WOODEN BOXES

BRAZMAN WOODS FOR-
BOX MANUFACTURERS -

A GmDEUNE FOR WOODEN

Thesis fur the Degree of M. S.
WCHEGAN STATE UNWERSlTY
KENSM HAYASHIDA
1975

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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

BRAZILIAN WOODS FOR WOODEN BOXES--A
GUIDELINE FOR WOODEN BOX MANUFACTURERS

presented by

KENSHI HAYASHI DA

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

M . S . degree in PACKAGING

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Major professor

Date 10/1/75

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BRAZILIAN WOODS FOR WOODEN BOXES--A
GUIDELINE FOR WOODEN BOX
MANUFACTURERS

BY

Kenshi Hayashida

The present study provides information on Brazilian
woods, either natural or artificially grown, as a source

for wooden boxes and crates.

A basic understanding of lumber characteristics
for use in shipping container construction as well as
their relationships with environments are described.

A guideline for wooden box manufacturers and users
is provided with emphasis in export packaging. A selection
and classification of wood that might be used in box and
crate construction are presented based on its physical and

mechanical prOperties.

BRAZILIAN WOODS FOR WOODEN BOXES--
A GUIDELINE FOR WOODEN BOX

MANUFACTURERS

BY

. Kenshi Hayashida

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE
School of Packaging

1975

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to express my gratitude to those who have
contributed significantly to the development of this
study.

A most sincere thanks to my major professor Dr.
Gunila Jonson, Associate Professor of the School of
Packaging, for her advice during the preparation of this
thesis and for assisting with my oral examination.

A special acknowledgment is also made to Mr.
Serguei Guins, who provided assistance and support, and
also to my friends Will and Sara Chandler, for the

revision of this work.

ii

LIST OF
LIST OF
Chapter
I.
II.
III.

IV.

VI.

VII.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLES C I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . .

WOOD CONTAINER IN BRAZIL . . . . . . .

WOOD AS PACKAGING MATERIAL . . . . . .

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION PRINCIPLES OF
WOODEN CONTAINERS . . . . . . . . . .

Factors to be Considered in Designing
Wooden Containers . . . . . . . .
Factors Affecting Wood Strength . . .
Factors Affecting Container Strength .
Types of Wooden Containers . . . . . .
Selection Guide to the Use of Wooden

Boxes for EXport . . . . . . . . . .

WOODEN BOXES AND THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Protection Against Temperature and
Moisture Variation . . . . . . . . .
Biological Protection . . . . . . .
Protection Against Pilferage . . . . .
Protection Against Corrosion . . . . .

SUMMARY AND FINAL COMMENTS . . . . . .

ADDITIONALLY SUGGESTED IMPLEMENTATION
STUDIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

REFERENCES 0 o o 7 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0

APPENDIX 0 O O O O O I O O I O O O O O O O 0

iii

Page

iv

11

21

21
27
33
42

52
56
56
59

60
60

70

72

73
77

Table

1.

LIST OF TABLES

Groups of Woods that Might be used for
Boxes and Crates . . . . . . . . . . . .

Recommended Spacing for Side and End-
Grain Nailing . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Recommended Nail Sizes by WOod Thickness
and WOod Groups . . . . . . . . . . . .

Selection Guide to the Use of Wooden
Boxes for Export . . . . . . . . . . . .

Thickness of Ends and Cleats Based on
Thickness of Side . . . . . . . . . . .

Corrosivity of Some Woods . . . . . . .

Selection Guide of Temporary Protectives

iv

Page

18

36

37

53

55
63

68

Figure

LIST OF FIGURES

Three-Way Corner Construction . . .

Relative Strength to Diagonal Distortion
of Vertical and Diagonal Boards . . . .

Nailed Wooden Boxes . . . . . . . . .
Sheathed Crate . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unsheathed Crate . . . . . . . . . . . .
Type of Base . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Styles of Cleated Boxes . . . . . . . . .

Page
38

41
43
45
46
48

50

I. INTRODUCTION

The intensification of international trading in
recent years in Brazil has forced much more participation
in packaging which has been playing an important role in
the general context of the Brazilian economy.

Brazil began to export manufactured products very
recently so there is very little experience in the field
of export packaging. Gradually problems are coming out
regarding performance of packaging in overseas transporta-
tion.

Wood containers are among the oldest of all pack-
aging products. In the early days of modern shipping,
lumber was plentiful and inexpensive and box manufacturers,
like nearly all users of wood, demanded high grades and
ignored inferior materials. Little attention was given to
designing boxes to obtain the maximum strength with the
minimum amount of materials. The constant depleting of
forest areas and the ever-increasing demand for lumber
raised the prices of higher lumber grades and forced the
boxmaker to use the lower and cheaper grades. In addition,
the competition from other types of materials, primarily

fibreboard and composition materials such as plywood, have

1

also been responsible for the design of wooden containers
at the least possible cost. Furthermore, ever-increasing
freight costs are demanding the least tare weight and cubic
capacity of shipping containers.

Regardless of the many competitive types of con-
tainers and materials, wood is still a major source of the
packaging material used in Brazil and constitutes almost
the totality of raw material for export packaging. It is
probably used more in Brazil than in the United States
because of the lag in the field of development. The
general trends would suggest that perhaps wood will con-
tinue to play a leading role for at least a decade because
of the vast supply and the fact that containers can be
constructed of high strength rigidity and exceptional
durability.

The Brazilian wooden box and crate industry in
general has found itself completly unprepared to meet the
present situation of an apparent wood crisis which is
explained as follows: until recent times, industry
depended on only one type of wood, i.e., Parana pine
(Araucaria angustifolia Bert O. Kuntze).

Formerly Parana pine covered an extensive area in
the southern region of the Continent, constituting a huge
natural forestry, but which is now becoming scarce. It

is a softwood with excellent physical and mechanical

properties. For many years, excessive cutting and uncon-
trolled devastation rapidly depleted the supply which
caused an impressive rise in price, in some instances up
to 10 times that of previous years.

Therefore, the wood packaging industries have been
compelled to utilize other types of wood without any pre-
vious experience. The lack of technological information
of other species, such as sawing technique, drying and
machinability, and indications of desirable properties for
box use have constituted a serious problem. There is no
inventory of available resources of native species where
a great source of wood for boxes is supposed to exist. In
addition to these problems, a very wide variety of species
resulting in a heterogeneous forestry has created a dif—
ficulty in their economical utilization.

Originally, the Brazilian forestry area was
estimated to be 5,200,000 kmz, i.e., about 61% of the
total national area. By 1960 it had been reduced to
3,500,000 km2 or 41% of the total area. About 83% of the
forestry area is situated in the Amazon region. The
southern part, mostly parana pine and 1.6% of the total
forested area, is the section of major industrial invest-
ments in wood and remains a consistent and major contrib-
utor to the national economy.

A brief survey recently carried out in Brazil

with respect to the wood packaging industries has revealed

the immediate necessity of information about wood species
that may substitute for Parana pine and other species that
might be used for packaging purposes.

This work represents a condensation of several
sources of data available on wood characteristics and zones
of occurrence in Brazil. It is an attempt to apply the
characteristics and basic knowledge of wood into packaging
technology in order to make it available to box maker and
users. A better selection of wood, where it can be found,
its performance, the requirements of wood strength for
certain products and a general knowledge about the nature

of wood and its relationship to its environment.

II. WOOD CONTAINER IN BRAZIL

The cost of a container and its strength charac-
teristics are greatly related to the type of wood.

There are five main types of wooden containers:

(1) nailed boxes and crates, (2) wirebound boxes and
cleated crates, (3) cooperage, including tanks, (4) veneer
and plywood containers, (5) pallets and container pallets
and skids.

Nailed boxes and crates are generally rectangular
in shape, rigid, strong and resistant to shock and vibra-
tion. Usually they are made from sawed lumber, however,
some are made of veneer, plywood and fiberboard. The kind
of wood, the thickness of the wood used, and the manner
in which the members are nailed or fastened governs the
degree of strength and rigidity. In order to save trans-
portation and storage, it is often the practice to sell
nailed boxes in an unassembled state. These types of
containers are very commonly used as export packaging.

Wirebound boxes and cleated crates are wooden
frames or cleats faced with veneer slats or resawed lumber
and reinforced by steel wires stapled to the faces and
cleats. Although these containers are not as strong as

5

nailed construction, they are generally lighter. They
are primarily used when a substantial volume of the same
size container is required for low priced products. They
provide ventilation for commodities such as produce
because the face pieces are usually not tightly fitted to
each other. The advantages of the wirebound boxes are:
(l) easier to handle than the nailed wooden box, (2)
require less storage, (3) faster and easier to assemble
than the nailed wooden b0xes, (4) lighter in weight,

(5) usually less expensive.1

Several applications of wirebound boxes are
observed in use in Brazil.

Cooperage is a collective term describing a
variety of wood containers more commonly referred to as
barrels, kegs, tubs, pails, vats, tanks and other con-
tainers made of assemblies of staves and heads bound
together by metal bands or hoops. The industry is an old
one, dating back to Biblical times and has been a princi-
pal container, especially for liquids, for centuries. The
liquid cooperage is better known as tight cooperage with

the staves made from close-grained woods or species whose

 

lDenver Research Institute. "A survey of wood
and paper packaging in Brazil as related to a projected
general packaging program at the Instituto de Pesquisas
Tecnologicas." Phase Report. Denver, Co., September 1974,
pp. 4-5. (Mimeographed)

pores are occluded with tyloses to make the wood imperme-
able to liquids. Non—liquid tight barrels are known as
loose or slack cooperage.

Barrels are a well—engineered container because
the bilge, the center bulge, forms a double arch. Every
stave in a barrel acts as a keystone so that forces are
distributed to all members of the container. Barrels are
easily handled because of their shape and size. The
contents are protected from the heat and cold because of
the good thermal properties of wood. Barrels protect the
product from being easily stolen and pilfered. Many
wooden barrels are still in use in Brazil, however, they
are gradually being replaced by fiber barrels and plastics.

On the other hand tanks and vats are very common
industrial containers and should not be overlooked in the
packaging field. The wood tank is well established in
Brazil, and is used widely for storage of corrosive
materials of all types. Some Brazilian hardwoods are
ideally suited for tanks and should not be overlooked in
providing a quality product with long service life.

Veneer and plywood have been used not only for
nailed and wirebound boxes and crates but also for a
variety of baskets, tills, and fruit boxes without nails
or wires.

Pallets, palletized containers and skids are com-

paratively new innovations in the packaging field. They

were introduced when mechanization and rapid transit
received the attention of the packaging engineers. A
pallet is a low, sturdy platform on which materials in
process of manufacture or finished products may be
stacked in order to expedite their handling, movement
and storage with the aid of fork-lift trucks and cranes.
Palletized containers are Specialized and designed
specifically for one use. The skids are runners under
heavy and bulky commodities so as to facilitate the
handling with fork-lifts. Actually pallets and skids are
not packages in a true sense of a container, but they
materially contribute to the ease of handling products,
and important criterion of packaging. Their use often
eliminates the need for secondary shipping containers.
Most pallets, palletized containers and skids are
constructed of wood, either sawed lumber, plywood, or
veneer. The growth of this segment of the packaging field
has been developing at an astronomical rate. No leveling
off is seen for the immediate future. Some inroads of
other materials such as steel, fiberboard, corrugated
board and polystyrene foams may be used to reduce the
weight of pallets, but wooden pallets will remain the
major material. Most pallets arethe permanent type, a
trend that should persist. The obvious needs emphasize

standardization for industrial requirements and to

 

develop and adopt specifications that are acceptable to
all sectors of industry.2

In general, 50% of the total production of
wooden containers have been made by manufacturers of the
product to be packed. This percentage is tending to
decrease due to the difficulty in obtaining the raw
material (Parana pine), and is forcing the exporter to
look for a specialized company. Some companies make almost
every kind of wood containers and pallets. They also make
kits for box and crates under special order. There are
small companies that dedicate exclusively to the fabrica—
tion of kits; they buy lumber and finish it according to
specification of customers. The assembling is done by
the purchaser.

On the other hand, some industries design and make
their own containers by purchasing only the raw material;
others take advantage of parts of raw material utilized
to manufacture their own products to make the container
such as furniture manufacturing plants.

The transportation companies usually make their
own container following their particular technique and
specification. Some containers produced by those companies

are known as "lift vans" and they are characterized by

 

2Ibid., pp. 5-6.

10

having good resistance and being returnable and reusable
several times. They are generally similar to the cleated
box, relatively large in size to be carried by more than
one person and used to carry many small items in one con-
tainer. They are widely used by moving companies. The
top of the container is easily screwed and unscrewed.

The production capacity of specialized companies
vary in function of number of orders and availability of
raw material. The production of transportation companies
is relatively low because it is only for their own con-

sumption; the same happens with furniture plants.

III. WOOD AS PACKAGING MATERIAL

Briefly, the purpose of packaging is to protect
many kinds of products against damage and deterioration
that may result from exposure to natural and man-made
hazards encountered in handling, storage and shipment.
The outer containers work together with interior con-
tainers to protect the product. The assembly of all
these things into a functioning unit constitutes what
is called packaging.

The need for a package to fulfill the function
of providing protection for the contents implies that
risks are involved and that hazards are present. Hazards
commonly recognized are those inherent in physical hand-
ling and transportation as well as those posed by the
atmospheric environment. It is apparent, therefore, that
the choice of container for protecting a Specific product
is dependent upon the nature of the commodity and expected
hazards as well as the manner in which it is packed in
the container. A

It is assumed that the package has served its
function well if the contents for which it was intended

to protect are not damaged when the packaging is delivered.

11

12

The susceptibility of an article to damage from
these inputs is commonly referred to as the fragility of
the article. Shock fragility can be readily determined
for most articles. On the other hand, package damage is
to be expected in any realistic situation. One way of
looking at the package is that it is intended to absorb
impacts, vibrations, pressure or the inputs which might
cause product damage. The package can be damaged, how-
ever, to a point where it can not provide the protection
necessary.3 In case of wood containers, assuming that
the packaging was made with a suitable type of wood, it
is expected that it will withstand vibration and static
pressure. The most important input to be considered in
the performance of wood container should be the impact.

Basically the container should be one that will
make the proper type of package, give the correct degree
of protection, to lowest possible cost. If the articles
to be shipped are perishable, the container needs to be
sufficiently strong to withstand hazards of a rapid
delivery system, yet light in weight to provide ease of
handling and adequate protection. If the articles them-

selves are sufficiently sturdy to withstand the rough

 

3Michigan State University. Project No. 3108.
School of Packaging (East Lansing, Michigan), February
1974, pp. 1-7. (Typewritten)

13

handling incident to shipment, and if they are intended
for use in contact with the element of weather, a reason—
able assumption would be that a minimum of packaging
would be required as handling aids. For articles which
are more sophisticated, fragile or readily subjected to
corrosion, containers should be used. Most containers
should not only prevent corrosion but give ample support
for the contents.

Consequently, because of the numerous commodities
that must be delivered from the producers to the ultimate
consumers, articles require individually designed pack—
ages. The final selection of the type of package should
be made on relative cost, availability, individual pro-
cessing procedures and storage and handling requirements.
In order to obtain this information and to make packaging
materials as useful as possible, the basic characteristics
and properties of materials need to be known; the extent
they can be obtained; the type of equipment necessary to
process the materials; cost of the raw materials, and the
cost to produce the packages.4

For most wood containers the wood properties that
need to be considered are: (l) strength of wood as a

beam, (2) shock resisting capacity, (3) nail-holding

 

4Denver Research Institute, pp. 1-2.

l4

ability, (4) tendency to split in nailing, (5) weight of
the wood or lightness, (6) ease of machining.5

The selection and classification presented in
this work have been based on study of density of wood by
Forest Products Laboratory in the United States.

Generally the strength properties of the wood
are a function of its density. The Forest Products
Laboratory give the following functions relating mechanv

ical properties to density (G), at 12% moisture content:

Static bending:

modulus of rupture (p.s.i.) . . . . . . . 25,700 Gl'

modulus of elasticity (million p.s.i.) . 2.8 G
Impact bending, height of drop causing l 75
complete failure (in) . . . . . . . . . . 94.6 G '

Compression parallel to grain:
maximum crushing strength (p.s.i.) . . . 12,200 G
modulus of elasticity (million p.s.i.) . 3.38 G
Compression perpendicular to grain, fiber 2 25
stress at proportional limit (p.s.i.) . . . 4,630 G

Hardness:

 

End (lb) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,800 c2°25
Side (lb) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,770 G2'25
5

Ibid., p. 21.

6U.S. Department of Agriculture. Agriculture
Handbook No. 72 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing
Office), 1974, p. 4—25.

15

Also, the nail holding ability is directly pro—
portional to the density of wood and also depends on the
diameter of the nail and the depth of penetration. The
relationship between nail holding ability for common

steel wire nails and density is given by the formula:7

p = 7,850 G5/2D L
where
p = maximum load (lb)
L = depth of penetration (inches)
G = density of the wood based on ovendry
weight and volume at 12% moisture content
D = diameter of the nail (inches).

The above formulas, except for impact bending
applied in case of static loading condition. The strength
of wood in dynamic loading is much higher than in static
loading. This fact, however, is not necessarily true when
dealing with a container. The performance of a wood con-
tainer might be completely different from a single piece
of wood and should be analyzed in different way. A
wooden container which is composed of several hetero-
geneous pieces of wood placed in different directions,
fastened with nails, screws or staples, evidently behaves
differently compared to a single element. In other words,
a group of factors are involved, which determine the per-

formance of a wooden container.

 

7Ibid., p. 7-2.

16

Tests have shown that the performance of the con-
tainer when dropped against-the longest side is almost
independent of the strength of the wood. However the
length of the nails is then very important. A decrease
from 60 to 55 mm decreases the performance with 25%. Also,
the creep of the nails will influence the deformation of
the containers. Only a few milimeters creep will make a
great influence. Different nail patterns give different
strength. The type of nail also influences, sometimes
as much as 60%. The type is vital for the breakage per—
formance. (See more detail on nails in Chapter IV.)

Weight per cubic meter or density is a relatively
good measure of strength and resistance to nail withdrawal
and also directly influences the cost of handling and
transportation. It roughly indicates the amount of shrink-
ingand warping likely to occur with changes in moisture
content. Commonly dense woods are outstanding where high
resistance to nail withdrawal is important but they must
be more carefully nailed to prevent splitting and gener—
ally they shrink more than softer, lighter woods. As a
rule, the lighter woods give less trouble in seasoning,
manufacture, and storage of lumber than dense woods.

WOods presenting very high percentage of shrinkage were
disregarded in the present classification because it tends

to show high degree of checks and splits.

17

The weight of dry lumber per cubic meter varies
from about 230 kg for very light species to over 1200 kg
for very heavy species. A definite way of expressing the
weight of wood at a given moisture content is in kilogram
per cubic meter or per square meter of a specified thick—
ness.

In the same species of wood the weight of lumber
varies considerably because of differences in density.
Variations exist even within wood from the same tree.

The water in green wood often weighs more than
the ovendry weight of the wood, but in thoroughly air—
dried lumber the weight of water is usually about 12 to
15 percent of the ovendry weight of the wood, and in
kiln-dried lumber it is often as low as 5 per cent.8 The
weight of some pieces of certain species such_as slash
pine is often materially increased by resin or gum.

(More details on moisture content in Chapter IV.)

Table 1 shows a list of woods that might be used
as boxes and crates, as a whole or as parts. They were
grouped in 3 groups which were governed by density and
selected from about 400 trees, representing approximately
200 different species studied in Brazil. Each specie

selected was analyzed upon their physical and mechanical

 

8U.S. Department of Agriculture. Agriculture
Handbook No. 252 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing
Office), 1964, p. 5.

18

TABLE l.--Groups of Woods that Might be Used for Boxes and Crates.*

 

 

Group I Group II Group III

Acacu Acoita cavalo Almecega
AndaLacu Aguano or Araputanga Amendoim
Boleiro Amapa Andiroba
Breu-sucuruba Amapé da Terra Firme Angelim-araroba
Caixeta Amburana or Cerejeira Angico branco
Canela-guaruva Arariba' Arariba vermelho
Cedro Baguacu Bicuiba rosa
Copaibarana Barriga d'agua Bracatinga
Cuivira Bicuiba Breu preto
Faveira Bicuiba branca Cambara’
Faveira-de-arara Burici Canela batalha
Figueira Cajuacu Canela oiti
Guaricica Canela branca Canela parda
Imbirucu Cangalheiro Canela rosa
JacarandaLmimoso Capixingui Canjerana
Japacamin Caroba Coerana
JequitibaLrosa Freijo’ Copaiba

Louro Guaca Eucalipto saligna
Mandioqueira Guariuba Grubixa'

Maria mole Imbuia Grumixava

Pau de sangue IngaLChichi Guatambu amarelo
ParaLparaf Jacareuba or Guanandi Ipe peroba

Peroba d'agua amarela
Pinho do Parana
Pinho bravo
Pinho eliote
Pinho teda
Sangue de drago
Tacacazeiro
Taperaba

Tapia’
Tatapiririca
Ucuuba

Mandioqueiro
Mototd

Mututi
Passariuva
Quaruba-vermelha
Sorva

Sucuuba
Tamaraque
Tuchaua
Ucuubarana

Jequitiba-branco

Louro inhamui

Murici

Pau d'alho

Pau jacare’

Pelada

Peroba de campos

Peroba rosa

Punhg

Quaruba jasmirana

Quarubatinga

Sangue de boi

Tamboril branco

Ucuubarana or
Margoncalo

 

*Botanical names, ranges and properties of each wood are

listed in the Appendix.

19

properties published by I.P.T. (Technological Research

Institute) bulletin.

The reason for only 3 groups is due to the fact

that IPT has already established and adopted three cate-

gories of quality: high, medium and low. According to

density, woods are classified as:

Light - density less or equal 0.55 g/cm

3

Medium - density more than 0.55 g/cm3 and less or

Heavy - density more than 0.65 g/cm

equal 0.65 g/cm3
3

The groups and their characteristics are described

as follow:

Group I

Group II -

-softer woods of both the coniferous (softwood)

and the broad—leaved (hardwoods) species.- These
woods do not split readily when nailed and have
moderate nail-holding capacity, moderate strength
as a beam, and moderate capacity to resist shock.
They are soft, light in weight, easy to work,
hold their shape well after manufacture, and
usually are easy to dry.

medium density woods, which have greater nail-
holding capacity and strength as a beam than

the group I woods, but are less inclined to
split and shatter. The hard summerwood bands
often deflect nails and cause them to run out

at the side of the piece.

20

Group III —heavy hardwoods species. They have the great-
est capacity both to resist shock and hold
nails. They are often desirable for load-
bearing members, skids, or joists. They are
difficult to nail and tend to split when
nailed, but are especially useful where high

nail-holding capacity is required.

Presented in the Appendices are some physical and
mechanical properties available, and zones of occurrence
(range) of each species selected.

In any species, a wide range in strength and other
properties exist in lumber as it is sawed. Since these
values were obtained from small, clear specimens, a number
of factors must be applied to arrive at stress values suit-
able for the design of the crates. Designers using these
values must recognize that they are averages for each
specimen. Wide variations are possible in individual

pieces of lumber.

IV. DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION PRINCIPLES
OF WOODEN CONTAINERS

Factors to be COnsidered in Designing
Wooden Containers

 

 

The selection of a wooden container depends on,
in general order of importance, contents, destination,
method of transit, handling hazards, storage conditions and
costs. These factors overlap, but each will be outlined
separately to aid the designer or shipper in selecting the

proper container.

Contents

The nature of the item is of fundamental impor-
tance in the selection of a shipping container. If the
item is ruggedly constructed, such as an axle assembly for
a large truck, it has probably been prepared to resist the
weather. Hence, an open crate would be more economical
than a closed one. While such an item could withstand a
considerable amount of handling without damage, it would
be easier to handle and store if it were crated. Items
less rugged or requiring protection from the weather would
be shipped in a fully closed container. In all cases, how-
ever, the container must be sturdy enough to (1) provide

ample anchorage for the item, (2) resist rough handling,

21

22

and (3) withstand superimposed loads. The type of base
with which the item is equipped should also be considered.
Certain items may be adaptable to the use of a crate with

a sill-type base, but the majority are best suited to a
skid-type base. The latter include equipment having a

flat base with a distributed load or a base of the leg,
single or double column, end frame, or pedestal type. For
the purpose of classifying the contents which can be packed
in wooden containers, three types of load categories have
been defined:

Type 1, easy lead: an easy load consists of

 

contents having low or moderate density and filling the
inside of the container completely. The contents also
consist of articles of sufficient strength to withstand
the forces encountered in handling and transportations
and are of such shape as to fully contact all faces of
the shipping container. Items such as boxed articles,
chests or kits of tools, and wooden cabinets are examples

of this type of load.

Type 2, average load: an average load consists

 

of items which are moderately dense and which require a
reasonable amount of protection. Items of this type may

either be packed directly into the outer container or in

 

9Ibid., p. 2.

23

an intermediate package which aids in supporting the faces
of the outer container. The items themselves or their
packages must provide a moderate amount of support for all
faces of the shipping container in order to be classified
as a Type 2 load. In this group fall items in mental cans,
bottles individually cushioned, and numerous other items
which are first packed in individual cartons.

Type 3, difficult load: a difficult load consists

 

of items which are highly concentrated or require a high
degree of protection. Items in this category furnish no
support to the faces of the shipping container but rather,
in many instances, tend to apply concentrated forces to the
containers surfaces. Bolts, nuts, and other dense items
which are free to shift or flow, delicate instruments,
assemblies, and others which do not completely fill the

shipping container fall into this class.10

Destination and Method of Transit

 

The destination often automatically determines
the style of container. In surface overseas shipment the
container might either be placed in the hold of a ship or
on the deck. For easy passage of a container through the

average hatchway and into the hold the outside dimensions

 

10Walter F. Friedman and Jerome J. Kipnees
Industrial Packaging (New York: John Willey & Sons,
1960), pp. 228-233.

24

average hatchway and into the hold the outside dimensions
should not exceed 12 meters in length, 2.70 meters in width,
and 2.1 meters in height. Any container larger will likely
be placed on the deck. A sheathed crate with a waterproof
top is advisable for deck shipment. Since smaller crates
are not always placed in the hold it would be logical to
select a sheathed crate for most items that are destined
for foreign ports. For rail shipment there is a limit of
size, which is to assure proper clearances of crates on

a flatcar going through tunnels, under bridges, and

around curves. However, size limitations may change and

a thorough check should be made with the tranSportation
agencies. For truck transportation within the country,
only a basic framework may be needed to conveniently

handle the item. Shipment of material by airfreight

usually requires only a light container or a skid base.

Handling Hazards

 

Wooden containers may be handled in a variety of
ways, but the most important from the standpoint of design
are end slinging, forklift handling, and grabhook lifting.
Other stresses are placed on containers during shipment.
They may be moved by pushing or skidding. The vibration
of railroad cars may cause failure of fastenings or
loosening of blocking and bracing. Transportation by

motor truck also involves more shipping hazards than are

25

apparent. Loads are often not secured to the truck bed,
and containers are subjected to vertical and horizontal
movements. End or side impacts and accidental dropping

of one end of the crate are other hazards during handling
that must be considered. The crushing stresses of slings
or grabhooks are resisted by the joists or other members
in the top. Racking stresses from end thrusts or humping
are resisted by the diagonals in lumber-sheathed crates
and by the plywood in plywood-sheathed crates. Correct
nailing of the crate panels as they are fabricated and
using enough fastenings in assembling panels into a crate
will further insure adequate strength to resist vibration
and other stresses. (More details on fastenings follow

in this chapter.) The handling of containers in overseas
shipments depends largely on the mechanical equipment
available in each port. Containers are often placed aboard
small lighters with the ship's gear and unloaded at the
dock site by a variety of methods. The packaging designer
should consider a design with a larger factor of safety to

allow for such additional hazards.

Storage Conditions

 

A container that will be transported in a covered
carrier and either unpacked immediately upon arrival or
placed in a warehouse does not require sheathing for pro-
tection and an open crate might be selected. If the ship-
ment is stored outdoors or exposed for a long time to the

weather, the closed container is a logical selection.

26

All containers, open or closed, should be capable of with-
standing top loads. When top loading of containers is not
considered in design, failure or excessive deflection may
occur and result in damaged contents. 'Under most conditions
containers of like size and contents will be placed one
atop another in warehouse or outdoor storage. This is
called like-on-like stacking. The sides and ends of the
lower containers support the load, and little stress is
carried by the top panel. Crate tops are stressed when
smaller containers are superimposed. Only like-on-like
stacking is considered with open crates. They are usually

not designed for tOp loading with smaller containers.

gate
The selection of the proper type of wooden con-
tainer may gain a saving in both construction and shipping
costs. An open crate costs less than a sheathed crate.
It generally involves less material, lower construction
costs, and a lower shipping cost because of less weight
and cubic displacement. The amount of lumber saved by
using open crates rather than fully sheathed crates varies
somewhat with the type of crate selected. For light and
medium loads, the open crate uses a minimum of material
and the saving is substantial. For heavy loads, the open
crate uses proportionately more material and the saving

is less. The nailed style open crate for heavy items

27

requires the use of sheathing to provide fastening areas
for assembly nailing to the base. This style is similar

to a lumber-sheathed crate with some of the sheathing
boards eliminated. The main saving of lumber in an open
crate compared to a fully sheathed crate results from: (1)
the reduction of sheathing in top, sides, and ends; (2) the
elimination of joists except the lifting joist; and (3) the
elimination of most of the covering material except diag-

onals for the base and crosspieces.ll

Factors Affecting Wood Strength

 

The performance of wood sections, when fabricated
into a box, in resisting stresses in tension, in compression
parallel or perpendicular to the grain, in shear, in bending
or in shock—resisting ability, is influenced by a number of
factors. These factors are important, regardless of the

wood grouping, and whenever possible they must be checked.

Moisture Content

 

It is one of the principal factors affecting its
strength. As wood dries, most of its strength properties
are increased. This increase in strength, however, does

not occur until the drying has reached the fibre-saturation

 

11U.S. Department of Agriculture. Agriculture
Handbook No. 252, pp. 2—4.

28

point, the condition in which the cell cavities are empty,
but the cell walls are fully saturated. This condition
usuallyprevails when the lumber has a moisture content

of 25 to 30 per cent. Clear material "of the thicknesses
ordinarily used for containers dried to 12 per cent moisture
content may be twice as strong in bending as green material
which may have a moisture content as high as 250 per cent.
If the lumber is kiln—dried to 5 per cent, its bending
strength may be tripled. When green lumber is used for
wooden boxes and crates, it may check or cup. Checking

or cupping causes loosening of the nails and consequent
weakening of the container. Green lumber also increases
freight charges. For example, a wooden box having a tare
weight of 6 kg when made with green lumber with a moisture
content of 100 per cent would be reduced in weight to 3.5
kg, if seasoned lumber with a moisture content of 15 per
Cent were used. This equates to a saving of 2.5 kg in

tare weight with a corresponding savings in freight charges;L2

D‘Uration of Load

Wood is able to support large overloads for short
Periods and small overloads for longer periods. This
Property is important if short-time load is contemplated,
Such as a one-trip crate shipped directly to its destina-

tion with no storage period. However, it is better to

\

12Friedman, Industrial Packaging, p. 215.

 

29

disregard it in designing crates for longtime storage. A
wood member can support continuously for one year only
about two-thirds of the load required to cause failure in
a standard strength test of only a few minutes duration.
Wood under a continuous load, such as might be imposed on
a crate in storage with other boxes or crates placed on
top tends to deform. This deformation is greater when

moisture content of the material is high.13

Defects in Lumber

 

a. Cross grain:--it is defined as wood cells or

 

fibres which do not run parallel with the axis or sides

of a piece of lumber. It is one of the most serious
defects reducing strength in bending and increasing the
susceptibility of wood to splitting in nailing. Divergence
of the grain in any board more than 2.5 cm in 25 cm of

length is not desirable.

b. Knots:——the weakening of the bending strength
of lumber is nearly proportional to the knot diameter as
measured across the width of the board. A knot is a por-
tion of a branch or limb that has become incorporated in
another branch or in the body of the tree. The wood fibres

running out into the limb and those passing around the limb

 

13U.S. Department of Agriculture. Agriculture
Handbook No. 252, p. 9.

30

and continuing in the main body produce cross grain. The
weakening effect of knots results mainly from the cross
grain around them. Knots weaken boards most if they are
in the middle third of the length of the board. At no
time should the knot diameter exceed one third the width

of the board.

c. Checking:--it is caused by stresses introduced

 

by non-uniform shrinkage. End checking is caused by wood
drying more rapidly at the ends than away from the ends.
This condition can often be avoided by painting or coating
the ends to retard their drying or by reducing the circu-
lation of air around the ends. Checks reduce the holding
power of nails and may result in splits running the full

length of the piece.14

d. Slope of grain:——it refers to the direction

 

of the wood fibers in relation to the longitudinal axis

of a piece of lumber. When these fibers are not parallel
with the longitudinal axis, the wood is said to be cross
grained. The slope, measured by the angle between the
general direction of the grain and the axis, is expressed
as a ratio, as one in twelve (1 cm. slope in a 12 cm
distance). Slight local deviations of grain direction are

usually disregarded. When cross grain is quite steep,

 

14Friedman, p. 216.

31

there is a marked reduction in strength. A slope of grain
of l in 8 in a member subjected to bending under impact
loads will result in its having 53 per cent of the strength
of a piece without grain deviation. This requires a
reduction in the assigned working stresses to offset the
loss in strength. Besides having less strength, pieces
with cross grain tend to twist with changes in moisture
content. Slope of grain, therefore, must be limited for
such crate parts as joists, load-bearing floorboards,
struts, upper and lower frame members, diagonals, and skids
of sheathed crates. Few restrictions on slope of grain
exist for items such as lumber sheathing, rubbing strips,
and nonstructural blocking and bracing than for structural

members.

e. Decay:--it is a disintegration of the wood

 

substance resulting from the action of wood-destroying
fungi. Wood dried below 20 per cent moisture content and
kept from re-absorbing moisture, rarely decays. Certain
woods are subjected to insect attack in the green lumber,
some in dry lumber, and some in insufficiently seasoned
lumber. When small worm holes are found in lumber, they
have a very slight deleterious effect on the strength,
and if the material is otherwise satisfactory it is still

satisfactory for wooden container use.

32

f. Blue stain:——also called sap stain, the bluish

 

discoloration of the sapwood is caused by a fungus. It
does not reduce the strength of the wood. However, the
conditions that favor development of this fungus are ideal
for the growth of wood-destroying fungi, so bad staining
may indicate existence of decay. When blue stain is pre-
sent in sheathing boards or frame members, it may obscure

markings on the container.

9. Insect attack:-—certain woods are subject to

 

insect attack as green lumber, some as dry lumber, and
some as partly seasoned lumber. The sapwood of some
seasoned hardwoods is subject to attack by the powder—post
beetle. Small wormholes have only a very slight effect
on the strength and, if the wood is otherwise sound, it

is quite satisfactory for boxes.

h. Wane:--it is either bark or lack of wood on
the edge or corner of a piece of lumber. Acceptability
of pieces with wane is usually restricted for structural
members because of the reduced cross sectional area.
Wane is less serious in lumber sheathing than in such

crate parts as frame members and skids.

i. Shakes:--they represent a separation along

 

the grain, largely between the growth rings, which occurs

while the wood is seasoning. Shakes in members subjected

33

to bending reduce the resistance to shear and therefore
should be closely limited in structural members. Restric-
tions of shakes in boards are usually based on the length

of the split or opening.

j. Warping:--is any variation of a piece of

 

material from a true or plane surface and includes bow,
crook, cup, and twist. Generally warping does not affect
the strength of wooden container parts, but it makes
fabrication more difficult and reduces the utility of the

container.15

Factors Affecting Container Strength

 

Beside the factors directly related to the nature
of wood, other factors related to the construction must
be considered, which greatly affect the performance of
a container.

The strength and rigidity of wooden containers
are highly dependent on the fastenings. Nails, lag screws,
bolts, screws, staples, and metal connectors, are the most
important fastenings in the construction of wooden box
and crates.

Among the fasteners, nails are still the most

commonly used in box and crate construction. They are

 

15Agriculture Handbook No. 252, pp. 9—10.

34

classified by primary function, special shapes and or
coatings, gauge, size and type of head.

Basically, three types of nails are used for nailed
wooden containers: the common or bright-nail, the barbed
nail and the cemented—coated nail. A comparative test
conducted on nails driven 28.4 mm in white pine have shown
the following relationships: the withdrawal resistance
of cemented-coated nails is approximately 40% greater than
common nails. Barbed nails have a withdrawal resistance

16 The size of most

40% less than common or bright nails.
nails is based on their length; the diameter varies by
the length of the nail type.

In the United States nail size is usually
expressed by the penny system, abreviated as d. For
example, a sixpenny nail is expressed as 6d. .The penny
system is based on the weight of a thousand nails. For
example, in the case of 6d, it represents one thousand
nails weighing 6 lb. However, in Brazil, only common
type nails are used for container construction and they
are designated by two numbers separated by the symbol X.
The first number refers to the total length (in mm) and
the second number indicates its diameter (in 1/10 mm).

For example 50 X 30 corresponds to a nail with 50 mm

length and 3 mm diameter.

 

l6Friedman, p. 218.

35

The proper size of nails to use for any wooden
box is determined by the thickness and species of wood
in which the point of the nail is to be held. The sizes
of nails recommended for different thickness and for the
specific wood grouping are listed in Table 3.

A certain minimum spacing is recommended to be
followed to prevent splitting of the sides, top or ends.
Since nails driven in the end grain have less holding
power than those nails driven into the side grain, a
larger number of nails with a correspondingly close spac—
ing is required for end-grain nailing. Table 2 describes
the recommended nail spacing for side and end—grain
nailing.

Where it is possible to clinch the nails, as in
attaching cleats, the withdrawal resistance is increased

50to 150 per cent.

Corner Construction

 

As discussed previously, when boxes are joined
by nails, the design should permit side grain nailing
whenever possible. The three way corner provides the
strongest and most rigid corner construction for a box
or crate because: (1) all nails are driven into side
grain, (2) each member is nailed to a second member and
has a third member nailed to it, and (3) if any member
starts to work loose, one of the two sets of nails will

counteract this tendency. (See Fig. l)

36

TABLE 2.--Recommended Spacing for Side and End-Grain

 

 

Nailing.
Spacing When Driven Into
Size of Nail Side Grain of End End Grain of End
mm mm
50 X 30 or Less 50 44
55 X 34 56 50
60 X 34 63 56
70 X 34 70 63
70 X 39 76 70
80 X 49 89 76

100 X 54 100 89

 

 

37

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vmxooa mvaM mexom mmeh emxon vmxow vmxoo vmxmm omxom buxov hmxow emxov H macaw
wv mm Hm mm mm om ma 0H «a ma Ha m.m maflmz osu mo
.AEE GHV GOHAMG who Eouuon 0cm mo» .mmcfim soflnz Cu mumwao Mo mccm mo mmwcxowse mucwom may mcflcaom
maflmz mo ouflm @003 m0 mofloomm

 

.mmsouw @003 can mmocxoflse @003 ha moNHm Hflcz coccoafiooomli.m mamme

38

 

 

 

 

Figure l.--Three way corner construction.

39

Diagonals

 

The use of diagonal bracing in the construction
of boxes and crates increases considerabley the perfor-
mance of containers. However its ultimate efficiency is
attained when it is properly oriented and located. The
closer the angle of the diagonals with respect to the
horizontal member is to 45°, the greater is the resistance
of the sides. When loads are applied to the corners of
Open crates, the stress in each member is dependent upon
its length, as well as upon the distance to the diagonally
opposite corner. The more nearly a cube the crate becomes,
the more even are the stresses in each member. The ulti-
mate in crate design is one in which all the diagonals
are at an angle of 45° to the other members. The following
principles are important to the crate designer:

a) Two diagonals crossing each other (X construc-
tion) make each panel considerably stronger than does a
single diagonal.

b) All faces of the crate should be braced with
diagonal members, unless the crated item can resist tor-
sional stress or is suspended freely in the crate.

c) When all of the crate faces are braced and
the item is prOperly supported, racking of the contents
can not take place until the crate has failed.

d) If a crate has only five faces braced diagon-

ally and is loaded on diagonally opposite corners or is

4O

stressed by any method that allows distortion to the
unbraced face, all faces will twist very much alike.
However, the diagonal distortion will be concentrated
largely in the unbraced face and will be many times that
of the braced faces. When all six faces are diagonally
braced, both the twisting and diagonal distortion are
quite uniform throughout the crate.

e) When one or more faces of a crate are not
braced diagonally the contents can be racked without
crate damage because of the extreme distortion in the
unbraced face or faces.

Many times the contents of a large crate are found
to be damaged even though the crate itself is apparently
Oin good condition. In these instances the crate was dis—
torted, the contents were damaged, and then the crate
returned to its normal shape.17

Fig. 2 illustrates the relative strength to
diagonal distortion of vertical and diagonal boards.

Besides providing strength to the container, steel
bands discourage pilferage and may also reduce its cost.
When boxes are provided with one or more metal straps, the
sides, top, and bottom may be reduced in thickness by 20

per cent for one strap and by 35 per cent for two or more

 

l7Friedman, pp. 235—237; Agriculture Handbook No.
252, pp. 23,24.

41

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

on“ A _ - o. 9.4-, 0'. .9
100 units 120 units
coo-P .
x?
l
-’ ‘h- ’0" on Q. o\o
667 units 1130 units

Figure 2.--Relative strength to diagonal distortion of
vertical and diagonal boards.

42

'straps, except that no thickness below 6 mm is to be

specified.

Types of Wooden Containers

 

In this work the main types of wooden containers

for export purposes will be described.

Nailed Boxes

 

There are 8 basic styles of nailed wooden boxes
known as styles 1, 2, 2 1/2, 3, 4, 4 1/2, 5 and 6. (See
Fig. 3). The main difference in the construction of these
boxes is in the design of the ends. Style 1 is not
cleated; it is not very strong and used for light products.
Style 2, 2 1/2 and 3 have four cleats in each end, thus
providing more strength and reinforcing against splitting.
They can be used for heavy products for both overseas and
domestic shipments for weight of contents not exceeding
500 kg. Styles 4, 4 1/2 and 5 are recommended to be used
for both overseas and domestic shipments for weight of
contents not exceeding 200 kg and for all load types.

Two cleats in each end are applied, which increases the
strength of the container. Style 6 is commonly termed
the "lock corner box." It is constructed with ends and
sides fitted together by tenons which are glued. This
construction provides a package with tight corners, which

is of particular value for those commodities that are

43

 

Style 4

Style 1

 

Style 4 1/2

Style 2

 

 

 

Style 5

Style 2 1/2

 

 

Style 6

Style 3

Figure 3.--Styles of nailed wooden boxes.

44

subjected to sifting or that require a particularly rigid

box.18

Crates

A wood crate is a structural framework of members
fastened together to form a rigid enclosure, which protects
the contents during shipping and storage. This enclosure
is usually of rectangular outline and may or may not be
sheathed.

A crate differs from a nailed wood box in that
the framework of members in sides and ends provides the
basic strength, whereas a box must rely for its strength
solely on the boards of the sides, ends, top and bottom.

Basically there are two styles of crates: (l)
sheathed or closed crates (Fig. 4) and (2) unsheathed or
open crates (Fig. 5).

Sheathed crates are generally required when com-
plete puncture resistance on all parts of the container
is desired. The sheathing material is usually plywood and
fiberboard. Open crates are frequently used if the product
is rugged enough and is made to be exposed to different

weather conditions.19

 

18Friedman, pp. 223-225; Joseph F. Hanlon, Hand—
book of Package Engineering (McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1971),
pp. 5—15.

 

19Friedman, p. 225.

45

   
  

Intermediate
Horizontal Member

End .'1

 

Inspection
Door

Figure 4.--Sheathed Crate.

46

      

 

Intermediate
Vertical

 

 

Figure 5.--Unsheathed Crate.

47

Internal air circulation in sheathed crates is
sometimes desirable. This is possible by making small
holes on the sides and ends (in the lower part), which
may be covered by a steel plate, also, perforated called
inspection and ventilation window.

The base must be the strongest part of a crate,
because all the load is concentrated on it. Several types
of base can be constructed; some of them are shown in

Figure 6.

Wirebound Boxes

 

Wirebound boxes are usually made from wood veneer
and utilize the strength of wires as a reinforcement.
They are relatively lighter in weight and then very con-
venient for air transportation. They are shipped and
stored in the flat to conserve space. Whereas nailed
wood boxes can be made in any carpenter shop, and are
therefore more readily available, wirebound boxes require
very sophisticated equipment for attaching wires and
cleats.

Wirebound boxes are classified based on the type
of closure. There are four styles of wire closures to
hold the cover in place for shipment: style 1 has
straight wires that are twisted together; it can not be
opened and reclosed as readily as the other styles. Style

2 has the wire turned back to form loops that are hooked

49

into each other and bent back. Style 2A also has loops,
but in addition to being turned back, the end of the wire
is twisted on itself for greater security. Style 3 has

a lOOped wire closure, the same as style 2, but in
addition has wire across the ends in place of battens;

it is not recommended for severe conditions of shifting

loads, frequent handling, or overseas shipments.20

Cleated Boxes

 

Cleated boxes use single pieces of stock of fibre,
wood or combination materials for the ends, sides, tOp
and bottom, and edge cleats, which form the structure of
the container. The stock for the faces consists of such
materials as plywood or similar materials.

There are several styles of cleated boxes in use.
Originally the style designations of these from Style A
to Style K were applied only to cleated plywood boxes.
However, the same standard style designations are now
also applied to cleated boxes using facing materials other
than plywood (Fig. 7). Style A, using cleats for the
top and bottom which overlap all cleats of the sides, is
easy to Open and thus is recommended if re—use or in-
transit or storage inSpection is required. Style B, which

incorporates a three—way corner construction, is more

 

20Hanlon, pp. 15-7, 15-8.

50

 

Figure 7.--Styles of cleated boxes.

51

rigid than most of the other styles. On the other hand,
this box is difficult to open, and a nail puller must be
employed if the container is to have re-use applications.
The most economical among all styles of cleated box is
style D, which is designed with the three—way corner and
with only two cleats for each of the six box panels.
Similarly constructed is the style G container which has
additional intermediate cleats for strengthening of the
box panels.

All other styles are variations of styles A, B
and D. Selection of a specific style of container depends
on such items as strength, internal blocking, opening and
re-use requirements, and the size and shape of box, as
well as the panel material employed. Intermediate panel
cleats may be placed in any number and desired spacing
for support of internal members of the product or for
additional panel strength on large—sized containers.

Either staples or nails are used to fasten the
facing material to the cleats.

For best results, plywood consisting of three
plies of the same thickness with the grain of the face
plies of each box face running in the shortest dimension
is recommended. This arrangement permits maximum bending
strength and thus good performance. For good rigidity

of the container the grain of the face plies should be

52

run parallel to the width of the box face (longest dimen—
sion of box face).

For export applications and other uses in which
exposure to the elements is anticipated, water—resistant

plywood is generally specified.21

SelectiOn Guide'tO'the Use of WOoden
”BoxeS'for’EXport

 

In Table 4 recommended nailed wooden box styles,
lumber thickness, and lumber grouping for export require-
ments for varying gross weights up to 450 kg are listed,
based on the data of National WOOden Box Association in
United States. Those data however, are based on exper-
iences with North American woods only. Even though woods
in each group present similar properties, so that no great
difference is expected from American woods, the values
provided in the table for each group of Brazilian woods
must be confirmed or modified by laboratory and field
tests.

The minimum thickness of the lumber for the top,
bottom and sides of the box can be obtained by use of a
formula developed by the Forest Products Laboratory in

the United States:

 

21Friedman, pp. 264-266.

53

TABLE 4.--Selection Guide to the Use of Wooden Boxes for Export.

 

 

Export
Type of Maximum Box Group I and II Woods* Group III Woods*
Load Weight Style S.T.B. Ends Cleats S.T.B. Ends Cleats
kg mm mm mm mm mm mm
1 or 2 27 1 10 19 9 19
1 or 2 27 4.44.5 10 16 16x45 8 16 16x45
1 or 2 45 4.44.5 11 16 16x45 8 16 16x45
3 45 4.44.5 13 19 19x57 11 16 16x45
3 45 2.24 13 16 16x57 11 16 16x45
1 or 2 116 4.44.5 14 19 19x57 13 18 18x57
1 or 2 116 2 14 16 16x57 13 16 16x45
3 116 4 or 5 16 20 20x67 13 19 19x57
3 116 2,24 16 19 19x57 13 16 16x57
1 or 2 180 4.44.5 18 20 20x67 14 19 19x57
1 or 2 180 2.24 18 19 19x67 14 18 18x57
3 180 4.44.5 19 27 27x83 16 21 21x70
3 180 2.24 19 19 27x83 16 19 19x70
1 or 2 270 2.24.3 20 20 20x67 16 19 19x57
3 270 2.24.3 20 20 27x83 18 21 21x70
3 360 2.24.3 21 27 27x83 19 21 21x70
3 450 2.24.3 27 33 33x105 22 27 27x92

 

*Wood groups are listed on Table l. S.T.B. means:
Side, top, bottom.

54

t = 3/4 qW/b where,

t - thickness of sides, top and bottom,
in centimeter

W - gross weight of box and contents, in kg

b - width of top or sides across grain, in

centimeter.

The thickness of ends and cleats is determined
by the thickness of the sides, top or bottom, whichever
is the thicker. A relationship in thickness between
sides, cleats, and ends of standard styles of unstraped
wooden boxes is listed in Table 5.

Cleats of rectangular cross section should have a
width of at least equal to twice their thickness plus
7.5 mm. As an example, a cleat which is 13 mm thick

should have a width not less than 4.4 cm.22

 

221bid., p. 233.

55

Houuma we mo» mo mmocxoflnu so comma on UHSOSm mmocxoanu u

.EEHH mmocxoflnu oanmsoaam ESEHQH2««

.mpam gasp nmxoflsu ma
omHU cam cams

 

«tmwflm
ssmwflm
«amcflm
*«mme

sam6flm

mmocxoflnp moEflu
mmochHnu moEHu
mmocxoflnu mofiflu
mmoaxoflnu moEwu

mmOCMOflQD mmEflu

H
m.H
m.H
m.H

mN.H

«wwflm
«mfiflm
«mflflm
#mwflm

«mcflm

mmmcx0flnu
mmmchHsp
mmochflsu
mmmcxoflnp

mmochHSD

moan» me.H

mmEHu

moEflu

m.H

H

mmsHu mm.H

moEflu

N

m

m

m .4 mamum
m .4 mamnm
.N\H N .N masum
.N\H N .N mamum

H mamum

 

mumoau «0 mmocxofine

pom mo mmmchflse

xom mo masum

 

.ocwm mo mwocxoflne co pommm mucoao pom mocm wo

mmmchHnenn.m momma

V. WOODEN BOXES AND THE
NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Besides mechanical hazards and inherent charac-
teristics of wood previously discussed, some other
important environmental factors are necessary to be
known, in order to provide a better protection to the
product. These types of protections are against: var—
iations in temperature, variations in moisture, biological
action, pilferage and corrosion.

Protection Against Temperature and
Moisture Variation

 

The great variations in temperature generally
occur from day to night, affecting commodities stored in
the Open air and those being transported. In air trans-
portation the altitude is the decisive factor in temper—
ature variation. The sudden variation may also damage
certain products, such as sensitive equipments, foods,
beverages, etc. Others are damaged due to effects
caused by variations such as moisture condensation,
where sudden decrease in temperature may transform the
vapor surrounding the surface of the product in liquid
phase. In certain regions, the solar irradiation may

56

57

cause temperature increases on the surface of packaging
above 60°C. Also, due to heat transfer, it may cause an
increase in temperature in the interior of the package.
In designing a package, these aspects must be taken into
consideration. Also, depending on the product, it may
be more convenient to use thermal insulation material,
such as foamed polystyrene.

The thermal conductivity of wood is around 0.9
BTU, so wooden containers act as thermal insulators.
However if the temperature change is held for long periods
of time, it causes equilibrium between the internal
ambient of container and the external atmosphere. To
better protect the contents, the use of a proper insula-
tor is recommended. Felt and foamed polystyrene are
typical examples of those materials.

Moisture is found almost always in every ambient
or places by which a package passes. The percentage of
moisture is variable. It is convenient that the shipper
knows the climatic conditions through the transportation
cycle in order to get the moisture activity reduced or
eliminated. In order to protect the product against
moisture it is convenient to make as impermeable as
possible, which in a box or crate is done internally,
wrapping the product with aluminum sheet, resin coated
paper, betumen paper, plastic sheet, etc. The betumen

paper provides less permeability to moisture compared

58

to kraft paper and has good resistance to chemicals. It
tends to be brittle when wrinkled, especially in cold
weather. The low density polyethylene is chemically inert,
with good mechanical resistance; it is good water and
moisture insulator, but it is permeable to the oxygen and
inorganic vapours. The high density polyethylene is
chemically strong and inert. It is permeable to gas,

but it requires lamination or lining to protect against
moisture. Kraft paper laminated with polyethylene has
good resistance to chemical and it is a good moisture-
proof material. Aluminum and plastic foil are impermeable
to some gases, liquids and vapour, but they are relatively
expensive.

In many cases, besides impermeabilization, a mois-
ture absorber such as activated alumina and silica gel is
used in the container in order to keep the ambient dry.

In order to determine the proper amount of silica gel the

following formula might be used:

G = 40 x R x Y x M + D/2 where,
- silica gel in gram
- the water vapour rate in g/m2 per 24 hours

the surface of barrier material in m2

zero
I

- transportation and storage time in months

D - weight of materials in grams from which
water vapour comes.

59

Example:
R = polyethylene with 1.5 g/m2
Y = 4.4 m2
M = 3 month
D = 1000 gr.

The amount of silica gel (G) necessary will be 1.3 kg.

Biological Protection

 

Some products are easily attacked by mold or even
bacteria especially in case of food. To minimize this
effect, some method of preservation are utilized, such as
refrigeration, dehidration or using chemical process.
The following procedures might be used to protect against

fungus.

Control of Moisture

 

The fungus does not need water in the liquid form
but can utilize humid atmosphere for growth. One form
of control is to eliminate the humidity in the package

by using desiccants.

Control of Temperature

 

Maintaining low temperatures may prevent the
development of fungus. This is the reason of using

refrigerated metalic containers.

60

Sterilization

 

There are several methods of sterilization which
kills the spore of fungus. The sterilization is done in

some preserved foods, pharmaceutical products, etc.

Fungicides

 

For each product there is a specific fungicide.
In wood, creosote, copper naftenate, chromates, etc. are
used. In all cases care must be taken with respect to

compatibility, corrosion, toxicity, etc.

Packages are attacked by insects and rodents when
stored. Special care must be taken in stacking conditons
as well as in the design of the package in order to
easily control the infestations. The stacks must also
be easily checked. The use of preserved wood may prevent

the insect attack.

Protection Against Pilferage

 

Usually it occurs when the packages are stored.
The use of second hand boxes is not recommended because
they are deficient in strength and do not permit detec—

tion of pilferage.

Protection Against Corrosion

 

In the transportation and storage of metalic
products, the most important aspect to be considered is

corrosion.

61

The principal causes of corrosion during trans-
portation and storage are the moisture, some polutant
elements and some natural constituents of atmosphere
surrounding the product. In general, the latter only
has effect in the presence of moisture, since the process
of atmosphere corrosion at normal temperature is electro-
chemical, the presence of water, as electrolyte, is
necessary.

Care must be taken to choose wood properly to
a specific product, to prevent possible corrosive effect
on the metalic product. But, wood may only 1M3 corrosive
when its moisture exceeds 18 to 20%. These numbers may
be increased when the containers are left under atmospheric
conditions with more than 85% relative humidity.

Many species of wood produce a liquid acid extract,
which in extreme cases, may have a pH up to 3.0. WOod
contains a variety of organic constituents, some of them
may be corrosive to metals. The most common is the acetic
acid or a complex of it. It was observed that even with
0.5 ppm of acetic acid in the air, there may be corrosion
in metals if the relative humidity is higher than 85% and
in some metals with a relative humidity above 70%. There
is no direct relations between chemical composition of wood
and metal corrosion, but some woods have classified as

follow:.

62

very corrosive: oak, European oak

moderately to very corrosive: fir, thuya, Fagus
silvatica

moderately corrosive: teak, beech
slightly corrosive: Parana pine, elm, mahogany,
walnut.

Except for Parana pine, there is still no data
about corrosive characteristics of Brazilian woods.

The preservative used to improve the durability
of wood contains a wide range of chemical substances,
some of them may cause intensive corrosion in metals.
The effect of each type of preservative depend on the
nature of metal.23

Special care must be taken with containers made
from plywood or particle boards from which water vapour
or some chemicals substances are emitted which may pro-
mote corrosion in metal products. During fabrication of
plywood and particle board some chemical substances are
added. These materials present high corrosivity charac—
teristics as a consequence of vapours emaneted, especially
under high humidity and temperature conditions.

The corrosive characteristics of some woods are

presented in Table 6.

 

3Ministério da Industria~e do Comércio, Embalagens
de Transporte-Guia de Uso (IPT, Sao Paulo, 1975), p. 38.

63

.vma .m .Aahma wmzv @ .Hmcusoo COAmOHHOU SwHUflum .musomm> pace Uficmmuo mcflcfimucoo
mononmmOEua aw cofluoououm Mfionu cam mamuoz mo coflmouuoo .uomcwuum .o cam cm>ocoo .o.m

em

 

mcwow Hosmfls mo
moomuu cam DAEMON
meow .ofiom oeuood

o>flmouuoo
who» on >Houmuopoz

AmCOwqucoo

Dos Hmowmouu

.m.o no: on whom
nomxo co o>wmouuoo
whoa oEoooQ wmav
o>flmouuoo haunmwam
ou o>flmouu001coz

Uflom oaumod m>flmouuoo >um>

pmpcon no: «Apmocoum
Imuflm pawluouv cofiuoc
looumafi msoosqm Houmm
@mfluc mouom .cmumwnu

Eooum .coHHC :HHM

AmcMGOmomm
Hmnsuocv mousumuomEou
ucownsm um ocflwuoluflfi

AmGHGOmmom
Howsumcv mousumuomEou
ucowQEm um mcflmuclufld

68663 nae

o>ooo coop mosuo

.oumum Housum: on“ GM oflom
owpoom comm m:H:flmpcoo .mcoo3
amoemouu cam :mflamupmsm cflmuuoo
waamfloommo mcoo3 Honuo :amuuoo
cam .uscummnolumo3m cam xmo

 

coHMflucwcH moaflumao> :onouuoo mo muwuo>om

acoeumwue

mofloomw

 

em

.mcooz oEom mo mufl>flmOHHOUII.o mqmae

64

The problem of preVenting atmospheric corrosion
of metal surfaces during transit and storage can be solved
by a number of different approaches. The use of paper
impregnated with corrosion inhibitor, such as sodium
chromate or sodium benzoate, as is common with wrapping
paper. Such inhibitor, also called contact inhibitor
provides an additional protection to the metal.

Other types of inhibitors used are volatile
inhibitors VPI (vapour phase inhibitor or volatile cor-
rosion inhibitor). They are essentially soluble inhibi-
tors, which form thin layers on the surface of metal
consisting of nitrate ions, benzoate and or carbonate,
connected to organic cations, such as dicycle—hexil
amonium nitrate.25

Another type of protection is termed temporary
protectives which is readily removed. The surface coating
provided by temporary protectives range from thin oil
films to thick solid coatings, depending on the type used
and the method of application. In addition to being
easily removed there is also the practical advantage that
certain types will act as lubricants for short term ser-
vice and therefore do not necessarily need to be removed

from working surfaces.

 

25Ministerio da Industria e do Comércio, pp. 42,

43.

65

There are a number of temporary protectives, but
they may be grouped in 8 categories (according to British
Standard Packaging Code B.S. 1133, Section 6, 1966):

Type TP 1: solvent-deposited materials forming

 

hard films and often possessing de-watering properties.
After the fluid has been applied (usually by imersion or
spray) to the metal surface, the solvent evaporates,
leaving a hard protective film. There are three kinds:
TP la - fast drying; TP lb - slow drying; and TP lc -
slow drying, with water displacement.

Type TP 2: solvent deposited material forming

 

soft films and consisting of a protective solution, such
as lanolin in a volatile solvent. After the fluid has
been applied (usually by imersion or spray) to the metal
surface, the solvent evaporates, leaving a thin and soft
film. There are two kinds: TP 2a - normal type; TP 2b —
water displacement type. The type TP 2b has similar pro-

perties as type TP 1c.

Type TP 3: hot-dip protectives, they are soft

 

solids at room temperature and are designed to be melted
before application. On cooling, the protective layer is
soft and grease-like and varies in thickness between 0.05
and 0.5 mm or even thicker depending on the number of
coatings. This type is widely used for the protection

of bare metals exposed to severe conditions for long

periods.

66

Type TP 4: corrosion inhibited greases. These

 

are soft film greases that combine the function of a
lubricant and a protective. Applied to a working surface,
materials of this type would not need to be removed until
they become contaminated. There are two types: TP 4a —
grease based on mineral soap; TP 4b — grease based on
castor oil. Type TP 4a is a type of conventional grease
used as a protector, while TP 4b is a special composition
grease to be applied to metalic parts joined with a
rubber.

Type TP 5: semi-fluid, soft film, applied with

 

brush until a thin film is formed. This type is based

in solution of protectives (such as a by product of cotton
fat) in mineral oil or in mixture of mineral oil and
vaseline.

Type TP 6: non-drying oils. They consist of

 

lubricant oils including soluble protectives, and are
generally applied by imersion or spray. They are primarily
designed for rust prevention but may be used as temporary
lubricants. There are two kinds: TP 6a - oil type for
general use; TP 6b - oil type for motors.

Type TP 7: removable coatings obtained by hot—

 

dip and consisting of ethylcellulose and a small amount
of mineral oil with plastifier, resins and stabilizers.
After having been applied, they form strong impermeable

films easily removed.

67

Type TP 8: removable coating applied cold by

 

brushing, spraying or imersion. It is based on protec—
tives such as vinil copolimer resin, plastifier and
stabilizer in flamable or not flamable solvents. After
applied they form a strong impermeable film easily
removed.

The selection of the most appropriate type of
protective depends on a number of factors but the most
important are: (1) transportation and storage conditions
and (2) duration of protection required.

Temporary protectives are supplied for ready use.
It is essential that the surface to be coated be clean
and free from any rust or other contaminats such as oil,
grease and volatile substances. Also, the surface must
be dry unless it is intended to use de-watering protec-
tives of types TP 1 or TP 2.

The methods of application of temporary protec-
tives varies according to the product. A selection guide
of temporary protectives is listed in Table 7. After
considering the two main factors mentioned above, the
following factors should be taken into account: (1)
complexity of article (single piece or moulded); (2)

special characteristics of article - existance of rubber,

68

TABLE 7.--Se1ection Guide of Temporary Protectives.

 

Characteristics of Article

Temporary Protective

 

Small article packed
together (Ex. nuts,
screws)

Articles with single
shape

Wet articles with water
after cleaning or manu-
facturing

Metalic article with
rubber

Article with none of
characteristics above.
Ex. simple hardware, gears.

Articles of some complexity
with great proportion of
simple surface

Articles with difficult
interior accessibility

Delicated mechanism

Simple article or moulded,
valuable, particularly when
precise external surface

Oil film-TP 6a and VPI

TP 1, TP 2, TP 3, TP 4a,
TP 5, TP 6a, TP 7, TP 8
and VPI.

De-watering type - TP lc,
TP 2b

TP 4b

TP 1a, TP lb, TP 2a, TP 4a,
TP 5, TP 7, TP 8, VPI

TP 4a only on working sur-
face or whole article
treated with TP la, TP lb,
TP 2 or TP 8

TP 6a plus a vapour barrier
TP 6a plus a vapour barrier
or no temporary protective;
packaging resistant to water

vapour with desiccant

TP 7

 

69

delicated mechanisms; (3) number of articles and (4) cost

of protectives and of application.26

 

26Ibid., pp. 43-45; R. Bryde, Temporary Protectives
for Preventing Corrosion of Plant and Machinery, British
Corrosion Journal, 6 (Nov. 1970), pp. 252—253.

VI. SUMMARY AND FINAL COMMENTS

A simple guideline has been given describing for
people directly or indirectly interested in wooden con-
tainers, especially oriented to export.

Several factors involved in designing and con-
struction of wooden containers as well as a selection
guide of Brazilian woods that might be used for packaging
purposes have been included in this work.

Since packaging has been one of the fastest
growing segments of the manufacturing complex in Brazil,
it is obvious that a continuous supply of raw materials
should exist.

Because of the shortages of packaging material
that exists currently in Brazil, an ongoing study or pro-
gram must be implemented to achieve the greatest advant-
ages of resources available. Trends in the packaging
field in other countries may not be the best for Brazil.

The present forestry program of the Brazilian
federal government must be stimulated and the reforesta-
tion has to be intensified in order to meet the future

demand for wood.

70

71

The wood technology in Brazil requires immediate
improvement and support. An intensive research on thous-
ands of species that exist in the Amazon region should be
carried out because that region has a tremendous potential
for wood supply.

The importance of keeping down the weight and
volume of containers suggests the necessity for studying
other types of material for packaging as a substitute for
wood. In many stages of the distribution cycle in the
domestic market, a study of feasibility of using corru—

gated fiberboard should be developed.

VII. ADDITIONALY SUGGESTED
IMPLEMENTATION STUDIES

Since the classification of wood presented in this
work represents a first approach to the problem related
to its use as a packaging material, further improvements
are suggested by means of some implementation studies.

The selected species would be better evaluated
if studies on their machinability characteristics are
accomplished, such as saving, planning, shaping, sanding,
etc.

A further study on different grades of lumber
might generate a second degree of classification, which
will complement the findings already presented.

Other areas suggested for wood packaging research
and development are:

Techniques for nailing.

Rigidity in crate construction.

Standards for boxes and crates testing for
Brazilian conditons.

Design and field performance tests of nailed boxes
and crates for domestic and export packaging.

Study on the degree of corrosivity of wooden boxes
made from different species.

72

REFERENCES

73

REFERENCES

ANDERSON, L.O. & HEEBINK, T.B. Wood crate design manual.
In Agriculture Handbook. Madison, Forest Products
Laboratory, Feb. 1964, No. 6.

ARNI, P.C.; COCHRANE, G.C. & GRAY, Y.D. The emission of
corrosive vapours by wood. I. Survey of the acid
release properties of certain freshly hardwoods
and softwoods. J. Appl. Chem., 15:305-313, July,
1965.

ASSOCIACAO BRASILEIRA DE NORMAS TECNICAS. Prego comum
de cabeca c6nica. Rio de Janeiro, ABNT 1965,
PB-58.

BROTERO, FREDERICO ABRANCHES. Métodos de ensaio adotados
no IPT para o estudo de madeiras nacionais, 2nd.
ed. Sao Paulo, IPT, 1956, (Boletim 31).

BRYDE, R. Temporary protectives of preventing corrosion
of plant and machinery. Br. Corrosion J., 5 (6):

DENVER RESEARCH INSTITUTE. A survey of problems associated
with general packaging in Brazil and a projected
general packaging program at the Instituto de
Pesquisas Tecnoldgicas., Colorado, 1974. (Phase
Report).

. A survey of wood and paper packaging in
Brazil as related to a projected general packaging
program at the Instituto de Pesquisas Tecnologicas,
Colorado, 1974. (Phase Report).

 

DONOVAN, P.D. & STRINGER, J. Corrosion of metals and
their protection in atmosphere containing organic
acid vapours. Br. Corrosion J., 6 (3):132-138,
May 1971.

FORESTS PRODUCTS LABORATORY. Wood Handbook: wood as an
engineering material. In: Agriculture Handbook
no 72, Rev. 1974.

74

75

FRIEDMAN, WALTER F. & KIPNESS, JEROME J. INdustrial
Packaging. New York, John Willey & Sons, 1960.

HANLON, JOSEPH F. Handbook of package engineering. New
York, McGraw-Hill, 1971.

INSTITUTO DE PRESQUISAS TECNOLOGICAS. $50 Paulo. Fichas
de,caracteristicas das madeiras brasileiras -
serie Estado do Espirito Santo. Sao Paulo, IPT,
1971.

. Fichas de caracteristicas das madeiras
brasileiras - serie Estado de S50 Paulo, 850 Paulo,
IPT, 1971.

 

. Levantamento de dados e diagnose da
situacao das embalagens de transporte para expor-
tacao. Sao Paulo, IPT,1975,(Re1atorio 7987).

 

KNOT KOVALCERMAKOVA, D. & VLCKOVA, J. Corrosive effect
of plastics,rubber and wood on metals in confined
spaces. Br. Corrs. J., 6 (1): 17—22, Jan. 1971.

MAINIERI, CALVINO. 25 madeiras da Amazonia de valor
comercial: sua caracterizacao macroscopica, usos
comuns e indices qualificativos. Sao Paulo, IPT,
1965 (Publicacao 798).

. Madeiras leves da Amazonia empregadas
em caixotaria: estudo anatomico macro e micro-
scopico. Separata do Anuario Brasileiro de
Economia Florestal. $30 Paulo, IPT, 1962 (18)
(Publicacgo 686).

 

. Madeiras brasileiras denominadas caixetas.
Sao Paulo, IPT, 1958. p. 94 (Publicacgo 572).

 

I O
. Madeiras brasileiras: caracter1st1cas
gerais, zonas de maior ocorrencia, dados botanicos
e usos. Sao Paulo, Instituto Florestal, 1970,

 

MINISTERIO DA INDUSTRIA E DO COMERCIO. Embalagens de
Transporte: guia de uso, Sao Paulo, IPT, 1975

76

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY. Project 3108, School of Packe
aging (Final Report 1974).

NATIONAL WOODEN BOX ASSOCIATION. Export Packaging: a
guide to proper application of nailed wooden con—
tainers for overseas shipment. Washington, 1952.

PEREIRA, JOSE ARANHA & MAINIERI, CALVINO. ~Nomenclatura
das madeiras nacionais. 2nd ed. Sao Paulo, IPT,
1956, (Boletim 31).

PORTS OF THE WORLD. Insurance Company of North America,
Philadelphia, 9th ed.

APPENDIX

77

FUchru s. I. s.

78

PROPERTIES OF BRAZILIAN WOODS THAT HICHT BE USED FOR BOX AND CRATE CONSTRUCTION

 

STATIC BENDIHC 2’

If.—.-l""

COMPRESSION PARALLEL TO FIBRES 2,

z—ugrav I.

x'n-o-ouc:

n..-

 

DENSITY 1’ SHRINKACE
COHHOH AND BOTANICAL NAHE Radial Clas. Tang. Clan. Volun Clan. Hod. Rupture Hod. Elasticity Hod. Rupture Hod. E naticity

g/cn3 clns Z Z kg/cnz clns kg/cn2 clan kglcnz clas kg/cu clan
ACOITA-CAVALO 0.64 H 3.5 L 8.3 H 12.4 H 745 H 85100 H 320 H 98500 H
(Luchea divaricata)
AGUANO 0R ARAPUTANCA 0 63 H 3 2 L 4.5 L 8.6 L 821 H 92900 H 396 H 108700 H
(Suietenin macrophylu)
ALHACECUEIRA 0 75 H 5 7 H 11.7 H 19.3 H 719 H 113800 H 325 H 152300 H
(Protiuu heptaphyllum)
AHAPA' 0 60 n — _ _ _ _ _ _
(Parahancornia amapa)
AHAPA'DA TERRA FIRHE 0 63 H — — — — — __ _
(Brosimun potabile)
AHBURANA 0R CEREJFIRA 0 60 H 2 9 L 6.2 L 9.3 L 696 H 94600 H 329 H 108800 N
(Amburana crarensis)
47'7““13 0 77 H 3 S L 6.5 L 11.0 L 840 H 113400 H 398 M 121800 H
(Ptcrogine niicns)
ANDA— ACLOR BULEIRO 0.49 L 3 0 L 6.5 L 10.9 L 439 L 75200 L 187 L 91500 L
(Jonnncsia princeps)
AHDIROBA 0.72 H 4 3 H 7.4 8 13.4 H 790 H 11600 H 375 H 144700 H
(Carapa guianensiu)
ANGELlH-ARAROBA 0.68 H 4.6 H 6.6 L 11.0 L 626 L 102100 H 344 N 126000 H
(Vataireopaiu nraroba)
AHCICO-BRAHCO 0.70 H 2.7 L 7.3 L 11.5 L 864 H 106800 H 345 H 137700 H
(Piptadenia peregrine)
ARARIBA 0 64 H 3.0 L 8.9 H 11.8 L 761 H 84400 H 353 H 148300 H
(Sickingin up)
ARARIBA-VERHILHO 0.79 H 3 l L 5.8 L 9.7 L 823 H 100200 H 395 H 120500 H
(Controlobiun robustun)
ASSACU 0 40 L 3 2 L 4.9 L 8.6 L 359 L 58000 L 166 L 70700 L
(Hura cropitans) .
BACVALU 0 56 H 3 9 H 9.4 H 14.4 H 515 L 97100 H 222 L 114600 H
(Tnluumn ovnta)
BARRICA D'ACUA 0 65 n 3 a L 9.1 H 13.4 n 733 H 0100 n 331 M 122500 n
(Hidrugnsrer trinerve)
BlCFlBA O 64 H 5 3 H 8.4 H 15.4 H 660 M 106300 H 260 L 127300 H
(Viroia bicuhyba)
BICUIBA-BRANCA O 56 H 5 7 H 10.3 H 17.8 H 538 L 112200 H 768 L 133700 N
(Viral: 5p.)
BlCUIBA-ROSA O 74 H 5 6 H 12.0 H 14.7 H 744 M 124400 H 343 M 15H3UH N
(Virolu officinalis)
BOLEIRO OH ANDAPAVU 0 49 L 3 O l 6.5 L 10.9 L 439 L 75300 L 187 L 91500 L
(Joannosia prlnvcpu)
Bk-M'AHNCA 0 67 H S 0 H 12.8 H 18.6 H 754 H 131800 3: 296 5! 1411300 H
(”lumen brncatinga)
HR!‘ —l‘RF.T() 0 70 H - -— —— — -— —— —
(lrnttinirkia 3p.)
llR!»‘l‘-SI'I‘1'RI‘RA 0 55 L — -- — — — — —
(lrutlinickla spp.)
BIRICI O 61 H 4 2 H 11.9 M 19.2 H 545 H 88300 H 256 L 98900 L
(Huliosna brasiliensis)
rAlKFTA 0 39 L 3 3 L 5.9 L 10.0 L 442 L 56300 L 198 L 71000 L
(Tnhchuia cassinioides)
«Arrxs; O 57 H —— - —— -— -—- —— ——
(Anatardium giganteum)
cmwu' 0 75 H 4 o H 6.8 L 12.6 H 660 H 7.. ‘00 L 330 H 92900 x.
(Hoquinia polymorpha)
CANELA BATALHA O 72 H 4 2 H 9.9 H 16.5 H 785 H 108200 H 307 M 135200 H

(Criptocarya mandioccana)

- Based on green wood
- density 1 055 g/ch

III—Nu-

. density > 0.65 g/cin3

. density > 055 and f 0.65 gh

- Based on air dried wood (15 pct moisture content)

3
u

_‘..-..

 

79

wvmonnv=1cuv 2‘s-"rv—wv-vv-

 

IHPACT BENDIHC 1/

HARDNESS 2’

 

END GRAIN OTHER COMMON NAMES RANGE
W in kg.n Clan kg Clas
3.25 H 463 H CAOVETE, ESTRIVEIRA, IVITINCUI, SOUTH OF HINAS GERAIS T0 RIO GRANDE DO SUL
IVITINGA. SOITA-CAVALO
1.31 L 504 H ARAPUTANGA. CEDRO—I. HDGNO. HATO GRosso AND ACRE, JUNCTION or AHAZONIAH RIVERS.
ACAJU. CAOBA FROH CACERES: PARA HEAR NARAnA Ar HEDIUH TOCANTINS
2.82 H 453 H ALnécscA. ALHESCA HAR HOUNTAIHS - 5A0 PALLO. PARANA AND SANTA CATARINA
- -— -—— AMAZON
__ __ AHAZON
1.78 L 339 L AHBURANA-DE-CHEIRO, CEREJEIRA-RAJADA R10 DOCE VALLEY. SOUTHERN ronasrs or BAHIA. NATO
CIRIARE. CLRLARL—DE-CHEIRO, EHBURANA. caosso AND AMAZON
IHBURAHA-DE-CHEIRO LOURO INCA
4.10 H 609 H AHENDOIN-BRAVO. JACUTINGA, CLEO BRANCO INTERIOR or SAO PAULO, MOSTLY II Tn: HOGI-GUACU VALLEY
PAU—AHEHDOIH. VIRARO AND uzsrzRN REGION, ALONG APA RIVER AT_NATO
cRosso. PARAHAPANEHA RIVER VALLEY 1N SAo PAULO
AND PARANK
1.48 L 212 L coco-DS-czurro. COCO-DI—PURGA xsrrRITO SAHTO, RIO DOC! vALLET. zDIA DA
COTIBIRA. runA-Agu HATA, RAsran uncles; HIIAS czRArs. SOUTH
or BAHIA
3.60 H 487 H CARAPA, IAHDIIOVA, JAHDIIOVA ISLzs_Or PARAZ ANArAfl TDCANTINS AND
NANDIROMA SOLIHOZS BASIN. AIUHDAHT 1! Tu: GUIANAS
1.53 L 355 L ANGELIHPAHARGOSO, ARARODA SOUTH or SANTA. R10 Doc: VALLEY. BSPIIITO
HDINA SANTO AND HINAS CERAIS. NORTH or R10 08
JAHEIRO. ZONA DA HATA-HIHAS srRArs
4.42 H 509 H ANGICO. ANGICO—DB-CURTUHE. STATES or HIHAS CBRAIS AND 530 PAULO
ANcrco-Do-CERRADO. CAUBI. CURUPAIBA,
NIOPO, PARICA-nA-TERRA-FIRHE
1.49 L 487 H ANTUPARANA, DUPARAHA AND NOUNTAINS TN TN: COASTAL Racrous or SAD
HAIATE PAULO, PARANA AND SANTA CATARIHA
1.99 L 600 H ARANIDALANARzLo, ARARIDALULR- FORESTS IN THE COASTAL REGIONS FROH SOUTH or BAHIA
HELHO, ARARIBA-UVA To SANTA CATARIHA, zONA DA NATA AND R10 DOCE VALLEY
HC. 810 D0 SUL AND rTAJAr-sc. HATAS SAD PATRICIO-
SOUTH OF GOIAS
0.81 L 184 L UAcAcu AHAZOH
1.57 L 269 L ARATICUH-FRUTA—DE—PAU. FRUTA—DE SOUTH or HIHAS GERAIS To Rro GRAND! Do
PAU. HACNOLIA—DO-BREJO. PAU— SUL. pARANA’AND SANTA CATARXHA
PALHETA, PINHA-DO-BREJO,UVAGUACU
1.89 L 409 H ___. RIO DOC! VALLEY. NORTH or zsrrRITo
SANTO AND SOUTH or BAHIA
1.73 L 319 L sucuvA. aucuvucu, AVINHOZ. PORESTS IN THE COASTAL RzOIONs or SAD PAULO.
BICUIBA-BRANCA. BICUIBA-VERHELHA HOSILY IN THE RTDSIRA RIVER VALLEY. ALSO
COVERING pARANA AND SANTA CATARINA
1.52 L 128 L BUCLVA, Brcuvucu SOUTHEAST or BAHIA, Rro Doc: VALLEY.
HINAS GERAIS. NORTH or ESPIRITO SANTO.
1.86 L 370 L nocva, BLCUVH6L SOUTHEAST or BAHIA, NORTN or ESPIRITD
SANTO. R10 Doc: VALLEY, HINAS caRAIs
1.48 L 212 L COCO—DE-CENTIO, COCO-DE-PURGA, ESPIRITO SANTO. RIO DOC! VALLEY, ZOHA DA
LUTIEIRA, INOA- Ayr HATA. EASTERN REGION; HIHAS GERAIS
SOUTH OF BAHIA
3.44 H 507 H ___. STATE OF PARANA
—— -— SLCFRLBA FORESTS IN THE COASTAL REGIONS OF 5A0 PAULO
AMAZON, GOIAS AND PARA
—— -— BHEL AMAZON
1.50 L 304 L CANELA—CAJU. CANELA—VLRHELHA ronasrs 18 THE COASTAL nzcxoss or sAo PAULO
0.94 L 190 L PAU-CAIXETA. HAIACACHETA, TACIBEBFIA. COASTAL RECIONS FROH ESPIRITO SANTO T0
TARAVEYIRA. TAHAHCLEIRA. PAU-DE-TAHANCO SANTA FATARIRA
- —— CAJU-DA-HATA. CAJUI AMAZON
3.20 H 564 H CANBARALORANCO CERRADO ZONE - sAO PArLo
2.06 H 487 H CANELA—BRANCA. BATALHA, FORESTS IN THE COASTAL REGIONS 0F SAO PAULO

CANELA-LAJEANA. CANELA-BASTARDA

80

 

 

DENSITY 1/ SHRIHKAGE STATIC LENDING 2’ COHPRBSSXOH PARALLn. 10 runs 2’
COHHOH AND BOTANICAL NAME 3 Radial Clan. Tang. C113. 9011- Clu. 163d. Rupture Hod. Elasticity Hod. Rupture Hod. unlucky
glen clan 2 1 2 113ch2 clan kglcnz clan k;/cu2 C10. k3ICI2 c10-
CAHELA-BRAHCA 0.58 H 3.3 L 8.8 H 13.1 H 722 H 114500 H 309 H 117100 H
(Criptocarin Ioschatl)
CANELA-CUARUVA 0.53 L 3.7 H 6.7 L 11.1 L 661 H 88900 H 300 H 97400 L
(Nectandra 5p.)
CANELA-OITI 0.75 H 4.5 H 10.5 H 16.0 H 732 H 121200 H 326 H 120000 H
(Bellschmledia sp.)
CANELA-PARDA 0.69 H 3.3 L 7.4 L 11.8 L 845 H 96200 H 373 H 106900 L
(Nectandrl up.)
CANELA-ROSA 0.68 H 4.5 H 8.1 H 16.2 H 617 L 97600 H 278 L 125700 H
(Peraea race-one)
CASCALHEIRO 0.58 H 3.1 L 7.3 ' L 12.6 H 531 L 64300 L 299 H 77500 L
(Belangera glnbra)
CANJERANA 0.67 H 3.6 H 7.0 L 11.6 L 710 H 95600 H 400 H 116000 H
(Cnbrnlca cangerana)
CAPIXINGUI 0.60 H 3.2 L 9.0 H 14.0 H 598 L 103700 H 300 H 112600 H
(Croton floribundun)
CAROBA 0.57 H 3.4 L 11.1 H 20.8 H 459 L 57400 L 200 L 64200 L
(Jacaranda semioscrrata)
CEDRO 0.53 L 4.0 H 6.2 L 11.6 L 640 L 85000 H 286 L 98200 L
(Ccdrell {1091115)
COERANA 0.70 H 4.3 H 11.2 H 17.1 H 663 H 103400 H 270 L 121500 H
(Chryaophylluu viride)
COPAIBA 0.80 H 4.2 H 8.8 H 14.2 H 953 H 120200 H 423 H 137200 H
(Copaifera langsdorffii)
COPAIBARANA 0.55 L 3.4 L 7.1 L 11.5 L 606 L 95500 H 275 L 119800 H
(Copaifera sp.)
CUIVIRA 0.53 L 3.3 L 9.5 H 14.0 H 568 L 82900 L 242 L 89400 L
(Solanun innequale)
EUCALIPTO 0.69 H 6.8 H 13.4 a 23.4 I 789 H 121100 H 327 H 135500 H
(Eucaliptun alum)
FAVEIRA-DE—ARARA 0. 50 L — — — — — — —
(Parkia nultijuga)
FAVEIRA 0.465 1. — — — — — — —
(anroloblu- ncncincfoliun)
FIGUEIRA 0.55 L 3.4 L 7.7 H 12.6 H 543 L 75800 L 253 L 102000 L
(Ficus pohlinnn)
FREIJO 0.59 H 3.2 L 6.7 L 9.1 L 815 H 113200 H 373 H 149200 H
(Cordia goeldlana)
CRLBIXA 0.70 H 4.4 H 8.8 H 15.4 H 850 H 123300 N 377 M 126600 H
(Micropholis 9p.)
GRFHTXAVA 0.66 H 3.8 H 8.0 H 12.8 H 784 H 103500 H 351 M 112600 H
(chropholis gnrdnerianum)
CUACA 0.65 H 4.2 H 9.8 H 14.4 H 719 H 100400 H 313 H 125000 N
(Ecclinusa up.)
GUARICICA 0.50 L 3.1 L 11.8 H 16.7 H 539 L 101600 H 218 L 107900 L
(Vochysla laurifolln)
CUARIUBA 0.56 H 2.2 L 4.4 L 7.3 L 734 H 81200 L 376 H 117400 H
(Clarisla racemosa)
CUATAHBU—AHARELO 0.71 H 3.7 H 9.0 H 13.7 H 818 H 102600 H 393 M 117600 H
(Aspldosperna raliflorum)
IHRIPPCV 0.39 L 3.8 H 6.9 L 13.9 H 281 L 37600 L 116 L 55000 L
(Bombs: endecaphyllun)
IHBUIA 0.65 H 2.7 L 6.3 L 9.8 L 784 H 78900 L 326 H 90000 L
(Phuebe porous)
INGA-CHICHI 0.63 H 3.2 L 7.0 L 11.9 L 699 H 100100 H 330 H 127000 H
(Inga alba)
IPE~PERUSA 0.73 H 4.0 H 7.0 L 11.7 L 900 H 105300 H 459 H 123900 H

(Paratecoma peroba)

 

 

mo«,._

 

 

4*. “_—
_54

81

“Au-I. A a I s I."‘" — A. _ Asm.d.l- I m...

 

 

IMPACT BENDING 1’ NARONESS 2/
END GRAIN OTNER OOMNON NANEs RANGE
H in 11.3.- Clus k; C108
1.70 L 379 L CANELA-BATALHA. CANELA-Noz—NOSCADA. MAR mUNTAIN - sAO PAULO
111111.111. NNOTINcA-RRANCA
1.75 L 351 L CANELA-ANAREIA COASTAL REGIONS OP S10 PAL‘LO. SANTA
CATARINA AND PARANA
2.32 H 481 N CANEIA-DRANCA-SEDOSA, RATALNA. PORESTS IN TNE COASTAL REGIONS or 510 PAULO
CANEIA-TAPINNA. CANEu-BATALHA
1.25 L 586 N CANEu-ESCURA. CANEIA-PRETA COASTAL REGIONS or 510 PAULO. PARANA' AND
SANTA CANJARAXA
3.01 N 271 L ANACATE-DO—NATO. PAU-ANDRADE COASTAL RECIONS or $10 PAULO. PARANA'.
SANTA CATARINA AND RIO DE JANEIRO
1.13 L 378 L GUAPERR COASTAL REGIONS or $10 PAULO
1.70 L 556 H CANCNTRANA. CANJARANA. PAU-SANTO. zONA DA MATA. NINAS chS. RIO DE ,
CAJARANA. CAvERANA. CEORO-CANGERANA JANEIRO AND 80mm STATES; RAPECO VALLEY.
URUGUAI 111m VALLEY
1.77 L 365 L — STATE or 810 PAULO
1.36 L 342 L CAIXETA. CAROEEIRA. CAROIIm. , $001.11 or 811111 TO RIO m 00 SUL
PAU-OE-cousn. PAO-SANTO. JACARANDA-
CARORA. CARoaA-DRANCA. cm
2.01 N 320 L CEDRO-MIATA. CEDRo-uANOO. AHAZOH. SOUTH or 811111. RIO DOCE
CEDRO-ROSA. CEDRO-vmmmo VALLEY. SANTA CATARINA. SAO PAULO.
NORTH OP PARANA. NATO 080850
3.35 H 398 H CARETA. CAROSA. OUAPEVXO
3.60 H 507 N 010111, OOPAI. OOPAUVA. OLEO—SRANCO.
OLEO-AMAREIO. OLEO—COPAIDA. PAu-DE- —
OLEO. COPAIRA 17211101131
1.85 L 329' L — NANAUS-AMAEOII
1.54 L 289 L —— COASTAL REGION OP SAO PAUDO
3.28 H 462 H __ NORTN OP SRO PAULO
A ‘ 1
— — CADRE, PAVEIRA-CAURE ANAZON
_ _ _ mm
1.89 L 315 L — FORESTS IN THE COASTAL REGIONS or
510 PAULO. PARANA AND SANTA CATARINA
1.12 H 401 H FREI-JORGE PARA'. 108113 18 TN: REGION 01" we
TOCANTINS
0.80 L 510 H BACL’HIXA, CUBIXA. CURUDITA'. SOUTH OP BABIA. NORTH OF ESPIRITO
PAU-DE-RENO. SALGL‘EIRO SANTO. 1110 0008 VALLEY. NINAS GERAIS
2.00 H 494 H BACONTRA’. BACOHIXAVA, CUP-CBIJAVA. NAR NOUNTAIN. COASTAL REGION OP
CUNBIXAVA-VERMELHA, PRIJUI, REHEIRO, 'SAO PAULO AND ESPIRITO SANTO
SALCUEIRO. GL‘ARAJA'
3.05 H 406 N 1121' MOUNTAINS OP COASTAL REGIONS or
510 PAL‘LO. PARANA AND SANTA CATARINA
1.39 L 332 L __1 RIRPIRA RIVER vALLEY. COASTAL REGIONS
OF 510 PAULO
1.00 L 493 H CATRUZ. JAVITA. OTTICICA-ANARELA. SOUTH DP 011111, R10 DOCF. VALLEY.
QUARIUBA. TATAJUBA-AHARELA 7.01:1 01 RAM 1N HINAS CERATS AND
ESI’IRITO SANTO
2.60 H 562 M GUATANRU, TAHBU—PEROBA SAO PAULO AND NINAS CERAIS
0.95 L 148 L 11011111011. lHBIRACU COASTAL REGION OF 510 PAULO 1ND
1§m1R1BUCU PARANA
2.10 M 436 N CANELA-TNDUIA. EHBUIA. IHBUIA- INTERIOR OF SOUTH OF PARANA AND NORTH
ANARELA. IHBUIA—BRAZINA. IHBUIA- or SANTA CATARINA. GENERALLY ASSOCIATED
CLARA. INaLrIA-PARDA. INDUTA-ROSADA NITN PARANA P1NE
1.73 L 425 H __ STATES OF PARA AND AMAZON
3.80 M 652 H IPE-CLARO. PEROBA—AHARELA. PEROBA- SOUTH OF DANIA. RIO DOCE VALLEY.

BRAXCA. PEROBA-DE-CAHPO. PEROBA-
HANCHADA, PEROBA -TREHIDA. PEROBINHA

ZONA DA HATA 1N HINAS CERAIS AND
ESPIRITO SANTO

 

 

 

 

82

 

 

— _Ulam—lil'n

 

DENSITY 1/ SNRINRACE STATIC SENDING 2/ CWRESSION PARALLEL To FIBRES 2/
COHHON AND BOTANICAL NAME 3 Radial Claa. Tang. Claa. Volun Clas. Hod. Rupture Hod. Elasticity Hod. Rupture Hod. Elasticity
g/cm c185 Z Z 2 kg/Cuz Clas hula: Clns Ins/CI:2 clan kale-2 clas

JACARANDA-HIHOSO 0.52 L 3.3 L 6.0 L 10.9 L 480 L 46500 L 216 L 52200 L
(Jacaranda ncutifolia)

JACAREUBA 0.62 H 5.3 H 10.1 H 17.1 H 637 L 86700 H 289 L 110200 H
(Cnlophyllum brasiliense)

JAPACANIN 0.45 L ._ _ __ _ _ _ __

(Parkia oppoaitifolia)

JEQUITIBA-BRANCO 0.78 H 3.9 H 8.4 H 13.8 H 1077 H 133500 H 472 H 148800 H
(Cartnxana estrellcnsis)

JEQUITIBA-ROSA 0.53 L 3.0 L 5.7 L 9.8 L 719 H 87000 H 325 H 107800 L
(Cariniana brasiliensis)

LOURO 0.54 L 2.6 L 5.6 L 8.9 L 651 L 80400 H 298 M 107900 L
(0cotea up.)

LOURO INHAHUI 0.66 H 3.9 H 8.1 H 13.6 H 780 H 108700 H 359 H 153800 H
(Nectandra elaiophora)

HANDIOQUEIRA 0.52 L 5.6 H 9.6 H 18.2 H 465 L 91100 H 209 L 119500 H
(Didyuopanax calvunO

HANDIOQUEIRO 0.65 H 4.5 H 8.9 H 15.1 L 623 L 112400 H 324 H 139700 H
(Qualea albiflora)

HARIA-HOL! 0.50 L 5.1 H 8.8 H 14.7 H 360 L 58400 L 161 L 80400 L
(Torrubia alfariana)

NOROTOTO 0.60 N _ ' _ ._ _ _ _ _
l(Didyuopanax Iorototoni)

HURICI 0.78 H 4.4 H 9.7 H 16.0 H 630 L 87800 H 294 L 111800 I
(Bytaoniaa vorbacifolia)

HUTUTI 0.58 H —— - —— -— __ _.. .__
(Ptorocarpuo lpp)

PARA-PARA 0.40 L — — — — _ _ _
(Jacaranda €09.10)

PASSARIUVA 0.57 H 4.1 H 8.5 H 13.9 H 574 H 92000 H 255 L 105600 L
(Sclerolobiun app)

PAU DE SANCUE 0.52 L 3.3 L 6.6 L 10.3 L 569 L 84900 H 239 L 94900 L
(Pterocatpua app)

PAU-D'ALHO 0.66 H 3.8 H 8.7 H 14.6 H 704 H 93200 H 314 H 115000 H
(Gallesia integrlfolia)

RAD—1.117.111} 0.75 11 3.8 N 7.9 N 13.6 N 845 N 94900 N 372 N 103800 L
(Pipradcnia communis)

PELADA 0.79 H 4.0 H 8.0 H 12.2 L 1051 H 133600 N 508 H 141900 N
(Tormlnalia januarensiu)

PEROBA D'AhUA-AHARELA 0.49 L 3.2 L 7.2 L 11.7 L 437 L 86300 H 236 L 94300 L
(Tetrorchidium Np)

PEROBA-ROSA 0.79 H 4.0 H 7.8 H 13.1 H 899 H 94300 H 424 M 119700 H
(Asridospcrma polyneuron)

PIN’HO DO RARANA’ 0.55 L 4.0 N 7.8 N 13.2 N 609 L 109300 N 268 L 137800 N
(Aruucariu angustifolia)

PIHHO BRAVO 0.45 L 2.7 L 6.7 L 10.6 L 457 L 55100 L 209 L 62200 L
(Podocarpus up)

PINHO-ELIOTE 0.48 L 3.4 L 6.3 L 10.5 L 489 L 65900 L 189 L 90200 L
(Pinus vlllnttii)

PINHO TEDA 0.40 L 2.9 L 6.9 L 10.5 L 373 L 49000 L 155 L 68000 L
(Pinuu :aeda)

RUNNA' 0.70 N _ — — — — — -—
(Iryanthero juruenois)

QUARUBA-JASHIRANA 0.68 H 4.0 H 12.6 H 17.8 H 896 H 151800 H 408 H 196500 H
(Vochyuia 5p)

QUARUBA—VERMELHA 0.59 H 3.3 L 7.7 H 12.5 H 739 M 96500 H 344 M 123400 H

(Erisma uncinatum)

 

I‘“

 

“_wfl

83

 

 

 

INPACT BENDINC 1/ HARDNESS 2/
END GRAIN OTHER CONNON NAHES RANGE
H in 1134- C18: 11; C186
1.92 L 355 L JACAEAN‘DA-DE-FLORES—ROXAS SOUTHERN STATES
1.84 H 1.11 N CEDRO-DO—PAHTANO, OUANANDI, GUANADI- FORESTS IN THE COAsTAL REGION FROH PARA
CEDRO. LANDI. HANGUE-SECO. 013010111. PA1'- To SANTA CATARINA. Amzou. zONA DA NATA 1N
DE-HARIA. GUANANDI-PIOLHO, CUANANI-ROSA HG. GO AND HT
__ _. ESPONJEIRO AMAZON
3.88 N 604 N ESTOPEIRO no DOCE VALLEY. STATES or HIIAS
cmxs. zsmu'ro SANTO. sANTA
CAIARIHA
2.26 N 392 L 3801'1T18A. JEQL’ITIBA-VERHELHO, 10118513 11! m omsTAL mION PAON
PAu-CA1on. PAU—CARGA, 05001T18A Man To 810 DE ammo; w 11:
8A0 PAuuo. 1110 PARDO VALLEY. BSPIlITO
SANTO. NINA: cums
2.33 N 258 L LOURo—CONUN mm
2.68 N 437 H Louno-NANOALN ANAZON
1.89 1. 247 1. _ COASTAL 1111:1011 OP sAo PAULO.
PAMNA AND sANTA CATAnNA
2.05 N 394 N _ sun or PARA
1.34 L 166 1. CAPOROIOSA. CAM—1105A. mum mums IN THE COASTAL REGION 01' 5A0
PAULO PAIANA’ AND sANTA CATAnNA
_ _ NARUPAunA-PALSA suns or man AND PANA'
0.95 1. 623 N PAU-DE-COR'IUH! 1110 DOC! VALLEY, NmAs cmxs.
ESPIRI‘I‘O sANTo. ANAzON. cons. 11610
080550
— —- — STAT! or Pm’
— — — ANAzON, 10311.! I! m STAT: or PAIA'
2.64 N 39:. N TAXI. 0A1NGA', MACH. cum-I ANAzON. PANA’. COASTAL 11801011 11301 PAIA’
Lorna—mgsu. INCA—UCU TA1PA. To SANTA CATARINA. comma 13: 5A0 PAULO
TAPASSARE. CANELA-FREIJO’
2.46 N 290 L mm', DRACOCIANA. smcumno. NAN NOUNTAIN. non-1 PANA’m
HATLTI. TINTFRIA. CORTICEIRA SANTA CATARINA-JOINVILLE REGION
1.60 L 445 H —— INTERIOR or 510 PAULO AND PAIANA‘
4.29 H 641 H JACARE SAO PAULO
2.65 N 661 N _ mo DOCE vALmr AND FORESTS IN
THE COASTAL REGIONS OF NORTH OF
ESPIRITO SANTO
1.44 L 222 L BALNA, CAIXETA-JURUTE. COERANA, FORESTS IN THE COASTAL REGIONS
FARINHA-SECA. HANDIOQUEIRA FROH ESPIRITO SANTO T0 PARANA
2.38 H 691 H AHARCOSO, PEROBA-HIRIH. PEROBA- PARAXA RIVER BASIN COVERING HATO
RAJADA, PEROBA-UCL, SOBRO CRUSSO. COIAS, HINAS CERAIS. 5A0 PAULO;
R10 DOCK VALLEY AND SOUTH OF BAH1A
1.50 L 274 L PINHO, PINHO-BRAS1LEIRO. CUR1 PARANA, SANTA CATARINA. R10 CRANDE
D0 SUL
0.81 L 221 L PINHEIRINHO HANTIQUEIRA MOUNTAIN TO PARANA
1.48 L 197 L ___ 5A0 PAULO. PARANA. SANTA CATARINA
R10 (:RANDE DO SlIL
0.88 L 177 B —, SAO PAULO
— — ucuunANANA ANAZON
2.90 H 507 H QUARCBA AMAZON
2.19 N 392 L JABOTI, QTARTLDA, OUAREBATINCA STATE or FARA; MOSTLY 1N CLRUPA

84

2"“- tr .-:-—_ ‘-

 

 

DENSITY l/ SHRINKAGE STATIC BENDIHG 2/ COHPRESSIOH PARALLEL TO FIBRES 2,
COMMON AND BOTANICAL HAHE 3 Radial C133. Tang. Clan. Volun Clan. Hod. Rupture Hod. Elasticity Hod. Rupture Hod. Elastic1ty
alcm clas 2 1 2 kg/caz clas kg/cm2 clas kale-2 c186 Its/ca2 clas
QL’ARL’BATINGA O . 75 H — — -- — — — _-
(Vochysia up)
SANGUE-DE-BOI 0.77 H 5.6 H 11.9 H 19.8 H 755 H 106900 H 333 I 124700 H
(Hieronyna alchornecides)
SANCUE-DE-DIAGO 0.49 L 2.5 L 6.4 L 9.6 L 650 L 95100 H 290 L 100000 L
(Croton cchlnocarpua)
80mm 0. 58 H _ __ _ _ _ _ _
(Cm-a guiancnata)
SUCUUBA 0.64 H —— —— '—— ——. ._. __ __
(Hmtanthuo articulathus)
TACACAZEIRO 0. 50 L — — — — — — —
(Starculiaceae)
TAHARAQUE 0.63 H 5.0 H 7.7 H 14.1 H 489 L 101900 H 218 L 126200 H
(Larix larlcinia)
TAHBORIL 0.54 L 2.2 L 4.6 L 7.7 B 634 L 77000 L 288 L 90900 L
(Enterolobiun timbouva)
TAPERI BA’ 0.53 L — _ __ ._ __ _ _
(Spondias mombim)
TAPIA’ 0.46 L 2.5 L 6.7 L 10.3 L 413 L 70800 L 189 L 85800 L
(Alchornea triplincrves)
TATAPIRIRICA 0.51 L 2.9 L 7.3 L 11.7 L 591 L 91300 H 273 L 100800 L
(Tapirlra gutanensis)
TL'CHAVA O. 60 H — — — — — _. _—
(antta procera)
UCUUBA 0.48 L 4.7 H 7.0 L 11.6 L 380 L 83700 L 190 L 106800 L
(Virola surlnamensia)
UCUUBARANA O . 60 H — — — — —— ._ _

(Ostroph1ocum platyspermum)

 

 

4"

85

 

 

lHPACT SENDING 1/ HARDNESS 2/
END GRAIN 0111113 com was mm
H in k3.m Claa k; C1aa
_ _. _ ANAzON
2.07 N 510 N AIIC‘URAHA. LTCONANA.NAOO1ICALO PORZS‘I'S 111 m OOASTAI. mamas Pu
oucmwu. PAU-DE-QUIM. mwcumu- AHAZOH - nzvzs Isus 10 STAT: OP
08-13111. URIHAHA SANTA CATARIHA
1.60 L 322 1. PAU-Dn-SANOUI COASTAL 118610115 0P SA'O PAULO. PAnIA’
AID SANTA “nun
_ __ scum-cums. cm‘A'UAssu m
_ _ SURUUIA-VIIDADEIB ANAwI
— — — STAT: or PANA.,NO611.T 11: 1'!!!
11801011 01' 681.811
J
1.97 1. 331 L m1: 8A0 PAULO
1.70 1. 360 1. mevA. cumo’. DREW-DEMO. mm 87.0 PAULO To 1110 GRAND! 00
PM. TmAUVA. Tmo’. TINSUIu SUL; NATO anosso. 001As
_ _ wA’. cuK-Nnnt. wanna m
1.56 L 223 L nouzmo. CAImA. wan-mu. wruntn AID PMAPIACAIA
HALACACHETA. PAU-Dz-now. TANK-aim. mulls
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