' 7' "'7 r?‘ "DOV-mum! THE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG SPECIFICATIONS, SERVICEABILITY, AND COST OF SEVEN GROUPS OF PLAIN AND TWILL-WOVEN TABLECLOTHS AND NAPKINS 0F VARYING FIBER CONTENT Thesis for the Degree of M. A. MICHIGAN STATE COLLEGE Helen Kathryn Hebblefhwaite 1949 --_A I “45515 This is to certifg that the thesis entitled mil '1 C »‘ o h u -x HIEIIFTW‘V‘HI.‘ Wm .- ‘1I1 “HR . ~ ‘ \ C‘ ‘ r- ‘71;‘ ”V J a L A L -. Q l I I. ‘l I «1 Is f:ifi. . _‘ '71". -\ ‘ . , rv‘ 1 “w 1 < ,L J .L-- l L lLl AV! L LEL~‘~‘E,M' r_'A lf-k L 51"": r“ ' ,‘CA - — — s «., l, 1-. ’1 1v 0 V~o' ~‘ I -v ' - 7" -. ‘ “* ' I J. -L \4 ,r AU- 1 , A A.“ t’l_’3.\' V +_,. presented In] I Helen Pie I‘M at (we 1 has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for .~I .1‘ . degree in LHQIi i L“: , ¢ ‘ I 1(I lit-1;: 1:. TIM 1.8 g" L‘... .' , I‘ at“. WMUL 53 1&1qu M\1jm‘ lIrolCSsur , 1 I4") I.— Date 0-169 TEE RELATICYSHIPS.AWONG SPECIFICATIONS, EYVICEEBILITY, AND COST OF SEE? GROUPS OF PLAIN AND TWILL-"IIOVET TABLEXZLOTHS AT‘TD I'IAPI‘TINS OF VATIIFG I" 13 '21? C ONT EE-TT By Helen Kathryn Hebblethwaite m A THE; IS Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requiranents for the degree of MASTER OF.ARTS Department of Textiles, Clothing, and Related Arts 1949 ACKYC’CII- EDGTTE-TTS ) I Wish to express my sincere gratitude to Miss Hazel B. Strahan, Head of the Department of Textiles, Clothing, and Related Arts at Nichigan State College, for her guidance during the study and the writing of this thesis. I also wish to thank those who work- ed on the project at the Eichigan State College Textile Research Laboratory. To the Chio State University for the use of their conditioning room and Scott Tensile Strength Tester, to the pro- fessors of textiles at the Chio State University for their aid, and to any others who have helped in the completion of this prob- lem, I wish to express my appreciation. *********** ********* ******* ***** *** * CCITTEIT’I‘S Page ITTRCDUCTICTT...”........................................... 1 RW’IB'I’ C3?“ LIT3.TL~'I'I."JRE........................................ 6 HATEEIALSoooooQQQQQOoooooooooooooooooooo...ooooooooooooooooo 12 “'EPl'loggooooooocoo...one...00.0090...ooooooooooooooooooooooa. 17 fonteChniCal ProcedureSoooooo0.00000...00.00.000.000... 17 Technical Procedures................................... 19 C J U! Laundry PrqcedureSOo00000000.o.oooooooooooooooooooooooo N *1 DISCYSSIC? -F RESVLTS.................................J..... Variations of Specifications within Groups............. 27 Comparison of Average Specifications................... 31 Variation of Performance within Grcups................. 45 Comparison of Group Performances....................... 53 C(‘E:CLTTSIC:TOOOO0.0.0.000....OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO.OOOOOQOOOOIIOOO 63 SITT-jfiqy—VCOOOOOO.0.00000.O...0.0...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.00.0000. 74 BIBLICGEIL :IYOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00....OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOOO 78 liPPE-‘DIFIOO00.00.0000.0.000000000000000.0.0000000000000000... El ii! ‘Ill'll.llllll'l INTRCDUCTION The large Experiment Station study, of which this thesis reports a part, was undertaken in the Textiles Research Laboratory at Michigan State College because of the need for information concerning the specifications and performance of tablecloths and napkins of varying fiber content. The entire study was comprised of thirteen groups of fifty-two tablecloths and one hundred and sixty-eight napkins of plain, twill, and damask weaves. This report includes an analysis of seven different groups of thirty table- cloths and sixty-eight napkins of varying fiber content in plain and twill weaves. The six groups of damaskdwoven tablecloths and napkins of linen, cotton, and rayon, have been reported by R. J. Ericson(11) in her unpub- lished thesis, The Relationship 3f Specifications 22 Serviceability and Cost in Selected Types 2: Damask Table Linens. AS Hale stated in her Study of Standardization of Textile Fabrics,(14) mass production and marketing of newly developed products lacking in speci- fic quality specifications and performance expectancy have led to chaos in the textile field. Until a few years prior to World War II, the majority of table coverinES'were expensive-looking, white, damask-woven linens or the more economical and less glamorous cotton damasks. The wear expectancy of these fabrics were known, through personal experience, by consumers who had bought and used them for years.(8) When the new cloths and napkins appeared upon the scene, consumers were puzzled as to what their wearing qualities and consumer satisfaction might be, but they were pleased, in general, with the original hand, the variety of colors, and new fashion quality which they offered. -1- Although some spun rayon and rayon filament tablecloths were to be found on the retail market before the war, war-time shortages and‘restric- tions gave impetus to their manufacture and sale. Linen shipments of fiber and finished goods from Europe were sharply curtailed. The follow- (22) ing chart taken from page 118 of the 1948 Journal of Commerce traces the purchase of Irish linen by the United States from 1907 to 1947: "U. S. Linen Buying” Year 1,000's of Square Yards 1907 - 13 (average) 138,994 1914 - 18 (average) 77,763 1919 - 28 (average) 39,346 1929 - 37 (average) 45,046 1938 12,915 1942 9,862 1943 3,623 1944 1,404 1945 4,094 1946 16,320 1947 10,614,000 Cloths and napkins made of substitute fibers and structure were necessi- ties during the war years when imports were so very low. 1 As Robert Ellsworth noted in the 1946 Journal of Commerce( 0) fabrics of fiber blends gained their popularity for a number of different quali- ties, namely, their "handle", their new colors, and their generally lower ‘2- and more stable price. Added to these desirable qualities were the factors of availability, novelty value, fashion, and ease of care and upkeep. The latter factor is still one which looms large in the prefer- ence of consumer-buyers. Since sufficient and satisfactory household help has been difficult to find and hold from 1941 to the present time, many homemakers must necessarily do most of their own laundering. Thus, more textile items are purchased which will require the least time for upkeep. Linen damasks, in order to insure optimum appearance, must be laundered carefully, sprinkled until damp, and then ironed until dry, a procedure which is more time-consuming than that required for rayon blends and other such fabrics. The new cloths appeal to the fashion-con- sciousness of consumers, for the vogue of modern tablesettings as noted in stores or in magazine illustrations promote interest in and use of the types of cloths under discussion. A comprehensive study Women's Prefer- ences Among Selected Textile Items<29) published in 1947 showed that fifty per cent of the women questioned concerning their choice of tablecloths considered appearance and style as the most important factors in their choice._ Inasmuch as large assortments of cotton prints, rayons, and rayon mixtures now'are to be found in a wide price range, this newer type of merchandise appeals to the consumer-buyer from low to luxury income levels. With these reasons for buying and using the cloths and napkins under consideration, the study was planned to: 1. Compare and predict probable serviceability through analysis of laboratory tests on seven groups of tablecloths and nap- kins of tow linen,cotton, spun rayon, and rayon mixtures. (a) analyze and compare the physical properties of the new cloths with those of the same cloths after 50 launderings. (b) compare the original specifications of the table- cloths and napkins within the seven groups as well as to compare the performance within the groups after 50 launderings. -2. Compare the tablecloths and napkins on a price-performance relationship. 3. Determine the probable relationship between fiber content and performance of the tablecloths and napkins. 4. Compare the specifications and performance of the tablecloths and napkins purchased in 1945 with those purchased in 1948. 5. Determine the apparent relationship between weave construc- tion and probable serviceability of the tablecloths and napkins. In order to discover the desired information concerning the table- cloths and napkins, a laboratory study was inaugurated. An objective analysis and comparison of the groups was accomplished through the use of specific physical tests. However, since there are definite limitations in objective laboratory testing insofar as complete consumer satisfaction is concerned, important and necessary subjective analysis was included also. The subjective analysis included such factors as texture change, change in handle, color change, signs of wear during launderings, and ease of care. The study, as planned and carried out, was an expensive one in time spent, equipment required, and materials purchased. Prior to the present time, little has been done by manufacturers to decide what consumers really need and want in table linens. Hanufacturers have spent vast sums of money in promoting new fibers, fabric constructions, and styles but little or nothing in discovering consumer needs and wants. Consumers have been forced to take the products available on the market although such products may not be completely satisfactory. Compromise has often been the method by which consumer-buyers have made their final choice. Specifications which might help consumers to make wise purchases have been closely guarded trade secrets of individual manufacturers. Research, particularly marketing research, is proving a help in bridging the chasm between consumer and manufacturer. Wear studies vdll provide consumers with pertinent guides by which to judge values in their proposed purchases for a specific and use. It will assist manufacturers in determining the specifications and performance characteristics of products which will meet the needs of their customers most satisfactorily. It was felt that this study would be of interest and value to con- sumers since it would determine specifications of representative cloths which were available, predict probable serviceability which might be expected from them, discover to what extent price and performance might be related, and suggest possible and desirable specifications which should appear on the labels attached to merchandise to aid the purchaser in making intelligent selection. -5- REVIEW OF LITERATURE Although table coverings and napkins are considered a necessity in nearly every home and restaurant, relatively little research data on fabrics for such use are available. However, the following studies have been included in the literature review because certain factors discussed are related to those of this study. An unpublished study The Effect of Laundering and Wear on Linen, Cotton, and Bayon 33d Cotton_Table NapkinsK27) was made by Lottie E. Sumner at Purdue University in 1944. Miss Sumner noted that linen damask had long been used for napkins because of its lustre, heavy "hand", and long Wearing qualities. However, she included cotton and rayon and cotton napkins in the research also because of the increased consumer purchase of them. Fibers were expected to show signs of derradation due to the action of light and air, abrasion during laundering, and the action of bleaches and soaps. It was found that, in general, weight per square yard was re- lated to cost but not to shrinkage, soluble sizing, thread count, or yarn number. "Weight and the breaking strengths of desized, original fabric showed positive correlation. Weight was also significant when related to the cost of the fabric but not to the wearing quality of the fabric. Thread count, yarn number, and breaking strengths were used to determine fabric quality of linens and cottons while these same three plus weight per square yard and the amount of soluble sizing were used for rayon and cotton mixtures. After thirty-two weeks of use and laundering, the nap- kins were tested. It was found that loss in the breaking strengths of the linens, varied from 39.7% to 61.3f, that of the cottons from 24.3% to \ 29.6% and that of the cotton warp of the rayon-cotton mixtures from 17.7% to 41.2%. In several cases the rayon filling of the rayon-cotton mixtures showed a gain in breaking strength because of a higher thread count due to warp shrinkage. There was positive correlation between the loss in break- ing strength of linens and their loss in weight per square yard. The linens shrank the least of the three types of fabrics. Both the cotton and the rayon-cotton mixtures made at least a 10% gain in weight per square yard (except for one gain of 3.3%) caused, probably, by shrinkage. warpwise cot- ton yarns in the mixtures shrank the most while the rayon filling shrank very little; however, the entire shrinkage of the rayon-cotton‘group was greater than for the cotton or linen groups. At the end of the study, the linens had shrunk 0.6% to 4.9% while the cotton filling shrank 1.4% to 4.5fl, the cotton warp shrank 4.6% to 12%, the cotton warp of the mixture shrank 4.6% to 12%, and the rayon filling shrank 0% to 4.27. Miss Sumner stated that the excessive warpwise shrinkage was apparently due to the tension maintained during the weaving and finishing of the fabric. 'When the study was completed, the linens and cottons still were in good condition but part of the mixtures had faded noticeably while some had badly frayed hems and were thin in spots. The linen fibers showed the-greatest change in both breaking strength and weight; these losses would vary with the quality of the linen used. The permanent-finished cottons were damaged least. The author said that the rayon-cotton mixtures were cheaper than linen and would have given better service if the hems had been more semlre. Bolinger(5) found that an average spun rayon fabric lost more than one-half of its breaking strength when it was tested wet. Rayon fabrics -7- usually shrink more warpwise than fillingwise; they tend to stretch fill- ingwise during laundering. Roseberry(24) stated that in filament viscose rayon fabrics there was positive correlation between warpwise thread ccmrt and fillingwise shrinking and that an increased number of warp threads meant increased warpwise shrinkage and decreased fillingwise dry breaking strength. As the filling thread count increased, all breaking strengths decreased while warpwise and fillingwise shrinkage increased. When coarser warp yarns were used in fabrics, warp breaking strengths and filling shrinkage became greater; when coarser filling yarns were used, the dry filling breaking strength and filling shrinkage increased. Roseberry found that fabrics having fewer twists in the warp yarns had higher breaking strengths while an increased filling yarn twist was associated with decreased strength and increased filling and warp shrinkage. (12) Gaston and Fletcher noted that all rayon fabrics shrank more in (28) the warp direction than in the filling direction. Tear reported that spun rayons shrink more than continuous filament viscose or acetate rayons. Some spun rayon fabrics in this study showed a shrinkage of as much as 7% in both directions. Shivvers(25) in her thesis submitted to Purdue University in 1942 stated that many of the spun rayon fabrics then available on the market were unsatisfactory with respect to "unpredictable" launderability and lack of colorfastness. Acetate sorn rayon fabrics tended to be more stable than viscose spun rayon fabrics. Miss Shivvers listed the following causes of excess shrinkage in spun rayon fabrics: (l) excess tension during manu- facturing, (2) swelling of the fibers, (5) high number of twists per inch, (4) loose weave construction, and (5) fiber type. The American Institute of Laundering made the statement that hand ironing reduces spun rayon shrinkage. When the number of twists per inch of yarn increases, shrink- age is increased and as the number of yarns per inch of fabric decreases, there is a tendency toward increased fillingwise shrinkage while increased breaking strength results from an increased number of threads per inch of fabric. Mixed rayon and cotton fabrics lose less strength when wet due to the increase in the breaking strength of cotton when tested wet. A Study of the Relationship Between the Construction and the Durabil- (17) to ity of Cotton Fabrics, a master‘s thesis submitted b! Howorth Pennsylvania State College in 1941,5tated that, in cotton fabrics, high warpwise dry breaking strength was likely to be associated with high warp- wise wet breaking strength and with high dry filling breaking strength and low wet filling breaking strength. High warpwise breaking strength was re- lated to high fillingwise shrinkage and high warp wet breaking strength. It was found that high dry filling breaking strength was correlated with increased weight per square yard, low warp yarn count and high filling yarn count, and low yarn twist in both warp and filling. Low warpwise shrinkage was associated with low filling yarn count and low warp yarn number while low fillingwise shrinkage was related to low weight per square yard, low warp yarn count, high warp and yarn filling numbers and yarn twist. The author noted that a number of factors including the uses of bleach, dye, and finish as well as storage conditions under unfavorable conditions might contribute to the final strength of cotton fabrics. An article written by Stanley Backer(3) and published in the Textile Research.Journal, concerned the structural geometry of a textile fabric as it affects a fabric's physical properties. In the section in which literature was reviewed, it was stated that breaking strength of a fabric is increased by using individual yarns of increased strength and increased yarn saints. Since various weaves produce varying amounts of crimp, they, therefore, influence the extensibility of a fabric. Likewise, the twist of yarns affects fabric elongation, for, when tightly twisted yarns are closely woven into a fabric, it shows little extensibility. As yarn twist increases, breaking strengths increase to a maximum point and then de- crease with very high twist. Fabric assistance was defined as the "differ- ence between the strengths of skein yarns and the same yarns woven into a cloth structure, expressed as a percentage of skein yarn strength."(3’p°651) "r. Backer noted that plain weave resulted in greater fabric assistance then did basket weave and attributed this result to the fact that a plain weave has more yarn interlacings. woven fabric shows more elongation than do its individual yarns because of the crimp introduced; thus, plain weave has greater ertensibility than basket weave due to its larger number of inter- lacings. Since weaving places a greater tension on the warp yarns than on the filling ones, warpwise elongation is reduced. Keeney,(18) in her dissertation concerning an accelerated laundering procedure for rayons, noted that rayons showed varied dimensional changes when measured after laundering. When the fabrics were laundered with neutral soap, their breaking strength losses were consistent with the numé ber of launderings in a majority of cases. Rayons were found to have approximately one-half of their dry breaking strength when tested wet. The greatest losses in breaking strength came between the fifteenth and twentieth launderings for most of the fabrics, although the breaking -10- strength results were highly variable. Large amounts of shrinkage were noted in one or both directions of some acetate and viscose rayon fabrics; in some cases, shrinkages were close to 20% and, in several fabrics, maxi- mum shrinkage did not occur until the twentieth laundering. Keeney's study shows that a series of launderings predict rayon fabric performance more accurately than the present single washing required in the official washing test. From 15 to 20 launderings under laboratory conditions must be used in order to indicate the breaking strength loss, dimensional chan- ges, and color loss which are probable during actual use of such fabrics where repeated launderings are necessary. According to Niss Keeney, Barton and Butz have found the predictive accuracy of laundry tests to be 32.4%. ' The available studies concerning rayon fabrics agree on the facts that rayons undergo varied and large dimensional changes due to laundering and that they lose almost one-half their strength when tested wet. Authors 'agree that unknown factors such as finish, weaving tensions, bleaching, and so forth affect the final product but cannot be evaluated because such information is not given by the manufacturer. -11- MATERIALS The all linen cloths and napkins (group XIII) and the rayon and cotton faille tablecloths (group XII) were purchased in Lansing, Michigan, in_ihy of 1948 while the all-cotton (VI), woraco (VII), two groups of spun rayon and cotton (VIII and IX), and the spun acetate and Viscose rayon cloths (K) were bought in Detroit, flichigan, in 1945. Eapkins which matched the cloths were purchased whenever they were available. The cloths were chosen to represent merchandise commonly purchased by consumers and also to represent the widely varied fiber content available in table linens on the market at the time. Within the groups, the cloths were chosen to represent the great- est possible color range. The number of cloths within each group varied because the stocks available at the time of purchase were inadequate for dup- licates of each type of cloth. Complete purchase information concerning each group of tablecloths and napkins is recorded in Chart 2 in the Appendix. Group VI e Tablecloths 40 to 43 The label stated that these four cloths had been pre-laundered and were ready for use. The all cotton, twilldwoven cloths were not printed on grain. Dye which had splattered on some of the white sections of the cloths detracted from their appearance as did the two selvage edges which had not been hemmed. The other two edges were machine-hemmed with eight stitches per inch. Sizing gave a crisp texture to the fabrics. Since the cotton was not mercerized, the fabrics had little luster. Group VII - Tablecloths and Napkins 50 to 54 The five sets of spun woraco tablecloths and napkins were labeled as containing 37% cotton, 44% wool, and 19% rayon. Special washing instruc- tions were noted on the label. The fabric employed had been piece-dyed -12- and the component fibers had absorbed in varying depths the yelIOW'color which gave an.uneven color. All hems were fashioned by machine double- overcasting in white. Additional decoration on the tablecloths was pro- vided by four padded, machine-stitched trimming lines which were placed six inches from the edges and extended from hem to hem on each of the four sides. These trimming lines were not applied on the grain of the fabric. Napkins had only the decorative white hems. The tablecloths and napkins had a rough texture, almost no luster, and uneven color penetration. How- ever, these did not detract from their appearance value. Group VIII - Tablecloths 71 to 74 The four spun rayon and cotton tablecloths, according to their labels, were handprinted in fast colors. Ehch label also indicated that the cloths already had been laundered. Two selvage edges detracted from the appear- ance of each cloth, but the other two edges were machine—stitched with ten stitches per inch. The fabric had high luster and was harsh in texture. Group IX - Tablecloths and Napkins 80 to 84 The five sets of twill-woven, spun viscose rayon and cotton tablecloths and napkins were labeled as sanforized. One~ha1f inch hems had been con- structed on all edges with a decorative machine-stitch. The fabrics, loomed to only thirty-six inches in width, were stitched together with colored machine-overcasting stitches. The cloths were gray and blue with gray and blue overcasting trim or green and yellOW'with gray and yellow overcasting trim. Napkins were finished by hems secured with machine over- casting. All cloths had been cut and trimmed on grain. The fabric had a smooth texture and moderate luster. -13.. Group X - Tablecloths and Napkins 90 to 91 The two sets of cloths and napkins of this group were made from spun yarns of blended acetate and viscose rayon fibers. The attached labels included washing instructions. Both cloths and napkins were green with decorative hems of white machine-overcasting. The fabric was soft in tex- ture and luster, resembling fabrics often used for women's and children's apparel. Group XII - Tablecloths 110 to 114 The five tablecloths in this group purchased in 1948 were fabrics mfith filament viscose rayon warp and cotton filling. They were labeled as containing 60% rayon and 40% cotton. Laundering instructions were included on the labels. A narrow hem with fourteen machine-stitches per inch was the finish on two sides; the other two sides were salvage edges. 'With the high luster, ribbed texture, and stiff handle, the fabric closely resembled fabrics commonly used for draperies. Group XIII - Tablecloths and Napkins 120 to 124 Five sets of tow linen tablecloths and napkins included in the group purchased in 1948 were labeled as being made in Belgium. No other informa- tion was available on the label. The saleswoman.volunteered the table- cloth dimensions. The tablecloths and napkins had been cut on grain. Two edges of each cloth were selvages; the other two were inaccurately hemmed with ten machine-stitches per inch. Decorative features included darker woven borders and sections of basket weave construction. The fabrics were smooth in texture, had high luster, and were stiff and wiry in handle. They appeared to be heavily sized. -14- General Plan for the Study As the general plan for the problem was set forth, one section from each cloth and two napkins from each set of napkins were to be tested be- fore laundering in order to determine the original specifications of the fabrics. The tests performed were to determine bone dry weight in ounces per square yard, fading of colors under 80 hours of light in the fade- ometer, yarn count, yarn number, rayon filament count, yarn twist, wet and dry breaking strengths, and wet and dry fabric elongations. Tests of fiber content were to be made to check the validity of fiber content statements found on the labels. . Two other sections of each tablecloth and two more napkins of each set were to be laundered 50 times under conditions approximating home con- ditions as closely as possible. Heasurements of the laundered fabrics were to be taken after the first, second, third, fourth, fifth, tenth, fifteenth, twentieth, twenty-fifth, thirtieth, fortieth, and fiftieth launderings in order to note consecutive changes in fabric dimensions. Yarn counts were to be taken after the first, fifth, tenth, twentieth, and fiftieth launder- ings so that yarn count changes might be related to dimensional changes during laundering.‘ After fifty launderings, the fabrics were to be cut into the specimens required for determination of the following changes in the laundered fabrics: bone dry weight per square yard, degree of fading of the colors due to laundering, wet and dry breaking strengths, and wet and dry fabric elongations. The results from these tests plus the final yarn counts and shrinkage measurements were to be studied in order to deter- mine the physical properties of the laundered cloths. They were likewise to be compared with those same physical properties in the original fabrics in order to determine changes which occurred during the laundering process at specific laundering intervals. -16.. 'YETHODS Nontechnical Procedures Code system Since the study was one requiring the time and effort of a number of different individuals over a three year period, a coding system which would contain complete, general information in an easily recognized form was necessary. (The code was devised so that each fabric section sample could be marked briefly as to whether it was a part of a tablecloth or a napkin, consecutive number within the group, fiber content, weave, and relative location within the original tablecloth or set of napkins. Groups were num- bered in Roman numerals; those in this section of the study included VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, XII, and XIII. The tablecloth sections were denoted by the capital letter "T" while napkins were marked With a capital "Y". Table- cloths were given consecutive numbers within their groups; the matching napkins received the same number. Each tablecloth was divided into four equal sections as is shown in Plate 11 of the Appendix; the capital letters "A", "B". "C", and "D" in the subscript of the code referred to the loca- tion of the section on the cutting chartf see Plate 11) The small case letters "a", "b", "c", and "d" in the code subscript indicated the specific napkin within the set from which the sample was taken. The small case letters "0", "r", "w", "sr", and "1" in superscript denoted fiber content. Upper case letters "T" and "P" referred to the weave of the fabric. To r/c/w 0A illustrate, a testing sample marked "T P" belonged to tablecloth 5 50, section A, which was used to test for original specifications of group VII; the sample contained rayon, cotton, and wool fibers; the weave employed -17- 1‘ . . . . s P" marked on a sample indicated that it was a portion "n was plain. “90c of the "c" napkin of the set matching tablecloth 90 which was used to test performance characteristics of group X: the fabric was spun rayon in a plain weave. Cutting plans General cutting plans for tablecloths were noted on Plate 11 of the Appendix. Each of the four equal sections was given.a letter for identi- fication. Section A of each cloth was used for testing of the original properties of the fabric; sectionsB and D were laundered fifty times under duplicated home laundry conditions and then tested; section C was to be kept as a control. Napkins a and b of a matching set were likewise used for the testing of original properties; napkins c and d were laundered fifty times and then tested; napkins e and f, when available, remained intact as con- trols. Specific locations for each of the test samples were plotted carefully on graph paper for each group of cloths and napkins. Insofar as possible, test specimens were so located that anquual number of printed and plain areas constituted the sample for testing. Recommendations given by A.S.T. M.(1) for cutting samples to be tested were followed. No test sample was cut closer than one inch to the selvage of the fabric. General cutting charts for the tablecloth and napkins can be found on Plates 12 and 13 in the Appendix. From each tablecloth section were taken the following test specimens: weight squares, fadeometer strips, yarn number and twist strips, and breaking strength strips. Due to the size of the napkins, only break- ing strength strips and weight squares could be taken. -18- Analysis of the weave The weaves of the fabrics were determined by inspection with a micro- meter and by plotting the interlacing of warp and filling yarns on cross— sectioned paper. Technical Procedures m-—-——f "easurement of original dimensions and placement of measuring guides Upon receipt of the tablecloths and napkins in the laboratory, the average length and width of each cloth and napkin were determined. The fabrics were placed flat on a large table and were measured without the application of tension in either direction. Five uniformly distributed, lengthwise measurements were taken parallel to the selvages and were aver- aged to determine the average length of the sample. The average width of each sample was determined by averaging five uniformly distributed filling- wise measurements.(1) In order to assure the accurate measuring of id ntical points on the cloths and napkins after designated launderings for determination of di- mensional change, three thread guide lines were basted on grain in both warpwise and fillingwise directions before the launderings were begun. Ten inch guide lines were used for all fabrics except linen which required an eighteen inch line. The guide lines were basted so as to form a divided square (EE}) placed in the center of fabric sections 3 and D of the cloths and napkins c and d. Fiber identification Fibers were identified and confirmed by microscopic inspection,(1) by results of burning tests, and by examination of the colors resulting from -19.. proper application of Texchrome to the yarns. When Texchrome is used correctly on cotton or linen fabrics the resultant color is light blue; when applied to wool, it produces a yellow color. When applied to ace- tate rayon, it results in a pale yellowagreen color and when placed on viscose rayon, the fibers become lavender. Acetone was used to determine the presence of acetate rayon. Yarn count The number of yarns per inch of fabric were determined by counting the yarns with a micrometer as the fabric was held over a light box. Five warpwise counts were taken starting in the lower left hand corner of the fabric and moving diagonally toward the upper right hand corner. The aver- age of the five counts was considered the warp yarn count of the fabric. The same procedure was used in the fillingwise direction to determine the filling yarn count of the cloth.(1) Except for the location of the count areas, napkin yarn counts were taken in the same manner. Napkins a and b of each set of napkins were used for the test. Three warpwise and three fillingwise yarn counts were made in a diagonal line on napkin a while two of each were made on napkin b. Again the average of the five counts constituted the yarn count of the fabric. Breaking strength-raveled strip method The specimens to be broken in the one inch by one and one-half inch jaws of the Scott Tensile Strength Tester were out one and one-half inches wide and six inches long if there were fewer than fifty yarns per inch. However, if the yarn count was greater than fifty yarns per inch, the test specimens were cut one and one-fourth inches wide and six inches long. -20.. The filling specimens (note Plate 12 in the Appendix) were cut so that the same filling yarns extended through specimens 1 and 6, 2 and 7, 3 and 8, 4 and 9, and 5 and 10; likewise, the same warp threads extended through warpwise specimens 1 and 6, 2 and 7, 3 and 8, 4 and 9, and 5 and 10. After cutting, each specimen was raveled to exactly one inch in width by taking the same number of yarns from each side of the sample. Dry warp and filling breaking strips numbered one through five were broken in the Ohio State University conditioning room after they had been conditioned for at least four hours under standard conditions for testing textiles. The wet warp and filling breaking strips numbered six through ten were broken at Michigan State College after they had been soaked in water at room temperature for two hours. The strips were removed one'at a time, quickly blotted and then broken within one minute.(7) Measurements of strength determined by the Scott Tensile Strength Tester were read correctly to the nearest one-half pound. Dry and wet warp and filling breaking strengths of each section of tablecloth or nap- kin were determined by averaging the five recorded breaks. El ongat i on As each breaking strength strip was broken on the Scott Tensile Strength Tester, a tensilgram elongation record was made simultaneously. The vertical rise of the line on the graph prior to the break was measured accurately to the nearest two-hundredths of an inch. The resultant number was divided by six which was a correction factor representing the initial load in ounces and converted to per cent elongation by multiplying by one hundred. The average of the percentage elongations of five breaking strength strips was considered the elongation of the fabric under the conditions present and for the grain direction indicated. -21.. Filament count A yarn of filament rayon was removed from the fabric and pinned in place on a piece of black velvet. The end of the‘yarn'was opened care- fully and flattened against the velvet by means of a pick. With the pick and a magnifying glass the numbers of filaments were counted. The average for five warp yarns was recorded as the filament count. Yarn number According to directions accompanying the Universal Yarn Numbering Balance, a length of yarn was taken from the fabric and measured to the proper length on the metal tape. Filament rayon yarn 90 centimeters in length is required; spun rayon or cotton yarns 36 inches in length and linen yarns 12 27/32 inches long are used. After measuring, the yarn was looped and hung on the balance hook so that it touched no other part of the mechanism. The index lever of the balance was rotated until the beam bal- anced.g The lever then indicated the correct yarn number of the sample tested. An average of five results obtained in this manner was recorded as the yarn number. This procedure was followed for both warp and filling yarns of each cloth or set of napkins. Yarn twist The Suter Twist Tester with a three gram depressor attachment was used to determine the twist per inch of yarns. Ten inch yarns were used for the tests. The depressor was placed at the five inch point; the yarn was clamped into the machine so that it was depressed by the three gram weight to coincide with the center mark on the attachment. The depressor was removed from the yarn and the yarn was untwisted and retwisted until it was again opposite the mark when the depressor was placed on it. The dial reading was divided by twenty to obtain the average twist per inch. Ten warp and ten filling yarns were tested in this manner and the results were averaged to obtain the twist per inch of the yarn. Bone dry weight of samples The set of five two-inch square fabric specimens was placed in a weigh- ing bottle whose weight had been determined accurately within t.003 gram. The uncovered bottle containing the specimens was placed in the drying oven for one and one-half hours at a temperature of 1050 to 1100 C. Then the bottle was covered, transferred to the dessicator with tongs, and allowed to remain at least one-half hour. The weight of the covered bottle and sam- ples was taken on a calibrated scale. The procedure was repeated with the same group of samples until a constant weight was obtained. The weights had to be constant within t.003 gram. In order to obtain the bone-dry weight of the specimens, the weight of the bottle and cover was subtracted from the weight of bottle, cover, and specimens. :flpight per square yard The bone dry weight instead of the conditioned weight of the five weight squares from each fabric was used in the conversion formula because the equipment for determining exact fiber percentages present in the fabrics was not available. The converted bone dry weights, however, gave a basis for comparison within each group and among the various groups. The formula used in the conversion was: 36 x 36 x weight of sample in grams : square inches of samples x 28.35 Ounces per square yard or simplified: 45.71 x weight of samples in gpams (20) , 3 ounces per square yard 20 square inches -25... Cost per square yard The formula employed to compite the cost per square yard of the fabrics was: 36 x 36 x purchase price . s . . = cost per 5 uare vard total square inches of iaoric ~ q v Colorfastness to light One or two specimens, two and one-half inches by seven inches, were cut from each fabric in such a manner that all the colors in the cloth were represented. The specimens were placed in opaque fadeometer folders which shield fabric from light except for the desired exposure rectangles. Each sample was exposed in the Atlas Fadeometer for periods of twenty, forty, sixty, and eighty hours. The fadeometer was cleaned and new carbons were inserted after each twenty hour period. Fading due to light was judged subjectively by comparing the exposed areas with adjacent unexposed areas of the sample. Judging was performed by two people. Color change was recorded as (1) not fading noticeably, (2) fading noticeably, but not objectionably, or (3) fading objectionably. to laundering Fading due to laundering was judged subjectively by comparing a section of the original fabric with a section of the same cloth after 50 launder- ings. Two people again judged color changes. Color change was recorded as (1) not fading noticeably, (2) fading noticeably, but not objectionably, or (3) fading objectionabLy. Abrasion Abrasion squares have been cut from all original fabrics and many of the laundered fabrics. A portion of the original specimens have been -24.. abraded. However, the effect of laundering upon abrasion resistance will be determined in a future study. Laundering Procedures Sections 3 and D of the tablecloths and napkins c and d of all match- ing napkin sets were laundered in a destinghouse Laundromat and ironed by dial—controlled irons under conditions duplicating home conditions as closely as possible. For fabrics containing all or some rayon, water temperature approxi- mated 110o Fahrenheit, while all linen or cotton fabrics were washed in water of approximately 1400 Fahrenheit. All fabrics were washed a constant length of time. The time dial on the Laundromat was set at "light" so that the entire cycle of sudsing, two rinsings, and spin drying required nearly twenty-five minutes. Linen and cotton fabrics were washed in Super Suds, but all others were washed in Lux Flakes. Calgon was employed.as the water softener. . After damp drying, the samples were removed from the Laundromat and further dried on towel-covered screens for about one-half hour. Fabrics were ironed at temperatures recommended for the fiber content: rayon mixtures at temperatures below 3500 Fahrenheit and cotton and linen groups at temperatures below 4500 Fahrenheit. Attempts were made to standardize ironing procedures to insure uniform- ity of results. The same person always ironed D tablecloth sections and d napkins, while another person always ironed the B tablecloth sections and c napkins. Fabrics were ironed on the wrong side, first in the warpwise direction and then in the.fillingwise direction for the same number of -25- strokes. Only the linen group was finally ironed on the right side to increase luster. When the tablecloth sections and napkins were to be measured for dimensional stability and change in yarn count, the ironed fabrics were allowed to dry on screens without tension for two hours at room tempera- ture before measurements and counts were made. -25- DISCUSSION OF RSSULTS In this thesis the term, "specifications" is defined as the measur- able physical characteristics of the yarns or fabric before laundering. Specifications were determined by analysis of weave structure, fiber con- tent, determination of yarn number or denier, yarn twist per inch, yarn count per inch, breaking strength, elongation, original dimensions, weight in ounces per square yard, and calculation of cost per square yard. Variation of specifications within groups Group VI - all cotton, twill-woven fabric Although each of the four cloths in this group cost $1.31 per square yard, there was a variation in dry warp breaking strengths of as much as 17.7 pounds (30.8%) and in dry filling breaking strengths of 12.7 pounds (44.1%). The wet breaking strengths showed less variation; the warp strengths in the different cloths varied 3.8 pounds (4.6i) while the fill- ing strengths varied 10.6 pounds (26.9%). Thus, if breaking strength is accepted as an indication of fabric wear, a consumer purchasing a cloth in this group had the possibility of choosing cloths varying as much as 44.1% in strength, although they did not vary in appearance and were presumably identical cloths. The dry warp strength was nearly twice as great as the dry filling strength of the fabric which indicates poor balance in strength for its intended end use. warp yarn counts were identical in the group; but, filling counts varied from 38 to 40 yarns per inch (5.3fi). The average yarn count of 76 in the warp and 39 in the filling indicated a poorly balanced fabric. The average yarn numbers in warp and filling,though not identical, were -2 7.. close enough to be considered reasonably balanced and consistent within the group. The fabrics showed a lower percentage of elongation in both directions when wet. Variation in weight per square yard was approxi— mately .3 ounce (about 6.6%). Group VII - woraco, plain—woven fabric A wide variation in breaking strengths was likewise noted in the different cloths within this group. Dry warp breaking strengths showed differences up to 16.2 pounds (32.1%) and dry filling, to 11.7 pounds (35.1%). The greatest difference in wet warp breaking strengths for the indi- vidual cloths comprising this group was 15.1 pounds (21.83) while in wet filling strengths it was 22.8 pounds (156.2%). As in group six, the con- sumer, for 23.34 per square yard, had the opportunity to choose cloths of wddely varying strength, again illustrating inconsistency in performance of presumably identical fabrics. The fabric was nearly 1% times as strong warpwise as fillingwise. Warp and filling yarns indicated a poorly balanced fabric; average warp count was sixty-three while average filling count was forty-two. 'Uith- in the group there were variations of three warp yarns and three filling yarns. Yarn numbers were likewise not in close balance; warp yarn number was fifteen and filling yarn number was eight which is inconsistent in terms of end use. Weights per square yard in the individual cloths varied approximately .6 ounce (about 10.3%). Group VIII - spun viscose rayon and cotton, plain-woven fabric The cloths had an average cost per square yard of $1.93. The yarn number of yarns used in both warp and filling was twelve,thereby providing -28.. balanced yarn size. However, an average warp yarn count of sixty-three as compared to an average filling count of 2 resulted in a poorly balanc- ed fabric. The warp yarn coints showed a variation of one yarn; the fill- ing yarns, none. The greatest difference in weights per square yard was less than .1 ounce (about 1.9fl). The breaking strengths showed less varia- tion in this group than in the two previous ones. Dry warp breaking strengths varied 5.5 pounds (8.3%) while dry filling strengths also varied 5.5 pounds (14.5%). Net warp strengths varied 4.8 pounds or 7.3% and wet filling strengths, 4.1 pounds or 10.41. The dry warp strength was nearly 1 3/4 times as great as that of the filling.‘ Group IX - spun viscose rayon and cotton, twill-woven fabric Yarn twist was the same for both warp and filling, i.e. - 21 S twists per inch. The yarn numbers, 27 for warp and 30 for filling, were not un- balanced. As is usual in a twill weave, the warp yarn count was greater than the filling count. However, since the warp count was nearly twice as great as the filling count (131 to 68), the fabric was considered unbal— anced. There was a relatively large variation in warpwise yarn counts ranging from 126 to 136 and filling counts from 66 - 69. The weights per square yard showed approximately .3 ounce difference (about 6.1f). Dry warp breaking strengths in the various cloths showed variation of 20.2 pounds or 32.9% and dry filling strengths, 7.3 pounds or 33.2%. wet warp breaking strengths showed variation of 19.2 pounds or 39.8% differ- ence while wet filling strengths showed 8.8 pounds or 45.1% difference. At a cost of $4.51 per square yard it was possible to purchase cloths which, in terms of breaking strength, had only'1/3 the probable serviceebility of one which was supposedly identical. The fabric had poorly balanced strength; the dry warp was more than 2 3/4 times as strong as the dry filling. Grmzp X - spun acetate and viscose rayon, plain-woven fabric The yarn counts in these two cloths averaged 49 warpwise and 42 fill- ingwise, a fabric which was well balanced. Both yarn counts showed a neg- ligible variation of 1. The warp yarn number of 10 and the filling yarn number of 9 indicated the use of comparable yarn sizes. Heights per square yard varied no more than .1 ounce (about 1.7fi). ,4 ,0 Dry warp breaking strengths varied only 4.4 pounds or ”.1 while dry filling breaking strengths varied 5.7 pounds or 13.2%. Net breaking strength tests showed a warp variation of 3.7 pounds or 12.1% and a fill- ing variation of 3.4 pounds or 14.2%. Differences between dry warp and filling strengths approximated 10 pounds while wet strengths varied about 7 pounds, again showing this fabric to have well-balanced strength. The fabric cost $4.02 per square yard. Group XII - filament viscose rayon and cotton, plain-woven fabric The 164 denier’40 filament rayon warp yarns had a yarn count of 154 in comparison to 48 for the heavy, two-ply, cotton yarns used in the fill- ing to produce a definite ribbed effect. There was only slight variation in yarn counts for warp and filling between the cloths in this group. Weights per square yard varied approxi- mately .4 ounce or 7.8%. Dry warp breaking strengths varied 21.1 pounds or 29.4fl; dry filling breaking strengths varied 10.3 pounds or 19.5%. Wet breaking strengths showed differences up to 17.3 pounds or 56.9fl in the -30- F \J warp and 17.1 pounds or 24.?7. “trenzth balance in this fabric, while poor in the dry state, was very poor in the wet state. The consumer might possibly have purchased nearly 293 more wear for the 32.04 per square yard if breaking strength is accepted as one of the most significant criteria in serviceability. Group XIII - tow linen, plain-woven fabric Yarn counts varied between one and two in the various cloths. The averaae counts of 36 for warp and 52 for filling were close enough to be considered balanced. Harp yarn count of 24 and filling yarn count of 22 were also considered balanced. 'Neights per square yard varied approxi- mately .7 ounce or about 13.23. Dry breaking strengths in the different cloths varied as much as 19.8 pounds or 43.5% in the warp and 23.2 pounds or 54.5% in the filling. Wet breaking strengths showed differences of 25.5 pounds or 44.5% in the warp and 21.7 pounds or 31.2% in the filling. Vhile the fabric had balanced strength, variations between the different cloths was such that for $2.20 per square yard, one cloth might have had more than 40% more inherent wear than another, accepting breaking strength as an indication of inher- ent wear. Comparison of averape specifications Fiber content and weave analysis ' Within this study there weraone all linen group and one all cotton group. Another group was composed of fabric with filament viscose rayon warp and all cotton filling. The remaining four groups were rayon blends. 'Only two groups VIII and IX were of identical fiber content. -31- VII VIII IX XII XIII ,hart 1 Fiber Content and Weave Analysis of Groups Fiber Content warp Filling cotton cotton spun viscose spun viscose rayon, rayon and cotton cotton, and wool. spun viscose rayon‘ spun viscose rayon and cotton and cotton spun viscose rayon spun viscose rayon and cotton and cotton spun acetate and j spun acetate and viscose rayons viscose rayons filament viscose cotton rayon linen (tow) linen (tow) '4 Type of Weave warp face twill (filling over 1 and under 2 with (progression of 1) plain plain 'warp face twill (filling over 1, (under 1, over 1, and under 3 with progressions of '3 and l alternately) ‘plain plain plain (with 2 and 2 basket weave varia- tion) Groups VI and IX were both twill-woven; however, the group IX weave pattern was a twill variation. Group VI was a warp face twill in which the filling'went over one warp and under two with a progression of one. Group IX twill was also a warp face twill, but it was more complicated; the filling yarn went over one warp, undzr one, over one, and under three warp yarns with alternate progressions of three and one. The remaining groups were of plain weave. Group XIII was a combina- tion of plain weave and its variant, basket weave. Basket weave sections ‘were made by treating two warps as one yarn and two fillings as one yarn. Yarn count Linen group XIII was made of the most nearly balanced fabric as is shown in the yarn count averages which follow in Table 1. Group X of blended acetate and viscose rayon fabric was also balanced. Other fabric groups could not be considered well-balanced. group VI VII VIII XII XIII a. average of b. average of c. average of Table 1 Average Yarn Counts of Original Fabrics Fiber Content Warp cotton viscose rayon and cotton viscose rayon and cotton viscose rayon and cotton acetate and viscose~ rayons viscose _Filling Weave Warp cotton tndll 7Ga viscose plain 58 rayon, cotton,and 'wool ‘. ’. ’a Viscose plain 6E rayon and cotton . . :b Viscose twnll 131 rayon and cotton acetate plain 49a and viscose rayons ' cotton ,plain ,154c . b linen 1plain 56 (with base ket weave variation) 20 determinations 50 determinations 25 determinations Average Yarn Counts Filling 39a 42b 42 b 68 42 Total* 115 100 110 199 91 202 68 *. total number of both warp and fill- ing yarns in one square inch of fabric -34.. Yarn analysis 'With the exception of the woraco (group VII) and rayon-cotton faille .(group III), there was little variation in yarn numbers. (See Table 11 in the Appendix.) Group III was made of faille fabric which was woven of unbalanced yarns in order to produce the desired ribbed effect. The linen fabric was made of coarse,low-twist yarns. When yarn twist is considered, there was little variation in groups VI, VII, IX, and X. The blended rayon and cotton print group VIII was the only group in which two ply yarns were used throughout; the twist was greater than for any of the other groups. The rayon-cotton faille group XII had a rayon filament warp with the low twist of two per inch. Both warp and filling yarns in linen group XIII had low twists - eight per inch. weight per square yard The least expensive group, cotton (group VI), was the lightest in weight while one of the most expensive groups, woraco (group VII), was the heaviest per square yard. These findings were closely related to those made by Sumner.(27) The remaining groups averaged between five and six ounces per square yard. However, since soluble sizing was not removed from the samples before they were weighed, the results were modified to an extent. -35- IX XII XIII Table 2 ‘Neight per Square Yard of Original Fabrics Fiber Content rayon and cotton seat; and viscose rayons viscose rayon .A ._ W . . .. 4‘ linen Harp Filling cotton cotton viscose I viscose rayon and rayon, cotton _cotton,and wool viscose viscose rayon and rayon and cotton cotton viscose viscose rayon and cotton pacetate and viscose ray ons cotton (linen Averase We i ght per Square Yard (in Ounces) 4.6506 6.2169 5.06i8 5.9098 -5.2598 5.6970 Breaking strengths When dry breaking strength averages in warp and filling were con- sidered, the linen cloths (group XIII) comprised the most nearly balanced group of fabrics. Of the blends, the acetate and viscose rayon (group X) similarly had the most nearly balanced dry breaking strengths. (See Table 3 which followsJ When wet warp and filling breaking strength averages were corsidered, again the linen (group XIII) lead all others in balanced construction; the acetate and viscose rayon (group X) again lead the blended fabrics. In general, there were greater differences in breaking strengths within a given group than among the seven different groups. Since there was as great or greater variation in the tablecloths within a given group as between the tablecloths and napkins of that same group, the breaking strength data on tablecloths and napkins were combined to arrive at average strengths. The variations in breaking strengths were attributed to inherent differences in the fiber in groups VI (all cotton), XII (filament rayon warp and cotton filling), and XIII (all linen). The variations in quantitative amounts of each fiber in the remaining blended groups and the varying yarn counts accounted for the variation in strength in those groups. The unknown factors such as kind and degree of bleaching, use of dye, and finishing suggested by Howorth(17) would also account for some variation. In every case, as Davis noted, the all cotton or all linen yarns test- ed stronger wet than dry.(9) All rayon yarns tested stronger dry than wet. The blended yarns showed considerable variation in breaking strength when tested wet. 'When a relatively large amount of cotton was blended into the mixture, the wet breaking strengths of the blend did not show as much loss -37.. over the dry breaking strength; in some cases, they actually showed a gain. (See Plates 1 and 2 and Tables 17 and 18 in the Appendix.) The findings in this study on wet breaking strength of the rayons is in com- plete accordance with those in the various studies previously cited. -38... Group VI VII VIII IX N rayons Table 3 Average Breaking Strengths in Pounds of Original Fabrics Fiber Content Warp cotton viscose rayon and cotton viscose rayon and cotton viscose rayon and cotton acetate and vis- COSO viscose rayon linen ..4 . {Filling cotton viscose rayon, cotton, and‘wool viscose rayon and cot- ton .viscose ray on and cot- ton acetate and vis- COSG rayons ;cotton linen .. Dry ;67.2a 57.4b 69.6a 78.30 53.0b a. average of 20 determinations b. average of 50 determinations c. average of 25 determinations (Earp : Net B403a ' i .77.0 b 63.48 61.2 * Per Cent .4 13 2,’o . 36.8 Filling Dry , 35.7a b. 139.7 M 25.0 ' 57.5° 50.70 I W‘sr \ d 44.6a 19.8 23.0 75.2° 78.3b b '. * Per Cent 105% \ C‘ ‘. a C3 ‘ 01 01 131% 154% *. wet strength determined as a percentage of dry strength Elongation The filament rayon warp used in the faille tablecloths (group XII) showed the greatest percentage of elongation of any of the seven groups, while the linen fabric showed the smallest percentage in both warp and filling. (See Table 4 which follows.) The faille fabric reacted as expected in the light of Becker's article.(3) The small amount of twist and the large number of crimps introduced by the ribbed, plain weave determined the larger percentage of elongation. However, warpwise elonga- tions of the other groups were not smaller than the fillingwise elongation (3) percentages as Backer noted. This variation could be explained by in- herent differences in the natural fibers and the rayon blends and by varia- tion in crimp. Both cotton and linen.yarns showed less elongation when tested wet than when tested dry. In general, the rayons increased in percentage elongation when tested wet. However, the filament rayon warp of the rayon- cotton faille cloths showed a decrease when tested amt which was caused in part, by the yarns swelling in water and a tightening in the weave struc- ture. The blends again varied in their reactions in elongation determina- tions when tested wet and proportionately to the percentage of cotton pres- (21) ent in them. In some cases the fabrics followed Matthews' conclusion that elongation tends to increase as strength decreases, but variables such as amount of crimp, twist, weave, and inherent fiber characteristics likewise affected the results in this study. As in the other portion of 11 this study,‘ ) the dry cotton elongations exceeded the expected upper 21 limit of 10%( by a considerable amount, thereby indicating that the cot- ton used had less than average strength. The elongations of the rayon blends (dry) tended to be near or above the upper limits of elongation (15) of viscose rayon as noted by Hartsuch. -41- 0. average Average Percentage of ‘ i Table 4 V Elongation in Crisinal Fabrics .- k7 i Fiber Content Tarp ‘: 5 { _group_ warp .Tillinq f Dry é Jet 9V1 :cotton ’cotton 19.4fla: 15.3}:a VII viscose viscose 1P.4%b' 19.31b 'rayon 'rayon, band cot;cotton. ‘ ' I ” ton and wool VIII viscose viscose 24.2fla; 30.3,?a rayon rayon and cot-and cot- :ton‘ Eton IX viscose viscose 25.93b 21.2f3b rayon :rayon and coteand cot- t on t on X acetate acetate 25.473a 24.0?a and visLand vis- cose cose Irayonsp:rayons XII Lviscose cotton 58.550 35.3";C 4 ray on : -WEIWTW .H.. ’5 I) XIII 'linen linen 10.2; 8.1% a. average of 20 determinations b. average of 50 determinations of 25 determinations F Filling Per , Per * ”Cent". Dry Wet .Cent 79% 15.45;a 12.8.2“:a 83% l : . . 1052’24.5flb' 38.0%b f 155% 125$ 19.75:5 19.1fia 97g 92% 16.63:b 5.0:b as; 97% 22.52;:a 24.12?a 106% 927: 12.9,"? 12.05;" 9:57.: 79;; 9.4%" 6.7;? 71;: *. wet elongation determined as a percentage of dry elongation Cost per square yard Table 5 which follows summarizes the costs per square yard of the various fabrics under consideration. The three most expensive groups were well and decoratively hemmed; groups VII and IX had additional decoration within the cloths. Extra time, materials, and equipment neces- sary for this construction tended to increase production costs for groups VII, IX, and X and should be considered in cost comparisons and evalua- tion. The less expensive groups consistently showed cheaper construction features. The tow linen was of poor quality and over-priced. At the time of purchase linen was in great demand and short supply. A few months later it probably would have been possible to secure this quality at a more nominal price. Chart 4 in the Appendix gives cost specification data of the original fabrics. Group VIII IX XII XIII Table 5 Fiber Content W8. I‘ p cotton viscose rayon and cotton viscose rayon and cotton viscose rayon and cotton'_ acetate and viscose rayons viscose rayon linen 1 Filling cotton viscose rayon, cotton, and wool viscose rayon and cotton ’ viscose rayon and cotton. acetate and viscose rayons cotton linen -44- Cost per Square Yard of Original Fabrics Cost per Square Yard $1.51 $5.34 $4.02 $2.04 $2.20 Performance of the seven groups Throughout this thesis, the word "performance" is defined as the manner in which the various fabric changes which occured after fifty launderings as compared to the performance of the original fabric. wet and dry breaking strengths, wet and dry elongations, and'weight per square yard were determined for the laundered fabrics. This informa- tion coupled with the dimensional change and yarn count data which were obtained at stated intervals during the launderings and the subjective analysis of final fabric appearance comprised performance testing for the study. Variation of performances within the groups Group VI - all cotton, twill-woven fabric After a loss of 3.1% during the first laundering, the fabric showed progressive warpwise shrinkage until a maximum shrinkage of 7.3% was reached at the fiftieth laundering. Fillings stretched 2.3% during the first laundering, but less than 1% more during the remaining forty—nine launderings. According to these percentages, the original 52” by 52" cloth had changed to 48" by 54" at the end of fifty launderings. The four inch change in length would be enough, in come cases, to prevent the cloth from covering the table ends sufficiently for appearance value. Ironing procedure affected both dimensional change and yarn count change; although there was an attempt to iron the specimen cloths in exactly the same manner each time to minimize stretchage, there was still a certain amount of variation which could not be avoided. -45... As for dry elongation percentages, the laundered warp samples showed a 7.6% increase, probably due, in part, to the fact that the warp shrink- age increased the amount of crimp per inch in the fabric. The stretch noted in the filling direction of the fabric caused a decrease in crimp per inch and an elongation percentage decrease. The dry filling elonga- tion showed a loss of 7.3fl. Both warp and filling wet elongations showed losses because cotton fibers are characteristically stronger wet than dry. The laundered cloths showed a very slight gain in weight per square yard because of shrinkage which had caused the yarns to become more compact. The laundered all cotton fabrics became fuzzy and lost their crispness dur- ing the laundry period. A few broken threads appeared in the fabric. The twill weave became much more noticeable as the laundering progressed. No special washing or ironing problems were presented by the cotton fabric. During washing, the light dyed areas of the pale green and white print showed considerable fading. The dark blue areas of the blue and white print showed considerable streaking and spotting.. After eighty . hours in the fadeometer the light prints had faded objectionably while the dark prints showed no fading. Homemakers, in many cases, would have dis- carded the cloths because of their faded appearance even before the fif- tieth laundering. Group VII - Woraco, plain-woven fabric After the first laundering the fabric had shrunk 1.5% in length and had stretched 2.4% in width. warp shrinkage progressively increased until it reached 4.7% at the fiftieth laundering; the stretching in the filling varied about 1% during laundry and was finally 2.6% after fifty launderings. -41.. The original cloth size of 52" by 52" had changed to 51" by 54", a dimen- sional change which was not sufficient to constitute any major change in the fit of the cloth on the table insofar as appearance was concerned. Warp yarn counts showed a 2.4; decrease after the first laundering but percentages varied only slightly. On the other hand, the filling count after one laundering showed an increase of 2.3}, gradually increasing to 5% after the twentieth laundering and again decreasing slightly to a 4§ increase after fifty launderings. 2 After laundering, the filling showed less elongation when tested dry, perhaps. due to changes in the wool fibers caused by laundering. When the filling was tested wet after laundering, it showed less loss in elongation due to the rayon fiber content. Due to shrinkage, the laundered cloths showed a slight gain in weight per square yard. The woraco cloths and napkins required special care in washing and ironing because of the presence of wool and also because of the type of off-grain decorative machine-trimming. The white stitching lost its luster and yellowed by the end of the launderings, thus losing some of its effec- tiveness as a trim. The corners of the machine-overcast hem tended to pull out. )lring the laundry series the color of the fabric faded evenly but not objectionably, the color becoming softer and more even. When the fabric was exposed to light for eighty hours in the fadeometer, the color faded evenly but not objectionably. Group VIII - spun viscose rayon and cotton, plain-woven fabric These four blended cotton and rayon cloths showed a warpwise shrink— age of 8.7% after the first laundering; progressive shrinkage continued -47- throughout the subsequent launderings and ended with 13.21 shrinkage. In the filling, shrinkage after one laundering was only 1.3%, but progres- sively continued, although more gradually, until it reached 3.5% at the end of launderings. The relatively high twist in the ply yarns probably accounted for the increase in shrinkage. The shrinkage averages, trans- lated into terms of area change in the original cloths would mean that these 63" by El" tablecloths waild measure 61" by 70" after fifty launder- ings. This eleven inch change is sufficiently great, in many cases, to make the cloth unsuitable for further use as a complete table covering. As would be expected, the warp yarn count showed a very slight gain of 1% after one laundaring, and a 3.6% increase after fifty launderings. The filling yarn count increased progressively from a 13.5% gain follow- ing the first laundering to a 17.4% increase after the final laundering. The small increase in warp count and large increase in filling count were due to the respective fillingwise and warpwise shrinkage. The large amountsshrinkage in the warp and the smaller amount in the filling were reflected in the elongation determinations. After fifty launderings the warp (dry) showed a 15.8% gain in elongation while elonga- tion in the filling yarns showed a 4.9fi increase. When tested wet, warp elongation showed a very small loss of 1% and the filling, a 3.3% loss. The considerable gain of 15% in weight per squareryard of the laund- ered fabrics can be attributed to the high per cent of shrinkage. Upon subjective analysis after laundering, the prints appeared softer in color and texture with a slightly yellowed background. The weave seem- ed firmer because of the shrinkage that had taken place. -As- The colored portions of the fabric did fade during laundering, but not to the point of being objectionable. After eighty hours exposure in the fadeometer, fading was slightly noticeable but not objectionable. Group IX - spun viscose rayon and cotton, twill-woven fabric This sanforized group of table cloths showed the best dimensional stability of any of the seven groups. After the first laundry, warpwise shrinkage was less than 1% and fillingwise stretching averaged only 1.6%. Upon the completion of fifty launderings, the warp showed a 2.8% maximum shrinkage while the filling had stretched less than 1%. The original 52" by 52" cloth had changed only one inch in length which is insufficient to affect its appearance or utility value. The warp yarn count taken after one laundering showed a 5% loss, but the final counting disclosed less than a 1% loss. In the filling, less than 1% gain in count was found after the first laundrygflgradually in- creased to 3.4% gain following the final laundering. These small gains and losses in yarn count are consistent with the dimensional stability of the fabric. Dry elongations of the laundered samples showed gains of less than 2% due to loss of strength but in the wet state test results showed equiva- lent losses of 8% which could be attributed to the expected reaction of wet cotton. The negligible change in weight per square yard of the laundered cloths again shows a relationship to the dimensional stability of the fabric. As in the cotton twill fabric, laundering caused the weave to be- come more pronounced. The machine-overcast decorative trimming made iron- ing difficult and the machine-overcast hems tended to pull out on the corners. During laundering, the gray with blue and green with yellow cloths faded noticeably but evenly and not Objectionably. After exposure to eighty hours of light in the fadeometer, the yellow cloths showed most fading but even these had not faded objectionably. The gray and green had faded very slightly and the blue cloths showed no appreciable change in color. Group X - spun acetate and viscose rayon, plainawoven fabric After one laundering, warpwise shrinkage reached 1.9%, with a maxi— mum of 6.7% shrinkage after the fiftieth laundering. The filling stretch- ed very slightly from less than 1% after the first to 1.1% after fifty launderings. The cloth measuring 57" by 57" when purchased averaged 53" by 58" at the end of fifty launderings, a decrease in length of four inches and increase in width of one inch. The slight stretching of the filling was responsible for the insignifi- cant loss of less than 2% in warp yarn count. Filling yarn count increase ranged from 1.6% to 5.8% at the last count. Both warp and filling elongations (dry) showed more than a 6% gain after laundering. Due to loss in breaking strength index, warp elongation (wet) still showed a 2.9% gain, but the filling showed no change due to laundering. The small amount of change in weight per square yard was caused by fabric shrinkage. At the conclusion of the launderings, the appearance of the fabric had not altered appreciably. The machine-overcast hems ironed more easily than the hems of the other groups. -50- The colors faded slightly but not objectionably during laundering and there was no appreciable fading after eighty hours in the fadeometer. Group XII - filament viscose rayon and cotton, plain-woven fabric After the first laundering, the faille cloths showed a 6.1% warp- wdse shrinkage with progressive shrinkage to a maximum of 9.3%. The fill- ing shrank less than 1% during the first laundering with a final shrinkage of 2.7%. The original measurements of 53" by 72" changed to 52" by 65" after fifty launderings, a loss in length of seven inches which is enough to affect both the fit and appearance of the cloth on the table. The final warp yarn count showed an increase of 3% while the final filling count showed an increase of 10%. Both warp and filling elongations showed increases due to loss in strength after laundering. The dry rayon warp gained 3.2% and the wet, 5%,while the cotton filling showed a gain of 19% when dry and 10% gain when wet. Because of the shrinkage there was a slight gain in weight per square yard of the cloths. Upon inspection after laundry, it was found that the original hems had held well. Laundering did not alter colors to a noticeable degree. The texture and sheen were softer and the cloths were more attractive in appearance after the sequence of launderings than when new. The green and brown colors faded considerably, although not objectionably, during eighty hours in the fadeometer; the gray faded slightly,the other colors remain- ing unchanged. Tiny holes due to breaks in the warp yarns had begun to appear in the laundered fabric. The low twist in the rayon warp yarns would tend to -51.. wear and split fillingwise'with abrasion. The rayon yarns were easily snagged and pricked readily. \ Eipup XIII - all linen, plain-woven fabric (with basket weave variation) Almost the entire amount of shrinkage of the linen fabric took place .during the first laundering; the warp lost 3.2» and the filling,2.7fl. After the final laundering warp shrinkage was 3.5? and filling shrinkage, 3.2%. The original cloth size of 54" by 72" changed to 52" by 70", a de- crease of two inches in each direction. If the cloth was adequate in size originally, this area change was not sufficiently great to de-value the appearance or utility of the cloth. 1 As with the shrinkage, the yarn counts showed little change after the first laundering. The warp count varied from 2.8% increase after the first to 3.1% increase after the fiftieth; the filling count showed variations from 6% increase following first to 5.6% increase after the final launder- ing. Both warp and filling (dry) showed elongation loss after laundering. However, the wet warp showed greater elongation than the dry while the opposite was true in the filling direction. The amount and placement of the basket-weave sections accounted for this contradictory variation. Although some shrinkage occurred, the fabric showed an appreciable loss in weight per square yard because in each laundering there was a con- siderable loss of fiber as evidenced by fiber residue. The appearance of these linen cloths improved with laundering. Some of the hems pulled out and the basket weave areas did not shrink while the plainawoven areas did with the result that the cloths would not lie flat on the table. -52- The colors faded slightly but not objectionably during laundering. The cloths which were light yellow and green in color showed slight but not objectionable fading in the eighty hour fadeometer test. Comparison of group performances Dimensional stability Each group of cloths showed progressive shrinkage in the warp. The sanforized cloths (group IX) ranked first with the smallest amount of dimensional change in warp, filling, and total area. Group VIII composed of spun viscose rayon and cotton in which two ply yarns were used showed the greatest dimensional change. Table 6 which follows shows the percent— age dimensional change for all groups. Groups VI, VII, IX, and X had reached their maximum shrinkage in the first five launderings; groups XII" and XIII, after the first laundering; and group VIII, after the tenth laundering. Groups VI, VII, IX, and X showed stretching in the filling while groups VIII, XII, and XIII showed shrinkage. Filling yarns, in general, were less consistent in dimensional change than were those in the warpwise direction, a result which has been consistently observed in prac- tically all laundering studies. Plate 3 in the Appendix readily shows that the greatest amount of shrinkage occurred in the first five launder- ings in most cases and tended to progress through subsequent launderings to the twentieth. Any additional launderings showed no appreciable shrink- age. Plate 4 in the Appendix indicates the unpredictable performance in- sofar as width is considered. Ironing is unquestionably a factor and in- stability and inconsistency is pronounced throughout the first twenty laun- derings; the subsequent launderings showing less variation for all groups. 1T7 Total area change in groups VIII and $31 in which viscose rayon is pres- ent shows from two to four times as much change as the other types of cloths. Table 6 Percentage Dimensional Change in Fabrics After Fifty Launderings Fiber Content Group " ‘Harp Filling Warp Change -Filling Change Total Area ’ in Per Cen in Per Cent Change ' in Per Cent VI cotton cotton -7.53 -+3.1fl -4.5fi VII viscose viscose -4.7% +2.6fl -2.2fi rayon and -rayon cotton (cotton and E’wool VIII viscose viscose ~13.23 -3.5% -16.3fl rayon and rayon and cotton cotton IX viscose viscose ~2.8% +0.83 -l.9% rayon and ' rayon and cotton cotton X acetate _aoetate -6.7% +1.1%' -5.6% and viscose and viscose rayons grayons XII viscose 3 cotton -9.3% -2.7% -ll.8% rayon XIII linen L linen -3.53 -3.2% -6.63 Table 12 in the Appendix and Plates 3, 4, and 5 give additional in- formation concerning dimensional changes of the seven groups. The shrinkage and stretching of the fabrics were reflected in the changes of yarn omint, weight per square yard and breaking strength. Shrinkage of the warp caused increased filling yarn count and vice versa. Fabrics which decreased in total area showed an increase in weight per square yard due to increased yarn count unless there had been excessive fiber loss during laundering. Breaking strengths showed increases due to shrinkage and the resultant increased yarn count unless component fibers had deteriorated during laundering in an amount sufficient to modify the results. (27) Filling chanpes were not objectionable. However, a Sumner, (12) Gaston and Fletcher, and others have found, warpwise shrinkage in un- sanforized fabrics is much greater because of warp tension during weaving. Total area change was greatest in groups VIII and XII, the groups contain- ing two ply yarns with higher twist. Yarn count As can be noted in Table 7, the yarn count percentage change sub— stantiates the dimensional change results. In groups VInguIVII the warp counts showed a slight decrease; groups VIII, IX, and XII showed a slight increase, an:l only grouP XIII showed no change after fifty launderings. All groups showed increased filling counts due to warp shrinkage. VIII .-....—.-.-.__- l V , XII XIII Per Cent Change in Yarn Count Table 7 Fiber Content Warp cotton viscose rayon and cotton viscose rayon and cotton viscose rayon and cotton acetate and viscose rayons viscose rayon linen Filling cotton viscose rayon, cotton,and wool viscose rayon and cotton viscose rayon and cotton acetate and viscose rayons cotton -56.. Warp r1 -1 . 7:13 +0.83 “‘2 o 01;: +3.2% After Fifty Launderings +16.7% 9 0M LJ.\//C +1o.4fi \ U Weight per square yard All fabrics showed a change in weight per square yard. Group XIII (tow linen fabric) was the only group to show a weight loss due to exces— sive linting during laundering. Although Sumner(27) found in her study that all cottons and rayon-cotton blends gained at least 1 fl, only two of six such groups in this portion of the study showed that amount of rain. The sanforizing process retarded a weight gain for group IX while slight fiber linting could account for variations in the other groups. Group If I VIII IX Fiber Content We rp cotton viscose rayon and cotton viscose rayon and cotton viscose rayon pand cotton acetate and viscose rayons viscose rayon linen Per Cent Change in weight Per Square ‘. _c°tt0n_, Table 8 Filling viscose rayon, cotton,and wool viscose rayon and cotton viscose rayon and cotton acetate and viscose rayons cotton linen Yard After Fifty Launderings Per Cent Change +4.93: +3.6fi 419.3}; +0.6?! Colorfastness Although some fading occurred in every group, only the cotton twill cloths(group VI) showed such severe fading that they would have been dis- carded by many homemakers. -58.. b—-‘— ~ _ Chart 3 Colorfastness of Fabrics Fiber Content Colorfastness to Laundering - (50 times) green faded con- siderably5b1ue streaked and spot- ted badly uGroup warp ,Filling - 4 VI ‘ cotton ‘cotton E viscose VII viscose rayon and cotton VIII viscose * rayon and Ilwi_nh.w Cotton IX : viscose ‘ rayon and cotton ‘ X ; acetate ; and viscose :‘rayons XII ‘ viscose i rayon XIII : linen irayon and Fviscose .rayon and :acetate 3cottcn ‘linen cotton and qweol L noticeably and evenly faded, but : noticeably faded, L but not objection— cotton .viscose :able noticeably and evenly faded, but :rayon and cotton and viscose 'rayons not objectionable slightly faded, able Inot appreciably gfaded 'slightly faded, but not objection-j 'able -59- ‘to Light (PO Hours :in Fadeometer) -green faded object- lionably :evenly faded, but not objectionably _ not objectionable : ;noticeably faded, but not objection- -able yellow faded consid- -erably, but not ob- .jectionable; gray and green slightly faded, _but not objectionable Inot appreciably faded -but not objection-i :green and brown areas 'faded considerably, but not objectionably; Egray areas slightly :faded ilight green and orange slightly faded, but ‘not objectionable Breaking strengths Plates 6, 7, B, and 9 and Tables 15, 16, 17 and 18 in the Appendix show graphically and in table form breaking strength changes during laun- dering. The following table shows percentage change in breaking strengths after laundering and affords ready comparison between the various fabrics by groups. Per Cent Change in Breaking Strength Fiber Content ‘ Group warp VI cotton .VII viscose rayon and cotton VIII viscose rayon and cotton IX viscose rayon and cotton X acetate and viscose rayons XII viscose rayon XIII linen Filling cotton viscose rayon,' Table 9 cotton.and wool viscose rayon and cotton viscose rayon and cotton acetate and viscose rayons cotton linen 0 After Fifty Launderings Breaking Strength Dry warp Filling “150670 PO. 8;; F +10.2% ‘ +0.61 +6.7% . Wet , warp Filling .1705% .14.5% -12.0% f " 5 9 (,3’0 -2 o 85: -2075?) +9.0% +11.1% +8.8% -3 7o 6:”; 'With the exception of tOW'linen (Group XIII) which showed excessive amounts of fiber loss during laundering, the groups showed within 7% the same amount of warp breaking strength loss. -60.. Dry breaking strength losses in the spun rayon blends ranged from 15.6% to 21.5%; when wet,a range from 12.0% to 18.7%. Filament rayon yarns showed less loss in strength when tested wet (5.2%) than spun rayon yarns. Filling breaking strength changes showed greater variation due to the range in warp shrinkages. Tested dry, filling yarn strengths varied from a gain of 14.4% to a loss of 0.8% and, tested wet, they varied from a gain of 11.1% to a loss of 2.8%. Tow linen tablecloths showed an approximate loss of 35% in strength in all performance tests. Comparison of spun viscose rayon and cotton groups VIII and IX The viscose rayon-cotton prints (group VIII) and viscose rayon-cotton twill (group IX) were comparable insofar as fiber content was concerned; however, precentage compositions may have varied since those could not be checked in the laboratory. Group IX had about an 80% greater yarn count than did group VIII. Group IX had the advantage of sanforization which made for much greater dimensional stability. In dimensional stability group VIII cloths ranked as the lowest of all groups. . The warp breaking strength of twill group IX was slightly greater than that of plain weave group VIII; however, group IX filling breaking strengths were less than.those of group VIII. The balance in warp and filling breaking strengths (group IX) was poor. Breaking strength loss in group VIII was greatest. The higher cost of group IX cloths can be partly attributed to the finishing cost of sanforizing and the machine—stitched trimmings and edein.s used as decoration. ‘u E ) -61.. Comparison of twill-woven groups VI and IX The variation in fiber content and finishing of these two groups made a complete comparison impossible. The twill patterns varied also. Group VI (cotton) was the least expensive in the entire group while the spun viscose rayon and cotton (group IX) was the most expensive. The sanforizing of group IX made it dimensionally stable and likewise more stable in weight than cloths in group VI. Breaking strengths of these two groups varied with both groups having a much higher warp than filling strength. Group IX, because of its rayon content, showed much lower breaking strengths. -62- CCYCLVSICVS Considering all groups of table cloths in this section of the study,. information provided on the labels varied from negligible to minimum amounts. The conclusion is obvious that manufacturers do not label their product with pertinent factual information that will be of real value to the ultimate consumer in making discriminating selection at the time of purchase. Some imported goods are labeled neither in the country in which they are produced nor by the wholesale importer or retailer, and likewise cannot be objectively compared for potential serviceability. Appearance and cost constitute the only criteria of selection. Neasurements of wartime cloths indicated that the unhemmed sizes noted on labels were fundamentally correct. Thus, it would seem that manufacturers did not attempt to skimp on size. Production for certain markets was limited to the use of available yarns although some were not fundamentally suited nor intended for this end use. Discrepancies noted in post-war tablecloth dimensions have probably been due to price resis- tance and demand for lower priced goods. Sub-standard quality during and just after the war years in table coverings has resulted partially because of consumer resistance to price. During the war,quality deterioration related more to availability of essential materials and increased production costs. Currently it bears a closer relation to producing to a price. Lowered standards were re- flected in off-grain printing and trimming, poor quality of printing, excessive use of sizing, and use of fabrics which had been diverted from their intended end use. The poor quality of tow linen used in one group -53- could be attributed to the manufacturers' attempt to satisfy consumer demand although availability of flax was still short of demand. This quality of fabric in Dre-war years had cost approximately one-half that of the 1948 price and obviously would suffer by comparison with the more expensive cloths with which it was grouped because of its dispropoflmnate price increase. Excellent or good qualities of cotton fiber were not available for production of goods for civilian use during the war years and this is accountable for the low quality of cotton which was, of neces- sity, used in the production of the cotton tablecloths in this study. Although there were variations of as much as 1.6 ounces in weight per square yard, other laboratory test results did not arrange themselves according to weight of the finished fabric. Since sizing was not removed before weighing the original samples, the findings were modified, undoubt— edly, to an extent. However, upon removal of sizing, a certain amount of shrinkage would also have taken place and would have modified the results. As was expected, the fabrics (with one exception) which changed the most in area during laundering were those which showed greatest increase in weight after fifty launderings. Exception to this generalization was the tow linen group which showed loss in weight because of liber loss in each washing. In the case of blended yarns, wide variation in breaking strength within groups was noted, leading to the assumption that there had been incompleted. variation in the percentage blend of fibers spun into the yarns. Breaking strength indices in these four groups of fabrics with comparable yarn number and twist. showed differences of less than 9% with- in each group. -64- In ranking fabric group quality characteristics based on specifica- tions, the rayon-cotton faille group purchased in 1948 ranked very high while the tow linens,also purchased in 1948, ranked much lower. Yo con- clusions could be drawn concerning quality changes of these seven groups between 1945 and 1948 because the groups purchased at the two different times were not comparable. However, the other groups in the Experiment Station study did show that a marked improvement in quality had taken place in damask table coverings produced in the postwar years.(11) Rayon- cotton faille group purchased in 1948 ranked high in performance character- istics. However, since there was no comparable group of tablecloths with which to make comparison,no generalized statement of specific characteris- tics or cost relationship should be drawn. . The two groups of twill-woven cloths did not rank above the remainder of the groups either in initial warp or filling strength or after launder- ing. However, both ranked high in performance characteristics but,due to other variables, it was impossible to determine the degree to which char; acteristics were affected by weave alone. The tow linen group did not show comparable breaking strength weaknesses in the basket weave sections, in- dicating that fiber content of the yarns and yarn count are more important to ultimate breaking strengths than the weave structure. This study showed the natural fibers with their inherently greater wet and dry strengths significantly contribute to fabric strength. All rayon fabrics lost less strength during laundering than the blended or natural fiber fabrics, a result substantiated by other studies. A1- _ though milder laundering procedures might accoun for lower breaking strength losses for the all-rayon groups, the rayon-cotton blends similarly -65.. laundered showed greater percentage loss than the 100% rayon fabrics. Ply yarns were found to be stronger than single yarns made of the same fiber or blended fibers. Continuous launderings caused excessive yarn slippage and hem fray- H. n . Future technological processes may reduce such slippage. (Fl This portion of the study did not bear out the statement that higher yarn counts always produce higher breaking strengths. Fiber content var- iation was the significant factor in breaking strength variations in this study. . Likewise this portion of the study did not concur with the other in the finding that filling counts were proportional to warp counts because of weave variation. The only group which was treated for dimensional control showed the smallest percentage dimensional change. Shrinkage was so excessive in the majority of cloths in this study that it constitutes perhaps the most sig- nificant single factor in unsatisfactory performance. Sanforization or other process of stabilizing fabric dimensions would be highly desirable for table coverings. Although the increased cost for this finishing process is responsible for its small usage, the economic waste and consumer dissat- isfaction in respect to dimensional change is one which can and should be regarded as a specification of the greatest importance in table cloths. The war-time cotton twill cloths ($1.31 per square yard) in this study were obviously of such poor quality that they did not give the performance characteristics typical of pre-war cotton products. The price of the cotton cloths in this study, although only approximately two-thirds the cost of the next most expensive cloths, was high in relation to the performance which they gave. The cottons compared well in initial physical tests, but changes in color, texture, and general appearance were so marked that many consumers would have discarded them before the fifty launderings had been completed. However, the reader must remember that, if average and good qualities of cotton tablecloths not available in 1945 might have been in- cluded in this study,comparisons would have been greatly modified. Cotton cloths have many possibilities for consumer satisfaction in the future because of their inherent qualities as well as the application of finishes for preventing shrinkage, linting, creasing, and staining which are char- acteristics desired in table coverings. Blended viscose rayon and cotton plaindwoven cloths which cost $1.93 per square yard were more desirable in texture and general appearance after laundering than in their original state.‘ With the exception of their large amount of dimensional change, their performance was satisfactory. However, this degree of shrinkage would cause them to be unsuitable for use as complete table coverings in many cases. A shrinkage-control finish would have increased greatly the usefulness of these cloths, but the addi- tional cost would be small in comparison to the wear and satisfaction. Filament viscose rayon and cotton tablecloths which were purchased in 1948 for $2.04 per square yard ranked high in performance. Although slight fading of some colors had occurred, the laundered app arance was more attrac- tive than the original. The fabrics which evidently had been loomed for an end use other than tablecloths compared well with other groups for the dura— tion of fifty launderings. However, there were signs that greater deteriora- tion might take place in them in any subsequent launderings than might in other groups. The average seven inch shrinkage of the laundered cloths was -57- enough to affect their fit and apnearance on the table. Printed designs more suitable for use on a tablecloth would have increased consumer satis- faction in many cases. Technological improvements in wet breaking strengths of rayon would improve the expected performance of similar fabric construc— tions in the future. The linen tablecloths and napkins which cost $2.20 per square yard when purchased in 1948 were made of tow linen of low quality. Renardless of the fact that excessive linting occurred, the fabric was still strong after fifty launderings. The light-weight linen cloths laundered easily to an attractive finish. Laundered appearance was more desirable than the original. The combination of basket and plain weaves was a poor one because cloths made of such fabric did not lie flat on the table. A false impression concerning the performance of linen tablecloths would result from this study unless the reader again noted that varying qualities of linen fabric were unavailable for the study at the time of purchase. The woraco tablecloths and napkins purchased for $3.34 per square yard during the war were made of a fiber blend that is unusual for table- cloths. The rough undesirable texture became softer during laundry, but the decorative hems tended to pull out and the white trimming became yellowed. Many consumers amuld find the laundering of such cloths diffi- cult. Performance of the group compared well with the others. War-time spun acetate and viscose rayon tablecloths and napkins which cost $4.02 per square yard closely resembled women's or children's apparel fabric. Although the fabric was not altered noticeably in appearance by laundering, it did rank with the lower groups in performance. Several of -55- the lower priced cloths rave higher performance and satisfactory laundered appearance for much less money. The sanforized viscose rayon and cotton twill tablecloths and napkins purchased in 1945 were the most expensive, costing $4.51 per square yard. More decoration and the sanforizing both contributed to the higher cost. The attractive laundered appearance and dimensional stability were highly desirable. Laundering was accomplished easily, a factor'wiich the average homemaker considers an important one. The group also ranked highest of all in performance characteristics, thereby making it a wise consumer choice in the higher price bracket. 'Within the lower price category of the study,the filament viscose rayon and cotton faille cloths were the wisest choice in spite of their shrinkage. The sanforized viscose rayon and cotton twill tablecloths were the best choice regardless of price. The study showed that, although the most expensive cloths ranked highest in performance characteristics and laundered appearance combined, price is not the criterion for judging per- formance. The performance of the groups, in general, would have been improved had yarn counts and breaking strengths of warp and filling been more nearly comparable and had the wet strength of rayon been more nearly comparable to its dry strength. The natural fiber yarns and blended fiber yarns which contained more cotton had satisfactory wet breaking strengths in comparison to dry breaking strengths. The degree of dampness of rayon or rayon blend fabrics determines to an extent the degree to which they may be restored to original dimensions during hand ironing. -69.. Five of the seven groups showed the expected increases in dry warp elongation of laundered fabrics over original fabrics. Other elongation changes varied; they neither followed the elongations of the original fab- rics nor the tendency of increasing percentages of elongation for weaker fabrics. Variables such as the amount of crimp, twist, weave, and vary- ing inherent fiber characteristics affected the results. All fabrics tested strengthened the argument for quality control of table linens. Breaking strengths within individual groups varied an aver- age of 25%. Original specifications of all synthetic fabrics, however, showed much less difference than did those of all natural fibers while blended fabrics containing some natural fiber showed an amount of differ- ence falling between the first two. If breaking strengths are assumed to be an indication of performance expectancy, the large variation in specifi- cations of supposedly identical cloths would account for varied consumer reactions to the same product. The cost per square yard and closeness of specifications within individual groups were not related; the cheaper as well as more expensive cloths varied. The linen fabric breaking strengths, wet and dry, were the most nearly balanced of all groups, while the blended acetate and viscose rayon fabric was the most balanced of the blended fabrics. In general, there were great- er differences in breaking strengths within a given group than among the seven different groups. Variations in breaking strengths were attributed to inherent fiber differences, to differences in quantitative amounts of each fiber in the blends, to varying yarn counts, and to unknown factors such as the kind and degree of bleaching, dyeing, and finishing. When a relatively large amount of cotton was blended with rayon to form a yarn, the wet -70- breaking strength of the blend showed less loss over dry breaking strength than did an all rayon yarn; in some cases of blending, wet strength was actually greater than dry. After laundering, breaking strengths showed increases due to shrinkage and the resultant increased yarn count unless component fibers had deteriorated during laundering in an amount suffic— ient to modify the results. 'With the exception of the tow linen group, the tablecloths showed within 7% of the same amount of warp breaking strength loss in fifty launderings; approximately 18% loss in strength was average. The linen cloths averaged a 353 loss in strength due to fifty launderings. In this study the fabrics composed of viscose rayon blended with cot- ton made the best general showing. However, as has been noted previously, the low quality of both the linen and cotton cloths available for use in the study caused the poor impression of natural fiber table linens which this study indicates. A consumer must be able to judge quality on some bases other than price which in this study indicated only better construction features such as the amount and kind of decoration. A knowledge of inherent fiber quali- ties and comparative costs of various weaving types and fibers plus the in- formation on a suitable label should help purchasers to make wise choices. A desirable informative label should contain the following data: brand name, dimensions in inches, percentage fiber content, weave, yarn count of warp and filling, wet and dry breaking strengths for warp and filling, and special laundering directions if they are required; extra information con- cerning special processing such as sanforizing, color-fastness, and so forth should also be added. -71. Because of the large amounts of time, money, and effort required to complete this study, perhaps some suggestions may be made to the trade. The study results indicated that manufacturers could increase consumer satisfaction in their products by constructing simple table coverings of dimensionally stabilized and color-fast fabrics having balanced yarn counts and breaking strengths. A clearly written informative label should accompany each cloth. To insure constant quality control and thus constant consumer satisfaction in identical products, manufacturers should have their merchandise check-tested frequently by independent testing labora- tories. Since the tablecloths and napkins of these groups were not available in large numbers or in a complete range of qualities, the conclusions reached concerning them.would be modified, undoubtedly, in a larger study. The information gained from the study could be extended by inaugurat— ing a wear study on table linens. Such a wear study would incorporate the problems of abrasion and stains during use. The amount of fiber weakening due to stain removal as well as the ease of removing stains from various fibers, fiber blends, and weave constructions would yield pertinent infon- mation. Additional facts would be yielded also if the number of launder- ings were to be increased to at least seventy-five so that they might more nearly duplicate the number of launderings comparable to the nunber of launderings which a tablecloth would have under normal conditions of use in the home. The completion of the abrasion portion of the study would.. give another basis upon which to judge probable wear amongst the fabric . groups, although present abrasion testing is unreliable insofar as it is predictive of duplicating wear. -72- This laboratory study, chosen instead of a wear study because of the high cost in time as well as materials of such wear projects, could not include all phases of wear under home conditions. However, the re- sults served as bases for comparative prediction of performances of the fabrics. The future holds promise of more new fibers, new fiber blends, new fabric constructions, and new fabric finishes. flith the continuing tech- nological advances, yarn and fabric tailor-made for satisfactory table- cloths and napkins maylie possible. Technological research must continue to improve the inherent qualities of fibers and weave constructions of which the fabrics are made. Consumer research must continue to provide manufacturers with information concerning what consumer-buyers need and want as well as to provide buyers with up-to-date information upon which to rely when purchasing table linens. -73- SW- 7‘ 'A RY This thesis reported a portion of the large Experiment Station study of thirteen groups of table linens undertaken in the Textiles Research Laboratory at Vichigan State College. Thirty tablecloths and seventeen matching setsof table napkins were divided into seven groups according to their fiber content, weave, price, and time of purchase. The study was undertaken because of the need for information concerning specifications and performances of tablecloths and napkins of varying fiber content. Five groups were purchased in Detroit, Nichigan, in 1945; the other two groups were purchased in Lansing, Michigan, in 1948. The number of cloths and napkins within each group varied because certain types were not available in desired quantities. Purchases were made in 1945 and again in 1948 in an attempt to determine the differences in specifications and per- formances between wartime and postwar merchandise. After purchase, the tablecloths were measured to determine original dimensions, labeled, and cut into the desired testing sections. Specifi- cations of original sections of fabrics were determined by analyzing the results of the following tests: yarn count, color-fastness to light, wet and dry elongations, rayon filament count, wet and dry breaking strengths, yarn twist, yarn number, fiber content, and weight per square yard. Cost per square yard was determined. Two sections of each tablecloth and two napkins of each set were laundered fifty times under duplicated home condi- tions. The tablecloth sections were measured for dimensional change after the first, second, third, fourth, fifth, tenth, fifteenth, twentieth, twenty-fifth, thirtieth, fortieth, and fiftieth launderings. Yarn counts were recorded after first, fifth, tenth, twentieth, and fiftieth launder- inss. At the end of the fifty launderinqs, the tablecloth sections and napkins were tested to determine wet and dry breaking strengths, wet and . dry elongations, and weight per scuare yard. Two people performed the subjective analysis of the laundered fabrics; this analysis included the noting of color change, texture change, change in handle, and deteriora- tion in construction. All analyses of the laundered fabrics were used as the bases for predicting and comparing performances of the table coverings. Table coverings suffered from lowered standards of quality during and just after the war years essentially because of wartime restrictions on basic materials. It is quite likely that the substitutions which came out of these restrictions may have brought certain new types of fabrics into this field which will serve as a basis for far better fabrics in the future. Performance characteristics did not arrange themselves according to weight per square yard of finished fabric nor to the price per square yard of fabric. Loss in area due to shrinkage during laundry was directly re- lated to gain in weight per square yard of the laundered fabric except for the linen group which lost weight because of much fiber loss in laundering. Breaking strength tests of fabrics of fiber blends showed noticeable varia- tion because of incomplete blending. In all cases, warpwise dimensional change, caused in part by weaving tensions, was greater than fillingwise dimensional change. Warp yarns of all fabrics lost more strergth during laundering than did filling yarns. Linen and cotton yarns, although they lost a greater percentage of strength during laundering than certain other yarns, ranked highest in wet breaking strength indices determined after laundering. Less damage is likely to occur to cotton and linen fabrics than to rayons or rayon blends because of rough handling when wet. Elonga— tions of neither the original nor the laundered fabrics entirely showed a tendency to increase with decreased strength, but instead they varied with crimp, inherent fiber characteristics, and weave. Natural fibers have potentially greater wet and dry breaking strengths to contribute to fabrics than do synthetic fibers. However, all rayon fab- rics lost less strength during laundry than either rayon blends or natural fiber fabrics. The hems of rayon and rayon blended fabrics pulled out in some instances because of yarn slippage. Fiber content percentage was the important factor in breaking strength variations in this study. Dimension- al stability induced by sanforization or other process was highly desirable in the tablecloths. ”Within the lower price category of the study, the filament viscose rayon and cotton faille cloths were the wisest choice if the cloths were purchased in a size large enough to allow for the shrinkage. If price were not considered, the most expensive, sanforized viscose rayon and cotton twill tablecloths gave the best performances. Linen and cotton tablecloths of better quality would have made higher ratings than did the groups con- tained in this study. Due to the fact that closely similar groups of cloths could not be pur- chased in 1945 and 1948, specifications and performances of like groups could not be compared to determine quality changes during the intervening three years. Also becmise such variables as fiber content, fiber percent— ages, and finishing processes entered into fabric performance as well as -376— did weave construction, it was impossible to determine a relationship between weave construction and probable serviceability of tablecloths and napkins. The study indicated that fiber content and yarn count are more important to the ultimate strength of the fabric than is weave con- struction. Consumers who wish to make wise purchases should have at least some knowledge of inherent fiber qualities as well as an idea of comparative costs of various common weaves and fibers. In addition to this informa- tion, a consumer should be able to rely on a desirable informative label attached to the goods being considered. An informative label suitable for table linens wmald include the following facts: brand name, dimen- sions in inches, percentage fiber content, weave, yarn count of warp and filling, wet and dry breaking strengths for warp and filling, and special laundering directions if they are required; information concerning special a such as sanforizing, color—fastness, and so forth should be Q processin added. Because so many new fibers, fiber blends, fabric constructions, and fabric finishes are possible in the future, both technological and con- sumer research must continue to progress so that tomorrow's consumer-buyer may purchase the products she wants and needs with few or no compromises required. -77- B I 3LT CGTLQPTIY 3. 4. 5. 6. E. 9. 10. 11. BIFLICGRAPHY American Society for Testing Naterials, Committee D—lB on Textile hatorials. A.S.T.V. standards on textile materials. Philadel- -— o1..- .— phia, The Society. 1944. Anonymous. Sees need for conservative planning in textile trades. The Journal of Commerce. July 31: 113 - 12B. 1947. Backer, itanley. The relationship between the structural geometry of a textile fabric and its physical properties. Textile Re- search Journal. 18: 650 - 658. 1948. Bendigo, C. W. Synthetics continue growth and diversification. Tex- tile Wbrld, September: 113 - 128. 1947. Bolinger, Florence. A study of the durability of spun rayon fabrics. Unpublished K. S. Thesis. State College, Pennsylvania, Pennsyl- vania State College Library. 1942. Borton, Butz, Voore,'Nilliamson, La Bossier, Blackmore, Kuschke, and Hack. Colorfastness of women's and children's wearing-apparel fabrics. Journal of Home Economics. 34: 539 - 550. 1942. Commercial Standard CS 59 - 44. Textiles testing and reporting. 4th edition. Hashington, D. C., U. S. Government Printing Office. 1944. Dana, Fargaret. Behind the label. Boston, Little, Brown and Company. 1938. Davis, Rebecca. A comparative study of price and performance of wear- ing apparel textiles. Unpublished H. S. Thesis. State college, ?%nnsy1vania, Pennsylvania State College Library. 1942. Ellsworth, Robert. Synthetics grOW'in textile field. The Journal of Comerce. 11111:}, 31: 14.13.. 1946. w Ericson, R. June. The relationship of specifications to serviceabil- ity and cost in selected types of damaskfltable linens. Unpub:‘ lished H. A. Thesis. East Lansing, Richigan,‘fiichigan State College Library. 1949. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. Gaston and Fletcher. Shrinkage of rayon fabrics due to laundering- pressed under controlled conditions. Egyon Textile Vonthyy. 25: 74 - 75. 1944. Greenwood, R. S. The use of rayon staple in woven fabrics in Eng- land. Rayon Textile Nonthxy. 28: 74 - 76. 1947. Hale, nary. A study of standardization of textile fabrics. Ph. D. Dissertation. State College, Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania State College Library. 1937. Hartsich, Bruce. Textile chemistry. (Private publishing) Ehst Lansing, Hichigan. l947. Cr 'l Hays, Murgaret. What We learn from serviceability studies. Journal of Home Economics. 31: 170 - 173. 1939. Howorth, Ruth. A study of the relationships between the construction and the durability of cotton fabrics. Unpublished M. S. Thesis. State College, Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania State College Library. 1941. Keeney, Pauline. The development of an accelerated laundering proced- ure for rayon fabrics. 2 volumes. Ph. D. Dissertation. State College, Pennsylvania, Pknnsylvania State College Library. 1946. .Loiseaux, John. Prospects for imported linens in the U. S. clouded by continuing high price levels. The Journal of Commerce. January 28: 63. 1948. Lomax, James. Textile testing. London, Lonfnans, Green, and Com- pany. 1937. I'atthews, J. r. Textile fibers. th edition. New York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 947. Eocre, Alfred. U. S. no longer primary market for Irish linen. The qurnal of Commerce. January 28: 119. 1948. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. Phelps, Ethel L. Outlines for textile studies. 3rd edition, re- vised. Uinneapolis, Burgess Publishing Company. 1945. Roseberry, Elizabeth. A study of the relationship between the con- struotion and durability of viscose rayon fabrics. Ph. D. Dissertation. State College, Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania State College Library. 1941. Shivvers, Elnora. A study of the physical properties of 24 spun rayon fabrics bought'on the retail marlet. Unpublishedlfi. S. Thesis. Lafayette, Indiana, Purdue University Library. 1942. Skinkle, John H. Te scopical. New ile testing, physical, chemical, and micro- xt York, Chemical Publishing Company. 1940. Sumner, Lottie. The effect of laundering and wear on linen, cotton, and rayon and cotton table napkins. Unpublished M. S. Thesis. Infayette, Indiana, Purdue University Library. 1944. Tear, Julia. Shrinkages of spun rayons in hand and machine launder- ing. Rayon Textile Monthly. 28: 83 - 86. 1947. U. S. Department of Agriculture. 'Women's preferences among selected textile products. U. S. Department of Agriculture Kisc. Pub:__ lication 641. l947. ‘Jeindling, Ludwig. Long vegetable fibegs. New York, Columbia Uni- w versity Press. —l947. Wingate, Isabel. Textile fabrics and their selection. Revised edi- tion. New YoFE, Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1947. -80.. 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W M m M M w A coppoo noppoo m m A _ _ m w A team one A m m M .i m w m M fiche» gonna m.mHn m.mHn m.oH+ w .OH. m.m| L m.nn w.nn_ m.H|w ¢.Hn m.H| a m.mHn w.an m.mnm ¢.m| >.mn . omOOme emoome . wHHH> _ 1 i i M. i _ a a m A _ .. n. ..r m. A. M m . M W _ .M m ”Hook.vad. SOHpoo. m w H W _ h M m m .nopvoow was " M W m m w . . W m . .nomeam demon M m.mn 0.”: H.onw N.Hn 0.0+ M @.N+ N.H+M m.m+_ ¢.H+W e.m+ M s.¢l m m.¢| m.mnw m.mnm m.Hn . omoomem omoome w .nHHb mm.e- ne.m-WmH.eumem.mn mm.o- MuH.m+;mo.m+mse. N+Wme.m+wmm.m+ :m.en “we.e- mm.eummm.mummH.mu w monsoon nonpoo _ ..eHe I3 111 «I3 3W 1 . - - J3 x .. .. N _. w _ . . _. 1 __ i a m . . m V a: e 8 0m ._ eH ... H H e... H OH ... oH Hie... 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I’qlr. III dimmflnfll H. A“ VIM-.....- (Illa... 1! ll“. .(fllr .II. lII.II..I.I.nl|I! all-Iii. i: «CmOleIMMrIEPLLr-U Infill-lull!!! . y 0.“va D GHQ-n will) . w moHanea coaoensoq one HsusHLo mo avenue and» mH oHnsa -BP— Table 14 Weights per Square Yard of Original and laundered Fabrics Fiber Content Height in Weight in Ounces Per Cent CUnCes of of Fabric Launder- I of Group Warp Filling Criginal ed Fifty Times, -Change* Fabric Via' cotton cotton 4.6506 4.5759 % +4.93 VIIb viscose viscose 6.2169 6.4433 +3.6fl rayon rayon, and l cotton, cotton and'woolf a 3 , VIIIa viscose 3 viscose 5.5425 6.6117 .419.3Z rayon E rayon and and ! cotton cotton I IXb viscose viscose 5 5.0648 5.0940 40.6% rayon rayon g2 i and and § ' cotton cotton 3 - E z i I Xa acetate icetate 5 5.9098 6.2987 *6'6% and and 3 viscose viscose l rayons rayons ; XIIC . viscose cotton 3 5.2596 5.8208 +1o.7g 3l rayon ; XIIIb i linen. linen é 5.6970 5.4109 —5.0% a. b. Co calculated by dividing the difference between original and laundered weights by the original weight and converting to per cent average of 4 determinations on each test average of 10 determinations on each test average of 5 determinations on each test -89.. Table 15 warp Breaking Strengths in Pounds of Original and Laundered Fabrics .s-u._“..Dry;mmW~.im-.wn.".i,ni_.su_,_..,-nnh379§-- .-u _ -,, _ Fiber Content 5 Fabric !Per Cent " g Fabriow. ‘PerHCent -M“WNWLhfiwwmmm*w"flmu Originalf Laundered of Originali Launderei of Group Warp Filling Fabric .Fifty Times Change* Fabric- Fifty Tires Change* at. i I i 5 VI cotton cotton 1 67.2 ; 56.6 -15.]; E 84.3 f 69.6 L —17.55 E . 3 VIIb viscose viscose F 57.4 f 48.2 -15.6§ E 77.0 65.5 -14.Pi rayon rayon, . and cotton, ' k cotton and wool } fl ‘ j a VIIIa viscose viscose r 69.6 55.5 -20.2% , 68.4 55.5 -16.7fi rayon rayon . a and and y i cotton cotton i b [ E IX viscose viscose 73.6 i 61.5 -16.8: 61.2 48.6 —l4.1fi rayon rayon . and § and ' ‘ \ ' cotton 1 cotton ’ X acetate§ acetate 57.2 47.7 ~16.5€ 32.9 28.8 ~1?.03 1 and gand I g viscoseg Viscose f i rayons 7.rayons l i 3 2 XIIc viscose: cotton 78.3 61.0 .—21.53 E 3“.4 34.1 g -5.2j rayon : k E i; ”(I ITbW 1 . 3 . E .. } ‘ 7 E r54 i ,7 i a 1 n , inen } linen 00.0 54.0 y-35.ofl 3 :0.2 40.1 ‘ —30.sfl ‘ E ‘i j E . i a * Calculated by dividing the ditference between original and laundered strength by original strength and converting to per cent a. averare of 20 determinations b. average of 50 determinations c. average of 25 determinations able 16 Filling Breaking Strengths in Pounds of Criginal and Laundered Fabrics , 1..1-11_Dry.112 _ 1 ; ’Kat._1m_ . Fiber Content 1 g Fabric Per Centf Fabric EPer Cent i Original; Laundered of ifriginal Laundered i of uroup Harp {Filling Fabric iFifty Times Change* Fabric Fifty Times§Change* 1 I f i ' I i 1 . 4 1 71a cotton icotton 55.7 55.0 —0.6n h 44.6 42.6 —2.23 @ VIIb viscose .viscose 36.8 56.5 -o.45 g 19.2 16.0 —..77 rayon rayon, fi and cotton, 5 cotton and wool f; 1 f i a 4 J VIII viscose viscose 59.7 44.2 410.2% 3 41.8 45.6 +9.0; ; rayon rayon fl ' and and 1 cotton cotton 1 J be viscose viscose 25.0 25.4 +0.63 3 25.0 22.6 -2.51 - rayon rayon I g and and f cotton cotton g a ‘ J S X acetate acetate 45.6 46.9 +6.7n ‘ 25.3 28.2 411.1% and ' and i viscose viscose rayons rayons C XIIc ’ viscose cotton 57.5 67.2 +14.4fl 75.2 81.4 +8.0? rayon i 4 i 4 XIIIbi linen linen 50.7 52.4 -55.22 g 78.3 49.2 -37.6fi L A l * Calculated by dividing the difference between original and laundered strength by original strength and converting to per cent ab 5. Co average of 20 determinations average of 50 determinations average of 25 determinations Table 17 'Narp Breaking Strength Indicesa of Original and Laundered Fabrics _1“ _.__u _ Dry __ ‘ ”,_n_n_1_.l__n6vum_.v4-n_. . __ Fiber Content “I g Fabric , We Cent ; abric ;Per Cent Criginalf Laundered i of ' Crigina 1g Laundered i of Group Warp Filling Fabric Fifty Times:Cilange* Habr c {Fifty Times;Change* '. I 1 - '. L ' ' n --- a 1 § ‘ ’ J VI cotton cotton 5 .88 g .76 -13.66 1.11 .94 -15.35 VII viscose viscose .99 ‘ .84 -15.23 1.33 1.15 -13.53 rayon rayon, ‘ and cotton, cotton and wool VIII viscose viscose 1.02 .79 -22.5S 1.01 .79 ~21.FI rayon rayon and and j cotton cotton IX viscose viscose .56 .46 -l7.6§ .46 .37 ~1;.1§ rayon rayon and and cotton cotton X acetate acetate 1.18 1.00 -15.3fl .68 .60 -1l.Ff and and viscose viscose rayons rayons XII viscose_ cotton .51 .38 -35.‘g .24 .21 ~12.5fl rayon ! XIII linen linen 1.50 .95 -55.0;5 1.98 1.55 -5l.ri;: i 1 In a. Calculated by dividing average breaking strength by average yarn count on each test * Calculated by dividing the difference between the original and laundered indices by the original index and converting to per cent Table 18 Filling Breaking Strength Indicesa of Criginal and Laundered Fabrics ,__.D.T.'.Iz’s_-... ----.ml-..n-_ I-_--.._..m.. ---.-_,_i_.._-t"'.e,t..__* -. . _ L “Fiber Content . . Fabric Per Cent; Fabric Per Cent Original' Laundered of E Criginal Laundered of Group warp Filling Fabric Fifty Times Change* 1 Fabric Fifty Times Change* i - 11 In --1 ' % VI cotton co ten .92 .65 49.55 g 1.14 E 1.01 —11.4; VII viscose {viscose .86 '.82 -4.7fl i .46 .41 -10.0fl rayon irayon, E and icotton, g . i: cotton {and wool l y 5 9 VIII viscose gviscose .95 .90 -5.tfl 3 1.00 .93 -7.0fi u t rayon i rayon “ and iand E cotton cotton ‘ IX viscose viscose .37 .36 -2.7% i .34 ’/ .32 -5.,C rayon rayon g 1 and and ' cotton cotton ' a i . X acetate acetate 1.09 1.11 +1.8p ; .60 .64 : 46.7; and an } . viscose viscose p rayons rayons . a 3 XII viscose cotton 1.20 1.27 +5.8p E 1.57 1.54 -1.9X rayon v ,, 5 I . j i . P i 7 XIII E linen ilinen 1.61 E .96 3-40.4% g 2.49 1.45 3-41.Pg I ' I n ' 1 4| 1 ; _v i a. Calculated by dividing average breaking strength by average yarn count on each test * Calculated by dividing the difference between original and laundered indices by original index and converting to per cent Table 19 Percentages of Harp Eflongations of Original and Laundered Fabrics ' -1 _ Dry ____-__ __~_._.__._..._ .ny ._ .. _ ___.____l_""re_‘t-i .__.___.....__..___-_. __ . Fiber Contentumfl Fabric Per Cent; Fabric iPer Cent Original Laundered of g Original Isundered ! of ‘ Group Earp Filling Fabric Fifty TimeS¢Change* 7 Fabric Fifty Timesthange* *4 4 ? 1 A 3 5 5 'VIa cotton cotton 19.43 20.9% i +7.73 3 15-4% 14.2% i '7'Ffl VIIb viscose viscose 18.4 18.4 g 0 1 19.3 18.2 . -5.7fl rayon rayon, f j I and cotton, 3 i ' cotton and wool ; 2 i I 4 : 2 VIII81 viscose viscose 25.6 26.4 §+19.5fi ? 51.6 i 51.6 o rayon rayon i ? q and and . E E cotton cotton 3 . . , . g A IKb viscose viscose 25.8 26.1 +1.2fl i 21.2 19.4 ‘ -8.5§ rayon . rayon ; and and g E cotton cotton g g i r i Xa acetate acetate 25.4 ¥ 27.0 +6.55 g 24.6 , 25.2 +2.4: and and f E viscose viscose { ; rayons rayons f ' i b XIIC viscose cotton 56.5 i 59.5 i +2.6z 55.5 56.9 +4.51 rayon é a s ' ' KIIIb linen linen 5 10.2 E 9.4 —7.83 8.1 7.2 -11.1; 4. t- 1 * Calculated by dividing the difference between original and laundered elongations by the original elongation and converting to per cent a. average of 20 determinations b. average of 50 determinations 0. average of 25 determinations Table 20 Percentages of Filling Elongations of Original and Laundered Fabrics [ fi *7 I; r 4- . pi- -2“.“nan.:;“Drinmnuqnwunm.nn.ngi.n-."“m.nfimntrft9yu--_.---..“ .L P Fiber Content ! 5 rabric ,Per Cent!; : vabric Per Cent 1 I Originali Laundered g of i§Criginali laundered of Group fiarp ,Filling | Fabric {Fifty Times'Change* Fabric :Fifty TimesgChaige* l , E ' : g l 1' s ,1/ - 1 E . h-’ Vla, cotton cotton ‘ 15.4 ; 14.2 g -7.8fi ; 12.8 g 11.7 g -€.cg ‘ i . I r. 1 5 ‘ I j - 5 4 VIIb viscose viscose i 24.5 5 22.8 ‘ -6.9fi 1 38.0 36.7 ; —3.4fi ' I rayon rayon, E 1 5 i i i i i l ' and 1cotton, 2 g g g ‘ g cotton and wooli 1 3 i g E ; : i g E g i a l o o . ' n ,- t. ' r VIII VISCOSB Viscose , 14.7 2 16.4 Q11.6£ E 17.4 - 17.0 -2.3p rayon rayon - a i g j and and l f , g : cotton cotton i E f f l r i i b .' -, _ IX viscose Viscose i 16.6 16.6 0 g 16.0 5 14.6 -E.8/ rayon rayon ‘ ' i and and i i ‘ cotton cotton ‘ E , a i i ; ‘ . n ,4 i ‘ n X acetate acetate ' 22.8 ' 24.2 +6.1p g 24.1 ; 24.1 0 and and g g ‘ L 2 viscose viscose g i . fl I I H . rayons rayons ; i i H j 7 i H i - l ': ° 0 E t 1 ,. : .J ,4 XIIc Viscose lcotton . 12.9 p 15.3 5+18.6£ g; 12.0 : 13.1 +9.2N rayon 3 g E: é : t7 1 . b 3 . r ‘ U 2 fl XIII linen 11111611 : 9.4 i 8.2 i-lzoe‘fg f 607 g1 6.2 —{A.5‘ln J n L_ 7 1 1 4 * Calculated by dividing the dinerence between original and laundered elongations by the original elongation and converting to per cent a. average of 20 determinations b. average of 50 determinations 0. average of 25 determinations -95.... 88888 Plate 1 A Oonparloon or Ibrp Drooling Strength. 0:131:31 09001-n- . TV.“ ’ ..... ..... ...... . 1 14 4» {>4 1 p 4b itf 4 J 'Vr ....... ..... ..... ccccc ccccc ooooo ttttt - . M“ 0 I g W --l... .1 m1- 4 1.11 . Group Plato 8 A convert-on of rilltnc Iroakinc Strength. 0:131:31 Spool-n- . 4 l 1 I4 I 4 4 4y .4: .4 C! I 410! 4'4 a ‘ 1 . 1A J 1 1 1 1 _ .1 1.. 1 . _ _ \u .4T. 9+9 6 . o . o c O . Y . . A s o a c. 04. o . . o . t 2.1610104. : 0 0|. lv 9 4 7 elk A o . 1 _ 1 1 11. r > p p “L ’3 , euro r0 . . o c . . c 1. c o o . 4 1 l 4 44 4 4 1 L H l} > > _ t > .r 3 v4.1? 94 col. . . o . . . . . 4 4 »1 F p - g H ol. .1 ‘|6.9 o . . . . c . v . 4 4 4 1 H . my if L .1, F} i HH 5 Hg P I. o o c 4.0 o o . . t o . . 4 4 4 1 _ 1 - I 441 I 0'» c . o o 1. o . . i 1 1 1 r 4 411’ I»; o 5 4 . . e o t . c o c c, . . . o v . o o a O o s . . c . p 9 . n . . . . .o c .4 1 . o c c . c Q o . c o c . a o o 4 . n . 0 9;. o 44 «lo |¢ vllb . t . o . ottfilne O‘ > it . rt » > > > > .1 > . . . . ...; c . . c . . o o c . . 4 . 4 4 4 4 4 j 14‘41 . 4 l t} 1F e 14 . L, >birHHL H o . . u . . . c . c I u c . c . . c 4‘ 4 4 4 J44 _ 4 4 1 41‘ _ > . r, P r > r t w r 1» u . 4 c O A c n A o‘y‘ 4|. 1 c v o o a v c . n . n 4 4 4 11 1H 4 141144 _ 4 4 y H .— > > t» rt|r> PL r > 0 ¢ 0 c . c c o c Ol‘o‘t VI’; .40 0 file . Alolu 4.41 1 4111 11 1 4 l I 4 c o c o . c o l. 4 cl. ..o c o 9.10 o e 9 0‘14. 4 O 1f . 1 1 .yq 4 .ro . c . €44 5.419016 5 o 4 it . n o by atuvvtoifi‘o loll n _ _ _ 1 1 9|. 9 o o c c e 0 yo . 04 0.0 A c 4 cl. 9 . o cInOuo AI: u,'44 od 0 m 1 _ 1 . 1 u '4' 5 o v c c In .Icln o o o h o c o o v a a O .10 i"...¢o - e c c 1 . 1 _ , 1 1 . 1 . O o c e o c o c . o .44 b . o c A a c o . c a 440 n c . o I. o o J 0. »1¢I?ITOIO QiVLL T. [,Ao & 0 1|. . 1 _ _ , , 1 ,b» P a 4 .40 . . o c b 0 v a o . c . o t c o v o t c . t n v 6 v c v f. llf H1++ o|0uo To 4 altO! H 44541 , 1 5le RH . o . c . . u . o ... c o . a . . . . . . . 6.9» 1’4“ cl. 4 etc 5 J o. A 4 4 4 4 1 . 1-p H L . u c u c .i. . . . . . . o . v A . o c . .441. -lIT‘IQIv . o o . a t 1 1 1 141 1p L e>1». . c . v v c o . . u . . . s c c . c . . . . 1 . o . o . c . tolato cloiol 191194 4 c a 4 a 1 _ 1 1 c . . y o o v . b . . . . . s . . . . . v .11. . . . v . t . . c o i . c n o .IQluv — n n t A c s o I n ' I O 6 O I Q C .+‘ ' 0 ~ . . . o o c 0 c a; O 1 _4 1 . .. . . . . . s T. . . . 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . c o .«491. . c a c v A . . . s . . . . . . . .0 o c“ A . c . . .Io . s . . . . . . . . . c o t 4 c . n c c o c . . . . . . . o -10 A c . o c . c o c . o . . . . . . c c c c . or. . v . c c . 1 a . . . . . . . 4 A c 0 . . 04 c o 4 c . . .1 . . . . . . o 4 . . c . . c . v o . n o u u o A c o 0 c o v A o . v c y . o u c . . . A . c . o c . c o a 0 .IA > . o 4 c . o 0 A4. . . . . . . . . . . . c . u . c c c . a t a c c A > 'r b t . . . . c . . . . . . . . . . . . . c o c c 4 4 4 L > L c . v . c . . . . . . v . o c o c a . 1 4 4 1141M 9-. . v c . . e . . . . . . o c c n [A c n 'v- 1 ~ . . . . . c . . A o a 4 O a . . t o o c c o . Q .Q 4 c . . . ., . . . . c . s . . . . . v.4 o o a . . ... . ..n" . .. . .. ...... ........ . . c c . . ,. . . . . c o . . o . c s c . v . . o c , p c . . . . . . o c . . . . . . . . c . . c c . v a c . A . - 1 m . v- . c . . . . . . . . . . . c s . 4" . . . . i . . c c . . c . . J . .. . . . . .. 2“" J . . . c . . . . . . . o c c . . . . . . . . u c c c . c t . a on . 1 . c . . . . v . . . » > 4 4 p O o o c n n 1 Ft . c o . . . . . y s c . o c 4 . t . . _ 2'. . . . 1 4 1.111511% 1!, _ . 100- 801 1b.. 70- 501 Put. 3 Mann-tonal Chung. 1:: Ruth in P0: cont .11; 4 v _ n _ o 1 6 v+—&.’ .1.. 411 9 <' ¢ 704 Q~O v-Y»4_ '-< 0—. 1,1. 4 «~44 o m1- , of mu" Plato 4 Mun-1on1 0w 1: mm in P0! “ht 10 MO! of humans. Put. 5 . m u . m m a .111 an ...1 1 1.1.1. 11 Plato 6 A 00.9.2130: of hrp Dry Braking Strength- Ongtml and mandated Balplu Group Group Group D Group VIII 1: I III XIII Crap VII '1 Pluto 7 A Oonporioon of Iurp lbt Brooklng Strength. Original and Loundorod Bolploo 1-.....__.11 - r" 1 {1~—._,_-__ . -r— ~—..—.-—————.— . . I I I I I I I I I I I I ~ I I I I I I I I I I . I I o I n D I I a t v Q G 0 I t 0 Q v I I I I I I I . I I o . I I I \ a - I I D I I G ‘ I O A D Q 6" o I I I I . I I I I I I I l I I . I I I I I I I I I I . . I I . I I I—.. I . I I .. . I . . I I . . I I I I I I I I . . . I . I I I I I I I . I I I . I . I I I I I . . I 71b.¢ ... . ... ... ..1. .. .. .. I I I I . I . I I I I I - I I I I I I . . I I I I I I I I I . I I I I I I I I . I . I . . I . I . I . . I I I I I I I I . . I I I I I I I I I . I I .I Y I I . I I . I I I . . I I I I I I . . I I I I I I . . I 1 . I . I I I I I I I . I I I . I I I I I I I . I I . I I I I I I I I I 100 - 1 t A l I o u 0 I C 0 o o o l o I I - - o A . I u I I— . n v ' - . I I I I I I . I I I I I I . I I I . I I I I I I . I I I I I l . . . . I . . I I I I I I I I I I I I I I v I . . I I I 90 - . . . . ..... 1. . . .. .... . ... .. b , I ‘ A o o t . t o 0 I A I o o o I I I v I - o o I I n D I I I I I I . I I ‘I I . I I I I . I I I I . - - I I I I I I I I . I I I I I I I I . I I . .. I I I I I I . I . I I I - I . I I I . I I . 1 . I I 80 1 . I I I I I I I I I I I I . . . I I . I 1, I l I I I I l n 6 O 0 I I c h h A I I n I D 0 - n I o n u t I o I I. I I . I I - I I II I I I . I I I I I . . I I . I I . . I 70 I I I I I O I I o - I G I I . . V l - I I I I I I I I . I I I - . I I . l . I I I I I I I I I I I I I . I O I I I I I .I I I . . I I . I I I I I I I I I I I . I I I I I I . I 1 I I . . I . I .. I - I I I I I I I . I I I I I I I I in I I > I . I . o - . I I I I I I I I I I I . . I I . I . . . 4 1 <4 {i I I I I I. O Q I I I I I 9 o o 6 o w - I I L .I . I. I I I -~Ql I. o I I I . I yqu I I I I I ‘7. I I 14 I - I 4. 4L4 4 . . I I . . . I; I I o 9 Ar. I I I—«} I. I I I I I l I I I I I I I I I A I. I TIII I . . . . . I . .. 40 i 1 U . I —4>4 4 I I I I I I I I , I I,4I_{ I I I I I I I . . . 4 4 _I 1 141‘ {T4 I I I I I I I I I ~o ~414r—4 ‘ ‘ ‘ ' ’ w P L I 4 4*}: 5-4 i~ ‘ ~ ~ . 4’4 I-->——+~ Ir4k I 1 yII— O 4 4 4 4 l 0 V444 0 >v 4 I 4 II I . I I L . . w Hr<~>-- I -444 I v _ _ A r4 I rh- 11L: I I I I 4- o . 10 1 LI . i I {P‘ ——4>1 -<4 - ' ‘ 4k< Lyfifl 4>+ I-o I Q I A 1 II .+ I -I 1 O I - 1 I. l 1 1 Group Group Group Group Group I Group Group VI VII VIII 1: I III XIII Plot. 8 A coupuri-on or filling Dry Grouting Strength- Originul und Loundorod aulploo O I-o A-oyv fi Gr 81! 111’ Grou ‘ P P G on Grou 1.VI?! ‘1! P rou VII 0 Grou VIp lbs. 100 80 7O Plate 9 A Comparison of Filling lot Breaking Strength- Originnl and Lnundorod anlplon ” " I """ " I ’ "71 I , z ¥ g I . 1 ! -ariglnnl ,_ 1- _- *_:,-._ * ,;-_.._ ”a ._ - -.. i I I 1 Lnunhnrod 1 E 1 ‘ i i l ; a . 1 u I 1.» { 1 1 I . ' I ' y. ‘7 ._._.._. ___> .4? ____ H _1» __ _ 1 '1 H i L .1 , q , I ! ..... _Hfl I_mu______ _ I M; '1 ‘ W Group Group Group Group Group Group VII VIII IX l :11 1111 Plate 11 SUTTIIIG SPIKRT FOR SETIOIIIZIG TABLECLOTIES Section 3: laundry Section C: control 3.1 ,z-i fi 2:: 1/8' ha 16 etitehee per inch 1/4' head h- .c D E: .... In 2‘. ID 0: .6 :3 p (I: ‘32 e . G ..G g Q .33” A“ Section A: origin-Ll teeting Section D: laundry and utter laundry teeting 54" x 94" eonle: 1/8' = l' Plate 12 CUTTIZIG Gina? FOR TESTII‘FG SECTIONS "A" AND "D" \Mtd‘ t:J 54’ _E=;£_w F-"‘ A J Ail \utgl w] w; w: we wt t 4A3 4A4 1 F!» # F1 F01 3:3 It t2 ' 1 F? wt u)? W1 U7 U10 FJ’ ' fie scale: fi/fi" a 1" Explanation; A 1-5: abrasion F 1-10: ‘filling breaking strength Fa Lb2: fadeometer N l-lo: warp breaking strength Ht 1-5: weight per square yard Y-F: filling twist and yarn.number Y-j: warp twist and yarn number Plate 15 CUTTIM CHART FOR TESTIII} NAPKINS ”a" and ”b", 'o" and ”d" Napkins a and o Napkins b and d 14 FL .13 JJ 1'5 II F! r1 5 Fm L'F _ ‘ LLLLJ Uta unit.” an U1 we ya.) scale: 5/8' = 1" Napkins a and b: original testing Napkins e and d: laundry and after laundry testing Napkins e and f: controls kplanation: P l-lO: filling breaking strength at l-lO: warp breaking stremth Wt 1-5: weight per square yard Y-F: fillixg yarn number I-‘d: warp yarn mmber 7 $39? 'u' - w a. 26 '6? “38 ’I Jul 11 ’51 m 3’! Aug 1 '58 RUDM USE ONLY R ”"iflimflflumflifliflm 11mm mm W