THE EFFECTS OF SELECTED PROGRESSIVE RESISTANCE EXERCISES ON THE SPRINTING YIMES OF MARGINAL SPRINTERS Thests {or ”w Degree 0* N'. A. MICHIGAN STATE UNWEKSITY David R. Lamb i962 * Liana? Michigan State University THESIS BUREAU CF 7:7:5-33.35.3-|7fi§~fflL E? "1‘” "1 CC! ICC}: Cf: EL.-'\.’-L“L.~'.'Ii :1 MIC' 393”"! SU‘HC L'Nz‘vfiu..";i~|Y EA.~.T l ANannl 1‘..‘.:u"H|| mm THE EFFECTS OF SELECTED PROGRESSIVE RESISTANCE EXERCISES ON THE SPRINTING TIMES OF MARGINAL SPRINTERS BY David R. Lamb AN ABSTRACT OF A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation 643w! / Approval ABSTRACT THE EFFECTS OF SELECTED PROGRESSIVE RESISTANCE EXERCISES ON THE SPRINTING TIMES OF MARGINAL SPRINTERS By David R. Lamb The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of selected progressive resistance exercises on the sprinting times of marginal sprinters. Two groups of three college freshmen sprinters, each matched in seventy-five yard dash times, were tested in this study. The experimental group participated in a program of progressive resistance exercises three days per week for seven and one—half weeks. The exercise program consisted of two bouts of five to seven R. M. of knee extensions, hip extensions, supine leg presses, wall pulley exercises of the forwardiarm action used in sprinting, and wall pulley exercises of the backward arm action used in sprinting. After the third week, due to technical difficulties, the knee extensions and hip extensions were replaced by a third bout of five to seven R. M. of the leg press. The subjects of the control group did not participate in the progressive resistance exercises but were given sugar David R. Lamb pill placebos to be taken three times weekly. The purpose of these placebos was to reduce any psychological advantage which the experimental group may havegained by having more attention paid to them by the experimenter. All subjects in both groups took part in a daily track program for sprinters at Michigan State University. The testing program consisted of recording the best of two time trials in the seventyefive yard dash on Thursday of each week for seven weeks. At the same time the number of strides taken in the best trial was also recorded. On Monday of each week the mean of three thigh girth measurements was recorded for each leg of each experimental subject. Also on Monday the weight lifted for two or three bouts with five to seven R. M. in the supine leg press was recorded for each experimental subject. Analysis of variance results showed no significant differences due to weight training for mean times in the seventy-five yard dash, nor for mean number of strides taken to cover the seventy-five yards. Graphical presentations of thigh girth development and of weight lifted in the leg press showed a slight decrease in thigh girth measurement accompanied by a marked increase in ability to lift weight. THE EFFECTS OF SELECTED PROGRESSIVE RESISTANCE EXERCISES ON’THE SPRINTINC TIMES OF MARGINAL SPRINTERS BY David R. Lamb A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation 1962 TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I. INTRODUCTION . . . . Statement of the Problem Scope of the Study . Limitations of the Study Definition of Terms . II. RELATED LITERATURE . . Studies Related To Weight of Muscular Contraction Studies Related to Weight Unit Activity . . III. RESEARCH METHODS. . . Source of Data . . me thOd I O O O 0 Sampling Procedures The Experimental Factor Testing Routine. . Testing Technique. . Seventy-Five Yard Dash Number of Strides . Thigh Girth Measurement Training Training Weight Lifted in Leg Press . Presentation of Data Statistical Technique. IV. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF Testing Results . . Seventy-Five Yard Dash Number of Strides Taken DATA and Speed and Motor Thigh Girth Development and Weight Lifted in Supine Leg Press. Discussion . . . . V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . Summary . . . . . Page DWMN 13 13 13 13 14 17 17 17 18 20 20 20 20 22 24 24 24 28 28 33 33 ii Chapter Page Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . 35 BI BLIOGMPM O O O O O O O O O O O O D O C 3 7 APPENDIXES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 40 LIST OF TABLES Table Page I. Analysis of Variance of Data for Seventy-five Yard DaSh O O I O O 0 O I O O O O 24 II. Analysis of Variance of Data for NUmber of Strides Taken. . . . . . 26 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Exercises Used in Study . . . . . . . . . 15 2. Timing Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . l9 3. Mean Times—~75 Yard Dash. . . . . . . . . 25 4. Mean Number of Strides . . . . . . . . . 27 5. Mean Circumference of Bothfllhighsand Mean Weight Lifted in 5-7 R. M. Leg Press . . . . . . 29 DEDICATION This thesis is respectfully dedicated to my parents, Mr. and Mrs. Robert E. Lamb, whose sacrifices and encourage- ment have enabled me to continue my education. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS J The author wishes to acknowledge Dr. Wayne Van Huss for his inspiration and guidance, Dr. Dale Hanson for his kind assistance in helping him to complete this study, and the six subjects whose cooperation made this under- taking possible. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Many track and field coaches who have not been blessed with exceptional sprinters on their teams would like to know any training technique which could be used to improve the sprinting times of mediocre, or marginal sprinters. This study was undertaken to evaluate the use of progressive resistance exercises in the training of marginal sprinters. One of the problems related to the use of weight train- ing by sprinters is the possibility of their developing ”muscle boundness." Several studies have provided evidence that weight training does not produce “muscle boundness”-as characterized by reduction in speed of muscular contraction.1'2'3 This study will provide evidence to support or contradict the previous studies. 1William S. Zorbas and Peter V. Karpovich, "The Effect of Weight Lifting Upon the Speed of Muscular Contractions,“ Research QQQEEerly, 22: May, 1951, pp. 145-148. 2Bruce M. Wilkin, ”The Effect of weight Training on Speed of Movement," Research geegterly, 24: October, 1953, 3J. W} Masley, A. Hairabedian, and D. N. Donaldson, "Weight Training in Relation to Strength, Speed, and Coordi- nation,“ geeeagch geegterly, 24: October, 1955. PP. 308-315. 2 A second problem related to this study was to determine the effects of weight training on the number of strides taken to cover a given distance. It may be that stride length is altered as one effect of weight training. No research has been discovered which attacks this problem. A third related problem Was tp determine the Pattern of change in muscle girth measure after using progressive resistance exercises of high intensity. In previous studies,4"5 using knee extensions, it was found that thigh girth measure- ment failed to increase after the intial training periods, or failed to increase at all even though there was a marked gain in strength recorded. Statement ef the Pgoblem To determine the effects of selected progressive resistance exercises on the sprinting times of marginal sprinters. 4 Richard C. Ouellette, ”The Effect of Quadriceps Development on Sprint Running Time,” (Unpublished Master's Thesis, College of Education, Michigan State University, 1955). 5Donald Rose, Stanley Radzyminski, and Ralph Beatty. "Effect of Brief Maximal Exercise on the Strength of the Quadriceps Femoris,“ Archives 9f Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 38: March, 1957. pp. 157-164. Scope of the Study The sample population for this study was drawn from members of the Michigan State University freshman track squad. Only those runners were used whose status as sprinters was marginal as determined by the M. S. U. track and field coach. The ages of the sprinters ranged from seventeen to nineteen years. Limitations of the Spudy Sigg pf samples. This study was performed with three experimental and three control subjects matched on seventy- five yard sprinting times. Psychological facpor. It is impossible to determine whether subjects are putting forth maximum effort when train- ing with weights or when being tested for sprinting time. Possible variation on improvement pf running techni- gpgg. Those sprinters who had inferior coaching in high school may have improved their times simply through improved running techniques as the result of better coaching at the college level. Time spap pf gtudy. This study was carried on for a period of seven and one-half weeks with six testing periods for the seventy—five yard dash. A longer study may show somewhat different results. No control over the rest pf the sprinter's training program. There was no attempt made to control the type or extent of daily track work—outs for each subject. Definition of Tepps The following terms are used in this study: Progressive Resistance Exercise-~any exercise in which muscle groups are used to move a weight through a range of motion. Five to Seven R. M.--the maximum weight that can be lifted correctly for at least five but not more than seven repetitions in a bout. Bouts-—groups of repetitions of progressive resistance exercises. CHAPTER II RELATED LITERATURE The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of selected progressive resistance exercises on the sprinting times of marginal sprinters in the seventy-five yard dash. Related problems included the development of "muscle boundness." the pattern of change in the number of strides taken to cover a given distance. and the pattern of change in muscle girth measure 0 - -di'j 'i ; e- to We-°h.. _ n- 2 u:-: 0- -scu a. gpptpgctipn Most of the work done in this area has been limited to speed of arm movements. Zorbas and Karpovich1 studied the speed of rotary arm movements of three hundred weight lifters from around the world, one hundred and fifty men from Springfield College who had never lifted weights, and one hundred and fifty non-lifters from a liberal arts college. It was found that the weight lifting group was faster than either of the non-lifting groups in the movement tested. 1Zorbas and Karpovich. 9p. pit. The mean difference between the groups was .174 seconds, significant at the one per cent level of confidence. In another study of the speed of rotary arm movement, Wilkin2 tested a group of intercollegiate weight lifters, an elementary university weight lifting class, and a group of university students enrolled in elementary swimming and in elementary golf classes. He found neither a slowing effect on speed of arm movement through weight training, nor a significant increase;in speed of arm movement by the weight lifting group. Masley, Hairabedian, and Donaldson3 used a hand crank to determine speed of arm movement of a weight lifting class, a volleyball class, and a sports lecture class. They concluded that the weight lifting class improved in speed more than the other groups, but not significantly. DeLorme, Thomas, Ferris, and Gallagher4 tested elbow flexion and knee extension contraction times of pre-exercise and post-exercise periods for two groups. The experimental ZWilkin, pp. cit. 3Masley, Hairabedian, and Donaldson, pp, cit. 4Thomas L. DeLorme, Benjamin G. Ferris, and Rosewall J. Gallagher, “Effect of Progressive Resistance Exercise on Muscle Contraction Time," Archives of Physical Education, 33: February, 1952. group participated in progressive resistance exercises using one repetition maximum as the criterion for increase in resistance. The control group participated in no progressive resistance exercises, but took part in the same tests. There was no evidence that progressive resistance exercises of the type used prodflced; a slowing of contraction time. These data were not statistically analyzed. To analyze the relationship between progressive resistance exercises and sprinting time, Ouellette5 ex- perimented with maximal knee extension contractions to determine the effect of quadriceps development on sprint- ing times in the seventy-five yard dash. He used four experimental subjects and four control subjects selected from the freshman track squad at Michigan State University and a track and field class at that university. The subjects were matched on seventy-five yard dash times and tested each week for seven weeks. Ouellette found no significant differences between the two groups in sprint running times. Capen6 studied the effect of systematic weight train- ing on power, strength, and endurance in two groups. The SOuellette, pp. cit. 6 Edward K. Capen, "The Effect of Systematic Weight Training on Power, Strength, and Endurance," Research Quarterly, 21: May, 1950, pp. 83-93. experimental group used a variety of progressive resistance exercises, and the control group trained in an active sports conditioning program. The tests used were grip strength, back lift, leg lift, chin ups, push ups, number of sit ups in two minutes, squat jumps, three hundred yard dash, standing broad jump, Sargent jump, running Sargent jump, and the eight pound shot put. The experimental group showed a significant gain in strength and in power, which includes a speed factor, but not in muscular endurance nor in circulo-respiratory endurance. Chui7 confined h1§.study to the'effects of weight training on athletic power. His experimental group consisted of twenty-three subjects engaged in weight training. The control group consisted of twenty—two subjects participating in a required physical education program. The experimental group showed improvement over the control group in the Sargent jump, the shot put, and the sixty yard dash. The mean time of the experimental group in the sixty yard dash improved from 7.9 to 7.57 seconds, while the control group showed a loss in speed from 8.05 to 8.1 seconds. There was no 7Edward Chui, "The Effect of Systematic Weight Training on Athletic Power,“ esearch Qpapteply, 21: October, 1950, pp. 188-194. statistical analysis published. Studies Related:to Weight Training and Motop;Unit Activity Concerning the role of the central nervous system in the development of exercise capacity through resistance exercises, Hellebrandt and Houtz8 point out that, Little has been said thus far about the nature of the changes occurring in the machinery of the human body by virtue of which the ability to perform work is enhanced. The rapidity with which overload stress increases the capacity for severe exercise suggests that this must be due in large measure to changes in the central nervous system related to motor learning. It cannot be due, initially at any rate, to alterations in anatomical structure. Thus, it appears that improved performance in an activity such as lifting a weight is due in some measure to the motor learning that takes place in lifting that weight. Hunt and Kuffler10 studied tension responses and intracellular potentials of frog and cat muscles. They measured the action potentials in single muscle fibres and observed multiple innervation of these fibres by two or 8F. A. Hellebrandt and Sara Jane Houtz, "Mechanisms of Muscle Training in Man: Experimental Demonstration of the Overload Principle,“ The Physical Therapy Review, 36: June, 1956. PP. 371-383. 91bid, p. 382. loCarlton C. Hunt and Stephan W. Kuffler, “Motor more motor nerve endings. Some clarification of motor learning patterns may be found in their statement that, Multiple motor endings may influence the rate at which tension is developed by the muscle fibre. If nerve impulses reach terminations synchronously at several points along the muscle fibre, impulses will be initiated and will spread over the length of the fibre in less time than if activity began at only one focus. Since muscle conduction is relatively slow (2-3 mm/sec.), excitation at multiple points may provide a means for more rapid activation of the contractile system.11 It may be possible that stresses placed on the body somehow enable the musculature to make more efficient use of multiple motor endings. In another study of action potentials, Bigland and 12 Lippold studied young adult men and women and tested them on voluntary contractions of the calf muscles through the use of a gastrocnemius dynamometer. Action potential recordings at constant velocities of contraction were made and the authors observed that, Innervation of Skeletal Muscle: Multiple Innervation of Individual Muscle Fibres and Motor Unit Function," Journal of Physiology, 126: November, 1954, pp. 293-303. llIbid., p. 301. 12Brenda Bigland and o. c. J. Lippold, "The Relation Between Force, Velocity and Integrated Electrical Activity in Human Muscles,“ Journal of Physiology, 123: January, 1954. pp. 214-224. 10 11 The excitation (of a muscle) is related to the number and discharge frequency of active units. Assuming that the fibres are randomly distributed with- in the muscle in terms of the size and hence of the force of contraction of each fibre, the tension developed in the muscle must be related directly to the number of units which are active. It has been shown in nerve muscle preparations that the tension developed in response to maximal shocks is directly proportional to the frequency of stimulation, until a maximum tension is reached. This is also true in intact human muscles.13 The above study suggests that, if weight training alters muscular strength, it is because it also alters the pattern of muscle stimulation allowing for more frequent stimulation of the muscles. This would explain in part how some can gain strength without significant hypertrophy of the musculature involved. 14 studying the relationships between individual Henry, differences in strength, speed, and mass in an arm movement, found no correlation between speed of arm movement and static strength. He points out that, 13Ibid., p. 222. 14 Franklin M. Henry and J. D. Whitely, "Relationships Between Individual Differences in Strength, Speed, and Mass in An Arm Movement," Research Quarterly, 31: March, 1960, pp. 24-33. 12 This does not necessarily exclude the possibility that strengthening the muscles involved in a movement will make it possible for the individual concerned to make a faster movement. It does imply that if strength is gained through exercising with some other movement than the one under consideration, full advantage of the greater strength potential of the muscle would require practice with the specific movement so that the specific neuromotor coordination can take advantage of greater strength.15 Rose, Radzyminski, and Beatty16 studied the effect of short duration maximal exercise on the strength of the quadriceps femoris. Three groups, 28 adults with normal extremities, 10 normal adults, and 46 adults with quadriceps weakness, participated five days per week on a knee extension program using five second 1 R. M. contractions. There was no significant muscle hypertrophy observed in either thenormal or atrophic quadriceps groups. There was a marked gain in strength, however. All of these studies related to weight training and motor unit activity indicate that there is much more to strength development than mere hypertrophy of the musculature involved. lslbidco PP. 3].“32. 16Rose, Radzyminski, and Beatty, pp, cit. CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODS This study was designed to determine the effect of progressive resistance exercises on the sprinting times of marginal sprinters. Related problems of the development of "muscle boundness," the pattern of change in the number of strides taken to cover a given distance, and the pattern of change in muscle girth measures were discussed. The related literature was reviewed, and in this chapter the methods employed in the study are discussed. Source of Data Method. The experimental method of research used was that of comparison of matched pairs of subjects. The subjects were matched on their respective seventy-five yard dash times. The times used for matching purposes were the best times of two individual time trials. Sampl$ng ppocedpppp. Six male subjects, ranging in age from seventeen to nineteen years, and whose status as sprinters was marginal as determined by the Michigan State University track and field coach, were selected from the M. S. U. freshman track team. 14 The six eligible sprinters were matched on the basis of their respective sprinting times, and the subjects for the experimental group, one subject from each matched pair, were selected on the basis of a coin toss. Subjects of both groups participated in the regular training program for sprinters at Michigan State University. The experimental factor. A program of progressive resistance exercises was set up for each subject in the experimental group. The program consisted of the experimental group training with five selected progressive resistance exercises three days per week, after the regular track workout. For the first three weeks the exercises consisted of two bouts of each of the following: five to seven R. M. knee extensions, five to seven R. M. hip extensions, five to seven R. M. supine leg presses, five to seven R. M. wall pulley exercises of the forward action of the sprinter's arm swing, and seven repetitions of a wall pulley exercise for the backward action of the sprinter's arm swing. Sketches of the five exercises can be found in Figure l. The amount of weight used for the exercises was determined by what the subject could lift at least five but not more than seven times. If the subject could perform 15 Knee Extension Hip Extension I i I s J. T 0:; Leg Press *— ‘—- - ‘0’ n 3 4* J: I III ‘I Forward Arm Action Backward Arm Action D.‘ ——- -.—————- Figure 1. Resistance Exercises Used 16 the exercise seven times, more weight was added. It took approximately three training periods to find the two bout, five to seven R. M. for each subject. To avoid psychological depression, the weights being lifted were hidden from view so that at no time was the subject aware of how much weight he was lifting. It was felt that a more maximal effort would be obtained more consistently when this precaution was taken. After the third week of the training program, the knee extensions and hip extensions were no longer included, since the exercise tables used would not support the added weights, and no substitute arrangements could be made without a long delay in the program. After the third week, however, three bouts of leg presses were used instead of two. The control group did not participate in any weight training program but merely performed in their daily track workout. However, to offset any psychological advantage which the experimental group may have accrued due to having more attention paid to them by the experimenter, the members of the control group were given sugar pills disguised as Vitamin C capsules. The benefits supposedly attributed to these pills and instructions for their use are included in thewappendixes. l7 Testpgg1£outgpp. All subjects were tested each Thursday during the study for seventy-five yard sprint time and for the number of strides taken to cover that distance. The experimental subjects only were tested each Monday during the study for thigh girth development and for weight lifted with the five to seven R. M. supine leg press. No testing facilities were available to test sprint time and number of strides taken during the fourth week of the training program. Consequently, neither group was tested for these two variables during the fourth week. All testing was done by the author. ~ Tesging Technigpes Seventy—five yprd dash. The six subjects were tested individually each Thursday for times in the seventy—five yard dash. Each subject ran two seventwaive yard dashes with a rest interval of five to ten minutes between each dash, and the lowest of the two times was recorded. An adaptation of the timing device developed by Montoye, t 1.,1 was used in measuring seventy-five yard dash times. 1Henry J. Montoye and others, "An Electric Track and Reaction Timer," Federation Internationale D'Education Physigue Bulletin, 2: 1954, pp. 1-6. 18 A sketch of the timing apparatus appears in Figure 2. The subject took his position on the starting blocks, depressing a micro-switch which interrupted the current to an electric timer. The timer, graduated in milli-seconds, was then set at zero by the tester. As the subject left the blocks the depressed micro-switch released, starting the electric timer. As the subject crossed the finish line he passed through a fine yarn which had depressed a second micro~switch. As this yarn was moved or broken the micro-switch released and again interrupted the current and stopped the electric timer. The entire timing system was calibrated by ten trials of a ball drop from a height of six and one-half feet. The standard deviation of the trials was .0053 seconds, and the standard error of the mean was .0006 seconds. By testing in the manner described, starting times were not involved. Only running times were recorded. Number of strides. The number of strides for each subject during his seventy-five yard dash trial was deter- mined by counting the imprints of the subject's spike shoes in the carefully brushed clay of the M. S. U. fieldhouse running track. The number of strides in the best seventy- five yard dash was recorded. 19 Starting Box Set Below Track Level Reset Switch \\~ CD Timer Heavy Springs Micro-switch Starting Blocks icro-switch Yarn 1V1 Finish Yarn Supports 75 Yard Figure 2. Timing Apparatus 20 Thigh girth mpasurement. The three experimental subjects were measured each Monday for quadriceps girth development of both right and left legs. The measurement was taken at a point midway between the lateral condyle and the greater trochanter of the femur. The subjects were instructed to stand and set the quadriceps muscles. The measurement was made with a crossed tape measure held tight over the contracted muscles. The measurement recorded was the mean of three measurements read in centimeters . Weight liftpd in leg press. Each Monday the amount of weight lifted in the supine leg press by the experimental subjects was recorded. This was the amount of weight lifted correctly for two or three bouts of five~seven R. M. Presentation of data. Results of the tests of seventy-five yard dash times, number of strides taken thigh girths, and of the weight lifted with the supine leg press are presented graphically. ~§§§tistical technigpe, The analysis of variance as 2 described by Goulden was used to interpret the graphical presentations of the seventymfive yard dash times and of 2Cyril H. Goulden, Methods of Statistical Analysip. Second Edition (New York, 1954). PP. 63-99. the number of strides taken. The data on thigh girth measures and weight lifted in the leg press were not analyzed statistically. 21 CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of selected progressive resistance exercises on the sprinting times of marginal sprinters. Related problems H of the development of "muscle boundness," the pattern of change in thigh girth development, and the pattern of A M'l‘ .— change in the number of strides taken were discussed. I “.4_' The related literature has been reviewed and the methods used in collecting the data were described. In this chapter the results of the study outlined in Chapter III are presented. Methodology. The subjects used in this experimental study were divided into an experimental and a control group. Three subjects were placed into each group after being matched on their respective seventy—five yard sprint times. The experimental group only participated in a weight training program consisting of knee extensions, hip extensions, supine leg presses, and wall pulley exercises of the forward and backward arm action used in sprinting. The control group was given sugar pills disguised as 23 Vitamin C capsules to offset any psychological advantage which the experimental group might have gained by having more attention paid to them by the experimenter. Both groups participated in the track training program for sprinters at Michigan State University. The testing program consisted of the following measures: (1) seventy-five yard sprint running times, (2) number of strides taken to cover the seventy-five yards, (3) thigh girth development, and (4) amount of 3m... . Jun weight lifted in the supine leg press. The latter two measures were taken only on the experimental group and were taken weekly for eight weeks, while the first two were taken on both groups for seven weeks with one interruption on the fourth week due to the non-availability of testing facilities. Treatment of data. The results of the seventwaive yard dash times and the number of strides taken were analyzed at the end of seven weeks of the experimental program to discover any differences between the groups attributable to the treatments (weight training and control). gppsentation of dppp. The data are presented graphi- cally and discussed as to findings and statistical signifi- cance. The presentation is divided into two parts: (1) the 24 testing results, and (2) discussion. Testing Results Seventyrfiye yard dash. The mean values of the seventy-five yard dash trials are presented graphically in Figure 3. The variance due to the treatments (weight training and control) from the matching test to the final test after seven weeks of the experimental training program was analyzed using the "F" test and was found not to be significant (F = 5.223) at the 5 percent level. With six subjects and two treatments there were five degrees of freedom for the total, one degree of freedom for the treatments, and four degrees of freedom for the error. The results of the analysis of variance for the seventy- five yard dash are shown in Table I. TABLE I ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF DATA FOR SEVENTY~FIVE YARD DASH WW: Source of Sums of Mean Variation D.F. Sgpares Square F F.05 Total 5 .024060 Treatments 1 .013633 .013633 5.223 7.71 Error 4 .010427 .00261 25 Seconds 0 Experimental ‘ Control -- No Test ++ 3 Week Vacation (D L. 4>++ +4- / / I / I 8 . O \ 7 .‘9 i 7 O 8 'Match 1 . .5 I: J a weekly Trials Figure 3. Mean Times in 75 Yard Dash 26 The analysis of the seventwaive yard dash data indicates that the differences due to weight training between the mean of the experimental group and the mean of the control group are not significant. Number of strides taken. The mean values of the number of strides taken in the seventy-five yard dash are presented graphically in Figure 4. The variance due to treatments (weight training and control) from test period one to test period seven was analyzed using the "F" test and was found not to be significant (F = .032) at the 5 percent level. With six subjects and two treatments there were five degrees of freedom for the total, one degree of freedom for the treat- ments, and four degrees of freedom for the error. The results of the analysis of variance for the number of strides taken are shown in Table II. TABLE II ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF DATA FOR NUMBER OF STRIDES TAKEN Source of Sums of Mean . Variation D.F. p§quares Square F F.05 Total 5 2.49 Treatments 1 .02 .02 .032 7.71 Error 4 2.47 .62 Strides 36.2 36.0 35.8 35.6 35.4 35.2 35 .0 / I / 0 Experimental A Control No Test ) l 2 3 4 5 6 7 Weekly Trials 27 Figure 4. Mean Number of Strides 28 The analysis of the number of strides data indicates that the differences due to weight training between the mean of the experimental group and the mean of the control group are not significant. Thigh girth development and weight_l;§ted with supipp leg press. The mean values of thigh girth development and weight lifted with the leg press are plotted together graphically in Figure 5. The graph shows a slight decrease (test period 1 = 54.2 cm., test period 8 = 52.65 cm.) in thigh girth measurement with a marked gain (test period 1: 222.3 lbs., test period 8 a 485.7 lbs.) in ability to raise weights with the leg press. Discussion Henryl suggests that weight training activities be specific to the task at hand if full advantage is to be taken of the strength developed. It was with this idea in mind that the exercises used in this study were selected. It was thought that non-specificity of exercise may have been a chief cause for insignificant results in other studies. This does not appear to have been borne out in lHenry, pp. cit. 29 Centimeters — Weight I l as. 520. -- Circumference l 470. I ‘ 559 370. 549 320. 530 \’ . WA§~ 27o. 520 l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Weekly Test Periods 220. Pounds Figure 5. Mean Circumference of Both Thighs and Mean Weight Lifted in 5-7 R. M. Leg Press 30 this study, however. It looks as though a seven week weight training program neither significantly increases nor signifi- cantly decreases the speed of marginal college sprinters. .4! One may still wish to know, then, if weight training is of any value at all in developing sprinters. From comments by the experimental subjects in this study it would seem that, if it does not increase speed, weight training at least makes the runner feel stronger and less easily fatigued. ‘pThus, the problem of whether or not to train sprinters with weights becomes a problem of relative values. If one believes that the psychological advantages of having a stronger body outweigh the time lost to other training techniques, then weight training might well be included in a training program. The program used in this study took approximately twenty minutes to administer per individual. The effect of the sugar pill placebos cannot be assessed, but it seems that more efforts of this type to control psychological variables in studies such as this should be made. A psychological variable in testing the seventymfive yard dash times became evident. Most of the subjects felt that they could have run faster if they had run against the other subjects in competition. However, had the testing 31 been done in competition, results would have been biased in favor of the more competitive subjects. As the individual tests could be more accurately timed, it was decided not to test the runners in competition. Perhaps a combination of such tests would give a more complete picture of performance. Screening the weights from the view of the subject should become the accepted precedure in weight training studies. Especially with subject C. W. it appeared that no matter how large the increment of weight that was added the subjects could perform the necessary five to seven R. M. When subjects attempted to guess the weight being lifted in the leg press, they underestimated their capacities in every case. The data on the number of strides taken to cover the seventy—five yards are not too helpful. Although it was interesting to note that the number of strides was smallest (stride length was greatest) for both groups at the same time that the seventy—five yard dash trials were slowest, it means little, since the stride length of the control group increased as its speed increased in the last two trials. The thigh girth data are particularly interesting. They support the previous findings of Ouellette2 and Rose, 2Ouellette, pp. cit. 32 pp, a1.,3 that no muscular hypertrophy need accompany a marked gain in strength. Although it is possible that hyper- trophy occurred at points along the thigh other than at the one measured, it is still amazing to see data indicating a decrease in girth measure. The decrease could have been due to a reduction in fat tissue, but it is believed that there would be a minimum of such fat reduction in the legs of trackmen in mid-season. 3Rose and others, pp, cit. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of selected progressive resistance exercises on the sprinting times of marginal sprinters. Two groups of three college freshmen sprinters, each matched in seventy-five yard dash times, were tested in this study. The experimental group participated in a program of progressive resistance exercises three days per week for seven and one-half weeks. The exercise program consisted of two bouts of five to seven R. M. of knee extensions, hip extensions, supine leg presses, wall pulley exercises of the forward arm action used in sprinting, and wall pulley exercises of the backward arm action used in sprinting. After the third week, due to technical difficulties, the knee extensions and hip extensions were replaced by a third bout of five to seven R. M. of the leg press. The subjects of the control group did not participate in the progressive resistance exercises but were given sugar pill placebos to be taken three times weekly. The purpose of these placebos was to reduce any psychological advantage 34 which the experimental group may have gained by having more attention paid to them by the experimenter. All subjects in both groups took part in a daily track program for sprinters. The testing program consisted of recording the best of two time trials in the seventy-five yard dash on Thursday of each week for seven weeks. At the same time the number of strides taken in the best trial was recorded. On Monday of each week the mean of three thigh girth measure- ments was recorded for each leg of each experimental subject. Also on Monday the weight lifted for two or three bouts with five to seven R. M. in the supine leg press was recorded for each experimental subject. Analysis of variance results showed no significant differences due to weight training for mean times in the seventy-five yard dash, nor for mean number of strides taken to cover the seventy-five yards. Graphical presentations of thigh girth development and of weight lifted in the supine leg press showed a Slight decrease in thigh girth measurement accompanied by a marked increase in ability to lift weight. Conclusions A seven week training program for marginal college 35 sprinters using the progressive resistanbe exercises decribed in this study does not significantly increase the sprinting speed, alter the number of strides taken to cover seventy—five yards, or produce "muscle boundess" as character- ized by loss of speed. Muscle hypertrophy need not accompany a marked increase in the ability to lift weights in the supine leg press during a high intensity, short term weight training program. Recommendagippp Any further studies of this nature should be carried out for a longer time period to determine the longitudinal effects of weight training on running speed and muscle girth development. Any further studies of this nature should use a larger number of subjects, although proper controls will necessitate added experimenters.” Any further studies of this nature should aim at complete control of the subjects' track workout program to insure specificity of training. Research should be done to determine the effects of progressive resistance exercises on the speed of very fast sprinters and of very slow sprinters to determine possible differences for these groups. 36 BI BLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Bigland, Brenda, and Lippold, 0. C. J., "The Relation Between Force, Velocity and Integrated Electrical Activity In Human Muscles," Journal of Physiology. 123: 214-224, January, 1954. ‘Capen, Edward K., "The Effect of Systematic Weight Training on Power, Strength, and Endurance," Research Quarterly. 21: 83-93, May, 1950. Chui, Edward, "The Effect of Systematic Weight Training on Athletic Power," Research Quarterly. 21: 188-194, October, 1950. ‘DeLorme, Thomas L., Ferris, Benjamin 6., and Gallagher, Rosewall J., "Effect of Progressive Resistance Exercise on Muscle Contraction Time," Archives of Physical Medicine. 33:86-92, February, 1952. Goulden, Cyril H., Methods of Statistical Analysis. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1952, Hellebrandt, F. A. and Houtz, Sara Jane, "Mechanisms of Muscle Training in Man: Experimental Demonstration of the Overload Principle," The Physical Therapy Review. 36:371-383, June, 1956. ~Henry, Franklin M., and Whitley, J. D., "Relationships Between Individual Differences in Strength, Speed, and Mass in An Arm Movement," Research Quarterly. 31: 24-33, March, 1960. Hunt, Carlton C., and Kuffler, Stephan W., "Motor Innervation of Skeletal Muscle: Multiple Innervation of Individual Muscle Fibres and Motor Unit Function," Journal 0: PhygiologY. 126: 293-303, November, 1954. ‘ Masley, J. W., Hairabedian, A., and Donaldson, D. N%,“Weight Training in Relation to Strength, Speed, and Coordi- nation," gpsearch Quarterly. 24: 308-315, October, 1953. 39 Montoye, H. J. et. a1., "An Electric Track and Reaction Timer," Federation Internationale D'Education Physigpe Bulletin. 2: 1-6, 1954. ‘ Ouellette, Richard C., "The Effect of Quadriceps Development on Sprint Running Time," (unpublished Master's Thesis, College of Education, Michigan State University, 1955). Rose, Donald, Radzyminski, Stanley, and Beatty, Ralph, "Effects of Brief Maximal Exercise on the Strength of the Quadriceps Femoris, Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 38: 157-164, March, 1957. ‘Wilkin, Bruce M., "The Effect of Weight Training on Speed of Movement," Research Quarterly. 24: 361- 369, October, 1953. ‘ Zorbas, William 8., and Karpovich, Peter V., ”The Effect of Weight Lifting Upon the Speed of Muscular Contractions,“ Research Qpprterly. 22: 145-148, May, 1951. APPENDIXES 41 .ummu was» umuum mass m meuaaamcoe Suez omnaamuaamos mm? .m .m somesnmee .mam .m .cooasow cw penduommo mm penummcw Onamp meanness mmm.n oem.> mmm.n aea.m voa.m mmm.> r. oam.e memos mmm.n www.n omo.m W maa.m mm4.m mmo.m nmm.> .9 .m mmm.n mmo.m som0.m I «Roam.m moH.m mao.m % mmm.n .u .m one.n mam.h mmm.h % aoo.m bmm.> mom.> m. mmm.n .m .b 1. S T. m % macaw J W Houucoo i: a m. mma.m omo.m moa.m nu ¢0N.m oea.m moa.m A mmo.m memo: omm.m omn.m mam.m N nmm.m 0mm.m 0mm.m w wo~.m .3 .O emo.m voo.m mmo.m m. mmo.m sono.m eoo.m w hoo.m .Om .h coo.m emm.h oao.m s mma.m emo.m mno.m m. mom.h .mm .o u Izlllmwms smog smog sews seas xmwz sews roams Ammmmm ADGODOm fluxam numam nuhzom Ghana vacuum uwnah Hmucmfi Iauomxm «mDZOUHmV mflZHE BZHmmm QMdN fi>HmlNBZM>NmIIBmmmm ¢B¢G d “H92 mmmd 42 .ummu was» umumm when m assessmeoe sues pmuaampammos mm: .m .m pumhssmg. .mam .m .cmoHsow CH Omnauommo mm Umuummca OsHm> mcflmmaz« oe.mm om.mm em.mm SAMw om.mm mm.wm. meme: o.mm m.mm h.mm W ¢.mm N.mm Q.¢m .9 .m m.hm m.mm .*N.mm I ash.hm o.mm o.mm .m .m ®.¢m m.mm o.¢m % m.mm m.¢m ®.vm m .b q H msouu 5 Houucou m mm.mm om.mm om.mm m. oo.mm mo.mm m0.Wm MEMOS m.mm 0.0m ®.mm Wu N.mm N.mm ¢.mm .3 .U o.¢m m.mm m.mm W o.mn em.mm o.¢m .Om .h m.®m n.0m m.hm % 0.5m m.hm m.hm .mm .b xomx x003 xmoz xmoz xwwK xomz xmmz adouw gucw>wm Suxflm Sumah ‘ ##HDOh UHHAB UEOUOm umuflh Hmucwfifluwmxm BZHmmm QM4M mm Bmmfl 2H meHmBm ho meSDZIIBmmmm flfiéfi m NHQZMQQfl 43 ‘ e.mme >.oee erMWe o.moe enema w e.oem o.eom mqmmm acme: «om mum emm see awe m ewe mom mmm .3 .o mme mus woe emm mmm _ mmm emu mam .mm .8 see eme one man eom _\)/, emm mmm mam .mm .6 . N / w asloum A.:..m sum .musom my A.= .m sum .musom av amazes saunas messes lessens Amczcomv mmmmm was mszom men: cmemHg emonsnuemmmm «see c xHozmmme m.~mum.~mio.mm-m.~m m.~mua.mm mmwmum.mm m.mmnm.mm esmmue.em m.emnm.mm o.emu¢.em memo: m.mmne.am m.~mua.mm m.mmum.~m m.~mum.mm m.mmum.mm m.mmum.mm e.mmua.mm e.mmnm.em as .o «.mmum.mm H.emn~.mm H.Hmum.~m s.~muo.mm e.mmum.mm o.mmnm.em e.mmum.mm m.mmno.mm .0m .6 s.~mum.~m m.~mnv.mm m.mm:m.mm m.mmnn.em m.emna.em m.emum.mm m.mmum.em m.emum.mm .mm .6 .n .m .s .m .A .m .m .m .n .m .A .m .a .m .A .z macho 9303 h 9395 o wwaB m meOB e axioms» m may—moi meB a fiascamfl. Hmucme umume nouns sound sound nmuma umuma seams muommm newsman 11Hnfluflu" AmmmemzHezmov ammommngmonmeausmmmm «sec 0 Nanmmmd 44 APPENDIX E INSTRUCTIONS FOR USE OF PLACEBO GIVEN TO CONTROL SUBJECTS The accompanying bottle contains approximately 25 capsules of ascorbic acid, Vitamin C, with a trace of magnesium hydroxide in a sugar base. It is thought that the magnesium trace, when absorbed into the bloodstream, somehow lowers the viscosity of the sarcoplasm in the individual muscle fibres allowing for a more rapid transmission of nerve impulses to the muscle. With this more rapid stimulus the muscles should contract more often per unit of time and lower sprinting times. The ascorbic acid has some relation to the supply of hormones, including adrenalin, to the bloodstream. If there is a greater supply of these hormones available to the muscle fibers while sprinting, more forceful, sustained contractions should be the result. One of these capsules should be taken every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, preferably before retiring. The study will run for a 7 week period. Each Thursday of the period, beginning April 12, you will be timed electronically in ‘Umo seventy-five yard dashes in Jenison Fieldhouse. Please do not divulge the contents of this letter to the other group of sprinters participating in the study. 45