exists a weak concept of comprehensive long- range planning within the programs. Until recent times, air pollution control programs have been directed toward the correction of existing problems. Certainly this is needed, as it has been clearly indicated that portions of our air resource have already deteriorated. However, cer- tain aspects of our atmospheric resource remain acceptable in quality, and there is a need for preventive planning to insure the wise use of the resource in terms of future use. and environmental quality. The fundamental approach in dealing with atmospheric resource quality problems should be first to prevent problems wherever possible through consideration of long-range planning and second to cure them. 60 Planning activities employed in air pollution ac- tivities (which to date have been extremely limited, al- though they are increasing) have been used primarily for the location of potential air pollution sources, including industrial plants and highways; for the location of green belts and residential areas; and for relating present and projected land-use patterns and categories to air quality standards, in a few instances. Planning for air pollution should give a much broader consideration to all aspects of the relationships between man's activities and the quality of the atmosphere and further to consider them in full awareness of the interface with efforts to deal with other environmental problems: Historically the management of our atmospheric re- source has been more or less non-existent. Air pollution control programs represent the most well known agencies actively working in this area, and the phrase "air resource management" has recently become popular within their lit- erature. Unfortunately, because of the limited concept of air pollution and its regulatory activities, most programs cannot be considered relevant to the concept of managing the atmospheric resource as it is defined in its broader context. To do so is to (1) either stretch the impact and influence of the programs considerably or to (2) redefine the atmospheric resource in a narrowed and limited sc0pe. If an air pollution agency is to assume a responsible role 61 in atmospheric resource management, it must strengthen its program by redefining the boundaries of its influence and interaction to include a larger concept of atmospheric resource quality, conservation, planning and utilization, going beyond the traditional control of smoke particulates and the other emissions deemed as "nuisances." By addres- sing itself to the formulation of a strong public policy for the total quality and utilization of the resource and by revitalizing its organizational and functional framework to include a comprehensive environmental management ap- proach and a long-range planning approach, an air pollu- tion agency could manage the resource much more effectively. Comparison of Four Orientations to Atmospheric Study To differentiate between the approaches utilized in atmospheric planning, each method is studied first in regards to its influence and the manner in which its func- tional operations are most clearly evidenced and secondly in regards to the technique applied to problem solving. The problem solving technique is largely determined by the perspective from which the problem is approached, which, in turn, is generally representative of a particular school of thought or orientation such as economics, biol- ogy, engineering, etc. 62 Differences in Orientation The primary difference between urban/regional planning, natural resource planning, meteorology and air pollution control programs is their emphasis on three elements: (1) man, (2) man-made, and (3) the natural atmospheric environment. The influence that each of these areas exerts on each respective element is indicated in the following explanation as being either predominant or partial.14 The first element, man, represents the human consideration, which includes society and individuals. The second is the man-made element which encompasses all the physical artifacts created or influenced by man, and the third element is the natural atmospheric environment. Figure 2 illustrates the relative emphasis that each method extends to each element. Urban and/or Regional Planning has placed major emphasis on the human element (man), as reflected in the more recent emphasis on social planning, and on the man- made element, as evidenced by the influence and control of the physical patterns of construction and development. (The predominant influence is indicated in the illustra- tion by a solid line toward these elements.) Planning 14It is recognized that in most cases it is diffi- cult to determine an element's degree of influence as being clearly one or the other. However, it is a useful device when looking at the areas relative to one another. 63 Figure 2. Comparison of relative influence of four disci- plines on three elements; man, man-made, and the atmosphere. Four disciplines of theory and practice Elements A man Urban/Regional Planning man made 04] atmosphere 0d man Natural Resource <> Development ‘ man-made atmosphere 0Q man Climatology/ _ Meteorology D C] manmade atmosphere 66 man Air Pollution man-made Control atmosphere \Direct influence . E.__J Partial CI D C] CI influence 64 has not recognized the atmosphere within the planning process except in a marginal sense (as indicated by the broken link toward the natural atmospheric environment element). Natural Resource Planning places major emphasis on the atmospheric element although the man-made element is influencing policy to an increasing degree. It has con- sidered the human element only indirectly. Climatological/meteorological practice, to date, has emphasized only the atmospheric environment element and has given but passing consideration to man and man- made elements. Air Pollution Control has been heavily involved with certain aspects of both the natural atmosphere element and the man-made element. It has not focused its attention on the human element in a social perspective although it does recognize human health as a problem. Comparing the separate approaches with the re- spective elements, it becomes apparent that no one method is broad enough to include all three elements within its context.) The most apparent reason for this is that none of the methods (with the exception of the urban/regional planning method, whose limitations in a consideration of atmospheric planning have already been discussed) was designed to function with respect to all of these elements. 65 Differences on Influence in AtmOSpheric Planning» Further distinctions among these methods can be drawn by looking at the technical problem solving approach used (described as a discipline) and the actual influence each area has as indicated by the typical representative agency and the representative activity it could have in relation to atmospheric planning. Figure 3 is a comparative illustration showing the differences in approaches. a. All agencies are Operative at a state level. However, urban/regional planning agencies usually operate and predominate at local levels. b. Urban Planning and Resource Development draw heavily from the social sciences while climatology and air. pollution are more closely aligned with physical science disciplines. c. Urban Planning and Resource Development tend toward policy determination while climatology and air pol- lution are directed toward technical analysis. Evaluation of Four Orientations‘ to Atmospheric Study_ In looking at the several approaches that the four areas bring to the planning of our atmosphere environment, the following general conclusions are reached. 66 Avv monfipmooum maHHmochcm can mHmmHmcd HMOHEocO I Amy Amy .mcHGGMHm OHHmcmmOEum so oososHmcH “Heap com monomonmmm mosum snow mo coHumHHommc o>HHmummEoo AHV mHmaamcfl HMUHanumnm pom moocoHom HMOH ImoHonooumz mHmmHmcd GHEosoom mousomoonm com Snooze mcHsGMHm I I I I mHmMHmsd HMUHEocu HMOHmsnm pom Honusoo MHODMHsmom mHthocfl . can mcHHocme spam I NW I soHpmnumH uaHsoe one GOHHMHSEHom moHHom mchcmHm m>Hmcm£oumEou coHDMHSEHom MOHHom ucoEuHmmoD nuHmom UHHnsm mumum ucofipummoo mmoHoumEHHU ounpm I I NV I ucoauummoa GOHuo>Homcoo mnmum psoauummmo msHGGMHm “Ho Rinses mucsoo.opmum NV Runny Honusoo GOHDDHHom qu hmOHouomuoz can amoHoumEHHO ucofimon>mo oomDOmom Housumz mchsmHm HosOHmom \cmnuo A .m oudem ocHHmHomHo mosum o>Hu noncomonmom oocmsHmcH o>Hu Imucmmoumom mosmmd msHscon m>Hu Imusomoumom comonmmm sosum 67 a. The main involvement in the atmospheric envi- ronment up until now has evolved out of air pollution control programs, which have been structured largely on a narrow health/engineering focus. b. To deal with the atmosphere as a basic resource with recognition for its wise utilization and conservation, it would be necessary to draw heavily on natural resource planning and policy, but no formalized agency or recogni- tion exists to date. c. Climatology, air pollution, and natural resource agencies are not comprehensive since they are not directed to man as well as to the man—made and the natural atmos- pheric environment elements discussed. Urban/Regional Plan— ning comes closest to achieving a comprehensive approach. d. Meteorological and air pollution studies-are by their nature technical, analytical measurements of the physical properties of the atmosphere. The application of their analyses is not clearly related to the human element nor is it related to the comprehensive manner in which the atmosphere should be utilized. e. Urban Planning has the most useful planning theory to be applied, but it lacks the technical expertise or interaction with those who have the expertise to ef- fectuate atmospheric planning. f. The physical boundaries of the urban planning agency (the urbanized city) enclose the greatest single 68 source of atmospheric conflicts and problems because the city is a focal point of human activity. g. Urban Planning is relevant to social, cultural, and institutional structures in its everyday activities and represents, potentially, the most meaningful input to the human element of the four areas discussed. h. Regional Planning, like Urban Planning, offers a formalized planning procedure and technique but is unique in that its jurisdiction is not limited to political boundaries but extends to natural resource boundaries (such as air or watersheds) or to larger metropolitan/ regional areas which have a larger spatial context and thus are a more logical base for dealing with the large scale phenomena of the atmosphere. i. Regional Planning considers the natural envi- ronment to a much greater extent than does urban planning, and yet it still retains a close linkage between the nat- ural environmental systems and man and his activities. None of the past attempts at dealing with atmos- pheric planning have been adequate although each method does contribute a certain orientation, each of which is important if we are to achieve a comprehensive approach.‘ It is evident in View of the limitations of past practices and theories that the exploration of a new planning ap- proach is warranted. PART II. PRINCIPLES OF ATMOSPHERIC PLANNING CHAPTER IV CONSIDERATIONS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF A PLANNING APPROACH FOR THE ATMOSPHERE From the comparative analysis of existing programs in Chapter III, it becomes apparent that there is no theory or organizational model acceptable for decision-making and implementation in the planning and management of the at- mospheric resource. However, the need for atmospheric resource planning has been clearly demonstrated. This chapter will examine some concepts and principles useful in developing a planning theory for the atmosphere. Two of the concepts (i.e. atmospheric utilization and the sys- tems analysis) are the essentials of the atmospheric plan- ning theory to be developed in the following chapter. The remaining concepts and principles have been derived from the limitations of programs discussed in Chapter III. Terminology Clarification Certain words used in this thesis may have attached to them preconceived meanings, which are possibly incon- sistent with the intent and direction implied by the 69 70 author. To align the reader with the orientation being developed these terms are clarified and explained below. Air Defined as a Resource Air is essential for survival. This statement provides the basic justification of the need to recognize the atmosphere as a basic natural resource. That the at- mosphere, because it provides a functional media for oxy- gen, solar energy, and precipitation cycles, is essential to the existence of all plants, animals and man is ob- viously a fundamental statement. Stating that the air is needed for survival goes beyond the fact that it is es- sential for life, if we define survival to mean that air is needed to sustain the kind of world in which man pres- ently lives. The man-made world utilizes enormous amounts of air in heating homes, running factories, driving cars and burning waste. The atmosphere is treated as a "free good" in a cost sense, to be acquired and consumed as energy in combustion processes. Similarly, in a supply and demand sense the supply of the atmosphere is fixed as are our natural supplies of petroleum, coal, water, and the other natural resources. We must realize that air as a natural resource is not unlimited in quantity and must be conserved. Air is also used up when its physical comp- position is modified by man's deliberate use of it as a waste receptacle. Man's activities modify the natural 71 functional processes of the atmosphere through intentional and unintentional weather modification, and man alters the makeup of the atmosphere through nuclear testing, applica- tion of pesticides, etc. We must recognize that air, as a natural resource, must be considered relative to the am- ounts available in the appropriate quality for a desired use. The use of air in a Spatial context is reflected in a growing trend toward a high intensity urban develOp- ment upward into the air Space because of the economic justification based on locational advantage in the center city. The spatial utilization of the atmosphere is more clearly evident in the utilization of airways by aircraft as a transportation network. Here we see conflicting utilization of the atmospheric resource as aircraft compete for use of congested traffic lanes. In summary, defining the atmosphere as a resource recognizes it as (l) a mandatory substance for life, and (2) a limited commodity being used up, a. as it is modified or its composition is changed b. as it is converted to energy c. as it is utilized in its physical dimensions d. as various communication functions are super- imposed within the atmospheric media. A limitation of past resource development agencies has been the failure to recognize the air as a resource 72 within any formalized public agency. At the same time well-developed agencies have been created to deal with other resources such as water (i.e. the Michigan Water Resources Commission which has an active planning program and a clearly delineated policy). Until the air is ack- nowledged as a natural resource having a status at least equal to that of other resources there can be no planning regarding its utilization and standards of quality which Should be maintained. A basic premise of this thesis is, then, that the air should be recognized as both a limited and a basic natural resource. Such recognition in turn justifies a planning methodology from which a management direction and its ensuing policy can be derived. The Atmosphere Defined This thesis addresses itself to a study of air viewed as one of the three basic resource elements of our natural environment. The focus of the approach is to study the interactions between air and the natural envi- ronment, man, and the activities and artifacts associated with man and to develop a conceptual planning theory. In the immediate or fundamental associations link- ing man to air, the air environment is thought of univer- sally in its life-supporting capacity as the source of the oxygen we breathe. However, as described previously, upon 73 a closer examination it is soon apparent that there exist many more interrelations than may have been immediately apparent. Also apparent is the enormous influence of the air environment on human activity patterns. It becomes evident that the term "atmosphere" rather than "air" provides a more meaningful terminoloqy if the planning approach is to be relevant to the broader considerations of man's total impact on the atmospheric environment. The word "atmosphere" implies the natural functions, processes and properties of the larger air re- source and is also useful in describing implications of man's utilization of the atmosphere as a EESEE: Atmosphere implies a concern with processes such as weather and the context of the way in which it functions and the way man E§E§.it° It is important to Specify that the word "atmos- phere" as dealt with in the thesis does not reflect any application to the entire physical dimension of the atmos- phere as it extends into the solar system. The term "at- mosphere" applies only to that relatively small portion of the atmosphere bordering the earth's surface in which the primary interface of man and man's activities with the atmospheric environment occurs. Pollution Defined The concept of atmospheric resources is intended to be broad in its implications and not to be restricted 74 to the popular concept of air pollution. Air pollution is limited in scope to an engineering/health interest as de- fined in chemical/physical properties of the air. The terminology "air pollution" alone is not meaningful in a comprehensive planning approach such as is being suggested for the total atmospheric resource system. The term "pollution" as used today_refers to a vast array of phenomena and commodities ranging from noise to water and is subject to numerous meanings and interpre- tations. "Air pollution" has been expressed on quantita- tive laboratory measurements and tests. Technically, ac- cording to the accepted standards of the public health officials, "air pollution" exists only when the air is contaminated to the degree sufficient to be harmful or injurious to property or human, plant or animal life. However, there does exist a range of contamination leading up to that point at which the air is considered to be polluted which should be recognized as harmful to health even though its deleterious effects cannot be clearly demonstrated. Also the term pollution cannot be used in a quali- tative sense because air pollution uses "quality standards" which are limited to chemical quality standards. However, there are other kinds of "quality standards" which can and should be used. For example, air which because of its chemical composition is unfit to breathe may not 75 necessarily interfere with the operations of aircraft using the same air media. But inversely, fog might sig- nificantly interfere with the Operations of aircraft while having little bearing on the quality of air needed to breathe. In each case the term "atmospheric pollution" might be used by one party without its having a detrimental effect on the other party. Similar terms which coexist with pollution and con- tamination and are closely allied in meaning are modified and altered air. All these terms are used within this thesis, but because it is felt that the term "pollution" is not relevant to the broader consideration advocated for atmospheric planning, pollution is used mainly to refer to chemical changes in the air, in a manner Similar to the current notion of what air pollution is. It is felt that the term "altered" or "modified" air is more consistent with the broader notion which pollution should carry but doesn't. These terms are used in order to make it evident that the notion of atmospheric resource management is not tied or limited to the existing programs in air pollution. Furthermore, as shown in Figure 4, these terms are less specific in their meaning than either pollution or con- tamination. Because "pollution" can be determined by a broad range of criteria, it is important that if we recognize planning for the total utilization of the atmosphere as a Figure 4. More Specific Less specific 76 Pollution spectrum. POLLUTION f can be polluted sand contaminated at the same time CONTAMINA- TION = can be contam- inated but r_19_t_ polluted MODIFIED OR ALTERED = can be modified but not contam- inatEd— 77 goal, the approach Should not be limited by the traditional criteria and approach of air pollution programs. Rather the current programs Should be recognized as an important analytical methodology representing a particular approach and should be elaborated and integrated with other ap- proaches in the hopes that a more sophisticated and im- proved methodology can be developed.. In discussing the preceding terms (air, atmosphere, and pollution) it has been necessary to broaden their meaning so that they apply to the theoretical concept of atmospheric planning as it is used in this thesis. To develop the conceptual planning theory of the atmosphere further, it is necessary not only to expand the existing terminology but to develop new terminology and recognize other study considerations which, to date, have not been extensively developed in regards to the planning of the atmospheric environment. This recognition of new consid— erations is again premised on the limitations of past practices and the contributions which other study ap- proaches may be able to make, thus filling the gaps and correcting the inadequacies in existing programs. Development of Atmospheric Planning Concepts Need for an Improved Planning Procedure The development of a planning theory for the at- mospheric environment is the ultimate purpose of this 78 thesis. A call for the development of a planning theory in any area generally assumes that the existing planning theory is inadequate in some respect. However, in this case, the need for a planning theory is based on the fact that at present there simply is no theory at all. There are numerous programs which are involved with the atmos- pheric environment to a greater or lesser extent, but none is devoting full time attention to planning in this field. Meanwhile the problems associated with the atmospheric en- vironment continue to become more complex and more serious, a Situation which clearly warrants some full-scale plan- ning. In attempting to deal with the problems and con- cerns of the atmosphere, planning will provide a formalized and clarified procedural format in which to make decisions and identify appropriate courses of action. Such a plan- ning method will include a delineation of goals with an orientation toward the long-range future, a systematic procedure to identify components and their interrelation- ships, identification of alternate means of achieving the ends, and effectuation techniques. The larger understanding and the approach needed in finding answers for the management of this resource will be greatly aided by an atmospheric resource manage- ment program based on a suitable planning process and theory. 79 Atmospheric Utilization For many years the concept of land use planning has been the foundation of many planning programs in city and regional planning organizations. Although recently a similar concept has found its way into water management programs, no such thinking has been used within atmospheric resource management programs. The most Significant reason that use planning has not found any application in atmos- pheric management lies first in the obvious lack of any atmospheric environment planning agencies. Nevertheless the formulation of any atmospheric management program Should be founded on current and future atmospheric use demands which will provide guideposts from which to derive an atmOSpheric environment plan. Unfortunately, a casual review of available data indicates that there is no com— prehensive knowledge of what all the current uses Of the atmosphere are. The "use" principle has been applied to a limited extent in certain air pollution agencies and programs but is used inversely by allowing existing land uses to dictate future atmospheric uses. The "land use" concept seems to be quite workable, to a limited extent, in relating human activities on land to the atmospheric environment. Such a technique would be more useful if it were to devise atmos- pheric quality standards and utilization criteria for each category of land use. However, the approach of considering 80 only the manner in which land is used assumes that the atmosphere's use can always be adapted to it. To the contrary, it is much more difficult to adapt and control the pattern of the atmosphere's use to a land use than it would be to adapt and control the pattern of land use to a given atmosphere. Because the atmosphere cannot be con- trolled to the extent which land can, atmospheric utiliza- tion planning should adapt land uses to the given atmos- pheric resource,similar to the way land uses have developed to harmonize with natural water resources. Of course, there will be instances where it is feasible to modify or change the atmospheric environment to meet the needs of the land use, but for the most part, the atmosphere can be assumed to be a given to which man must adapt. Up until this time the atmosphere has not been recognized as having a comprehensive set of use categories such as have applied to both land and water planning. The presentation of this concept in its broadest sense repre- sents a fundamental theory of atmospheric planning in this thesis. The significance of the atmospheric utilization concept is its usefulness in bringing out a meaningful description of the total impact of man's activities as they relate to the atmosphere. It will become apparent that the atmosphere is being used in many different man- ners and modes, all simultaneously. As in the case with 81 simultaneous or multiple land or water uses, there are numerous occasions of conflict in atmospheric utilization. These conflicts or misuses must be recognized and sorted out as best possible. This is part of the job of the at- mospheric planning process. The problem of identifying atmospheric utilization categories has been approached in this thesis in the following manner: The atmosphere's use aS'a medium.--The atmosPhere may be utilized as a medium as it serves in a func- tional capacity for the transmission of solar radia- tion, light, sounds, odors, electronic communications and physical/chemical waste products, etc. (In the sense that many of these atmospheric uses take place simultaneously the atmosphere can be considered a multi-functional media.) Consumptive uses of the atmosphere.--The atmosphere may be utilized in a consumptive sense when any use alters or changes its composition or character or the operation or function of its natural processes, such as the weather. Any use which takes up physical Space (e.g., aircraft flight patterns) or which takes up non-visible space (e.g., radio and television trans- missions) can be considered as a consumptive use. A consumptive use, then, is any use which reduces the sum total of the air supply from other potential uses either qualitatively or quantitatively. 82 Thus the atmosphere is being utilized as a multi- functional media and is being considered as a commodity in numerous ways. To achieve comprehensive understanding of all the human and non-human uses of the atmosphere, it becomes important to recognize that these uses occur simultaneously. Since the atmosphere's uses can be identi- fied and weighed both qualitatively and quantitatively, conflicting uses and capacity uses will become evident. Conflicting uses of the atmosphere.--The term "conflicting use" has been borrowed from current land use planning terminology. It implies simply that a given air use is a detriment to other air uses. For example, a chemical air pollutant emitted from a fac- tory would not necessarily be in conflict with air- craft operations. However, it may be in direct con- flict with biological plant life functions because it may well retard plant growth. In the examples there are placed upon the atmOSphere different demands, which, as in the case cited, can be in conflict. Capacihy_uses of the atmosphere.--The terminology "capacity uses" refers to the capability of various uses to take place or operate within the atmosphere. It could refer to the capacity of the atmospheric environment to assimilate various factory effluents, to the biological carrying capacity that the atmos- phere may viably support given its composition, or to 83 the carrying capacity of a given air space to accommo- date aircraft (air controllers speak Of the air capa- city in the receiving airspace immediately above airports). An atmospheric capacity use which was overcrowded, for example, could be considered to be a conflicting use.l Systems Analysis Ideally the solution to the planning problem Should be founded upon an understanding or comprehension of the total functioning of the atmospheric environment and of man's relation to it. This understanding involves taking into account the ways in which man interacts with the at- mosphere. Systems analysis provides a means of attaining such an understanding Since it can establish a meaningful relationship between the two elements mentioned above. Systems approach to atmospheric planning.-—In systems analysis, several definitions of a system are employed. Most imply some or all of the following ele- ments: (1) a network of elements which are interrelated, (2) a network of interacting elements, (3) a flow of in- puts and outputs, (4) an objective of Optimizing some function of the inputs and outputs given certain 1Adapted from the following reference: C. R. Humphreys, Water, Water Snpply 1960, Water Demand 1980 (Personal Report to the Senate Select Committee on Na- tional Water Resources, October 29, 1959). 84 restraints. For the purposes of this thesis, a system is defined simply as any set of interrelated or interacting components. In setting out to use a systems analysis one of the initial steps is to define the systems being dealt with. Alfred Kuhn has classified systems as either "real" or "analytical." He states that a real system can be either man-made or natural. "Political, communications, trans- portation, and missile systems are man-made, while the solar system, a river system, or the circulatory systems of the dog are natural." He describes an analytical system or model as "used for the purpose of understanding, de— scribing, analyzing or planning." He goes on to state that an analytical system may or may not be intended to correspond to anything in the real world.2 The application of a systems analysis in this thesis has led to the construction of an analytical system or model of the real stmospheric environment system. The model is intended only to approximate the real system in that it constructs a complex situation in a deliberately oversimplified fashion. This simplification can be 2Alfred Kuhn, The Study of Society: A Unified Approach (Homewood, Illinois: Irw1n-Dorsey,il9637, pp. 85 justified since at this point we are interested only in identifying and describing key elements and relationships.3 The study approach suggested by this thesis calls for the integration of both a man-made and natural system in an analytical classification with a focus on the "nat- ural" atmospheric environment. Ecology.--Systems analysis is used in this thesis to provide a fundamental understanding of the atmospheric resource as a self-sustaining system of the natural envi- ronment and to relate this system to the man-made systems. The technique for relating these two systems for the pur- poses of planning involves the concept of ecology and of an ecological system. Ecology is defined as the study of organisms and the environment and the relationships between the two. An ecological system or ecosystem is any entity or natural unit that includes living and non-living parts interacting to produce a stable system in which interchange between 3A model is a representation of some sort and can be characterized by the following: (1) mode of expression (graphic, physical, verbal, mathematical) (2) scope of subject (macro or micro scale) (3) temporal range (dynamic or static) The model discussed in this thesis is a graphic: one with an accompanying verbal explanation. AS it deals with changes overtime (variables conceived as flows), it is dynamic in its time-dimension, and it describes a macro scale of Operation. 86 the living and non—living parts follows a circular path.4 The concept of an ecosystem stresses Obligatory, interde- pendent and causal relationships and the importance of stability and viability.5 It can be classified as a "nor- mative" theory (it tells what ought to be) and as such provides a meaningful perspective for viewing man's rela- tionship with the natural atmospheric environment consid- ered as a closed-system. Contribution of a systems approach.--The systems approach offers several important advantages as a planning approach for the atmospheric environment. (1) The nature of systems analysis forces a more pre- cise description of the overall problem and a specific delineation of the critical factors in— volved. (2) The systems approach is oriented toward an overview of the problem and consequently describes the fundamental patterns of complex interactions. (3) The broader frame of reference of systems analysis accommodates an interdisciplinary approach so that 4Eugene P. Odum, Fundamentals of Ecology (Phil- adelphia: W. B. Saunders Company,il954), p. 9. 5William Dean Lontz, Ecology as an Integrating Framework for Resource and Urban PlanningsEfforts in the United States (East Lansing: thesis for the Degree of M.U.P., Michigan State University, 1964), p. 53. (4) (5) 87 all aspects Of the problem are examined and no one area is dominant such as pollution control. Thus decision making can reflect a more balanced range of alternatives,goals and objectives. It also provides a more comprehensive planning technique which satisfies social as well as physical science concerns. The systems approach lends itself to better long- range planning to the extent that it encourages a more complete knowledge of the problem and subse- quent solution than analyses relying on isolated scraps of information. The ecosystem concept, besides possessing the characteristics of a general systems analysis, additionally offers a framework of Specific goals and principles from which planning objectives for the atmospheric environment can be derived and constitutes a meaningful framework for integrating the man/atmosphere systems.6 Need for New Institutional Arrangements Institutional limitations stand paramount in blocking the accomplishment of effective atmospheric management. The main consideration discussed regarding 6Ibid. 88 institutional arrangements attempts to identify important issues and dilemmas of institutional design rather than to provide answers or solutions. However, as the effective- ness of managing this resource will be determined largely by the organizational structure and administrative frame- work developed to implement the program, it was felt to be relevant to include an institutional perspective, despite its inconclusiveness. Although the problems of effective institutional design are quite complicated, several pronounced deficien- cies are readily apparent and noted as follows. Lack of agency existence.--Foremost in the problems of institutional arrangements is the lack of any organiza- tion to handle atmospheric management. There is no Single agency with appropriate geographic jurisdiction, authority, responsibility, and resources to provide a forum for ex- change Of ideas and to plan and Operate programs for the atmospheric environment. Lack of polisy.--Because no agency has recognized the atmosphere as a natural resource or has assumed the responsibility for the management of the atmospheric envi- ronment, no policy has yet been evolved, except for a limited national policy which has tended to converge in- creasingly with the "health" concept of air pollution. But Since the atmospheric resource lies entirely within the public domain and Since there are no exclusive 89 property rights inherent in it, public policy would seem to be unquestionably forthcoming. Almost everyone would agree that he has an interest in the management of the atmosphere resource if only because it is essential for the biologic existence of man. Finally the effectiveness of any atmospheric planning is somewhat premised on an» Official policy. The ultimate resolution of many con- flicting needs in the utilization of the atmospheric re— source will be derived from an official policy statement relative to its potential users. The lack of an active agency which has both the responsibility and authority to institute a reasonable policy-statement for the atmosphere is a most serious barrier to the Objective of improving our atmospheric environment. Coordination.--The larger dimensions and ramifica- tions of the problems are not well understood even by many of those who have a direct interest in or responsibility for dealing with one or another of the atmospheric prob- lems. This lack of understanding results, in part, from the maze of Special-interest agencies, the wide disparity in powers, and an unwillingness to accept responsibility. The existence of various separate, independent-minded organizations or interests involved in numerous programs within the common media of the atmospheric resource which must be coordinated is portrayed in Figure 5. The cate- gories illustrated range from the state health (air 9O Figure,5. Coordination needs of various agencies and interests. NEEDED COORDINATION FUNCTION AIR TRANSPORTATION REGULATION RADIATION CONTAMINATION (AEC) AGRICULTURAL INTEREST PESTICIDES URBANIZATION CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCE CLIMATOLOGY WEATHER MODIFICATION ‘ir— LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS, "AIR RIGHTS" COMMUNICATION REGULATION (F.C.C.) PUBLIC HEALTH--AIR POLLUTION BIO/ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM INTEREST Note: Flows of interaction are described as originating from agencies (i.e. federal, state, and local), and "interestS'which may not necessarily be recoqnized in formalized agencies (i.e. ecological needs). 91 pollution) agency and the state climatology agency to other agencies, interests, and influences including those representing pesticides, nuclear fallout, waste, aviation, traffic and exhaust, weather modification, etc. Obviously these comprise only a partial listing. Questions of who will decide how the air resource will be used, in whose interest it will be used and the degree to which the at- mosphere's use, consumption, modification or conservation will be pursued remain uncontrolled and unanswered given the current status of the many separate interests. Given the vast array of interests which must be considered, the need to coordinate within the institutional framework seems self-evident. Fortunately, within planning agencies coordination is a key functional role and it is assumed that coordinating activities would be a prime re- sponsibility to be fulfilled within the planning operation. Planning coordination would not be limited to interest groups and active agencies but would also bring together representative study disciplines in order to develop an atmospheric resource plan. Effective coordination becomes a Significant function within a comprehensive organiza- tional operation which attempts to integrate various in- terests and a multidisciplinary approach into its institutional structure. It is acknowledged that the above does not repre- sent an exhaustive presentation of features needed in 92 designing an effective organizational arrangement for at- mospheric planning, as there are numerous elements such as information flows, decision points, control spans and other relevant criteria which have not been considered. AS indicated earlier, considerably more detail would be necessary to make an analysis of the institutional/organi— zational needs meaningful. The need for policy and coor— dination, as discussed, stands out as being extremely important in the organizational structure of an agency designed for the purpose of resource management and plan- ning. Other areas which merit brief mention are the pur- pose and function of such an organization and its "place" in administrative hierarchies. Purpose and function.--The fundamental purpose is the development of a planned approach for managing the atmospheric resource by providing a controlling, monitor- ing, and maintaining mechanism for all uses and factors influencing the resource. The approach should be balanced, stressing conservation as well as utilization relative to both natural and artificial processes and functions of the atmosphere. While allocating the resource to its most advantageous use, a further obligation would be to dis- charge theatmospheric resource across political boundaries in a reasonably good quality. The aims of quality are considered to be broader in meaning than the quality para- meters used in current air pollution programs. 93 Such an organization would draw together the pro- grams similar in operation such as an air pollution agency, a metropolitan planning agency or.a water resource agency, with the emphasis being on planning. Primary Functions 1. Coordinating function 2. Policy function 3. Plan making function 4. Administration, enforcement, and implementation of plans, quality parameters and standards Secondary Functions 1. Providing information and educating 2. Hearing, reviewing, and acting on lower jurisdic- tional, plans, and problems 3. Providing technical advice 4. Performing research Organizational relationshipS.--In considering the correct location of an agency to handle the atmospheric resource and its relationship to other agencies, there are numerous things to be reconciled. A resource oriented planning agency would seem to fit most logically at the state level although there are valid points for its loca- tion at some place below or above the state level. A case can be made for placing it below the state level because the source of problems has been limited to the larger urbanized areas. Geographically these problem 94 areas are usually much smaller than state boundaries. However, justification for agency placement above the state level can be found in the fact that many natural atmospheric phenomena Operate on a scale which is much larger and different in physical pattern than a state. Thus a jurisdiction bigger than just statewide may be appropriate. The problem seems also to be one of re- sponsibility. Smaller urban problem sheds do not have the financial resources or authority to deal responsibly with atmospheric problems. And at the other end of the spectrum, no grouping of states has taken a coordinated responsibility for planning the use of the atmosphere. The most workable solution would appear to be a state- level agency. In the organizational structure a state agency could play a pivotal role in a vertical sense be- tween both the federal or larger interstate arrangements and the local urban or regional areas within the state's jurisdiction. A state agency could also have a horizontal working relationship with cooperative interstate arrange- ments and with other internal state agencies and programs such as highways, water resources, conservation, etc. Recognizing the physical dimension of the atmos- pheric resource, the following reasons justify a state located agency for atmospheric resource management. 1. A state level agency can elaborate a more complete, comprehensive, and sophisticated program than local/regional governments. 95 2. A state agency would offer the greatest possibility of providing objectivity to insure equity and uni- formity or regulation, enforcement, and implemen— tation of planning. 3. A state agency would have greater resources avail- able in equipment and expert personnel needed to deal with environmental planning of such magnitude as the atmosphere. 4. Such an agency would have relative freedom from local influences and pressure groups enabling it to work much more effectively as a coordinating agency. The limitations of the organizational structure are, for the most part, hypothetical because there is no agency in existence which can be critically analyzed. However, the foregoing discussion of institutional arrange- ments has-been included because it projects certain key- areas which must be emphasized within the institutional design of such an agency and because it gives the reader a greater insight into how a planning program for the at- mosphere might be developed in actual practice. CHAPTER V ATMOSPHERIC UTILIZATION PLANNING: DESCRIPTION OF A PLANNING METHOD FOR THE ATMOSPHERIC RESOURCE This chapter attempts to draw together the separate concepts and principles discussed in the preceding chapters in order to develop a conceptual planning approach for the atmospheric resource. The chapter consists of two parts. The first part briefly defines the planning theory and the planning method. The second portion describes the planning process and the way the planning theory would be integrated into the process. Planning Approach for the Atmosphere The prOposed analytical planning approach for the atmosphere contains two key elements: (1) a basic planning theory for the atmosphere and (2) an accompanying concep- tual planning method. The planning theory for the atmosphere is based on a new definition of the planning problem which is conceived to be one of viewing man's total interaction with the at- mospheric environment within the context of an ecological system. 96 97 The planning process represents a systematic deci- sion—making procedure based on the above stated planning theory for the atmosphere. The general planning method is described in Figure 6. Although it is described graph— ically as being a sequential plan of seven separate stages, it should be noted that the relationship between these stages within an Operating planning process would not be clearly distinct due to a considerable amount of overlap and feedback between stages. Description of Conceptual Planning Method The planning approach for the atmosphere is pre- sented by a brief explanation of the manner in which the atmospheric planning theory would be integrated and devel- oped within each of prescribed stages of the planning process. Problem Statement and Theory Formation Initially some decision must be reached regarding the manner in which the planning problem is to be concep- tualized. This understanding of the planning problem de- termines the orientation or type of planning method used as well as its resultant end product. The atmospheric planning problem as understood in this thesis leads to the conclusion that a substantial planning effort is needed which would encompass a comprehensive overview of Figure 6. 98 Planning process. Phase 1 PROGRAM CONCEPT AND I THEORY FORMATION Phase 2 GOAL FORMATION AND 4 OBJECTIVE SPECIFICATION SURVEY RESEARCH AND Phase 3 3 FACT FINDING ANALYSIS Phase 4 , (USING SYSTEMS APPROACH) _, PLAN DETERMINATION Phase 5 . (FORMATION OF ALTERNATIVES) —' Phase 6 . POLICY MAKING Ii Phase 7 PROGRAM EFFECTUATION (AIR UTILIZATION PLAN) ..L /. Concept Formu- ation / \ Research \ Design \ / 99 man's total relationship to the atmosphere. A total over- view would consider the comprehensive nature of man's utilization of and interaction with the atmosphere with regard to the maintenance of the atmosphere's natural processes and functions. This problem concept is expressed by the graphic model of the atmospheric planning theory shown in Figure 7. Using the concept of an ecosystem discussed in Chapter IV, the theory defines key components of the planning problem, the main system component being the atmosphere. Man and the man-made and natural environments are considered sec- ondary subsystem components. An ecosystem concept col- lectively underscores all of the components and is aimed at optimizing the component relationships. The fundamental delineation of components lies in a division between the natural systems and man-made sys- tems. Although the atmosphere would normally be considered a part of the natural environment system, it has been identified as a separate and major system component be- cause the planning theory is focused on this sector of the natural environment. Similarly, there is a breakdown of the man-made system into the man and the man-made compo- nents for the purpose of distinguishing the various types of relationships more precisely. The definition of the components is the following: 100 Figure 7. Model of atmospheric planning theory. Natural (physical and biological) 3 environment (land,water,plants,animals) Socio— Cultural V Man initiated products and activities Flows of interaction and interchange Flows internal to components ~* ------ H Flows external to components ------- {.> 101 a. atmosphere--all of the properties of the natural atmospheric environment. b. man--a biological being or organism having socio- cultural patterns of thinking and behaving. c. man-made--all of those things created and derived from man's socio—cultural capacities (e.g. air- planes, buildings). d. nature--all of the natural living (e.g. plants and animals) and non-living (e.g. water and land) ele- ments of the environment including the atmosphere. This treatment of components and the concept of an ecosystem provide the base or guideline for conducting the remaining stages of the planning process. Goal Formation and Objective Specification The second stage of planning activity is shaped by the comprehension of the problem and the attendant manner in which the problem is approached. The general planning goal as stated previously is concerned with optimizing atmospheric utilization and function within a concept of ecology. Operative goals of the planning process are a broad, comprehensive perspective and a long-range, firmly- stated policy. Objectives of atmospheric planning can be developed around certain standards or measures of quality. These parameters must be compared to a reference level, which, 102 in accordance with ecological thinking, would be the "nat- ural state" of the atmospheric environment. Based on a normative operating range of the atmospheric environment, criteria for thresholds and tolerance levels can be formu- lated with respect to atmospheric capabilities and capacity to deviate from these norms. More explicitly, proposed objectives of a planning method are specified by the quality parameters for the atmosphere Shown in Figure 8. These quality parameters suggest a considerably expanded basis for making planning decisions as compared to the limited nature of the existing quality standards within current air pollution agencies (see Chapter III). The recognition of the need for this broader concept of quality parameters is based on the description given in Chapter II which indicated that the utilization of the atmosphere falls into two main categories, use as a "med- ium" and/or use as a "consumptive commodity." Briefly restated, the atmosphere is used as (l) a medium insofar as it serves as a vehicle for transporting sounds, odors, chemical waste, aircraft, solid particulate matter, etc. None of these necessarily are actual constituents of the "natural" atmosphere, although to some degree they may be. Planning is concerned with the extent to which sounds, odors, chemical waste, etc. are transported by means of the atmosphere and with the degree to which these uses can 103 Figure 8. Quality parameters for atmospheric planning. AUDIO Sound/noise pollution VISUAL Visibility (fog) OLFACTORY Odor or smell CHEMICAL Composition of air (gases) ( Phenomenal--weather and similar properties of the atmosphere such as pressure and wind. Objects--suspended solid particles PHYSICAL Spatial-—aircraft, building structures 104 be regulated and controlled. The atmosphere is also used (2) in a consumptive manner. The following explains con- sumptive use. The atmosphere is defined to exist as a commodity. The term commodity is not intended to be restricted to its economic meaning or to only those objects necessarily de- scribed in a physical sense. The atmOSphere is consumed as it is utilized in a manner which changes or alters its "normal state" composition or natural processes or which takes up physical or non-visible Space. Consumption does not necessarily imply total depletion or destruction of the commodity. The atmosphere may be partially consumed. With respect to the phenomenon of partial consumption, numerous consumptive uses may take place simultaneously. For example, a Situation is possible where numerous types of atmospheric consumption (e.g., noise, odor, aircraft, travel) occur at the same time and place. These quality parameters will help acCount for various consumptive uses of theatmosphere and the extent to which they are compatible with the resultant atmospheric utilization plan. Taken together, the medium and consumptive uses constitute a basis for the development of an atmospheric utilization concept which will be used in the later steps of the planning process. 105 Survspresearch and Fact Finding A third phase of the planning process is concerned with identifying the components of the total atmOSpheric system and their characteristics. This is accomplished (a) by breaking down the components into elements,1 (b) by enumerating the functional and process characteristics of the elements in quantitative and qualitative measurements, (c) by describing the interrelationships of the elements in terms of internal and external flows and in a spatial and temporal context. Analysis Following the survey research and fact finding phase, the analysis phase attempts to tie together the relationships of the respective components and elements. The relationships are derived from cause-and-effect thres- holds and tolerance levels. The analysis phase attempts to View all of the interactions within a framework of a systems approach. Given this perspective, the analysis is then premised on the previously stated goals and objectives. The survey 1Elements of the man component would include bio- logical and psychological needs. The atmosphere component would include weather phenomena, physical and chemical properties, etc. The man-made component would include socio/cultural artifacts or meanings such as settlement patterns, legal concepts of air rights, man-made weather modification, air transportation networks, air resource conversion, etc. 106 research and fact finding phase and the analysis phase of the planning process are indicated together schematically in Figure 9. Analyzing the influence of elements with respect to the systems operation will produce a descrip- tion of problems and constraints being faced. This in turn will be used as a basis for designing alternative plans in the next phase. Although the application of the planning theory can be accomplished only by a much more explicit specification of the planning concepts and pro- cess, in itself the theory does provide a fundamental theoretical base to guide persons in systematic procedure for the development and design of comprehensive planning programs for the atmospheres resource. Plan Determination (alternatives) Having inventoried and analyzed the major compo— nents, characteristics, and constraints of the system, a plan for managing the system with respect to the desired goals is designed. This step consists of, first, synthe- sizing those factors from the system model which are con- trollable and forming strategies or plans of control. These strategies are then combined with environmental constraints providing the basis for formulating alterna- tive designs from which the single plan is chosen or developed. 107 Survey, research and fact finding phase of Figure 9. planning process. Survey, research and fact finding phase DEFINE ELEMENTS PROPERTIES OF COMPONENTS (I INVENTORY FUNCTIONAL AND PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS OF ELEMENTS QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE MEASUREMENTS