THE IMPACT OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION ON UNCERTAINTY REDUCTION OF
INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS IN THE UNITED STATES
By
Mitsuna Uchikawa

A THESIS
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
Communication – Master of Arts
2013

ABSTRACT
THE IMPACT OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION ON UNCERTAINTY REDUCTION OF
INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS IN THE UNITED STATES
By
Mitsuna Uchikawa
The current study investigates a relationship between international students’ online
communication use and their cultural adjustment in the U.S. Specifically, the study shows
relationships among online communication use, perceived emotional support, satisfaction of
studying abroad, perceived stress, and uncertainty about new culture. 55 international students in
Michigan State University participated online survey and answered a questionnaire that included
measurements for those variables. The results suggest that online communication is one of
sources of emotional support for international students, and they have less stress when they are
satisfied with their experience in the U.S. The study also shows a positive correlation between
age and satisfaction, and a positive correlation between stress and uncertainty.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. iv
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1
LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................... 4
Online Communication ............................................................................................................... 4
Satisfaction.................................................................................................................................. 7
Emotional Support ...................................................................................................................... 8
Perceived Stress ........................................................................................................................ 10
Uncertainty................................................................................................................................ 11
METHOD ..................................................................................................................................... 15
Participants and Procedure ........................................................................................................ 15
Measurement ............................................................................................................................. 15
RESULT ....................................................................................................................................... 18
DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................................... 22
Major Findings and Implications .............................................................................................. 22
Limitations ................................................................................................................................ 24
CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................. 25
APPENDIX ................................................................................................................................... 26
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 31

iii

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Mean scores and standard deviations of Perceived Emotional Support, Satisfaction,
Perceived Stress, and Uncertainty by frequency of Online Communication Use……….…..18
Table 2. Correlations of Variables…………………………………………………………..19

iv

INTRODUCTION
It is an international trend that more and more international students study abroad.
Currently, there are over 4,000,000 students who study abroad worldwide, and the number of
international students doubled since 2000 (OECD, 2012). However, the experience of
international students has changed since technology has developed and communication with
people from their own cultures has become easier through the Internet. Therefore, it is crucial for
studies of international students’ intercultural adjustment to consider influences of new online
communication technology on their experience of studying abroad. Cemalcilar, Falbo, and
Stapleton (2005) argue that computer-mediated communication (CMC) can provide unique
experience for sojourners living in other countries because it helps sojourners to stay in contact
with people at home and maintain their relationships with family and friends. Moreover, Ye
(2006) suggests that the online social network has positive influences on sojourners intercultural
adjustment. Especially, online communication can be one source of social support for young
students who are facing stress in a foreign country (Wright, 2012).
A large body of previous research has shown that there is a relationship between
international students’ intercultural adjustment and communication with host nationals. It is said
that if international students spend more time with host nationals rather than other expatriates,
their sociocultural adjustment will be better (Caligiuri, 2000; Ward & Kennedy, 1993). On the
other hand, there are some studies that show if international students perceive social support
from their home culture via computer mediated communication (CMC) or interpersonal
communication, students have an easier time adjusting to the host culture (Cemalcilar et al.,

1

2005; Ye, 2006). Cemalcilar et al. (2005) point out that besides social support through
face-to-face communication with host nationals and other expatriates, international students can
maintain existing social support even after they leave their home countries because of the
development of communication technology. Consequently, their findings show that social
support from the home country may enhance international students’ intercultural adjustment
directly. Moreover, Ye (2006) suggests that social support from online ethnic groups and
international students’ social difficulties have a negative correlation. Therefore, it can be said
that both communication with nationals in the host culture and online communication with
friends and family in their home culture are important factors that contribute to adjustment in the
new culture.
This study aims to describe international students’ intercultural transitions and
adjustment to being a student in the United States. Specifically, the study will explain
relationships among online communication use, emotional support, and international students’
intercultural adjustment in terms of uncertainty reduction, stress reduction, and satisfaction. The
uncertainty reduction theory (Berger & Calabrese, 1975) explains that the amount of
communication has a negative relationship with uncertainty. In other words, it can be predicted
that amount of contact with people via online communication may reduce uncertainty about
culture, context, and individuals including oneself in intercultural communication (Gudykunst,
1985). In addition, it is important to understand how international students feel stress in the
process of their intercultural adjustment, because starting a new life in a new environment can be
very stressful for any people. Feeling stress may also interfere with uncertainty reduction. A few

2

previous studies have shown that online communication can be one source of emotional support
that helps psychological well-being (Caligiuri, 2000;Wright, 2012; Ye, 2006). Furthermore,
satisfaction with the decision to study abroad and reported happiness with studying at a particular
university can also be a good indicator for international students’ intercultural adjustment. Also,
it is important for institutions to understand whether international students are satisfied in the
university environment considering the growing number of international students who come to
study in the U.S. In fact, satisfaction of any students is one of the major purposes of universities
(Arambewela & Hall, 2009). The goal of this study is to show a relationship between online
communication and international students’ experience of intercultural adjustment.
The thesis will examine the following elements. First, the variables of the study (online
communication, perception of emotional support, uncertainty, perceived stress, level of
satisfaction) will be discussed. Second, uncertainty reduction theory will be explained to develop
the hypotheses. Third, there will be a discussion about method of this study; and finally, the plan
for data analysis will be presented.

3

LITERATURE REVIEW
Online Communication
For international students, communication with host nationals is important because
according to Gudykunst and Shapiro (1996), people have less uncertainty and anxiety, more
positive expectations, better satisfaction, and better communication quality when they
communicate with friends rather than strangers or acquaintances. Consequently, for international
students, to have better communication and eventually to adjust to a new culture, they need to
develop relationships and become friends with host nationals through communication. It often
takes several semesters for international students to develop an effective network of American
friends who can provide meaningful social, emotional, and tangible support to help them become
adjusted to academic and social life in the U.S. (Ward & Kennedy, 1992).
In the meantime while this host friendship network is under development,
international students who have only been in the US for only 6 or 7 months, may seek support
from communication with people from their home country through the social media.
This online communication with friends and family members back home and international
students from their home country in the US and at their university may be important because
they can maintain their home identity and perceive social support through online communication
provided by the new social media (Cemalcilar et al., 2005). This availability of social support is
especially important for international students’ uncertainty and stress reduction in the first couple
of semesters of their study abroad when they are likely not to have made very many friends in
the host culture and when they are likely to feel confused and lonely on their own. Today, more

4

than ever, it is easy to maintain regular daily online contact with friends and family in the home
culture and other internationals in the US at all points during a foreign sojourn but especially
during the critical period of uncertainty when international students are new arrivals.
Communication with people from the home culture has been shown to help international students
to adjust to the new environment (Lin, 2006). For instance, international students can talk
candidly and freely about their negative experiences and what they are going through in their
own language in their online communication with friends and family members. Online
communication with friends, family members, and other international students from their home
country is likely to be a strong source of encouragement, advice, and agreement.
According to Lin (2006), support from members of same cultural group helps
international students’ intercultural adjustment. He explains experiences of Chinese international
students in the U.S. in terms of culture shock, social support, and intercultural competence. From
observations, individual interviews, and focus group discussions, the study (Lin, 2006) supports
the culture shock theory and concludes that international students experience uncertainty, stress,
anxiety, etc. in their culture shock phase. Moreover, the findings suggests that a process of social
support from organizations of international students from the same country can help international
students to overcome culture shock, to gain intercultural competence, and eventually to adjust to
the new environment. Specifically, social support includes informational, emotional, tangible,
and intellectual support.
Besides face-to-face interpersonal communication, international students have access
to more opportunities to communicate with people in their home country than ever before and

5

more opportunities for online communication with international students from their home
country on their campus and at other universities in the US. The role of CMC in all likelihood
has become more crucial for international students’ intercultural transitions. CMC includes text,
video, and audio exchanges and those technologies include online chatting, e-mail exchange, and
the World Wide Web (Cemalcilar et al., 2005). These accessible technologies enable
international students to keep close daily contacts with their family, friends, and other
international students at their own and other American universities when they study abroad.
Moreover, international students can keep involved and up-to-date in political, social, and
cultural aspects of their home country through CMC. For instance, international students can talk
to their parents whenever they want, read local newspapers from all over the world, and watch
TV programs from their countries.
Therefore, in addition to face-to-face communication, online interpersonal
communication with people from the home culture also can help international students to
overcome their social difficulties in the new culture and to lessen adjustment difficulties and
challenges (Ye, 2006). During their cultural transition, international students need to maintain
sources for mental and social support to adjust to the new culture. Especially, when they first
arrive in other countries, online communication can be one of the main supports for international
students. According to Ye (2006), social network theory can explain the relationship between
international students’ intercultural adjustment and social support from online communication.
International students naturally face social and psychological difficulties in the new
environment; therefore, they seek support from their readily available social networks. Even

6

though online virtual communication with people in home countries and with other international
students in universities in the U.S. may not help the immediate social functioning of international
students in the host culture, it certainly helps their mental difficulties and stability through
cultural transitions. Therefore, besides communication with host people, communication with
people from their home country may be important for international students’ intercultural
adjustment.
Lin (2006) explains the influence of communication on intercultural adjustment of
international students in terms of culture shock and intercultural competence while Ye (2006)
explains it in online communication context in terms of social networks. In the present study, the
focus is on online communication that international students use to maintain relationships with
their friends and family back home and with other international students in the U.S. It may be
possible to say that online communication is one source of emotional support for international
students in the process of intercultural transition, and emotional support can provide better
intercultural adjustment such as reducing uncertainty and stress, and enhancing their satisfaction
with life in the new environment.
Satisfaction
Satisfaction of international students is important for institutions (Arambewela & Hall,
2009). For instance, from marketing point of view, Arambewela and Hall (2009) discuss that
creating satisfactory environment for international students is crucial for universities in the
current educational market because international education has benefits for universities,
organizations, and nations. Therefore, it can be said that understanding satisfaction of

7

international students is one of major concerns for advising or counseling offices in universities
(Hammer, 1992).
Naturally, satisfaction of international students is important for themselves too in terms
of their intercultural adjustment. International students’ satisfaction can be influenced by
multiple constructs such as contact with host nationals, language skills, perceived discrimination,
(Perruicci & Hu, 1995); number of friends, financial difficulties, and prior information about
host culture (Sam, 2001). It may be able to say that if international students are satisfied with
their overall experience and decision to study abroad, they are likely to feel less stress and less
uncertainty. Perrucci and Hu (1995) point out that international students with high satisfaction
cope with stress better as a student and as a sojourner to new culture. Also, Yeh and Inose (2003)
show that higher satisfaction on social support predicts less acculturative stress. Moreover,
Hammer (1992) explains that lower level of social satisfaction of international students is related
to higher level of uncertainty and anxiety. Redmond and Bunyi (1993) argue that cultural
adaptation is a predictor for communication effectiveness and satisfaction. Therefore, previous
research show that there is a relationship between satisfaction and cultural adjustment.
Emotional Support
For sojourners like international students, it is important to adjust to the new
environment. International students’ transition and adaptation to the new environment influences
psychological and physical well-being, social functioning, academic adaptation (Cemalcilar et al.,
2005; Cemalcilar & Falbo, 2008), and students’ physical and mental health (Zhang & Goodson,
2011).

8

Since it is difficult for international students to form social support systems in the new
environment (Yeh & Inose, 2003), they tend to seek the primary social support of co-nationals
(Sandhu & Asrabadi, 1994). Lin (2006) explains that social support from organizations of
international students can be a way to cope with stress and facilitates their intercultural
adjustment. He says that there are multiple dimensions to social support and emotional support
can be one of them. Emotional support refers to support for a person’s emotional state through
thoughtful and sympathetic communication with other people (Wright, 2012). In addition to
occasional parties and events sponsored by international student organizations on campus, many
international student organizations have Facebook pages, blogs, chat rooms, and big
ten/inter-university online information forums and social sites for international students from a
particular country.

Previous research focuses on emotional support through CMC; however,

there have not been many studies focusing on emotional support via online communication tools
such as social networking sites (Wright, 2012). In addition, there are studies that show the
relationship between online communication and international students’ intercultural adjustment
(Ye, 2006), yet few studies examine emotional support from online communication in the
intercultural communication context.
Burleson (2003) points out that emotional support is one of the main functions of
interpersonal close relationships. He defines emotional support as “expressions of care, concern,
love, and interest, especially during times of stress or upset” (Burleson, 2003). Also, emotional
support can provide physical and psychological health (Burleson & Morteson, 2003). Therefore,
it can be said that for international students in the new environment away from their home

9

countries, it is important for them to have online communication with friends, family, and other
international students to gain emotional support. Moreover, studying emotional support for
international students may be crucial to understand their interpersonal communication and its
role in their intercultural adjustment. Especially, it may be important to note that online
communication enables international students to gain emotional support from their home
countries because the research (Burleson & Morteson, 2003) shows that there are some cultural
differences in emotional support behaviors and evaluations. For instance, Burleson and Morteson
(2003) show in their study that American students prefer person-centered comforting message
more than Chinese students, and Chinese students regard solace behaviors as appropriate more
than American students. In other words, it can be said that cultural differences between high
context culture and low context culture, and between individualistic culture and collectivistic
culture influence preferences for messages and behaviors of emotional support (Burleson &
Morteson, 2003).
Perceived Stress
For international students, starting a new life in the new environment can be difficult
and stressful. Previous research shows that international students have more psychological issues
than domestic students (Sandhu & Asrabadi, 1994; Yeh & Inose, 2003). Yeh and Inose (2003)
list possible issues of international students, for instance, language issues, academic, financial,
and interpersonal difficulties, homesickness, and loss of social support. Also, Chiu (1995)
explains that international students who feel fear from intercultural transitions experience
emotional stress. Therefore, the intercultural transition for international students can result in

10

stress. Perceived stress can be measured as an outcome of those objective stressful events (Cohen,
Kamarck, & Mermelstein, 1983).
There are multiple factors to reduce perceived stress (Yeh & Inose, 2003). Emotional
support can be one of the resources to reduce psychological stress and to enhance physical and
emotional health (Wright, 2012). The research by Yeh and Inose (2003) shows that international
students who feel connectedness and satisfaction from social networks experience less stress in
the intercultural context. Therefore, it can be predicted that the perception of receiving emotional
support will reduce perceived stress of international students who are likely to be in very
stressful situations during intercultural transitions.
Uncertainty
When people encounter a new culture, they experience concerns about hosts (Stephan
& Stephan, 1999). Those concerns may arouse uncertainty, and it may lead to difficulties and
awkward behaviors for sojourners. Therefore, to adapt to a new culture, international students
need to develop coping abilities for uncertainties (Ye, 2006). Stephan and Stephan (1999) define
uncertainty as “a cognitive phenomenon [that] influences the way people think about others”.
People generally have uncertainty when they communicate with others; however, there is greater
uncertainty when people communicate with outgroup members (Stephan & Stephan, 1999).
Berger and Calabrese (1975) introduced uncertainty reduction theory that explained
uncertainty reduction and relationships between uncertainty and several other constructs. The
uncertainty reduction theory has been used in a variety of areas in the communication discipline:
e.g. uncertainty increasing events (Planalp, Rutherford & Honeycutt, 1988), network support

11

(Parks & Adelman, 1983), and global uncertainty (Douglas, 1991). The central assumption of
this theory is that uncertainty reduction is the main goal for initial interactions between people
because uncertainty is an uncomfortable feeling and can lead to stress (Berger & Calabrese,
1975). The theory also classifies types of uncertainty in different categories. For instance, there
is predictive uncertainty, which is the uncertainty about predicting future behaviors, attitudes,
and feelings of others or self, and explanatory uncertainty, which refers to the uncertainty about
explaining behaviors attitudes and feelings of others or self that has occurred (Berger &
Calabrese 1975; Stephan & Stephan, 1999). In other words, to reduce uncertainty, people can
predict behaviors, feelings, and attitudes before those happen, or people can also explain
behaviors, feelings, and attitudes after those happen. These predictions and explanations about
what behaviors mean are often problematic in cross-cultural contexts. Both predictions about
how people will behave and explanations for behavior that has occurred are often off-target in
intercultural contexts contributing to greater uncertainty about what to do next.
Furthermore, the theory explains relationships with uncertainty for seven constructs
including verbal communication, nonverbal communication, intimacy, similarity, liking,
information seeking, and reciprocity (Berger & Calabrese, 1975). It explains that there are
positive relationships with level of uncertainty for five constructs: amount of verbal
communication, amount of nonverbal communication, level of intimacy, level of similarity, and
level of liking. There are also negative relationships between levels of uncertainty with two
constructs: amount of information seeking and level of reciprocity.
Even though uncertainty reduction theory was originally developed to describe

12

uncertainty reduction in initial interactions, researchers have expanded this theory to larger
relationships between people. For instance, Parks and Adelman (1983) explain uncertainty
reduction in romantic partners. They assert that communication not only with a partner, but also
with the partner’s social network can reduce uncertainty, and this communication both with the
partner and his/her social network creates stability.
In addition, Gudykunst (1985) extended uncertainty reduction theory to the
intercultural communication context. He explained that frequency of communication, cultural
similarity, and interpersonal attraction predict uncertainty reduction. Therefore, it can be
concluded that uncertainty reduction theory can explain the intercultural communication context
even though it is different from communication between people from same culture in terms of
cultural differences, language difference, and influence of prior intercultural experiences on
current interaction. Therefore, from this discussion, it is possible to hypothesize:
H1: International students’ amount of online communication with friends, family and other
international students will be associated with (a) less degree of perceived stress and (b) less
degree of uncertainty.
H2: International students’ perceived emotional support will be associated with (a) less degree of
perceived stress and (b) less degree of uncertainty.
H3: International students’ satisfaction with the decision to study abroad will be associated with
(a) less degree of perceived stress and (b) less degree of uncertainty.
H4: International students’ amount of online communication with friends, family and other
international students will be associated with greater perceived emotional support.

13

RQ1: Will international students’ satisfaction of the decision to study abroad be associated with
perceived emotional support?

14

METHOD
Participants and Procedure
A self-report survey that contains five measures for variables was given to
international students from foreign countries in web-survey form in spring semester in 2013.
International students studying in Michigan State University for less than two semesters were
recruited through several international students’ online message boards, bulletin boards on
campus, and personal contacts. 55 international students answered the questionnaires (17 male
and 38 female). Their average age was 24.3 years old (SD = 2.91, Min =19, Max = 30).
Participants came from China (52.2%), Taiwan (9.0%), Japan (7.5%), Korea (4.5%) etc. The
length of time in the U.S. was controlled and international students who have been in the U.S.
more than one year were excluded because it is one of the major predictors of intercultural
adjustment (Ward & Kennedy, 1993). Therefore, participants who answered that they have been
in the U.S. more than 12 months (N = 5) were excluded from the analysis. Most of the
participants (72.7%) have been in the U.S. for seven to twelve months. Even though participants’
first language was not English, the survey was administered in English, as international students
from multiple countries were included in the sample.
Measurement
All measures used in the survey are shown in the Appendix (see Appendix). Variables
include online communication usage, perceived emotional support, perceived stress, uncertainty,
and satisfaction of their decision to study abroad. In addition to the measurements for the
variables above, participants were asked to fill demographic information. Demographic

15

information included age, gender, nationality, native language, and length of stay in the U.S.
The CMC use measurement of Cemalcilar, Falbo, & Stapleton (2005) was adapted and
revised to measure online communication use for international students in the U.S. The amount
of online communication is measured as the frequency of Internet technologies use to
communicate with friends or family members as well as of online media and informational
resources use. Participants were asked to indicate how often they use online communication tools
with a seven point Likert scale (1 = Not at all and 7 = All the time). In this study, the alpha
reliability of Online Communication Use scale was found to be α = .73. In addition, an item that
asks the percentage of CMC use to contact with people from home country is added to see how
much of their online communication is for communication with home.
For perceived emotional support, perceived stress, uncertainty, and satisfaction, a
five-point Likert scale was used. Perceived emotional support was measured by six items of
Emotional Support Scale developed by Weber and Patterson (1996) that was revised for this
study. The six items asked feelings of receiving emotional and social support by participants
while using online communication tool. Participants were asked to indicate how true is the each
statement is for them (1 = Almost never true and 5 = Almost always true). In this study, the alpha
reliability of Perceived Emotional Support scale was found to be α = .76.
Uncertainty was measured with seven items based on Parks and Adelman’s (1983)
Partner Uncertainty scale. The items were modified to reflect international students’ experience.
Participants were asked about uncertainty about living in the U.S., and uncertainty about the
environment and people in the U.S. They answered each question by the degree of agreement (1

16

= Strongly disagree and 5 = Strongly agree). In this study, the alpha reliability of Uncertainty
scale was found to be α = .87.
Perceived stress was measured with eight items of the Perceived Stress Scale
developed by Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstein (1983) that was revised for this study. The eight
items asked about stress in various contexts for international students in the U.S. Participants
were asked to indicate how often they felt stress (1 = Never and 5 = Very often). In this study, the
alpha reliability of Perceived Stress scale was found to be α = .86.
Finally, to measure satisfaction about participants’ decision to study abroad, the
measurement with four items developed for this study was used. These items asked how
participants felt about decision and experience of studying abroad. Participants were asked to
indicate how much they agree with the each statement (1 = Strongly disagree and 5 = Strongly
agree). In this study, the alpha reliability of Satisfaction scale was found to be α = .82.

17

RESULT
Table 1. Mean scores and standard deviations of Perceived Emotional Support, Satisfaction,
Perceived Stress, and Uncertainty by frequency of Online Communication Use.
Low Online

Moderate Online

High Online

Total

Communication Use

Communication Use

Communication Use

(2.00 ~ 3.75)

(4.00 ~ 5.33)

(5.50 ~ 7.00)

(N = 16)

(N=14)

(N=20)

(N=50)

M

SD

M

SD

M

SD

M

SD

3.39

0.69

3.77

0.43

4.05

0.63

3.76

0.66

Satisfaction

4.14

0.46

3.71

0.87

4.10

0.53

4.00

0.64

Stress

2.93

0.44

3.30

0.80

3.01

0.73

3.07

0.68

Uncertainty

2.64

0.87

2.91

0.67

2.71

0.71

2.74

0.75

Emotional
Support

Table 1 shows mean scores for each variable (perceived emotional support, satisfaction,
perceived stress, and uncertainty) by frequency of online communication use (M = 4.76, SD =
1.41). To compare high, moderate, and low online communication use groups, the data were
analyzed by ANOVA. The analysis showed a significant relationship between online
2

communication use and perceived emotional support, F (2, 47) = 5.39, p = .008, η = .19. Post
hoc comparison using Tukey’s HSD test at p < .05 showed that low online communication use
group perceived less emotional support (M = 3.39, SD = 0.69) than high online communication
use group (M = 4.05, SD = 0.63), but moderate online communication group (M = 3.77, SD =
0.43) did not differ from neither low and high online communication use groups. In addition,
2

2

satisfaction ( F (2, 47) = 2.12, p = .13, η = .08), perceived stress ( F (2, 47) = 1.27, p = .29, η
2

= .05), and uncertainty ( F (2, 47) = 0.50, p = .61, η = .02) did not have a significant
18

relationship with online communication use.

Table 2. Correlations of Variables.
Online
Communication
Emotional Support

Emotional
Support

Satisfaction

Stress

**

.450

Satisfaction

.068

.199

Stress

.046

-.075

-.337

Uncertainty

-.014

.010

-.186

**

*

.313

. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed).

*.

Note.

*

Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (two-tailed).

The four hypotheses and one research question were tested by correlation. Table 2
shows correlations for each variable. Hypothesis 1 predicted that international students’ amount
of online communication with friends, family and other international students would be
associated with degree of perceived stress and degree of uncertainty. The analysis did not show a
significant negative relationship between amount of online communication and perceived stress,
r (48) = .05, p = .75. The analysis did not show a significant negative relationship between
amount of online communication and uncertainty, r (48) = -.01, p = .93. Therefore, as same as
the ANOVA analysis above, the data were not consistent with the hypothesis.
Hypothesis 2 predicted that international students’ perceived emotional support would
be associated with degree of perceived stress and degree of uncertainty. The analysis did not
show a significant negative relationship between emotional support and perceived stress, r (48) =
-.08, p = .61. The analysis did not show a significant negative relationship between emotional

19

support and uncertainty r (48) = .01, p = .95. Therefore, the data were not consistent with the
hypothesis.
Hypothesis 3 predicted that international students’ satisfaction with the decision to
study abroad would be associated with degree of perceived stress and degree of uncertainty. The
analysis showed a significant negative relationship between satisfaction and perceived stress, r
(48) = -.34, p = .02. The analysis did not show a significant negative relationship between
satisfaction and uncertainty, r (48) = -.19, p = .20. Therefore, the data were partially consistent
with the hypothesis.
Hypothesis 4 predicted that international students’ amount of online communication
with friends, family and other international students would be associated with greater perceived
emotional support. The analysis showed a significant negative relationship between amount of
online communication and emotional support, r (48) = .45, p = .001. Therefore, the data were
consistent with the hypothesis.
Research question 1 asked whether international students’ satisfaction with the
decision to study abroad would be associated with perceived emotional support. The analysis did
not show a significant relationship between satisfaction and emotional support, r (48) = .20, p
= .17. Therefore, it can be said that international students’ satisfaction was not associated with
perceived emotional support.
In addition to the hypotheses, there were some significant findings. First, there was a
significant relationship between age and satisfaction, r (47) = .29, p = .046. Therefore, it can be
said that younger international students are less satisfied with their experience in the U.S. and

20

those who are older are more satisfied. The mean score for satisfaction among participants who
are 21 years old or younger is 3.71 (SD = .86) and one among participants who are 22 years old
or older is 4.08 (SD = .57). Second, there was a significant relationship between perceived stress
and uncertainty, r (48) = .31, p = .03. It shows that perceived stress correlates with uncertainty;
therefore, international students who perceived greater level of stress also have greater level of
uncertainty about life in the U.S.

21

DISCUSSION
Major Findings and Implications
As H4 predicted, the analysis showed that there was a relatively strong correlation
between perceived emotional support and online communication. From the findings, it can be
said that international students who use online communication tools more perceive greater
emotional support from it. Therefore, online communication may be one of the major support
systems for international students. Since international students are away from their friends and
family in home country when they are in new environment, online communication can be
important for emotional support. In addition, more than half of participants answered that 60% or
more of their online communication use is with people or sites in home country. It also shows
that online communication tools can be major source for connecting international students and
their home culture. It implies that research on international students’ cultural adjustment needs to
have focus not only on communication with host nationals but also on communication with
people in home country as well.
This finding is consistent with previous research that says that online communication is
important for international students because communicating with family and friends through
online communication tools can maintain their cultural identity and it can give them social
support (Cemalcilar et. al., 2005). Ye (2006) also suggests that online social networks are
important for international students’ cross-cultural adjustment. The current study shows that in
fact online communication can be a source of emotional support for international students.

22

Second, there was a significant relationship between satisfaction and stress as it was
stated in H3 (a). The result shows that there is a negative correlation between satisfaction and
perceived stress. In other words, the current study indicates that participants who have greater
satisfaction of their experience in the U.S. as an international student have less perceived stress.
It implies that international students’ stress may have an influence on satisfaction. Moreover, it is
also possible to say that those who are not satisfied with their experience have tendency to be
stressed. This finding is consistent with previous studies. It is said that international students who
are satisfied with their experience have less stress at their experience in new culture (Perrucci &
Hu, 1995).
Furthermore, stress and uncertainty also had a significant relationship. Cultural
transition for sojourners like international students can be stressful because of cultural difference,
language difference, life change, etc. In other words, uncertainty about new environment can be
one of the factors of international students’ stress. Therefore, it can be explained that participants
who have less uncertainty or have reduced uncertainty about culture or people in the U.S. have
less stress. The relationship between stress and uncertainty of international students needs to be
examined further in future studies.
Another finding is that there is a correlation between age and satisfaction of experience
as an international student. It shows that older international students have higher satisfaction than
younger international students, and it may be able to say that graduate international students have
higher satisfaction than undergraduate international students. There may be some possible
explanations. First, for example, international students in undergraduate level and those in

23

graduate level may have different characteristics such as motivation, academic level, and
engagement. Second, it may be able to say that programs at graduate level are more satisfying
than programs at undergraduate level. It would be important to point out that institutions should
focus on satisfaction of international students who are in undergraduate level because from this
study, undergraduate international students have less satisfaction.
Limitations
The research did not find relationships between online communication and cultural
adjustment measurements (uncertainty and stress) nor relationships between emotional support
and cultural adjustment as those were stated in H1 and H2. It can be pointed out that participants
for this study had relatively low uncertainty level (M = 2.74, SD = 0.75) and stress level (M =
3.07, SD = 0.68). In other words, participants were not uncertain about culture in the U.S. and
did not have particularly high stress in their lives in the U.S. One possible explanation is that
international students who participated in current study may have already gone through cultural
adjustment, since most of the participants has been in the U.S. more than seven months. In the
future studies, a relationship between online communication and cultural adjustment may be
found if participants are at an early stage of cultural adjustment.

24

CONCLUSION
The current study shows that online communication is a source for emotional support
for international students in the U.S. Since communication technology developed, international
students’ experience have changed. It is now easy for them to maintain relationships in their
home country. Therefore, for research that focuses on international students’ social support and
cultural adjustment, it is important to consider not only their relationships with host nationals but
also ongoing relationships with family and friends in home country. Moreover, institutions may
need to be reminded that international students’ satisfaction with their experience have many
factors and aspects such as their online communication use, social support, age, and their cultural
adjustment level.

25

APPENDIX

26

Online Communication
(Adaption of Cemalcilar, Falbo, & Stapleton’s (2005) CMC Use Scale)
This set of questions will ask you about how often you use online communication and computer
mediated communication (CMC) tools to communicate with your friends, family, and other
international students. CMC tools include text, e-mail, video chat, blog, social media, and
website.
Since your first days in the U.S. how often have you done following activities?
(1) Not at all (2) A few times a month
(5) Once per day

(3) A few times a week

(6) Several times per day

(4) Several times a week

(7) All the time

1.

Send e-mail to friends and family

2.

Use the Internet to access websites

3.

Read on-line newspapers and magazines

4.

Listen to on-line music broadcasted

5.

Communicate with your family via CMC tools

6.

Communicate with your friends back home via CMC tools

7.

Communicate with other international students in the U.S. via CMC

8.

Communicate with American students and friends via CMC

What percent of your CMC use is with people and sites in your home country?
(1) 0-20%

(2) 20-40%

(3) 40-60%

(4) 60-80%

(5) 80-100%

Perceived Emotional Support

27

(Adaptation of Weber & Patterson’s (1996) Emotional Support Scale)
The next set of questions will ask you about how using online communication affects your
feelings and helps you. Online communication includes text, e-mail, blog, etc. As you read each
question, think about how you feel after using online communication.
(1) Almost never true

(2) Rarely true (3) Occasionally true

(4) Often true

(5) Almost

always true
1. Access to online communication helps me work through my thoughts and feelings about being
a student at this university.
2. When I am upset or lonely I often turn to friends and family through online communication for
support.
3. I get good advice from my friends and family through online communication.
4. Contact with friends and family through online communication makes me feel happy and
hopeful.
5. People in online communication show genuine concern for me.
6. Online communication gives me confidence about living in a foreign country.
7. I often share my experiences about being a student at this university with family and friends at
home through online communication.
8. Online communication gives me an opportunity to express my true feelings.

Uncertainty
(1) Strongly disagree

(2) Disagree

(3) Uncertain

28

(4) Agree

(5) Strongly agree

1. I am unsure about my ability to act properly in the U.S.
2. My values and preferences for living do not work well in the U.S..
3. I am confused about how to behave in most situations in the U.S.
4. I am uncertain about my ability to accurately predict American people’s behavior.
5. I often have trouble understanding why American people do what they do.
6. I have difficulty in accurately predicting how Americans will respond to me in most situations.
7. Sometimes I am confused about what is expected of me at this university.

Perceived Stress
(Adaptation of Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstein’s (1983) Perceived Stress Scale)
The next set of questions will ask you about your feelings and thoughts during your stay at the
U.S. In each case, you will be asked to indicate how often you felt or thought a certain way.
(1) Never
1.

(2) Almost Never (3) Sometimes

(4) Fairly often

(5) Very often

Since you have been at this university, how often have you been upset about something that

happened unexpectedly?
2. Since you have been at this university, how often have you felt unable to control important
things in your life?
3. Since you have been at this university, how often have you felt nervous and stressed?
4. Since you have been at this university, to what extent are you able to effectively cope with
important changes in your life?
5. Since you have been at this university, how often have you felt you lacked confidence about

29

your ability to handle your personal problems?
6. Since you have been at this university, how often have you felt that things were not going your
way?
7. Since you have been at this university, how often have you felt that you were unable to cope
with all the things that you had to do?
8. Since you have been at this university, how often have you found yourself thinking about
things that you have yet to accomplish?
9. Since you have been at this university, how often have you been unable to control the way you
spend your time?
10. Since you have been at this university, how often have you thought that difficulties were
piling up so high that you could not overcome them?

Satisfaction of decision to study abroad
(1) Strongly disagree

(2) Disagree (3) Neutral

(4) Agree

1. I think I made a good decision to study abroad.
2. I am very happy that I decided to come to this university.
3. This university is a welcoming place.
4. I regret my decision to study in the US.
5. I would advise other students to study at this university.

30

(5) Strongly agree

REFERENCES

31

REFERENCES
Arambewela, R., & Hall, J. (2009). An empirical model of international student satisfaction. Asia
Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, 21, 555-569. doi:10.1108/13555850910
997599
Berger, C. R., & Calabrese, R. J. (1975). Some explorations in initial interaction and beyond:
Toward a developmental theory of interpersonal communication. Human
Communication Research, 1, 99-112. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.1975.tb00258.x
Burleson, B. R. (2003). The experience and effects of emotional support: What the study of
cultural and gender differences can tell us about close relationships, emotion, and
interpersonal communication. Personal Relationships, 10, 1-23. doi:10.1111/
1475-6811.00033
Burleson, B. R., & Morteson, S. R. (2003). Explaining cultural differences in evaluations of
emotional support behaviors: Exploring the mediating influences of value systems and
interaction goals. Communication Research, 30, 113-146. doi:10.1177/009365020
2250873
Caligiuri, P. M. (2000). Selecting expatriates for personality characteristics: A moderating effect
of personality on the relationship between host national contact and cross-cultural
adjustment. Management International Review, 40, 61-80. Retrieved from:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/40835867
Cemalcilar, Z., & Falbo, T. (2008). A longitudinal study of the adaptation of international
students in the United States. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 39, 799-804.
doi:10.1177/0022022108323787
Cemalcilar, Z., Falbo, T., & Stapleton, L. M. (2005). Cyber communication: A new opportunity
for international students’ adaptation? International Journal of Intercultural Relations,
29, 91-110. doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2005.04.002
Chiu, M. L. (1995). The influence of anticipatory fear on foreign student adjustment: An
exploratory study. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 19, 1-44.
doi:10.1016/0147-1767(94)00022-P
Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress.
Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24, 385-396. doi:10.2307/2136404
Douglas, W. (1991). Expectations about initial interaction: An examination of the effects of
global uncertainty. Human Communication Research, 17, 355-384.
doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.1991.tb00237.x
Gudykunst, W. B. (1985). A model of uncertainty reduction in intercultural encounters. Journal
32

of Language and Social Psychology, 4, 79-98. doi:10.1177/0261927X8500400201
Gudykunst, W. B., & Shapiro, R. B. (1996). Communication in everyday interpersonal and
intergroup encounters. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 20(, 19-45.
doi:10.1016/0147-1767(96)00037-5
Hammer, M. R. (1992). Research, mission statements, and international student advising offices.
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 16, 217-236.
Lin, C. (2006). Culture shock and social support: An investigation of a Chinese student
organization on a US campus. Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, 35,
117-137. doi:10.1080/17475750600909279
OECD. (2012). Education at a Glance 2012: OECD Indicators [Data File]. Retrieved from:
http://www.oecd.org/edu/eag2012.htm.
Parks, M. R., & Adelman, M. B. (1983). Communication networks and the development of
romantic relationships: An expansion of uncertainty reduction theory. Human
Communication Research, 10, 55-79. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.1983.tb00004.x
Perrucci, R., & Hu, H. (1995). Satisfaction with social and educational experiences among
international graduate students. Research in Higher Education, 36, 491-508. doi:
10.1007/BF02207908
Planalp, S., Rutherford, D. K., & Honeycutt, J. M. (1988). Events that increase uncertainty in
personal relationships II: Replication and extension. Human Communication Research,
14, 517-547. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.1988.tb00166.x
Redmond, M.V., & Bunyi, J. M. (1993). The relationship of intercultural communication
competence with stress and the handling of stress as reported by international students.
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 17, 235-254. doi: 10.1016/0147-1767
(93)90027-6
Sam, D. L. (2001). Satisfaction with life among international students: An exploratory study.
Social Indicators Research, 53, 315-337. doi: 10.1023/A:1007108614571
Sandhu, D. S., & Asrabadi, B. R. (1994). Development of an acculturative stress scale for
international students: Preliminary findings. Psychological Report, 75, 435-448. doi:
10.2466/pr0.1994.75.1.435
Stephan. W. G., & Stephan, C. W. (1999). Anxiety in intergroup relations: A comparison of
anxiety/uncertainty management theory and integrated threat theory. International
Journal of Intercultural Relations, 23, 613-628. doi:10.1016/S0147-1767(99)00012-7
Ward, C. & Kennedy, A. (1992). Locus of control, mood disturbance, and social difficulty
during cross-cultural transitions. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 16,
33

175-194. doi:10.1016/0147-1767(92)90017-O
Ward, C., & Kennedy, A. (1993). Where’s the “culture” in cross-cultural transition? :
Comparative studies of sojourner adjustment. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,
24, 221-249. doi:10.1177/0022022193242006
Weber, K. D., & Petterson, B. R. (1996). Construction and validation of a communication based
emotional support scale. Communication Research Reports, 13, 68-76. doi:
10.1080/08824099609362072
Wright, K. B. (2012). Emotional support and perceived stress among college students using
Facebook.com: An exploration of the relationship between source perceptions and
emotional support. Communication Research Reports, 29, 175-184.
doi:10.1080/08824096.2012.695957
Ye, J. (2006). Traditional and online support networks in the cross-cultural adaptation of Chinese
international students in the United States. Journal of Computer-Mediated
Communication, 11, 863-876. doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00039.x
Yeh, C. J., & Inose, M. (2003). International students’ reported English fluency, social support
satisfaction, and social connectedness as predictors of acculturative stress. Counselling
Psychology, 16, 15-28. doi:10.1080/0951507031000114058
Zhang, J., & Goodson, P. (2011). Predictors of international students’ psychosocial adjustment to
life in the United States: A systematic review. International Journal of Intercultural
Relations, 35, 139-162. doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2010.11.011

34