“ VII-V'v-rrf'faw ---~ ~~ —.-..- ... Tv-w._.vv- v *r -- - ‘5'? . . I . -Jn‘gow‘)‘ v u i .‘. .$ _ .-" ,vfltl ;__ _“; - ‘ . 0 ' ‘ _ _-o‘ ' o- . .6 ‘4 .. I" ' ,- , T" ‘ ."IT'" J ,5 *.."c J.-~ ‘a . f ' " u . _ . u r - ‘ o ' ‘.‘_ _ I -- .— 1- ¢.~‘- 9 ‘ k “ " . v. ' . ‘ -, . ..; _ _ ’ a O . |_- - O.“ .. .- ‘ _ .r. . ‘ ‘ ,‘n ,. O . D I u a. A .v.-- . , ‘I— ' - . - ‘ “ ' - . t O " , h . . - 4 '_ .. . . . ' I - — ‘ v ‘ ' , , _ -—-- '. t. ..I ' - I ' . .-— - F— . ‘ W I - - h ' . ' ' . -'. . > 'I - v’ . 1 ' :- I I " Il— " - I“. V'I"_ to... d. ...-. ”W 99-“.9 ,‘:__.~—v~——.-vv‘ ”Q. ' " ' " ‘ n - "' ’ ' - ”’0 o—“‘ M. V M ‘ . J'- - . . . _ a - . -. _ 'fi_-- _ . . y. .o‘o “ .l M .01 V 'I i I - _ ' ‘ V . O 0 ‘ '- ' m"! I ‘7‘- ' --F:.9’w'. “’ . ' WW4W" ' ' u . ~. -.0 ' v - - .. ‘rn "" ' . G W-.. - ' ' ‘ ' ' ' " -‘. . . —: “ r -w-.——o~ . Di . ' -" . . ' . ‘ . - l .. '0 ‘ '~“‘". . :0 'C &” ‘._ 0—“. "v u ‘ I'- "'v— v ‘V -' a." x .‘4‘- . ‘ .—- ._----o " 0;”. -s'. 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This is to certify that the thesis entitled A Synthesis of Video Effects Used in Television Programming presented by C.‘Wesley Lambert has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for _M.A.__degree inSpeech_ Major professor Q DateAigust 18; 1953 ,__._ v ‘n ‘flfl’w‘n’w :- ." ‘ IL” LWOVMWBUSEINTHEVISIOHWG By’ Clio Wesley Labert M ATHEIS Snbdtted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfill-eat of the requirements for the degree of EASIER OF ARTS Depertnent of Speech, Druatics and Radio Education 1953 ,‘ ‘4 . W 73-5)“??? mumms The anther wishes to express his sincere thanks to Dr. Robert 1’. Crawford for his guidance and un- failing interest in this investigation. He is also greatly indebted to Professor Clair R. ‘fettensrr for his constant supervision, inspiration, and valuable technical assistance. Grateful acknowledgxent is also due Dr. Max Nelson and Dr. Wilson B. Paul for their helpful sug- gestions snd encouragement . The author is also grateful to Mrs. Charles Cushnsn, whose sketches urinate this study. DEDICATED To q parents, who taught me the value of work and scholarly achiement; and to ny wife whose patient understand- ing nade this study possible. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. mowCTION...O..0.I.0..O.O...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.0.0.0... 1 The Problem............................................... h Definition of Tera Used................................... h 2 8 Procedureeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee000000000000 Organization of the Thesis................................ II. we METSOOO0..O.0....O...O...O...‘O....O.O..O.O.OO Th. cutOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.00.0.0...OOOOOOOOOOOOOCIOOOOO... 8 Fades: In and Out........................................ 16 Dis-elves................................................. 20 Lap Dissolve............................................ 23 Matched DissolveS....................................... 25 Superinpoauresunnn.................................... 26 The'Defocua............................................... 29 WipeS..................................................... 31 Reverse Polarity.......................................... 33 Reverse Uertical Scanning................................. 3h Reverse Horizontal Scanning............................... 38 Special EffectS........................................... hl Rippling watereeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeoeeeoeeeeeeeeeeeee ’41 Rain.................................................... h2 Split Screen............................................ hz Keyed Insertion.and.Matting............................. h6 III. MICAL mmTSOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 52 OptiCIl DistortioneoeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeOeee 52 Lenses.................................................. 53 Mirrors................................................. 55 Prisca.................................................. 55 T11th I-a'gOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0..OOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOO 56 Multiple I-age.......................................... 58 Otmr “feet...OCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOOCO.O0.0.00.O.000.... 59 mror'...000000000000OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.00.00.00.00. 61 The Perisc0pe........................................... 61 Split Screen............................................ 6h Tito-Hay Mirrors......................................... 65 Shadow'Box.............................................. 69 Kaleidoscope.............................................. 72 Video-cuteeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeoeoeoeeeeeeeeee 73 Front Projection.......................................... 77 Linnebach Projector....................................... 77 TABLE OF CONTENTS -rContinned CHAPTER Sciopticon.Projector.................................... Rear Projection........................................... Forced Perspective........................................ Mats and Gobos............................................ Silhouettes............................................... Hummusmdmwuunununuuuunuuuuuuu. Slides and Balopticans.................................... Filmstrips................................................ Film, Film Clips and LOOpS................................ Film ClipseeeOeeeeeOOeeooeeeeeeeeeeeeeOeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeoe Film LOOPS.............................................. Iv. Emu-PHYSICAL WETSOOCOOO0..OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCO Subjective~Camera......................................... Lens Blocking............................................. Diaphragm............................................... Lens Tube............................................... Lights and Filters Bluk Lighteeeeeeeeoeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee NoneBlack.Area Images................................... Mechanical Devices........................................ Tuirler................................................. Gloccsmorra............................................. Natural Phenomena......................................... 'Whter................................................... sne'eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeoeoooeeoeeeooeee0000000000oeeeeeeeeeo Frosty‘Wlndous.......................................... Fogeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee mkeOOOOOOOO0.0.0..0OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOOO0.00.0000... Fire md FluuooooooOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0000000000000 mat...00....O...00.000.00.00...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOO... Clouds.................................................. Stars................................................... c°bmb800000000000000.0.0.000...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOC Grass and Trees......................................... Han-Made Phenomena........................................ Explosions.............................................. Glass Crashes........................................... Arrows.................................................. m Fluhe,0000OOOIOOOOOOOOIOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.... Acetylene Torch......................................... mel..OOOOOOOOOO0.0.00.0...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO000.00.00.00. 102 103 10h 105 107 107 109 110 111 113 118 119 121 121 12h 126 126 135 137 137 155 TABLE OF CONTENTS — Continued CHAPTER PAGE '0 male m TITLEG WMSQOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO Preparation of Graphics and Titling....................... Title Cards............................................... Title Fru.0000000000....OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.00.0... Flip Cards.............................................. Huk cada.’OOOOOOOCOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO Pm cudSOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOCU .Moving‘Title Devices...................................... Craml Drum.............................................. Endless Belt............................................ scron.a°11eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeseeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeoee Products Prue........................................... Zoo-s..................................................... Tmt‘blasooto000.00.00.00000.0.0.0000.0.0000000000000000. Revolving Stage......................................... Special Titling Devices................................... Program Visual Aids....................................... Adhesion.Boards......................................... Overhead Projector...................................... Live Graphics........................................... F0]».I'j-.r"Gr‘pheeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeoeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee Pal-“Tab md Strip-T0888 Cll‘dB......o....o......o....... HM°1.OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.......0.OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO Am‘tion...0.00.00...0.0.0.000...OOOOOCOOOOOOCOOCOOOOCO VI. cmcwsIONSOOOOO.0..0....0.0..OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.000... BMMHIOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.0.0000...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.00.... mmn.OOOOOOOOOCOOOOO0.0.0.0....OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.000...... 157 157 169 172 172 173 175 177 179 181 18h 187 189 190 191 19k 195 196 198 201 202 203 206 208 21k 222 228 FICIIRE 1e 2. 3. e Keyed Imertion or M‘Ihth-ngeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 15e 16. 17. 18. 19s 20. 21. 22. LIST OF FIGJRES PAGE hnr.° vm1Cfl scmningOOO0.0.0.00.0000...OOOOOOOOOOOOO0.. Reverse Horizontal Scanning................................. wut ScreenOOOOOO...0...000.0....OOOOOOOIOOOOOOOOOOOOOO.0.. Keyed Insertion or Matting - With Keying Hack. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pris-s Mounted on.Len-08.................................... Multiple Inage'Using Glass Block............................ Periscope................................................... Optical Split Screen with Hirrors........................... Tue‘Hay'Mirror.............................................. Shadoubox................................................... Video-Cantu................................................. Rear Projection -'With Slides............................... . Rear Projection - Process Shot with Csr..................... Forced.Perspective.......................................... TV Genera Hat or 'GObo'..................................... Lens Blocking............................................... Lights and Filters.......................................... Lights and Filters.......................................... N0n.B1mk I‘ageoeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee Tmlor...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0.0...OOOOOCOOOOOOOOOC moccuorr‘OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 23. w‘" Box.0......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.00.0000...0.0.0.000... 2h. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32o 33. 3h. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. ho. ho Umemur.00.0.0000...0.0.0....OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0.0.... MOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0.0...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO FOECOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOCOOOOO0......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOQ rmOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.00...... Fire Produced'hy Light and Cloth Strips..................... lHouse Trap Dcvicc........................................... 11 x 1h Title Card with Usable Copy Area.................... 12 I 16 Tit]... Cn‘d nth U'abl. Copy Area...........uuooooo Flip card StmeOOOOOOO.000.00....00.000.000.000.0.0.00.0... Vertical Pan Title Card..................................... Roll or Craul Drua.......................................... Endless Belt with 34D Letters............................... Scroll Roll Titling Device.................................. Product Drun........................ ......................... Turntable................................................... Miniature Stage........................................ ...... Pull-Tw cudCOIOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0...00....0......COOOCOOOCOOC. Aniaation - Books and Magnetic Cartoons..................... 36 b0 15 ha 50 63 66 70 7h 82 8h 87 112 115 117 120 123 125 129 131 13h lho 153 165 166 17h 17h 182 185 188 192 192 205 210 CHAPTEI CHAPTER I IITRONCTIOI A theatrical production is never staged without the use of acne theatrical effects or conventional staging techniques . A notion picture is never filnod nithout the use of established cinnatic effects and cure techniques. A radio progr- is never broadcast without the use of special aural effects . Liked.” , a television production is never telecast without the use of new essential, special visual or video effects .1 In the theatre, the tochniqaos of staging, lighting, and even the construction of the stage itself are antcnatically accepted by the audience as an inherent part of “going to the theatre.“ Fades, dissolves, and process shots are einenatic techniques, so skillfully executed in notion pictu-os that ono is nnanaro of their presence . The selective use of sound effects and nnsic in radio broadcasting plays an mun-16 part in the creation of appropriate aural pictures nithin the nind of the listener. The use of video effects is essential to television pro- panic; and has a fivefold pal-pom (1) to effect transitions, (2) to reduce production costs, (3) to give aninaticn and eye appeal, (It) to serve as identifying devices, and (S) for surprise or novelty purpwses.2 1 Robert J. Weds, bang for rv, (Ion Turk: Pollegrini and Cndaw, 1952) p.113. 2 Richard lubbell , Television Progfipo and Production, (Ion Torts linohart and Ccnpm, . , -3. I‘v l I l a l I av-. D l' a f . '4 ,7. —. ’ v . . .. . . 'l o a I‘ l I t a a a o o , . . a a ‘_ ‘ I o e . ‘ r ’ .l 1 a o Although television in the beginning derived nan of its production techniques fr- tho theatre, the notion picture, and aural broadcasting, it is developing an individuality with «antio- all its an} The illividuality or uniqueness of television is based on its innodiacy, spontaneity, ad intinacy.It In television's dovelopental process a great deal of tine has been and is being arm by on production depart- nonts of the naJcr television networks and stations in the creation and use of non production techniques or video effects uhich I111) (1) add scope to television production, (2) give live shows tho flexibility of file productions, (3) rnovo production linitations so that tho progr- aapartnant m1 haves rider choice of natorial, and (t) hop the cost of production as lea as penal-.5 To achieve those roar goals the naJor notuorks and stations have established special research and develop- nontal doparhonts. honour, the creation and use of established effects is the Joint responsibility of nunerous depart-onto uhich nust work in close eo-erdination with each other , since nearly every video offset required a nultiplicity of techniques and often the cuhinod efforts of sadnser, artist, specialist, and effects technician.6 3 Lone: 1.1.ohr, Television Dreadcastjgg, (Ion Iork: Hearse-Hill Book Cup", Inc. , 1,371.?! . h Idnard Stashoff an Indy Brats, The Television hogan, (an Iork: i. A. 371.13., 1951) a. 25. 5 1. Carlton Wincklor, Personal Letter and latorial to the Author lovuhor 7, 1952. 6w“, 2' 2;!" ’o m. ..¢.' \ 1‘ . (h I 1'” We ’ 0 I- u I I | I" . I . L , o f l r "r O - -bor 1' O n .. 3 \ l *s I , I 1 ‘,' _. h- ' o a ‘7 ‘ '3 1 ‘v I I t’ H; a O .._- ‘/ 0 . v‘ ‘ s \ o . V I '4 l .1_ , . O . .. Y . . . H i I _ re '.t O p. v or lat shat shout th nall local television station with linitod facilities, staff, and budget union is faced with the probi- of produc- ing local progrus requiring the use of video effects? here can it find the necessary infornaticn on the production and use of video effects? The station nay secure assistance fro- the network. concur, additional I naturialandinforaatdonis uedoduhchianotfoundinanyonopubli- cation. Easy sources nust ho on-inod and investigated in order to secure certain basic intonation. a basic referem hook on the pro- duction and use of video effects in television progrmng is needed . Such a source book nould provide infornation not only for the snall station operator, but also for the student and the trained professional uhe nuts to investigate this non nodiun or to acquire essential hues- lodge on television production techniques . Letters to the author fro- roeognisod authorities in the field soon to indicate the need for such a roferono nork. Per on-plo, 'Thoro is a dearth of natorial an the subject of special effects applicahlo to tolevisien.‘7 The Anerican Television Society, Incorporated replied: 'Infortunatcly as do not have the type of naterial you request."8 nr. Paul I. Vittlig, Director of Ion Effect Developnent at CBS-Television stated: 'thhsugh a nunbor of articles have appeared in trade Journals and naguinos during the years on the subject, [video effects] I doubt S 7 John W. lorrisoy, Personal Letter to the Author, Sept-her 25, 19 2. 8 Claude Barrera, Personal Letter to the Author, Septenher 2t, 1952. r ) To . . u . - Iv ‘ . o a N) a VI. . r n n a n D Cf‘l on! '1 ’. a I' r ‘ . a .J a . .n N... va‘ . . ,o of\ . an v. a a r o\a I ran (, a .\ . T . -. . . I v‘ i T A I. ',. o 4.. . a a a . . I. r . -{ m t .V a . v . .A . v. w a . . l e. x :n 4 o. n . l n l . n r h H ‘Ol . r q . C _ r . a. ,O f . as.” . a V. o . o I ~ ~ . I . I. .. . T. C . o .4. n .. o .I In\ 'O-‘O .- “to.“ —.—~. if very nuch has been mitten in one place . . J" Ir. J.» A. Glen, lanagor , Television Staging Services for ISO , New Iork Division advised, '. . . that to u knowledge there is no published works on video special effects .‘19 LTBPBOBLI‘! The purpose of this study, then, is to investigate and ens-inc the available hooks, trade and popular nagasincs, technical and professional Journals, and newspapers for intonation and pertinent data on the use and production of video effects in television progr—ing and to synthe- sise this infornation into a rofcrsnoo work. II. MRI“ I run can Video Iffoct. In this study, the torn “video effect. shall phrase ths broad definition given by Richard sabboii in his book, Television bong and Production, thich states that video effects can be divided into ‘two poupss '. . . electronic effects created within the television cyst. itself and centered in the control rccn, . . . and effects which are created in front of the cuora by various optical and nochanical devices.'n 9 Paul I. Uittlig, Personal Letter and tutorial to the Author, lovubor 10, 1952. 10 J.» 1. Glenn, Personal Letter and laterial to the Author, lav-her 11:, 1952. 11 am, 2. 3%., p. 122. t I! ’ ‘ a -n u o e . ' -' ‘ e I 0 e n e s r . , H A- - m. . L — a I ' . I I f U ‘ " ~- , V '-.’ "l .- ' , I A. 1 ’l n t . r l - - . - .. ‘o. , . ‘ . . . c e ‘ v v > ' . . ' ‘ l . ~ N ‘ e s - A I I ‘ v. . . , x 4 , x . . 1 O . t r . . - o a. . .. u _. - . . , 4 ,. -a ~. . . ’ - I r ‘ D I ' v . A . ~ . . ' - « . I - . up-o-r- .ou-n. ~.- ‘ e - r I ' ' . ( ‘ l‘. H ‘ I‘V ' ’ l --‘\4 ‘. ' - -c w t A- 0‘ . e e .’ » d I a - v- u ,, : ‘1 1 \’ ~ ' ‘ .4 ea - o a .- , . we r ~ I . I I ‘ | . h ‘ ' * I I O I v g . . . h . e - . y . I ; _ . 1 J _ ._ . k' ‘ e 0 ‘ "- ‘r ‘ . , . "(-| n ‘ I .l“ r O V c.' ’ I x s ‘ L\ . k l .s I ' ‘..' A . . e h ' . -. . \ o‘ \ 4 ‘V I l a ‘77 I . o f . . --‘ . fi . n . . i |. o k .) I l u. ‘I - I I . . I 1‘ i. I N l ‘ 5' t ‘ ‘ . , a 1‘- . I' ’ D .‘ fl" . . ‘ I ’ r ; . a-.. . D o ‘ . , 1‘ '1 ‘ . J ‘4". f, ‘ n n . Jun -' '7 . k ‘ - L . I'- . , 9 I l e 7 .—-¢ e e . I - '- ~ I a .9 o I ‘o - . a - ' . ‘ ‘ ' ‘ ..- . a . . 'w, . o 1 e - v . '.’ ' ‘ "fi . ' .‘l H, L 21.1 I‘l‘ . } In ‘ - '... -~-- . . . v ' “ ‘ ‘ e '\ e ,’n if . "r' , - .. . - _ . .. _ b- ,- I I I' p v . e . . _‘ s . e f ' ‘_‘ Q, . . ., n' ..... _ ,. f . O--r.o—~-'I‘. .3- .. 4- v- a‘ o‘ u .- -, r, . - , . .1 '[ a. O l ' ‘ u I - ' . 1 . , . . v I 0 e . I e r - . I I I ‘l a. l I ‘ \ - . A v o ‘ , 5 fl - . ~6- v D ~ - I '. l . "O P: V 1 . rr‘ " {'5 . . ~. . e‘ 4- ‘ O o‘ n t . t \‘ . “Yr , 'b-I I Video effects shall also be defined as: . . . variens electrical ad nechaical devices need to sinnlate neteoroloacal our other natural phone-ens and nhich are nsed to achieve scenic er draatic effects inpossible of actnal or full- scale prednctien in the television stndie .13 . Trasition and titling effects achieved on processed slides and filn or predneed live in the television studio by the utilisation of nechanical, electrical, and optical devices as vell as the display of ainated ad graphic naterials are enoenpassed sithin the ather'e definition of 'vidse effects 313 ’ ‘ 11:92.0 VideeisLatin for “I see' adreferstethevisnalportion of television. Itisnsnsllynsed as sneatedenote sightbroadoat- ing as opposed to sound mace-ting.“ ' television, Television is the traaissien ad reproduction of a vies, scene, object, inage, or person by an electronic apparatus that cenverts the 11cm ensrg received by it into electrical inpnlsee 1- ach a precise and organised nanner that the electrical energy nay he traaitted, and on being picked np by an appropriate receiver, re- converted inte visshle lidnt rays shich take the shape ad fern of the original vies, scene, object, inage or person.15 12 Helevisien talk. Ila-television , 19116. 13 iebert J. seaeu' (Conplier) , atien nee , (low tea-u letsazrk Operations Deparhent; 'i'he .Iatienal asting cup-w, 1951) De e . 1h Herbert Tree, '1' Bio for nsers , (lea York: Iponser ”11031310118, 130., 1, Po o 15 1114., p. 12. ' '- . ' ‘ e < .Q a I e ' ' L. I. , . e ' l s . . . L 1 e > I e r- 1: ‘ v! - l V . \ ‘O‘ .. O . ~. e -. 'd I a r-q 0"..-- mum . A synthesis is the conhination ad capilation of varioas sou-eos and olaonts of thought into a unified vhole. ELM]! To achieve this synthesis of video effects used in television prop-ing, the author consulted availahle hooks, trade ad popular nagasinee , technical and professional Journals, and newspapers for pnhlished naterials on the creation and use of video effects. Sources of current infer-nation were also investigated. The anther visited television stations to observe and to talk with personnel about their use of video effects. Failiority with the use of video effects was acquired hy viewing television progras, ad prohlas in the creation ad use of the so-ca‘llod stadard effects were experienced by the anther in the Television Developent Studies of liohigan Itate college . n.3mnmosamrns1s 2222‘ of laterial. The resulting data was divided ad grouped into four logical and related chapters. The basis for this particular grouping lies in the nethedology aloyed in producing each video offset. for onaplo, when the effect is produced within the electronic systen, whichisceateredintheeontrolrea, itvillhediscuseodinthe ehaterptitlod, 'llectronic lffects.‘ The successive chapters will dis- ease optieal , nechnnicsl-physical , and pane-titling effects . This is a logical grouping since the latter chapters discnss effects which are produced in the studio hefere the live television caeras, that is, video effects produced hy optical attachents to, or devices which alter the 11m. energy received by the caeras effects which recreate natural phone-one or aploy the use of nechanical devices; ad lastly, the chapter dealing with the production ad use of titling effects , graphic displays, ad ainatien devices. In each ehqter, the hasie er sinplosteffect is discussed first, sme am of the nore caplex effects are derived fra a conhinatien of techniques and devices. A definition of each video effect is given, along nth a description of how it is achieved, coutruted, or operated. A representative exaple er a general explanation of how the effect is currently heing used in television prep-n; is given. Conclusions are dran fra theee effects which soon to he controversial, that is, for which there is no definite use, on effects of doubtful value, ad effects upon which the authorities seen to disagree as to use ad func- tion. The individual synthesis of each video effect will carise the body of this study. Sketches. Sketches and diagras are used to show the operational details of various selected video effects, or to further illustrate the written discussion ad description or usage of the particular video effect. These sketches are included on pages i-ediately following the related descriptive naterial . Conclusion. Chatea- 81: contains a eu-ary of the study ad cen- elusien reached by the author. luggestiens for additional studies or investigations will also he given. Glossg. A glossary of tern used which are applicahle to this study will he included in the appendix. O O 'f .0 .r I . . 4 s ,9 ,. : .‘ ,. _ or .e v- I" ~ . - ' ‘ ‘ ' . . - _l, . ' ‘. ~ I . - . — y _ . -. . r " 11. e I ‘ V .‘ v I e . l ‘ ‘ . _ 'u h ' ' . ' e v I . . I 'v . u ' ' ' ' ‘. ‘ ‘ D l . w ‘.‘. 4, o I‘. - ' ' 1 I" - e e——.-0~' "‘ - ' r., ,x e. "' I‘ .1“. . U "3 H. e .~.4 ' ' no -. I I ‘1 ‘J . . - I , ,'r r U ‘e' “I e f‘ : )v ." . . d '_e. .— ‘--~H~.' ‘ . -r '1 .. ' . I ‘ h . u s' ‘ 1 - C ' e '4 damn WM! nectrenic Iffects which are created within the television systen, centered in the control roan, are readily accessible to the director for his frequent use. They are inherently a part of the television traanission systen ad are aioue to the nedia. In the control roan, acre the director ca select free the individual caera nenitcrs the particular picture which will be sent to the traaitter at any given instat , various netheds are available to affect this picture selection. sipificat advances ac being node by the naufacturers of television equip-out to inpreve ad extend the scope ad flexibility of theae electronic effects. In this chapter, the author will discuss tbe basic theory ad operation of the electronic effects available to the tele- vision director. LTEICUT Definition. The word, 'cut,‘ is a ten used in both the language of the filn ad of television. a'vcct- is the instataoeus transition fracnoinageerscenetoancther,aditisachievedbypressinga hutton (on the video switching panel) which electrically switches a new eaora with its specific picture to the progr- line ad at the sac tine it renevee the ferner caera's picture free the progra line. In actual studio practice the word “take. is used te indicate the cutting n v , c ' L. . l ' .' ' ' ' N. I ' 1 '~ . I ‘ e e e v .3 . ‘ I ._ ,f - ,. I. ‘ . e ‘ . ~ ', ‘ '., ‘ I a e. . . .. ~o- a v . . a . .' , ’ _s I v I s‘ . ‘ t e e - . \ ‘V', ‘ " e a... 0 a ‘ -“ , ,. . . ' y I ‘ , I ‘. e I n a. . ‘ o \J '- e a - "' . . ,t ’ k ‘ g . ‘ I l ‘ l v. . 1 ;\ “‘hs . e I " . «. . .1 . \ . , a e p . 5 ~ ‘\ JV v) e . .. . If ‘ A-.. . t... . ‘ O " . ~ e e e ‘ .. .. a e .‘ . ‘- a e ,x. _ e . , . a C u . a . -. a - I e y’ “e I O .- - . fl’. -, . . . .-.: ‘ (a .- .. ’ “’ I I, . 'J . u n "‘ '- ' A v‘ .u . " I .l . v ' ‘ ' 4‘ , s . '. e .7 . ,. .r. ‘ 5 . O . l. . .,. , ‘ o l 1 J . - a , . I e r. w e . '. _. .‘ , . ,e. v . C J I. . . .c . e c- {it . . , . ‘ . F".- l- . . v e _, . 4 a O . . e —. O ., . . o v» , e V O I I O s . a .9 . ea' ' I . ' .w" i u e ._e .. a operefien, such es, 'Tsho Ono, Tub Three,‘ loaning u out to c-ers me:- one end thou ; cut to c-ors unherthree. Strictly menu, to none «11 it 'svitohiu' instesd of cutting. But the uerd 'cut' hes c-eto noon on instsntenoous $333233 33133231? " 333%" "1“" , proc c ting. M. Thecutisthencstc-eutenettrsnsitiontro-eno chore short to mother. The shrupt cheap or cut is the nor-s1 nothed by uhieh the nind turns tron one point or interest or visusl stteution tee-other, thustho nonslnothedoi’curyiufornrdth ttteutionet the visuor is by «an; tre- one shot to snothor.2 The enotiensl re- sctieu thtt u out is cepeble of inducing should not be underestimated, since it csnproduco suddsushockittheohongo otvisuslinsceistoo extreme; Ordinarily the reconitiou of this visusl ilsge end its shock ' u- up.» up... up mind of the vieuor sro slnest instantaneous, thus 1: the director h. selected his two insps correctly on i-odiste essooi- stion of idoss tshes plece in the nind of the viewer. The out should he need intelligently end for e definite purpose. Issicslly, the responsibility or the television director is to sstisty thevie'er. Thedirectornust shouthe vioveruhsthousntstesee, end since the notion picture hes educated tho vieuer to expect close-ups of ilportsnt sction, he unto to see then at the proper tine. The vieuer l Rudy Bret: , “Television Cutting Techniques ," Journal of the locigg of Motion Picture end Television taggers, E5357 Est-c5, 1950. 2 finest W, The Art of the 111-, (London: George Allen sud Unuin Idnited, 191:9), p.121. . 10 elsouents telook shouthinendteknouuhere he is. He doesn't vent to niss w e: the sstien end he certeinly doesn't sent to be confused. mm; the vieuer uhet he waits to see should definitely be e purpose of cutting. dang: Thepropsrtiningerthecutisenootthenestiu- pertent single rectors in its effective use. The tape or on entire production or scene on be seried greetly by the speed of cutting Ira one snore shot to nether. Dy cutting repidly, the tape of the scene eenbe speeded up. 'A sol-neceneuin susteinbetteruthlengsrshots end less frequent cutting.“ The reletivo length of we shots else hes e definite uotionel velue. Ivory production end scene hes its on enotiouel tone end rhytb. cutting else esteblishes e rhythn of its sun. Thus cutting sen either enforce or destroy the inherent rlyth end enotionel tone or the pro- duction. With proper cutting the toe rlutbns should hernonise .h For emple , repid cutting tron one cuere shot to enother during e scene menu quietsndpeeoetuluillsppeer Jerkyendebrupttethe Vieusr end give hin en Qprecieble sense of disco-tort. louevcr, it the scene is inherently exciting, tbs viewer will instinctively denend cutting to netchtherhthendt-pootthesceno. Thevieuer'snindtendste leep eheed te peep enether deteil end therefore it is the responsibility 3 Richerd lubbell , Television Prefigigg end Production, (low Iork: Iinehert end Coup”, Inc., p. . h leylend lettinger, Television Technigg, (Ion York: Herper ad lrothers , 19h?) p. . e. 4 " L '- 1 . ‘. ‘v . v . - . l e ”1% J 11 of the television director to enticipsts tbse inpulsss efl to execute thocutstjusttherightnenent. Ifthe cutoccnrs eithorteeeerly or too lets, the scene will lose the excitenent which it should possess. 'It is quite e nisteke to ssppese, heuever,thet the speed of the cutting elene is sufficient to influence the spectetor's [vieuer's] notions, es sue uriters eppeer to suggest."5 ' ' Indy erets believes tbst, nest cutting is very rerely desireble in television, end herdly ever possible."6 One runs out of c-ere shots teefest, since theresreonlytueerthreec-eres endonohesto elleu tinebetueentho cutsortehesfertho c-er-nlto lineuptheneushet. Furthsnore, television doesn't sell for the peco of the notion picture. The two nedie no different in this respect. lines the eudienoo is setching reelity in the cese of television , it iscententteloteventstehetheirounnetureltine. Cutting therefore, should enhence the production since the cuts or tehes Iillbotinedteenforoetherwthn ofthescene sdteprovide the victor nith nos intonation which his nini instinctively denezfls st tb proper instent. b) Action Cuts. Closely releted to the tining, peeing, end rwth involved in cutting is the principle of setting on notion. Cutting en, sctien end resctien is Just on inortsnt in television us it is in the file. The ectiencut is usodto shouthe cause of the notion, where end s Linda'en, gp. $13., pp. 56-57. 6 b“, no fie, Po 257s 7 lie. 2.1.2.. e . . 4 s . . - . e l ‘ e . u -, l e . " ‘ e ‘7 '- e o f‘ «1‘ " e,.,_ u..- “o on .9 O ‘ ’ h‘ n i p ‘ —‘ . ‘ .4.‘ .. . . . ‘ . e . _i 0 . V e u v, . .‘ . . l -- . e . o h“ _ _ ‘ . r--_._ - ,1” hen it sterted. It is slso often desirehle to show hen the ection con- cludedg therefore, efter tbs notion is sell under my, but before the ection is cenpleted, e cut to the originel shot ney be nede to shou the vieuers shot reele hypenod.8 I'Them-e is nothing thet will so dis- guipothefeotthet eeuthesbeennede es estrengendpesitivo ection to carry esrsss true one shot ts the next.” The cut ts en ection shot shouldbenedepjust efter tho ection hes hegunbut still in tine ts sbse uhythocutuesnocessery. Thecutuillbenede duringthe ectienit- self, not Justhefore or justefterit beceuse thetueuldbeunsstis- festory. “The nenent of ection is such e nshrel plece to cut thst it is possible ts violets the other principles of good cutting end get ensy with it, no long es the out is nede on ectionJ'm e) leectien Cuts. Cutting is often notiveted by the eudience , since thoyuill sentte see s-oono's rsestieetsebet hes Justbeen sddordeno. 'Oneofthenostpousrfulnotivstions foresutis to hsvo sseeses in.the picture look outside the has. I-edistely the 1" nsestisn shots uhioh eudience vents to see uhet he is looking st.‘ ere intendodte shouuhet heppens ts spa-tiselsr setor efterserds ere spohen by enother ere nest effective. The cut to the subject is node e fraction of e second before the reestien occurs, se thet the vieuers 8 John H. Bettisen, levies for TV, (Ion fork: The lecnillen Cen- pw, 1950) p. 186. 9 Frets, 32. 915., pp. 252-253. 10 22- all. 11 firsts, 22. £15., p. 251:. - e s e e..,, . s - y s o e 'V. . ~ ‘ ' I O . - v i_. . _' . t. . . ‘ ' o l .. o 1 I - . ‘,l I z . ' . l I s .4 ' . ' . z - . .v .‘ I . ‘ .s» - 4 . >‘ Ll i I. A ‘ ‘ I 'II . I e l e ' ' v 7 I . e T . ~ ' ‘ h v ‘ - I. n 1 . A. . I V I x .s . u s s - . -. u ’ .‘ - . ‘ ‘ e s l ‘ > ' . '— ’ . II no u r‘ l ' , . . ‘ . . I ) c . . J A . -- ‘ e . e . v o ' ' I ‘ ‘ ' h ‘ I. I ‘ > - \ ‘ . s s v . u _-. e I . v i " s , s . ' o ‘ * ls‘ l ‘ I]. , . ll J ‘ ‘ C , l» ‘ . ~ ' . . y . ‘ ‘ A .v ' ‘ I Is ‘ I e ' . s . A '. . — . t f ‘ ‘ ‘ I ~ ‘ i _I ‘1 ~. . ‘ _‘ I e . r . r! - . f - s .' ' ' T r . r _ r J v . D I ’ n . ~ .- . , ‘ .. ., _ ‘ . . r - .1 4 . I ' I ‘ - . l . > . I . I . I ‘ ‘ I ‘ ‘ ‘ v . 0.1 \ \ ' " -~—~_. .-, _ ‘ n _ e ‘ I ~ I. l ,. . _s I . ,. ‘. _ ‘ ‘ - V . >7 s‘ . s .. u s > U h ' n _ , ' . . y. , .v v..r - . “$-, ,0 t - n ‘ l ‘ .— ' ‘ . I J c r . ,, r ‘ I - . u n I H . ‘ .V (-‘ ' a - ’f- . -o o . e . o - e s ‘ ‘ ‘ . i .1 o . e ' ‘ r . . . o . . 0- n t 1 s , s- n '. ' .1 ’e .' ‘- I s . ~ g 1 ’ ’ L‘ J x, . ’ - I We} ', u e r - e. I 0‘ , e o e . [ v . . - - e . .'3 n ‘L ‘ _ . .l l J > ' ’ , . - . . u U - g; I . - ‘ 5 - . .' . . r . ‘ . . . - ' . ' _ I; . . 1 ~ ,. ~ - ‘ l.~‘ I . , A ' r I o. i o (\' . o n ‘— .-v ‘e .\ '7‘ _‘ - , . v . . l- ‘ \e ') t - ’ ' . v . ‘ - - -- *c s . . . e A - 1 . . ‘ ~ ’ ' l L s . . ‘ ‘. . I . . . . - - 7 7. h . - - - I ’ e . . ' .. . ' I v u C . . .. . o l ‘ II - .. l. . s . ., O ' . v --. A. W‘— ‘ s ' '0 e . O . O 13 will ooo this facial trmition of notional tom. In rooction ott- tinhitillootiqortnttohomothhtthovimrilmtcomd by a “mo of lulu ohd ohoto which oro confusing to his bocoloo thoy promt non mom-oath difforont domino . Tho enoro ugloo oholld ho th oilplo ad otroifittornrd and in lino nth tho notoro of tho progr- cutout. d) ”lotion cots. Onto co otton ado tou- littlo or no oppu-ont rooooh'othor than to chap tho ugh or capo-um of u- ohot. 'l'hooo variety onto no otton ooooooory particularly it tho hop hon o. tow-q to horn-in on a. torptlz at tho but orthicon pick-up tnho. (m tofloncy to bun-1n io pro-cut non tho to» ho. louod oonoidoroblo hurt or continua notation.) cuto uod ml: for mioty ohould ho logical niholptooorryohttho utionudpurpooo otthoprodution. Voriotw «to ohonld not ho contain; nor ohtruivo to tho vim-or; homo, thqohooldhoplo-odooport otthototolpoduotiohitotonpoooiblo rothorth-hoinglotttoohnco II ”mononnwggm. Varioty not. on actually ho nod to add moment to In othori'iu Itotic ohov,botono11ont cunt-bu, n31», ndnmtcnnotm o prohotion it than is no inhoront “out prooont in tho ooript. o) Intonattingy Tho emu-um tochniqoo or 13mm. of oxtroooouo ohoto for tho purpooo of «moot, irony, tloohhock, u- c.- pu-uon oro oloo anus-no to tolovioioh. 13 htomttiu num- tho 12 Tho 'torpt' of tho inqo orthicon io cupcoblo to tho 'mtic' of tho iconoooopo tobo nod in tho ti]- ohoin c-oro. . 13 Dotti-m, g. 92., pp. 50-51. o ‘1 I J i .. I» . '4' .n ~o ul ‘. L 5’) a . .\ a . . ’1 o -r ' C .9 -4- \o . g I ‘ ‘._ , 0 . I . I I A U f H '. y, .\s h I‘ " O- H . . ul' l O I .‘ \ o . r r Q ' 'nn- ' l .' -_ - ‘5 It ‘ C‘ v .- ‘ ‘ 4 u I, n( 1.! oo o r' .'V 0-. . o.‘ 1 donor to ooo both tho notion ad tho rooction to tho notion. Tho _vionor iomhnoro intorootod inthoronction otthovoddingpnrtytha itioinvhttthoniniotorio owing; honeo,hyintorontti‘ngno ohm tho-inltorpronoaoingthanaadqu, thoyoagoo‘plo, thobridoo' nothor, tho poa'o ant, ad tho opoototoro. Intorentting ca ho nod - to point up tho an of tho situation by own; puma or opposing hito or notion. t) Draotio can . tho at nood for ito pun-o1; psychologiool ottoct ad ifioront «Ir-attic voluo should not to ovorlookod. I"l'ho addon shock of out in oaopaoo ooono 1.11m nporiod oflo'tonoionvfll injoct n amino olaont ad lift tho ooono hy ito offoct of ohqo con- truth":Lh It in tnrthor pointod out that, 'A addon draotio nonont oa hohnhaood by sharp ant-:15 cnto oa‘oloo ho nood no mum» at only in draotio ooqnonooozat in othor production a roll. Ono altraahorhoavor,thttitiothoproportiniuottho ottadtho malagthoroaoroohotthotvflloithor onforooordootroytho oftootivonooo or ouh draotio rotting. .) gag:- or Intoroot Onto. Another point to considor sun cutting fraonooaoroohottoaothoriothocontorofintoroot; rumor thovionorhatoodjuttoooohnovohot aditnoyoloohonovinca- position. It io,thorororo, hportat that a. rolotivo position in tho traootthooontorofintoroot ohonldhoprodainttolythooaointho mohotaitn‘ainthoproviou oaoroohot. Itthioionotthocao 1': .122. 2.41. 15 mu, 2. 213'!” Po 259. . -<- o o \ . o . .-, a-v‘ 15 thavioooro' oyaooillnotonlyhavotoadjuottothonaoohothntoill hm to ooaroh naontarfly for tho cantor or intoroot upon ohioh ho unto to Iocno hio attontion.16 11) Audio Cato. cum; to tho India oignal provido’o aothor intor- ootingoq s: changing tho oaora ohot or tho piotnro oapaoition. Tho phi-ailing at oordo will provide a natural plaoo to out, that io, cutting to voioa. 'l'ho ontnayooour daringtho panoo follouing aopohan phraoo. fiooovoritiooaoiaradaoothorifthoontionadoatthoondofa oontonoo rathor than in tho niddlo or on. A out at tho chango of thought holpo to aphaioo tho traoition tron one idoa to author. Particularly in nuoioal production it io dooirablo to ohango tho oaara ohato in hoping aith tho nood and tapo of tho ooloction. 'l'ho naoioiorointoroodirthoviouolohangofollmthoohagoo oftao eelsr, ohorao, adverse." no out oillha nado to correspond oiththo naoioal phraoing ohioh forno a vary oapalling pattarn tar outting. For oxaplo, in a popula- oong a out could ho nado tolloning tho introduction, thovoroo, adtho choral. rhinoould‘oothonininaotaatopoooihlo. loroontovouldhoovidontnponoxainatiaofthooooro,arhyhoaring tho naoio. Oonolaoion. Untortanatoly thoro ara oo naw daado upon tho tolo- vioiondirootorthothoottondooon'thmthotinoto oanoidortho 'hon' ad'ay' ofontting. m,thio iono omoo tor attinghlindly . 16 Ibid., p. 256. 17 lroto, g. 9%., p. 260. o - ' ~—.- - _ ‘ - ‘ s o n v s I “r .t ' o 7 . .. ~ s . ‘ o . 5. - ‘ . , .‘ ._.--. ~--- a.-- a- -- 16 fraonooaaratoaothor. Ifthodiroctorvilltrytovionaliaotho proca in torno of tho viooor, raahoring that hio rooponoihility io toohovthoviaoarvhathovatotoooo,ohanhovantotoooo it,tho dirootor'o cutting till havo ouch a dogroo of onoothnooo that tho vionar m1 ho nnaaro of tho fact that m vional attontion io hoing diroctod tron ono nictnro to aothor. 11.111338: IIAIDWI Intuition. Tho tado io accapliohod oloctronically by controll- ing tho ‘vidoo gain. that io, tho povar or 7011-. of tho pictaro sspuner. itado-inio aflovodhyincroaoingthovidoo gainnhilo tho tado-oat in tho procooo of docroaoiug tho gain of tho pictaro to aoro, than loaving a blank or 'blaok' talovioion nanitor ooraon.“ neessse of tho olootronic seas of «seen... it, the reds-eat io callod 'going-to-hlaok' or a 'diooolvo-to-hlaoh.‘ Tho vidoo gain control in locatod hanoaththo vidoo «itching pao1-ad tennstes ahovo tho panol in odthor a lava or control knob nhioh io oaoily aocoooihlo to tho pro- duction and onginooring poraonnol an arc tho individual oaara ovitoh. ing huttono Ihioh tho athor nontionod in tho procoding ooction of thin chaptor. logo. rho tado-in io anally and to hogin tho ooqnonco‘ or ohoto. fhno it indicatoo that oaothing not in to follow. For onapla, tho aponing titlo e: e prep-s- io anally tadod-in. nerds-est hringo a 18 Edward Itaohotf and Body arets, Tho Tolovioion Proga, (loo Iork: a. i. on, Inu., 1951) p. 59. if \ a i.__ .o .0 . ‘ - \ t . h. f 17 datinito torninatian to tho action ad can to caparad to tho doocond- ing curtain uhich closes the action in the thaatra.” Likooioa tho notion picturo connotation of tho fada—out io ono of finality.” Tharatara tho laat ocono of a tolovioion draatio production or tho con- cluding ooquonoa or oaction of a progra ohould ba fadad-out. Although tho noutar ocroon in black for only a hriot pariod at tino, tharo in a diroot hroak or tonination in tho viaoar'o continuity of vioion.“ rho 'fado up-fado dem- nothod of switching ohould ha aployad linnnch tho oaa nay aparagraphwouldba uood invritingto indic ate t5 conplation of ono thought and tho introduction of a non onc. Tho {ado-in and {ado-out arc ordinarily road in ocn‘oination and nay ho ao long or an ohort ao daoirod. it tho haglnning of a progra, for anapla , thoro nay ha a gradul i’ado-out of tho titloa rollouad by a black ocroon for a raw oocondo, and them a {ado-in of tin tirot am at tho progr- oaquonoa. Honour, it io oonotinao doairablo to follow a olaa fado-out vith a diroct cut, thuo aplaying ito ohock valuo. Sonatinao a cut to black io indicatod rathar than a {ado-out, oopocially ohan you want to and tho ooano ouddonly and than follow it with a tada-in Ira ‘alaok to tho naxt ooquanca. Tho noot dagorouo aopoct of uoing tada-outo in talavioion in tho longth at tho blank ocroon botwaon tho l9 Bohort ~3’. Graano, ‘rolovioion writinj, (loo Iork: Hat-par and Brothor, 1952) p. 95. 20 Brats, 92. 933., p. 263. 21 arcane, 22. 33.3., p. 95. 22 H1111- c. Eddy ll‘alovioion: ho a or 'r‘onorrov, (lav Iork: Prantica-Hall, Inc., ”fig—W . ' El! A 18 fada-ant and tho fada-in, oinca it nay ba too long. If tho langth of thin blah ocroon in too long it nill ba noro difficult to racapturo tho adianoa intaraot men drayo rapidly ohan tharo in nothing on th ocroon.23 'fho unit by tho adianco io not oo bad, houavor, if nuoio or oonnd carriao through avan though tho ocroon io black. It in inportant, tharafora, to hoop tho that ocroon at tho botto- of tho fada-out, fada- in an ohort ao practicahla . ‘l'ha fada-ant, fada-in nq ba uood botoaon any too ocanao. Btaohoff and Iratazh baliava that tho cabination ohould ba uood oopacially to donota a lapoo of tina. Thorofora it could ba uood vhon too oconoo tab plaoo in tho oaa oat, or tho fado-out, fada-in nq bo aplayod botuaon too ooanoo in diffaront oato vhara thoro io a dofinita lapoo of tho indicatad in tho ocript. Brats opocifiao that tho fada-out, fado-in ohanld bo uood; . . .uharatharoioagroatcrchangointinoorplaca thanio anally indicatad by a diooolva. A diooo vo rataino continuity; a fada-aut-fado-in broako tho ooqaonoa.2 rho opacd of tining of tho fado io aloo inportat oinco paycho- logically tho fada novoo tho draa or progra along at a olooar paca tha dooo tho diooolva booaoa tho fada brooks tho continuity of tho prop-a. 'l'ho duration of tho fada dapando antiroly on tho noad and oubjact nattar of tho ooono at hand llll nay bo fro- a oplit-oacond fada, 23 Broto, 32. 933., p. 26h. 2h Btaohoff and orett, 32. £13., p. 59. 25 Brats, 2. £13., p. 26h. (Diooolvao will bo diocuoaod in tho follouing ooction.) - . I o .- 7 I .n . . . i . . ‘ O . v . l ' ‘ o . . ‘ . J a. ' | 0 . ‘ .z u V . I .~ ,. .. ' . ‘ . . . 4 I , - ' o ~ . '.‘ [,1 n I O‘ ‘ ~ ( .1 ' ‘ , .3 . 1‘ ' . O . u l .00 “ . . n. u-o-r'-’ l9 aich in about a cut, to fivo or tan oocondo but aolda langor."26 ethor lothodo . 0thor than tho alactronic nothod of aohioving a fada-out, it nay bo accomplished in tho otudio sith lighto, rhich is, of couroo, a failiar otaga tochniouo. Hanovar, ouch fadoo in tho otudio ara oonaohat difficult to ancuta oinco a grant now lighto vill hava to bo cantrollod. It io rolativaly aaoy to achiava vhon tho aub- Joct happono to bo lightod by only a fan opotlighto vhich ca aithor ba out or dinnod. i fada-out nay aloo bo affactod by having tho oaoraan pan hio caara off into a darh aroa of tho oatting, or having an actor ualh diractly into tho caara lono, until hio body blooho out all of tho light. Thooo ara intoraoting variationo, but it in nuch aaoior and oftan nora practical if not an offoctiva, ta achiova tho fado aloctronically in tho control raon. Conclusion. Tho fada-out , fado-in in an olactronic affact uood to bagin and tarninota action. is a traoitional dovico botnaan oconoo it in oopocially ouitod for indicating a lapoo or paooaga of tina botuaan too oconao, although thio connotation in not gonarally accoptad. Tho fado-out, fada-in io boot uoad no a paragraph in uood in mung, Tho tolovioian diractor io cautionod againot 'going-to-blaoh' rapoatadly or raaining n 'blach' for extended poriado, oinco he rishs loaing his adiaca. ‘ . 26 lubboll, 22- 933., p. 116. cl a a <—.— a A s. I s a 4 . .- >a-0u- III. DISSOIJEB Definition. Tho dissolve is very closely related to the fade be- caoo it in in a oonoo a oinultanoouo fade-in, fade-out, since the picture fran one caera in being faded out, an the picture fro. the up- coning caera in being faded in. The diooolvo no originally a cinonatic technique ohich ha been adapted by television. Ernest Lindg‘en deeoribeo the cinenatic diooolvaa If a fade-cut at the and of one ohot io ouperinpoood on a fade-in of equal length at the beginning of another ohot, the raoult in tho tern of transition known on the dissolve or nix; no the firot ohot oleoly dioappearo, the second gradually appearo, and for a ohort opace of tine the too are nergod together on the ocroon.27 While the cinaatic diooolve is achieved optically, the tolovioian dio- oolve is inediately available an a standard effect upon the video snitch- ing panel. The diooolvo in controlled nanually by the cane lover or con- trol huob used in n'ahing fadeo, and in Just what the nae inplieo, one picture dissolving into another. technically, it in achieved by decrees- ing the 'vidoo gain” of one caora no the “video gain“ of the up-caing caora io increaood. Yioually the first picture becoueo weaker vhile the oocond picture oaao to appear under the firot picture no it gradually bacenoo otrangor while the firot picture has now caplotoly dieappoalt'od.28 In the niddle of the dieoolvo, there io n nonat when both pictureo will be of equal otrength and both till be equally vioible on the tolovioian ””011 . 27 Lindgran, 2. 3.13., pp. 27-28. 28 Raynend spottiouoodo, A (ha-or of the Piln, (Leo Angelou Univeroity of California Praoo , p. . 21 9.9.52- A snooth, restful, easy transition is effected by the dis- solve. hoothness is its outstanding characteristic. 'It does not break off the action and continuity as a fade-out does,‘althou¢h it nay slev don the action to sue extent if it is a very gradual dissolve .‘29 The length of rhytln of tho dissolve is flexible since it nay be short or long. It nay take, less than half a second, which is practically a cut, or it nq take as nnch as five or six seconds to execute the dis- solve, and this speed depends upon the need and tenpo of the progrn. u nornal dissolve is fron tvo to three seconds)” 'Slov dissolves should not last over six seconds; that is very long.'31 PsychologicaJJy the effect of the dissolve is sinilar to dis-sing thelights in a stage plq, without lenring the curtain. Although a definite neaning has been associated nith the cinematic dissolve, television has yet to evolve such a connotation. I"rho noaning of a dissolve in filne is transition through space sea tine; Ion dis- solve betnoon sequences; to a later tine or to another place, or both!” The fill dissolve is orotted optically nhile the television dissolve is instantly accessible to the television director via tho video switching panel. Snootho desolveisnohardortodothanacutandvithno difforoue in cost there is a very free use of the television dissolve. 29 labboll, 22. £13., 1!. 1.18. so lottingor, 2. 2g” 1». 52-53. 31 lattison, 31. 933., p. 187. 32 Brats, 33. 2.1., p. 263. V e c-‘ .- 0-..- 5) 22 It naybe used to go fron along shot to anodit- shot, or to a close- up, that is, dissolving eithin the sequence thick is «non practice particularly in nusieal .d variety shoes . The television dissolve nay also be used to connect tue separate progr- unita or sequences, such as a dissolve bstueon the opening titles eel the opening uquonco of tho pregru. A favorite use of the dissolve is to shoe a series of closely related photographs or objects in progression. The dissolve nay be used to indicate a lapse of tins or a change of place when used between tee sequences. If it is used to indicate a lapse of tine or a clings of place, it indicates loss of a change than does tb feds-out, fade-in technique. The dissolve is often used in places share a cut usuld be preferable sinply because the director vents to add variety to the sequence and chooses the dissolve as the namor of changing the onus angle. The result is a lack of connotation for the dissolve in television. Conclusion. Since the dissolve is very easy to achieve via the video switching panel, there is a very free use of the television dis- solve. The result is a lack of connotation for the television dissolve . Regardless of its nsaning or lack of nsaning the dissolve is extensively used in television productions. It sens probable, houevor, that a definite «notation sill develop as various theories are exchanged and explored by these in the industry as television continues to expand and nature. 23 A. LAP DIM“ Definition. Another variation of the dissolve , although closely related to the superinposure uhich will be discussed in section three of this chqiter, is been as the lap dissolve. 'A closer version of tho dissolve is called the lg dissolve . Here the short superinposuro of the tuo teases is extended for a longer period of tine!” 'The lap dissolve consists of fading in one insge over another, holding it for a period of tino, ad then fading it out 93“ In sin-atic terninology, 'It is called a lap because the tee pictures appear to overlap and appear ono above the other!” conflicting terniselegv and naming is evident when the above state- nonts are enind closely. The conflict exists between the sell estab- lished techniques and“ connotations of cinuatic effects and sinilar offsets possible in television but without the well established back- pound of usage and noaning. 1's clarify the torninology it sous that the lap dissolve nay tans either of tee fons or both. First, the lap dissolve nq be an extra-sly slew dissolve between two e-sras or progr- elsnsnts as is often, for sn-plo , erected between opening slides . The l. dissolve is not a superinposure because there is no static position; that is, the purposeful stopping of the dissolve process in the niddle of the operation when both inagss could be of equal strength and rennin 33 h.-. as Eta, ”o 13.1hs 3h Bettina», g. 31.1., p. 51:. 35 nattison, pp. 333., p. 187. at so for a period of tine. The lap dissolve is also a transition between tee cusras or two progr- oluents, such is not the case with the superinposurs. Secondly, applying the cinenatic technique the lap dis- solve introduces a second inago which is above the first inags, that is, locatedinthstophalfeftbfr-eililothofirstinagorondnsin tho bott. portion of the screen. The overlapping of the pictures in the center of the frus provides the tsrninology , lap dissolve . ‘fhs torninoloy lid effect are easily confused when one realises that in television the technician can create with the superinpcsurs, or with the recently developed special effects uplifior the effect of a sin-atic lap dissolve instantaneously during the air show while the cinsnstic lap dissolve nest be specially processed in the filn labora- tory. Television torninolog is still flexible; therefore it is evident that the effect uhich a director would receive then he called for a lg dissolve in one particular studio would not necessarily be the identical effect he would receive if he asked for a l. dissolve in another tole- vision operation. 1m. fhslapdissolve isusodinnuchthss-owayas ace-on dissolve. As a cinenatic technique it is used to indicate thoughts, streu-of-consciousness sequences, and flashbacks. however it has al- ready been stated that the television tornineleg and connotations of the lap dissolve have not been clarified, therefore it also follows that its usage is subject to variation fren station to station. "1 s4 “-1 25 s. Imam nlssohvss Definition. ltill another variation of the dissolve is the natchsd dissolve. It is an interesting, useful, and generally pleasing device . "hon‘tho two pictures are sinilar in coqoeition . . . we get what is hnown as a 'liatchsd Dissolve"."36 “It consists of exactly natohing the positioning of two sinilar or identical shapes, one on each cusra, so that when the dissolve is nads a not-erphesis appears to take place .‘37 12120 The natchsd dissolve has a specific use since it can be A used to show the transfsrnation or net-orphosis occurring in an object or person.” Special care should be taken to assure that the new object will occupy onctly the one position as the old object. is a transition device, the natchsd dissolve can be used to achieve a snooth flashback. For ox-plo , the screen is filled with a big close-up of a w-sn's hand as she hangs an era-est on the Christnas trso.'1'hs viewer sees’ahand that is withered, lined, old, and wrinkled, “but gradually as the natchsd dissolve is executed the hand niraoulously changes to a snooth , slender hand of a young girl' attaching a sinilar orn-ent to a Christan tree, and as the snare dollios back the young girl is revealed. The story continues as tho wenan relives a fornor Christ-as . The natchsd dissolve is the perfect transition device for use in the story of Dr. Jekyll and llr. his, since nany transfornations nust 36 stssher: and srets, a. 513., p. 59. 37 lottinger, 32. 93..., p. 53. 38 Iattison, 2. 3%., pp. 187-188. l l ‘ e I . C I t , . f. at: .- e1 - ~ .. ,r ' .' ‘ ... \ .‘x\- LL . ‘ _. ‘ - v--" . ‘ WC- 0. -‘fi . ‘ ’ . l. ., ,,l-‘ ,. ,._-. .‘~" .,._,,,. ' ' ‘ ' u - ' . r y .‘ a s- ‘ . s- d - U‘ ‘ (a . uni .- -- - - I . ’s e . I '. _ .5 .- " (‘, e u‘ I. ‘F _. . N " ' r. i 4 O‘} a 9" ' . O‘ ‘ ‘ d ‘ - s‘ ‘ . - v Q '3 A - . - v r . -.1' 2t ‘ a -' ' u ’ e .. ‘U‘ r ‘ < ' _ I tAw . . e .l . . -. t . . ' o - e v e s 9 , .- . r . . - . v‘ ‘ ' . x . g n e ,- u '- in f‘ "’ i o x » .‘ _'.~ A L A q- - - ' (ahJ J- h. MK ,~\J\ a I . ‘1 "V. ‘« ":-‘L.r. . 1‘- 32; 23.; ‘WI 98: ‘ J . . . J) .3 A. 3 ' s I" (.3. [I ~ '— - ' - —. _ - ‘ ‘ ‘ \ ‘ 1 l‘ N . . w n r, O o , . - 7— ~e .- ‘- . e . - ' g c . D , " e ‘ ~ -‘ - p_ ~ \ _ . \ u y. a v. .. ~.« n s- - O .- fr O‘ > - . - - . L d . v \ ._- . J , I . r e - e r \ C ‘ ‘ I». v‘ ‘ n.)r\ re - n - “ " 4" ’V \ k . r h .K .k 3‘ ‘ u ’e 5 o v‘ ‘ ~ -‘I I- ...* - -._.1 -. g- i” _. ,r' . . ,_" .. g ‘ x ~ -- v a «d-.«- C. Y- "t e K . -\' A — -x. _~ . _.. A. - . ( ~ . -- - " .s ' , ‘ ‘ r r l I a- \‘. e- . 9 - w s. .. ‘. N" as ‘ I: a s3. . . ‘ ~ \ u .\ v. u . .1 t < - - C n v Q . U . g . A v. . .-- .‘ ,' . e. ._, .A Q. g. - - - ‘ o . .._\’ ’ * . , - . c \‘ - — - l ‘ , . v o . , _ . q l s . a e . Q 0 ‘ _ . . s- . 'O ‘Q ._ l-. a \- . .. .. .e ed A ‘_ ‘e— —- ’a e . ‘8 . v a r 0‘ ‘, ‘ ‘ Q a V e ~ ' ‘ h ' ' " ‘ ‘ ‘ fi‘ ' r V \ ‘ \ ‘ .s ‘ y . g - ‘ ’ . . . n v .—‘ e , . g . . - an or o- e ~ ' v ‘ . p‘ ‘r‘ ‘ . ~ : e C l _ . .s . .7 e I ‘ l - -- - A u a n l‘ ... e a. o - — t ‘ ‘e ‘ Q R . ‘ . K do ‘ ‘... ‘ .‘ ' ‘ e . i _ . - .~‘ Va. '1 wt 9 ‘3.— . — - . I ‘ ‘ . 0 ‘ u - e . .. . r _ vs. ‘ a . e. n . “ ' n -‘ ' -e.‘ _, g . n _‘ : _ - a l U s . » —' - s _-- -——.....-..—0- e - n ‘ . .- d O \ C t c -' u ‘ a ~ Ae.‘ - _ - _ a ‘ .‘fl \ “c. - “ ~‘ . \ . . O . Q . ‘ -- . ’ --. ‘s- A ‘ A ‘ ‘ > . ‘ . ‘ . .A i n 26 toho plooo, and 1f thooo con ho ooooupiiohod on tho ocroon for tho. flour, tho oftoot of tho ontiro otory 1111 ho pootly oohonood. A fromot no of tho notohod dimlvo 1o hotvooo o 11" piotlro in tho Mo or o photogrqhio o11do ood o 11" portoroor in tho otodio, giving tho offoot of tho photograph «In; to 11.“. Author htorooth‘ mm.- thtt Iv 'bo oohiovod with tho Iotohod diooolvo 1o tho diooppoorio‘ motor. Actors ooh vuioh through o oloood door by um; too idoltiool dooro oohotrootod, ono on tho oot on! tho othor to ho piohd-Ip by nothoro-oro. Tho ootor opprooohoo tho oloood door on tho oot, pouiu oo ho ooooo tooo to tooo with tho door httoontnoootooinoldtomhu. dothoootoropprooohoorlthioo oooplo of otopo of tho door, o olov notohod diooolvo to tho mood door umtodmditomqpoorthottho ootorhoodiooppoorodthrouh m oloood door. non; 1o in loot aritiool oopoct of thio otfoot. Hmmttho ootorto otopthrouhtho oloood door, mthorootohod diooolvo 1111 ho ottootod to ohoo tho ootor norm on tho ronroo oido of tho door moh 1o loootod on tho oot. IV. MW ”initial. Tho otfoot of tho morhpoo'oro in photogrophy would ho oollod o doublo oxponro . Tho toohniqoo of tho upon-pom involvoo tho oinoltonoooo no or too own and tho too oooooiotod pictoroo oro hloudod togothor oo thot tho hop fro- ooo ouoro 1o npoood ovor tho hon of tho othor ouoro and both inopo go out on tho oir oinltonoouoly u o oioglo piotnro .39 thio otfoot 1o oohimd by too of tho diooolvo . 39 Stoohorr and m, 3. 5a., p. 60. ' a c f , '1’ .l v . I l . v r. c; ‘. o v 0 ' ‘- I ’1 o f ’4 I v ,- . _ h d D r ( ‘. I O ‘ l ‘ ‘ v- ‘1 . - , . . . . '. ~A. '1 , x 'r v C] A . ‘. _ .-\. 4 O A ~ 1 . . ‘o . . . "' .* ‘ . o . \ ‘ § A t C u o ‘ ‘ r o* .- . . . , t {4‘- o‘r'. 7 rr—‘ { x. 1 ._ ‘1 ‘ ‘ “‘ o, o . ‘ ' f “t - - ‘ - h . l‘ 0 v . u "' ' o on. o ' ' . 4 l ' r . l ‘ _ . . o ' IN o . . ‘ . ,~. . ‘4 ‘ n- . ‘ r ‘ _ u ' . o‘ < s - _ c . O I r " 9 .r . A , . ’ I u y» a ( ‘ . ‘ ‘ - > f . o . I v u , ~ , ‘4‘ 0; a '- I ,~ x . .p- o o ‘ . o . . l . o . o ,.fi W o o. o a... I 27 or (odor oontrol loootod on tho video «itching ponol. roohnioolly tho vidoo goin or ono ouoro io doorooood and oinoltonoonoly tho vidoo “in of tho oooond o-oro io inorooood. Ihon both oinolo roooh ho]: otrongth, or holi-oipol, tho hop tron oooh ouoro will ho «all: vioihlo npon thononitorooroon. ‘l'ho'onpor' ooitiooollodio oohiovodinnnohtho o-o nonnor oo o lop diooolvo onnopt tho diooolvo prooooo io mou- an; otoppod nhon tho tvo inocoo oro both vioihlo on tho ooroon ond ohon tho: oro molly or oqool otron‘th. Tho "nor“ on ho uitohod onto tho prop-u lino u o rind 'olpor' (doohio mam) 5! "1|: tho, ont toohiono, or tho um hat or u-w nq ho n'm'm- on tho oooond halt 1o tubal-in to holf-lovoi thioh would oinnltonoonoly dooroooo tho vidoo «in of tho firot onoro to half-lord. Tho o-oroo mtnmdwpcu-onnyatnnbmtmmughuuorm too no.» 13th to inonro outnoiont oontroot rongo and to nob tho onpor oftootivo. m. In tolovioion, tho «porinponro 1o oooy ond inoxponoivo to orooto, whilo in tho notion pioturo o doohlo ozpoooro io o oootly doviooooullynodo intho lohorotoryontho optioolprintor. m tho noo of tho 'onpor' io noro from in tolovioion podootion. 'Liho oolt a mango. onporinpooition a wry oftootivo ohon uh with dioorotion, hot rninooo ohon oood too my” 'l'ho 'onpor' hoo om oppliootiono. ma offooto oon ho oohiovod in {onto-y, oinoo ghooto .9 ho oolid or tronoporont; drouo nq notoriolizo out of thin air; ohorootoro con vonioh ‘rodnony or intontly. w Ituhoff ond lroto, 220 935., p. 60. )u . . . o w o . q — o . a: . . u . o O . o O F . _.. . O ' . a w _ _ .. . F .. .. . .4 u . D . . o r» I 1. V ~. . o . n. . v . w. _ O . o o ., o. p w Tho donor in h'oonontly uod in titlo ooqnonooo oo o livo titlo oordorolido nporinpooodotorolivo ootionohotfrutho otndioor o rm ooononoo. Oo-oroiolly, it noy ho nood to bring tho oponoor'o no or troduu-h to tho ooroon our o piotnro tron onothor o-oror rrnit or vogotobloo nq ho ohon in tho on by putting tho oontonto in ooolloloidoontoinorthoouooioooothooricinoltin,o.ndohooting thio fillod oontoinor oninot oblookordonh poyhoohaoond. rho fillod oolloloid oon io 'ooporod' uth tho ohot of tho ontoido of tho partial: ooo Ira tho grooor'o oholt, thoo oo ooo tho lobol on tho ontoido of tho oon ond (rodoolly ito oontolto oro rovoolod to no.“ Dr-otioolly, tho oupor ooo ho nood to onhonoo tho ootion by tho orottion of illooiono. loro oro oovorol ox-ploo. to o non roodo o 1am- m- m m1, m ..‘. tho lottor in o olooo-np ond mummy tho girl'o tooo oppooro ovor tho linoo of tho lottor. lor tooo nq fodo-ootor thoro noy bo o ont to o third o-oro. A protty girl io ploood on o hlooh oovorod plotton in boot of o blooh booty-om toro oho poo throoghthonotiono «talking. Thin inogo nqbo ooporod ovor o photonophio or fill inogo of o landooopo. I! ooro io tom, tho amormmlunmunmnmoummm- ooopo, hooovor, tho piotnroo nnot ho oorof‘olly ohooon and tho limo ootion oorotolly rohoorood oinoo poropootivo io on our-fly inportont oonoidor- otion in thio ofloot. *— . hlJ.A.Imoooondlovorlylodloy,ll l‘onrl’hoto Ettootivo, (low Iorho learn-Hill look flow, 135., I55; pp. 325-326. - I I. ' r . . ’ d ,. . . . 0" C . w ' ‘ O Q ,. .. w-. (1 29 I-lq piotnroo oon bo oinnlotod hy carom noo of tho morinpoonro ond tho prooodnro io nnoh tho o-o no tho ono .ployod to rovool tho oootontow of tho «no on tho grooor'o oholf. Although tho no of tho nporoon ho nood otfootivoly in o dr-dtio ooqnonoo, tho dirootor ohonld bo onro that ho hon o good pox-polo for noing it. loporing ono ohjoot oyor onothor, for omlo, oon oftoh olorify o difflonlt point oopooiolly in oho'Ing tho oporotion of ouplox noohoni-o, ond it will om ondlooo Ind oonfnood ottting tron ono ohjoot to onothor or book and forth botnoon too onsets.“ l'ho diroctor not raubor to on tho onpor vith dioorotion ad ovoid ito Iroquont ooo ohioh not only dootroyo ito ottootimooo, hot rovoolo tho dirootoro look or inoginttion. trams Dofinition. Tho doroono or tronoition toono ottoot .io uhiovod by oporoting tho foono control on tho own which novoo tho inogo orthioon pick-op tobo book- ond forth inoido tho o-oro, through tho foool point ottholono,thoouoingthoinogotogoinondontoffoou. totho vionor, tho objoot on tho ooroon grodnolly hlnro no it gooo out of foono boooning indiotinot ond mooognioohlo. It tho ohot in to ho ohongod, n toot diooolvo or cot in nodo to tho oooond o-oro, «lolly ott of toono, and on tho ouor-on odjnoto hio toono control tho ocroon rogoino ito ohorpnooo rmoling oithor tho ouo or o. no! objoot. m dotoono R2 Lynn Poolo Scionoo Vin ‘rolovioion, (Boltinoro: rho John Hopklno Pro-o, 1950) pp. 3177-155. ‘ l-l ( f. _o o o-o. o o— io o trick voriotion of tho otondord diooolvo, oinco it rotoino tho continuity of notion, o proporty of tho diooolvo , Iithont on obrnpt ohngo fr. ono ooono to onothor.“ Thu, tho dofoono pornito o tronoi- tion or ohongo of ohoto Ihilo nointdhing o otrong piotnro rolotionohip botnoon tho too ooonoo. rho dofoono rotoiroo co—ordinotion hotnon diroctor ond oaor-on. Ioro oro tho otopo o dirootor nut ooo in oohioving th dorocno- tronoition ortoct. (1) Bondy tho noxt cohort thioh in to ho and one! inotrnct tho cuornonto hold on tho ohot hot to doi’oou his noon. (2) Watch tho Progr- lino nonitor for tho onct ooooot ohso tho doi’oono shoou ooonr oo indiutod by tho notion and tho ooript. (3) flhon this point in rooohod in tho action, instruct tho on-tho-oir odor-on to grodnolly dotocnn hio cuoro until tho picture hoconoo caplotoly indio- tinct. (It) It thoro in o ohongo or-ocono, out or rapidly diooolvo to tho ooooodouoro whioh woo provionoly roodiod (ont of roots) and diroot tho ouoruon to podully bring hio c-oro into ohorp focno .npon tho not ooono. or conroo, tho onflionco ion't mo of thin ohongo Ira ono o-oro to onothor Ihich onhonooo tho otioot. M. rho (broom ohoold ho nod oporingly, thno rootricting ito no to opooiol ottooto. Thin dovioo io nood oftoctivoly for o floohbook, for omplo, thou to dofoono o clone-mp on tho {ooo of tho person who in doocrihing tho floohbook ooono and cone into focus on tho ooh- Joot ho io tam; about. Sinilu-l'y, tho dofoono nq bo mood h3 Enhholl, 33. 33.3., p. 118. to indicate o porson's thongito, o dudroa, or on actual droa. Tho sloopor'o foco groos indistinct tho droa appears as o blur, growing grodnolly cloaror. Tho dofocns-trasition con soggost tho possogo of tino in o ughly visunl ad intorosting nanor. In o soionco progra, for owls, tho dofocns transition nu bo nsod to indiotrto tho possogo of tino in on oxporinont or tho orootion of o not physicol olaont .15 Tho dofoons-trasition is oinplo to oohiovo ad visually intorosting, but it ohonld not bo ovor- nood. '1. m Dofinition. Tho nipo , aothor cinonotio toohniquo which hos boon odsptod for tolovision nos , is oohiovod oloctronicony. Chaotic nipos nhioh oro prodncod in tho fil- procossing loborotory oro ovoiloblo in o groot vorioty of pottorno for nso by tho novio nohors . Tho sinylost forn of vipo consists of o horizontal, vortiool or diogonol lino of division, sharp or blurrod, vhioh possos ooroso tho ocroon, olinintting tho first shot and rovooling tho second . . . . Tho lino ca rototo fan-tho on o find point; it ca tohs tho forn of o. stor bursting in tho niddlo of tho first shot to rovool tho second; or tho ohot oa suddonly ho nodo to oppoor to rototo, liho o gictnro post-cord to rovool tho sooond shot on its roverso oido .h Tho sinplost is tho horizontol nipo nhich is oaoily prodncod by tho tolo- vioian oloctronio oyston ad is thoroforo tho nost oaoily nood. Vipos nu bo idontifiod os loft, right, guard, or doomed ocoording to thoir Mt Btuhoff ad Broth, 32. £11., 1!. 198. k5 Pools, :2. g_i_t_., p. 151. £6 Lindy-on, 32. gig" p. 28. o I n s \ .o ) - w 32 starting-point or direction .h" Tolovision wipss con bo ochiovod opticslly by tho nos of nirrors, shuttors and nooks in front of tho caoro. lowovsr, olcctronic wipss soon to ho proforrod sinoc thcy u'o noro floziblo ad dcpondohlo filo thoir ooo nu roloosc ot loost ono additions]. stndio caoro for othcr ossig-cnts . Tho cloctronio wipo roqnirss spociol switching aplifiors ad ossocistod «nip-oat. In sono oqnipont tho wipos con bo occonplishcd st controllod spoods by noons of thoir clcctricnl circuits .w ill nojor tolovision naufoctnrors hovo spcoisl oooinont ovoiloblc for tho prodnction of olootronic up“ . M. 'lo stadord connotation wos ovor four! for tho sips in notion picturos 3&9 In tolovision, wipos as nsod in titling soqoonoos ad sfford s moi vsriotion whon two or noro titlos sro to bo shown in soooonco, sinco tho first piotnro ca bo 'nipod' off tho ocroon in nu dirootion as tho socond picturo slides into thoir-o bohind it. If thonotoriol tobo wiped isroodingnotcriol, tho wipo shonldnovo fra top to both».50 If tho titling is produod on filn, o grootcr vorioty of wipos nu ho aploycd, but this is o costly loborotory proccss whon caporod to tho rolotivo snoll cost of slidcs ad livc graphics which nu bo nsod with tho oloctronic wipo to prodnco tho sao ronlts. t7 spam-mas, g. c__i__t., p. us. 118 3.1!. Goro Widoo Bpociol Effccts Syston " Tclovision 311E500 r133 1315-6, 25, (Sotobor, H1950 ’ It? Brots, a. gig” p. 267. 50 Eddy, 2° 23-!" ’o 1,9‘2wo ,O". 33 Tho wipc nu bo nsod in drantic progras, os woll so, in othor typos of tolovisicn proscntstions os o tronsition dovico bot-con vorions ooponts of tho prona. In o draotic progra, for oxaplo, o flosh-v book soooonco conld ho sot off fron tho othor sconos of tho progr- by nsing s loft-to-right wipo ot tho boginning ad s right-to-lcft wipc st tho clcso of tho soqnonco . For connoroiols , tho wipo offors o novol wu of displuing tho sponsors products, sinco s wipo‘conld bo oxoootod botnson products or groups of products. If tho progross of tho horizontol wipoisstoppcdwhonthodividinglinoisintho contoroftho ocroon, wo hsvo o split-ocroon offoct which will bc discnsscd lotor in this choptor ad olso in tho choptor on cptiosl offccts . “1.1mm Dofiniticn . Tho offset of rovorsc polsrity is o highly prooticsl by-prodnot of tho tolovisicn systa. Tho tolovision caoro con viow oithor s nogotivo or n positivo inogo ad rcprodnco it oithor os o nogotivo or positiv'o piotnro . Iornolly s. positivo inogc or photogroph is tolovisod by tho caoro ad is roprodncod on tho nonitor ocroon os o positivo picturo. A positivo pictnrc is ono in which tho objocto which as nor-ally dn‘k or block sro roprodncod os block: tho portions of tho piotnro which orc nornslly light or whito src roprodnood os whito. Tho nogotivo pictnro is tho rovorsc of this procoss, thst is , shot is nonolly dork or block is rcprodnood os Into. Tho stadsrd sot-op for tolovision oaoros is to viow o positivo inogo snd roprodnco it as s. positivo picturo , or to viow o nogotivo w .6 . O o -. J t :1 I I o h. o. il‘ s s g . s . . . ~ 0 — Va .. \ o o r O . o .. — o w! .4 , . ._ s o s . . O c c. l . . 4 o c . i Q J 3h inogo ad roprodnoo it oo o nogotivo pictorc. However, this process nu bo rovorsod so thszt tho oaoro will reproduce o positivo piotnro when it viows o nogotivo inogo or roprodeoos s nogotivc pictnro whon it visa o positivo inogo. A oinplo switch locstod on tho caoro ca bo oporotod by tho caoraa to ochiovo tho offoct of rovorsc polsrity. 9.223.- lovorso polsrity is ospociolly nsofol whon oppliod to olidss ad filns. Tho loborotory processing tino nu bo rcdnood ad tho nogstivo slido or filo nu bo nocd, end when reproduced on tho tolo- vision systo- it will apou' so s positivo pictors.51 nowswor, bottor onolity is obtoinod if positive slides ad filns orc nsod in tho nornol nansr. lovorso polarity ca bo wood in tho studio to oohiovo offsets dur- ing prop-a prosontotiono. For omplo, sooth-cs nu bo chagod fron block to whito ad grsdnolly book to and ogsin by woo of tho rovorsc polsrity fostnro of tho studio os-soi-os.52 It ca olso produce ghost offocts whon nsod in connootion with tho owporinpconro. However , its nost nsofol sroos scons to bo confined to slidos ad filns. VIII. Rm MICH- some Militia. Tho obJoot to bo tolovisod is tra-ittod by tho lons outs. of tho oaoro to tho torgot of tho inogo orthioon piok-np tobo whoro itispichodwpbythooloctronboa which seas tho bockoftho too-got lino by lino. lornolly tho scaning moon is fron left to 51 lnbboll, a. £115., p. 120. 52 'lsgic Corpontors,' Tino, 57:62, nu 21, 1951. 35 right ad fron tqi to botta. However, this scoaing sequence nu be olterod to produce spooiol effects. Reverse vortiool sconning, then, oocwrswhsnthoscaningisfralcfttoright adfrabottcntctop. Tho result is a up-oide down picture. Reverse verticol sconning is not stadord equip-at, but with ninor nodificotion tho studio caoros nu be equipped with o sinple switch which con be epcrotod by tho cacraon to rovorsc the verticol soonning. M. Tho Old IndiaRopo trichis ogood exaplo of howrovursc verticol soaning nu be used. Tho viewer will see tho India perfornor roiso his hoods over o boshot, gesture neoningfnlly, ad grodnolly o rope will rise out of tho boohet in the best oriental fashion. iotunlly, two boskets ore aployed, one on the set ad tho second one hung fron tho studio grid. it tho spprcpriotc nonat, o out is node to o close-up of tho second boskot which is shot on o conero using reverse vurticol sconning. Tho India perfornor roisos his hads to tho second boshot ad gestures nystorionoly so the rope is octnolly loworcd down through tho boshet .53 flhon tho effect is finished, o out returns tho viowor to tho originol setting coalete with the India perfonor, ad his nogicsl boshot. (ooo rigors 1.) Another use of reverse verticol scaling nu be aplcyed in o photopoplu sequence in order to show whot the photogropher sees on the ground gloss plsto ot the book of his portrait oaoro. Uhon the photo- grsphor covers his hood with the block cloth to look ot his subject 53 Pal I . Vittlig, Personnel correspondence of the Author, hevaber 10, 1952 . . n ’ . .a . . . . V A, . .4 - _ . . “ I u n o n . l e' "s. ‘0‘ v u ' I n O ' . . u . _ y . . 4 ‘ - ‘ - a ' ' _ . . t . < J v . e I ' o . I . .— . - - . . . _ , - , ‘ o ‘ v ‘ ‘ ' I I I - o 1 . ‘1 . - f, ,. s l J . .1 l _ A! I I ' ‘ 7' . . ’n , .‘ . - .. I v . ‘ . . 5 . , . ._ . ‘ . l - . \ u I . . v I" . ‘ ' , I . ‘ ' x I . ‘ |r I n r ' ‘ '1‘ I ‘ ‘ o . o D ' ' i ' ' . . . . .,¢ . o \ ,_ - - O O ‘ ‘ , .‘ . , . ‘ it . _ . 4 . , l ' v I . . . I .. ’ O O P. I I l ' l7 1 ‘ , ‘ I . . . I o ' s 0 - ‘ “ "I O ‘ o 7 1 y j ‘ ' ‘ | ‘ V ‘ 1 ( . o I . ' ' . \ , \l ‘1 I ’ ' ’ " .-. . . ., 9 ,. I .. - . v ~ A O ‘ v a I > 1 ' ‘ t ' ' ‘ V , \ , ', . . .4“ . ..\ _ , v, . If > o_‘ . l _ , . ' - .. .. , ‘ .. .- *‘W. .- . . ' I - . a . -o . - ‘ . » ...‘ e .fo prep man lowers rope thrcuph basket upon cue camera no. 2 \\ ccmerge’i r15; revers vertical scanning . \ 0:2??? \\ 7 shot as it appears on the air how the effect is achieved (;;> E\ (/7 _\N (§Zfi» \\\ \’ EX” ; e1 9 J ncrmal scanning reverse vertical scanning FIGURE NO. 1 - REVERSE VERTICAL SCAKNING 37 throufi his chore, o cut is node to onother television enero using reverse vertical seeming end which is focused on the photogropher's subject. The vieuer nill see on up-oide down, close-up picture ot‘the subject, supposedly whorl; the photogropher is seeing. The o'er-on nu very his focus control or nove his chore to correspond with the script end whet the photovopher is supposed to he seeing end doing. The shot on the television c-ers using reverse verticol seeming nust he eorefully executed since it nest correspond to tho relotive position ond ongle of the photogrophic snore, thus giving on outhentic picture of whet the phetogrophor neuld oeteolly he seeing on the ground gloss or his csnoro. Reverse verticol scsnning con he used in cuhinotion uith other devices to oehiove unuseol pietoriol effects . in up-side down world eon he eehioved by shooting the scene with o e-ero using reverse verti- colsconning. ilifitingfinturoplocedonthotleorwflloppeortoho hugingtrutheeeilisgoswillthoportonorwhoseustohewolking oreendonthoceilingoi’theroon. Theturnishingofthemcnhe on o hockpound projection slide, nhich will he discussed in the fellow- in; choptor, thus presenting no pron- of telling mum-m5“ Overhesd shotsnuhe oehiovedhythouse of onirror snglod st 16 demos uththoenerosheotingintothenirror. linoo otthe reverse verticol seeming snitch, the viewer will see the ported-nus 11mm; mm by their hoels fron the «mu. lcience fiction Sh Ihid. stories offerd other uses for reverse vertieel seeming helping to oehieve the mainly inpossihle. The ingenuity of the production steff will find neny end veried uses for reverse vertieel scsnning ell designed to conserve tine, budget, spoce, end yet provide the our inpossi‘elo for the television viewer. 11. WE MOI!“- some Definition. Hornelly the scanning process is fru left to right end fron top to hotton. Houover, this scenning sequence nu he olterod to produce speeiel effects so the nether discussed in e preceding section of this cheptor. Reverse horisentol scouring occurs when the sesnningisfrentoptohottu endfrugigttoleft. Therosultis s picture which is reversed eeress the horieontol exis. Iornelly in television uhen s perfornor views his inogo in the studio noniter, he'll observe thotthe inogo efhinselfis different thonit iswhenheviows hinself inenirror. hinego lihothotprodueedhyonirrorwillho the result of reverse herioontel seeming. When the porforser looks ot hinselfinthostudiononiter (whileheisheingtolovisodhysc-oro using reverse horizontal seeming) , he will observe thot his inogo looks onotly like his inogo leohs then'he is stoning in but of e nirror. 1'hotis,tholefthondofths inegointhestudienoniter, es intho nirror reflection is oetuelly the perforner's right hond. Reverse hem-inentei scanning is not stsndsrd equip-est, hut ulth ninor nodifieo- tions the studio eueres nu he equipped uith the device. ‘ \Ju 39 m. The nest obvious use of this device would be to displu the duel personelities of on individuol. l'er owls , identicel twins could be oohiovod out of thin sir. They could beeone so onreged st ouch other thet they would peee off end engoge in e duel to the deoth. 're eshiove this effect, the perforner would be shot on two sepereto cause, one using reverse horisontel scenning so thet the perfernor con fees hinsolf end even sholne hoods with hinsolf if necesssry. Rolf of the true on such snore is not being utilised since the cueruen nust cenpose their picture so thet the porforner will occupy the left hond side of the true. When reverse horizontel scenning is onloyod on the one once the perforser will nove to the right side of the true. Thus, we hove both sides of the fine now filled with the sue perfonor. The signols fr- the two esneros could be eenbined in e superinposure, but this would neon thet eeeh onero signel would be ot helf—lovel, which is on undesireblo festure since both pictures should be st full strength if the sequence is to be effective. If speeiel effects. uplifiors ore ovedleblo, the signele would be cabined in such o nenner thet the right helfofthesignelfrononec-orewouldbeblenkedoutendthelsft belt of the signel free the other snore would be blunted out; the two signols would then be eonbined in e single signel or picture. loch holf of the totel signel or picture when produced by the spooiel effects .plifior con be individuIly controlled, giving conplote flexibility to the possibilities of reverse herisentel sconning when used to show the duelity of one. personelity. (See Figure 2.) \ I)\ USES reverse CAMEHA n 1 uses nerm 1 sea ning W combined image on monitor FIGURE NC. \r'izcnt l scanning \\ L 40 n // image in right half of frame J F image in left half of frame 1 A.) SPECIAL EFFECTS AMPLIFIER (Ll - .I ~ . ‘ - r . . . i e -- ' A ‘ - _/ ‘ L u - e ' - - e ‘ O . . o . . e ’ “ ‘ I _ ' I ‘ _ - » . - I u I' ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ . .\ ‘ - . .l \ ' - n o ' . r . _ . - .' . ~ I — ' . . '. l ' ' . - t e u v . r ‘ . A - e . . ' ' .9 0 e . . I o \ . . _ - . h e .A | . i e - ~ ' .‘, ‘ .‘ V - e ' ' | , v ' .» ' - . I e -- —o-- a- ‘ - — l ‘ .- o . . o .- CHAPTERIII cm III OPTICAL mun-s Optical Effects are these effects produced by instruents desiped to shape or fashion the light rus received by the lens systen of the television canera. The lens systen, in turn focuses the light rue upon the target of the inogo orthioon pick-up tube where the radiant energ (light energy), is changed into electrical energy. These instru- nents nu be incorporated in, or attached to the lens systen, or they nu enploy their own lens syst- to control the light rue received by the television cuora. These instrunonts nu distort, sultiply, block, nagnify, or change the direction of the light rus to create the optical effects . Other effects are created by pptical illusion. In this chapter, the author will discuss the use of prions, dis- tertion lenses , nirrors , shadow bones , perisoopes , front and roar pro- jectien, forced perspective, silhouettes, nets , niniatwres , dior-as , slides, and filn loops as a noose of creating optical effects. I . OPTICAL Discussion Definition. Mieal distortion of the television inage occurs when the parallel light rus are bent or refracted before they reach the target of the inage orthicon pick-up tube . This distortion nu occur inthelenssystenorbeforethelightrus enterthelens systuofthe once. The sinple prisn, concave, and convex nirrors, concave, and convex lenses, and a conbinatien of these optical el-ents are eqloyed 53 to produce various optical distortions of the television inogo. Egg. Distortion effects add visual interest and variety to per- haps an ethoruse static picture. They also nay have a very practical value since special problons of the set designer, for ex-ple, nay be solved by using a distortion device. Scenery shot on a camera using a distortion device uould appear crooked, thus the scenery used could be stock scenery units and elininate the problon of costly scenery con- struction. A. LENSES Television 'cueras are nornally equipped with four lenses neunted on a turret ouch is turned nanually by the cuera operator or electric- ally by a notor. A nornel caplinont of lenses uould include these sizes: 50-, 90-, 135-, and 6 l/Z' or 8 1/2'. A wide angle or 3&- lens is often used for special purposes. 'ktrenely narrou angle or tele-phote lens are also applicable in special situations. such as football sues or where a close-up shot of a snall inafie is required but uhich nust be televised fro- a considerable distmce . . The nornal or basic lens, that is one conparable to the th-an eye, for the television snore. is a 50. lens . Optical distortion of the inogo by the lens is present in side angle and tele-pheto lenses due to the inherent characteristics in their construction. Houever, this property of distortion can be used to a good advante' if one is aware of its presence and understands hou it is used to enhance the television picture . St The shorter, jinn, or Huide angle' lens give a uidor field of vision and introduces a particular type. of optical distortion. Wide angle lenses exaggerate perspective, and increase the sense of distance or depth in a.shot. If a finger or hand is neved toward the lens, it villbedistortedinteahugefingerorfistenduill appesrtobe larger than anything else in the picture .1 In a snell studio the uide angle lens is very useful, since the score can show a large chorus and yet be only a for feet aney free the perforners. Scenery skillfully executed Iith painted perspective can be further distorted by the wide angle lens to shou an extensive halluey when televised, actually it only occupies a for feet in the television studio . The 'narrou angle. or close-up lens such as the 8 1/2' also gives a fern «am... to the inogo. The a 1/2- lens 1:111 .1... an inogo uith a spatial relationship different m- an usuld be preeeived by thehunsneye. Inagee indifferentplanesvillappoartobeinthes-o plane of action. The close-up lens decreases the sense of distance by nanifying the inago thus sensing the distortion in spstiel relationships. The narrou angle or longer lens sill also napify the details of the in“. .2 Lenses can be specially constructed to distort the inogo received by the onus. Distortion lenses are available uhich sill produce a thin elongoted inogo or a fat distended inace. lultiple inaces are also 1 liehard hubboll, Itelevision ProgFgg an Production, (lav fork: Dinehart endeapw, Ino., p. - . ’ 2 20.2592:- o‘ )1 _.o. .. 55 possible . these special lenses are available for use on television chores; hesevor, their use is linitod to the particular distortion «ounce. B. nmms The use of convex and concave nirrors to distort a reflected inage is o‘cn to all she have entered a 'l‘un House.‘ convex-inc" sill elongate ad narros the reflected inage shile a concave nirror sill shorten and distend the reflected inage. couplox nirrors ere sonetinos constructed in shich various sections of the total nirror are treated independently as convex and concave nirrors, so that the reflected inage sill be correspondingly distended and elongated. The site and shape of the nirror's reflecting surface sill deterninc the distortion produced. ‘l‘hese emer- ney be used separately, Ol‘ they nay be cubined sith the , prion and the lens to achieve the desired effect. A thorough hsslodge of optics and frequent oxporincntation on-cuera sill reveal nuuerous practical effects shich can be utilised by the enterprising director. c.3130 Pris-s nu be used to produce distortion effects. Depending upon the n-ber, sine, and relative position of the prion, a variety of effects are possible. The pri- nu also be used in conjunction uith nirrors and lenses to produce additional effects . For ex-ple , the entire inage or scene sill appear crooked, as the result of nounting 56 a sinple prion directly on the lens of a television cuera.3 The nount of distortion is controlled by using prions of varying sine and thickness, and by the su in shich they are nounted on the lens. A tiuprisnneunted inths center of the lens and aprisn large enough to cover the entire front surface of the lens sill produce varying degrees of croektdness. The pri- nounted directly on the lens sill also reverse the inage across either the horizontal or vertical axis depending upon its nounting. (lee Figure 6.) It is nornally nountod so that the inage sill be reversed across the horiaontal axis; therefore, the c-eruan should be particularly careful in panning, since he sill havetointerpoletethece-andsofthedirector. That is,snonthe director unto his to pan left the cuernan nust pan right to enclose sithin the frne the hsired subject nutter .h The pri- nsy be used to assist the set designer, since scenery shot on a score using such a prion nounting sould be crooked; hosever if the walls of the set sore constructed crooked, the prion sould straighten then out . A crooked nan can salk a crooked nile very easily via television sith the addition of a prise to the appropriate c-era lens. D. TILTID mu here it is desirable to tilt the entire picture or Just an actor, a cubination of prions and nirrors nu be used in a light proof box A 3 Richard P. Denpeselff, 'lystery lien of the Television Icreen,‘ Logger lochanics, 93380—6, 256, nu, 1950. h _I_b_i_._d., p. 85. "1 l . u . o o l 5 ——-o 0—- -~.- 57 A. s. R SIDE VIEW 2’ \J 3 Q§91§§ -:=::::: K 2 \HEAD CN SHOT @ 2 some small prism in Fg‘ //2? CUT - AWAY large prism on face of horizontal plain lens in center of lens. C. D. \._ :1: 1‘“ " \ / 0 (92 l/ ® °°\ ‘03 L___V small prism turned 180 degrees from lens “A“ " J MEX» <4 ‘) ‘5 small prism mounted in vertical plain turned 90 degrees from lens "A" FIGURE NO. 5 - PRISMS MOUNTED CN LENSES 58 attached in front of the snare lens. By adjusting the prions, the entire scene nu be tilted or even inverted. 0f course, tilted actors shot on one c-era nu be cabined sith level scenery shot on another store by using the special effects .plifior.5 The tilting device nu be constructed according to specification obtained free the tele- vision nstsorks or nu be purchased free optical or cuera accessories suppliers . '3. WIN: mm The nultiple inage is another interesting optical effect. It nu consist of one stationary figure sith identical figures revolving around the central figure. This is produced by a prion attachont ever the lens of the shore shich contains as nany prisnatic surfaces as the de- sired nunbor of individual inages. is it is slosly revolved by turning a handle, the pictures focused by the prises onto the target of the snare pick-Up tube also rotate around the central inage .6 These prion attach-onto nu be purchased, but their price is often beyond the budget linits of a particular shes or station operation. nultiple reproduction can also be achieved by using the nulti- facoted glass plate of a photo-electric exposure notor. The disk should be nountod over a circular hole in a piece of cardboard. The disk nounted in the cardboard frue should be held betseen the television 5 'Guide to Television Special Effects ," Tole-Tech, Oaldscll- Clanunts, Inc. Part II, April, 1952. Consult Ehapter II, doc. I, Part D for intonation on the Special lffects Anplifier. 6.192.. 221- e‘! I . 1 r. . it s '. o I a J a..- o u we. e 59 score and the subJoct sith the snare focused on the disk. Each of the niniature lenses of the disk sill produce a separate inage and the disk nu be rotated, thus‘rotating all of the niniature images.7 Another nethod of achieving the nultiple inage effect is to use a plastic building brick or block. A plastic block shich is ribbed on each side and one shich sill cone apart in the niddle should be selected. The block should be separated into halves and the ribbing reversed so that those in the back are at right angles to those in the front. The nultiplior is placed on a stand in front of and betsecn the score and the talent. The cuera is focused on the plastic block shich sill produce as nary inages as there are sections in the block.8 (See Figure 7.) 1". arm mos done very interesting effects nu be produced by sinple and in- expensive nothods shich depend only upon the ingenuity of the production personnel for their inception. hearing vaseline on the caera lens can produce an interesting distortion and blurring effect . meeting a scene through a bosl of Jiggling Jello can achieve the effect of glittering scenery sithout expensive construction . Various colors of Jello nu be used, hosever, one nust be careful shon using the dark colors since they tend to be opaque. 7 J. A. mo, and Beverly Dudley, Wm- Photcgfl Effective, (has fork: Heat-Mill Book 00., Inc., 9 p. 385. 8 Arthur R. Railten, I'I'hey Feel You Every Night,“ Popular llochanics, ,6'M‘1w, 96505013 1951.. . 60 ’7 camera .. ® .. 9 ac; "not new-.. -b ‘ G®© (969' image on monitor sub ect glass block n H h:§/./’//./’ // //' 7’ / ,///:’ ”poops eel oifiaatoi‘ e E or oiggggfig i eo€%%gg% I£W®i®®®0©®flé CLOSE UP OF A GLASS BLOCK FIGURE NC. 7 - MULTIPLE IMAGE USING GLAbb BLCCK II. 11m The use of nirrors in television production has new applications . Effects and tricks done sith nirrors are ncre than Just stories 3 they are real. nirror shots allos the vieser to see tse things at once, or afford bin a better vies of an ebJect shsn there is absolutely no other su for the snore to look at it. nirror shots are used to pick up action fr. unusual angles or free points at shich it night he inpractical or expensive to place a snare, such as on an elevation for dosh-shots or in a trap or pit for up-shots .9 A. THE PRISM Definition. The perisccpo is the nest canon application of nirrors . Tue front surfaced nirrors are upleyed, one above the other, about five or six feet apart as that a large scale perisoope is ferned. The tso nirrors nu be interconnected so that shes the loser nirror is adjusted, theuppernirrorsillalsobo adjustedtotheprcper angleinorderto expose the greatest picture area for pick-up by the television c-era. Angles around forty-five degrees are the nest often used. The actual nirrors thonselvos are thirty by forty inches or lrger. Of course, they are frued and back-braced. They are. nountod uthin a rack or assenbled on nahshift equip-out in the studio. The rack or frae nount is the nest practical since the nirrors nust often be set up during on-the-air 9 Robert J. Wade , Desi for Television, (les Iorkt Pellegrini and cheesy, 1952) p. 11 . . 62 operation and then renoved imedietely. Space restriction and the lini- tations of tine often linit the nunber and scope of nirror shots shich nu be used during a particular pregrm or in a particular studio. (See Figure 8.) standard practice [at NBC-TV] involves the use of a netal or seoden stand approxinately 9' high sith a 3' by h' nirror at the top and a 30" by 110' nirror at cmera height- Beth nirrors rotate freely and nu be looked at am- englc. For a dosh-shot the top nirror is adjusted to reflect portions of a scene frm its high point into the loser nirror from shich the cmera picks up this secondary reflection. This, if in a drmatic shes a producer sished to include a shot of an escaped convict hiding on a rooftop as 'seen' by another character fron a higher building or sindos, the designer builds the scene practically on the studio floor-«possibly forcing all perspective lines of chinneys and gables upserd--and the double nirror , shoes top unit is nine or nore feet in the air serves to increase the illusion.10 Elm. Ono use of the periscope device has already been described. Another use of the periscope sould be to shes the pottor's sheel in action. Since the potter nust stand in front of the sheel as it is turn- ing, shots fron above sould be helpful in shosing hos the object on the potter's sheel is being forned. Hospital scenes involving operations can easily be sinulated sith the use of the periscope set-up. The device is adqtable for use in nusical pregrms to add variety or to give an overhead shot of the dancers. In effect, the use of the periscope is a les cost cmcra crane. A mall periscope can actually be constructed shich sill nount on the front of a cmera. Such a mall periscope can be used to achieve either the bird's eye vies or the sorn's eye vies of things. 10 Ibid., p. 116. .o. we- - 63 CAMERAMAN FIGURE NC. 8 - PERISCOPE mirror One large nirror nu also find nany uses around the television studio. For exmple, a nirror could be nountod on the sell in front of talent, md shen tilted at the proper angle , the canera sould see a tso thirds profile of the talent, and at the sme tine sould see the sork shich the talent is denonstrating, since both sill be reflected in the nirror. 3.3Pmscam Definition. A split-screen occurs shen the television screen is divided vertically, thus tso inages fron tso separate sources occupy the sme frme sinultaneously, one inage in each half of the frme. This effect should not be confused sith the superinposure shore tso separate inages are present but superinposed over each other. Methods of achiev- ing the split screen electronically sore discussed in chapter tsc.11 The split screen effect nu also be achieved by the use of nirrors. The periscope idea is onployed. This tine on a horisontal plane. The tso scenes shich are to nuke up the split screen are set-up side by side in the studio. The cmcra is ained at the left-hahd scene , but half of the lens field is bisected by the edge of the nirror shich reflects the right-hand scene into the cmera lens . In this case, nirrors sithout netel edges or frming not be used.12 The optical distance of the cmora frm the scene and the nirror is critical since both halves of 11 Electronic Split screen is discussed in Chapter II, Section I, Part 0. 12 Dmpesolff, 32. git.” p. 81. 65 the picture nust be in Optical focus. That is, the direct distance free the left-hand scene to the cmera lens not equal the distance free the right-hand scene shich is neasured frcn its center of interest to the first nirror, free the first nirror to the second, and frm the second nirror to the cmera lens. The angle of field or been of the different lenses nust also be taken into account; hosever, this is not critical unless a side angle lens is being used. The position of the canera nust be carefully deternined so that it sill not overshoot the nirror. (See Figure 9.) This type of split screen not be set-up very carefully dur- ing the rehearsal period to assure its snooth operation on-the-air. Cmera and nirror positions must be narlced, and the cmerman fmiliarised sith the pic k-up problons . This optical noth of achieving the split screen use enpleyed by CBS-Television before they developed their special effects mplifier. The results are sinilar, but the split screen effect is easier to achieve electronically; hosever, shen electronic equipnent is linitod, this opti- cal nethod nu be the only ansser to a production problm . 23m. The nest omen usage of the split-screen is to shes both persons engaged in a telephone conversation on the screen at the sme tine. Additional usage of the effect are available in chapter three shore the author discussed the electronic split-screen. 0.1W-fllm3 Definition. In the first place, a tso-nu nirror sill reflect an inage of the subject standing in front of it. Secondly, if the light 66 ”‘T NC. 2 (f [‘1 bET NC. l 9292 \ 5%: / SUBJECT NC. 1 ' < E I NC. 2 \ \ / \ , l / \ ME \I/ ~ \I/ \l/ SINGLE TV CAMERA €36 5? W3 COMBINED IMAGE CN MONITOR F IGUnE NC. 9 - CETICAL SPLIT SCREEN wITH masons 67 enery is increased back of the nirror, a second subject sill be revealed behind the nirror. The first inage is produced by reflection in the standard nothod. The second inage is produced by tranmission, that is, nerely allosing the first subject to look through the nirror at the second subject behind the nirror. M. Tso-su nirrors have several interesting applications in television production. The tso-say nirror is useful in a dressing table sequence, for ample, to bring in the face of a loved one shen the young laiyia currently dressing about. The young girl is seated in front of the dressing table looking at herself in the nirror and droming of her one love. The lifit intensity on the face of her lover she is behind the nirror is gradually increased, and his face sill be visible through the moi-.13 The light intensity say be reduced in front of the nirror, but generally it isn't necessary if the light intensity frm bohind the nirror is sufficient: (see Figure 10.) Another application of the tso-say nirror sould be in a shaving sequence. The nan is shaving in front of a tso-nu nirror. First, the cmera looks over his shoulder at‘his reflection in the nirror. lent, the cmera looks at his free the side. Then, a ssitch ‘to the cmora behind the nirror is nade to obtain a direct shot through the nirror of the nan's face. The cmera and the television screen nu then appear to be the nirror, or the cmera shot nu be side enough to include the ume of the tso-say nirror revealing to the vieser that he is looking through the nirror at the subject. 13 sultan, 32. 52.5., p. 11.9. through mirror \ 68 second subject to be shown \\\ \ ‘/ / \ // spot light \ ‘~ /// / spot light \ / \ g 006 / \vo/ / 3 /// K o two-way mirror/ ///<:C;E;}/’>\~__;\\)j Q7 subJe and reflectioq fl? mirror//{ \\\\ r ‘ I J , \\‘- / /‘ U lights /¢.\ 3L6 /\ rt side view \ FIGURE NO. 10 - Two WAX MIRRORS roomposite image on monitor 69 D.WBOI Definition. The shadow box nabs use of the dual ability of the tun-ray or 'half-silvered' nirror , since the nirror can either reflect or trans-itineges.1h Scenes can fade in and out as illunination is applied to the front, or to the rear ef the individual nirrors. Richard Bubbell describes the shadow box in these vords . This type of device has several stages, each of shich can acconodate flat or three-dinensienal objects such as noving title cards, puppets, aninated naps, product displays, and even close-up shots of live actors . Each stage is separately lighted and controlled by studerd dimm's. A sinple systen of tuc-uay nirrors is used to connect the. visually and nuke possible dis— solves , cuts, fades and superinposures vithin the box itself. Only one score is needed to nuke the pick-up .1 The shades be: usually has three stages. The first stage is in a direct line with the canera but behind a half-silvered nirror set at a forty- five degree angle to the callers. Above and parallel to the first stage is the second, sith its tue-uey nirror which is at a forty-five degree angle placed directly above the first nirror. At right angles to the first stage is the third. The inage free the third stage not pass threugh the tvo-uay nirror for the second stage and be reflected into the snare by the first stage nirror .16 (See Figure 11.) 1h Hoyland Bettinger, Television Techniques , (New Turk: Harper and Brothers, 19h?) P. 58. 15 Hubbell, 9. Ln... p. 123-h. 16 Thonas E. Hitchinson, Here is Television, (Rev. Ed. , lieu fork: Hastings louse, £950) 1). 252. 0—- o 33.5 m Some 335: xom 3023, :3 .oz wane; 7. \1 J :2de .522 $12.5 it 0.». (Maria Zomu muzfirflo 4.35.5 . h . E... O // F K / 1 mzo mofim / \1 / w/zo mwP-dG\ \- . \ , / \ g \3 {—ceer—qw FIGURE NO. 13 - REAR PROJECTION - WITH SLIDE 83 speeds ranging fron a few ninutos to half an hour . Rear-projection slides nay be developed fron clear , sharp photographs of actual scenes or free csrefully roMered wash drawings. In selecting originals for projection naterisls , the dosiper nust naho certain that perspective and scale in the photog-aph will be relatively correct within a few inches when the subject nutter is enlarged sons 25 tines. The perspective itself will not be nodified by enlarge-out; . . . b) Egg. The use of file on the rear projection screen pernits realistic backing within the confines of the studio but allows novenent to be added to the scenes . This technique is used extensively in notion picture production, md it is also applicable to television production. A special television notion picture projector is substituted for the background slide projector and the failiar scenes fra trains, boats, cars , end other noving objects can be televised under controlled con- dition. (See Figure 1h.) The production of science fiction naterisl is nude possible. by the use or properly selected and edited rm clips or special filn nade for that particular progru. The filn background is e-bined with the live progru elonents in front of the rear projection screen when it is picked up by the television canera. c) Linitations. There are, of course, restrictions to the utilisap tion of rear screen projection. The restricted size of sons television studies is a definite linitation since adequate space is necessary behind the screen for the satisfactory perforeanco of the projectors. Direct front shots of the rear projection are excellent, but angle shots of tin 30 wade, Design; for TV, 22. c_i_t_., p. 120. ---. 81+ Combined imere on monitor / / / . \ \ ”Vii \\ ,.——-. T V Camera cut-away car motion picture rear screen projector FIGURE mg, 14 - REAR PROJECTION - process shot with car 85 screen are likely to be dark or distorted especially if the angle ox- ceeds forty-five degrees free the perpendicular . The nasking around the screen is essential as is the use of niddlc and foreground scenic ele- nonts if an depeo of reslisn or believability is to result. The light- ing problas incidental to rear projection not be thoroughly understood since the inportance of proper lighting cannot be overuphasisod. Front lighting, for ex-ple , unless carefully controlled as to direction and intensity, can wash out the projected inage. Of course, actors' shadows should not be cast won the projected background especially if the back- ground scene is theoretically niles hen the acting area. d) Advantages. In discussing the use of rear-screen projection Robert J. Wade, Executive Coordinator of Production Develop-out, NBC- Tolovision pointed out: Used with connon sense and artistry, the rear-projection process can be adapted to new purposes: elaborate exterior or interior bookings behind doors, windows or other openings, special effects , scenic vignettes or atmospheric phenomena of an apparently static nature such as rainbows, views of the noon, clouds, and stars. Or the projected slides can thenselvos be uployed as settings , particularly for variety, vaudeville or other progrens consisting of- short episodic scenes. . . . In drastic and other realistically staged progr-s rear- projected inages of course are nost valuable in suggesting vistas which soon to extend beyond the physical linitations of the sound stages .31 The use of rear projection to facilitate television production will con- tinue to be perfected. The small station nay find that rear-screen projection is the answer to nany of its production problens especially when its Operating budget and personnel is linited. 31 Ibid., p. 120. 86 . . . . In a nodiun like television, in which all production techniques ore ophonoral, the projecting of inagos on a re- ceptive screen that requires no rebuilding, reassenbling or repaintigg after each usage should have a very pronieing future. VII. roman PIRBPEBTIVI Definition. The use of forced perspective has long been a tool of the scenic designer. False or forced perspective serves a very useful purpose in both the theatre and in television design. In forced per- spective, the recoding lines of architectural details are forced to a false vanishing point upon the horiaon lino thich produces the illusion of greater depth.” (see Figure 15 .) The actual vanishing point would be several feet behind the scenic unit or back-drop. U_s_a_gg. This optical illusion, en the snall stage or in the snall television studio, enables the production of progr-s which call for sets depicting largo expansive areas. Icenery is flat, and the use of forced perspective is one nethed of adding three dinensional qualities . In nary television studios, designers have been required to specialise in forced perspective because of snall studio sine and the linited space available for each set. with forced perspective, a space as big as an apartnent kitchenette nq bocao an endless dopartnont store . The use of set pieces such as appropriate novablo colunns placed on the studio floor can serve to uphaeiso the converging line of colunns already 32 Ibid., p. 123. 33 Ibid., p. 76. ‘ O O~Aur larre wall / ‘ I A ”\T _ ”3 JJ ‘\ ~J__J .i’ III forced perspective \ I POINT “A“ Is ACTUAL VANISHING POINT. POINT ‘B‘ Is FALSE CR FCRCED VANISHING - Q PCINT. file I «l. / /o \c normal perspective FIGURE NO. 15 - FORCED PERSPECTIVE 88 painted in forced perspective on the backdrop .3h The use of the Wide-- sngle'I lens in conjunction with scenery enploying forced perspective will frthor ohhance the illusion of depth and spaciousness. VIII. MATS AND @808 Definition. The use of nuts35 or 'gobos' have been successfully onployed by file nakers for new years; In tolovioian: lists are single or nultiple plane cut-cuts , about 30" by hO' usually representing a scene in perspective, that are-p1aced between the canera and live-action with the result that such action @pears to be actually inside or just beyond the area of the painted niniature , wbagh thus ggns scale in relation to the size of the human figur . These 'gobo' nasks or nats are usually developed on illustration board or they nay'be out from plywood. The actual opening, of course, depends upon the subject nattor to be shot through the cut-out. Apertures should confers to the three by four aspect ratio of the television systen, especially if dolly shots are to be enployed in connection with the net.37 The portion of the scene carried on the not is executed: in niniaturo, but the r-ainder of the scene is constructed in full scale scenery at the point where the perforners nust appear. The calora picks up the art work on the net and shoots through the opening to pick up the live action 3h "TV-Extravagasa' Life, 28883-6, June 12, 1950. 35 Also spelled whette' which is a derivative of nat. The 'natte' spelling is used in cinematic circles. . . 36 Wade, mation Backstggg, 22. $3., p. 70. 37 Ibid., p. 56. 89 between tin net and the actual scenery. Nonally the mats are supported in front ef the canera in a sinple H-shaped frue , the top portion being grooved to accept the 30' by no- gobo aask. Of course, the 'gobo' may be held by a studio technician, but this is unsatisfactory when a'se- quence lasts for I01" than a few seconds .38 (See Figure 16.) Usage. Hats and'gobes' may be used to achieve expansive, extrava- gant, and exotic scenes with ecenoay of space, set construction and budget. lets say be developed fro: photographs enlarged to sat sin and used with a rear projection of the ace photo. Per exasple: . . . In a recently preduced Chris‘has progra, a designer, in staging a short choral sequence, rear-projected a photogrQh of. the interior of a Gothic church, taken from the nave and in- cluding distant stained glass windows. Before this projected inage he placed the chorus and picked up the total seem by shooting through a cut-out photograph.“ nat of typically ribbed arches, enlarged fro- another picture of the one interior.” The net or 'gobo' need not be expensive or elaborate to be effective. For euple , when a chore shoots through such frag-entry set-pieces as trellis, flower arbors , cob-webs , iron pill-work, crystal candelabra, or the leaves of a tree, visual quality is added to the setting by these or sinilar gobos and the interesting couposition nay be used to heighten the drastic input.“ Binple 'gebes' or cut-outs can be used not only in front of the colors but may also be used in front of lighting instrument to produce sinple projected backgrounds . 38 “ads, DesiM for '1", gp. _c_i_1_;_., p. 1111-6. 39 Ibi__g., p. 111:. 1:0 1!. Ian, 'Television's rive Ring Circus, ' Popular Science, 157: 110-6, October 1950. j \ I '4 \suaj/ece amera FIGURE NC. 16(A) - T- VCAMERA MAT CR “3030‘ ‘ Q 90 9O CAMERA SHCCTS THROUGH CUT-CUT IN MAT OR “9030“ - TO PICK UP LIVE ACTION CN FULL SCALE SET. FIGRUE NO. 16(B) - CAMERA MAT DRAWN CN TITLE CARD 91 The sat is very useful in musical progrus where stylisation rather than realism sets the scene. The foreground is likely to appem‘ toe painty when the sat is enployed in a realistic druatic show.“ a) Scenescope. A development of the sat shot is the 'Scenescope' which is coupled directly to the front of the cued-e. The duplex * nodels of the scenescope, boxlike or tubular, contains a slot for a transparency, opaque slide, or cut-out, a controllable light source, nirrors and lenses, fil- systus, and cooling systens.h2 It is able, for emple , to show an auto in front of the actor and a house behind his litheut having the actor ' a body show through the auto and without aw phaical scenery in the studio .h3 . . . The ele-entary type is nerely a refinuent of the card- board nat: the cuera shoots through the chaber picking up inforsation free a h' by 5" card or slide which is partly cut away or blocked out to permit the shot to include live action against full scale settings nor-ally placed at a distance 20 to 30 feet fro. a cuera using a 6 1/2" or 8 1/2' lens. The major probles in the use of sat shotslies in the fact that one caera must be freed fr. operation so that it say be lined up with the pro-set nat. Since the special ligating of the net itself and of the perforsers is a process that requires care and precision the score say be out of action for a longer period of tine than is practical. The hliads, 32. gig” p. 111;. hZ Ibid., p. 116. to fiber Devices Fake Scenes: Soonescope‘I' Life, 30367-8, February 26, 1951. “'— hhflade, gp. 543., p. 116. '-' solution of this probles seens to be the use of a special effects cuera as standard studio equipsent which would handle all of the special effects shots . The addition of a fourth or fifth cuera to concentrate on special effects sight be an expensive solution, but it would free the producer of sany worried scents and allow his to use sore scope and flexibility in his production . II. SIIJIGJEI‘TES Definition. The television silhouette is no different than a canon silhouette which consists of a dark inage or black shadow outlined against e lighter background. 6 l The silhouette effect can be achieved with the use of a translucent screen nountod in a frne usually nine by twelve feet which is sacked by scenic units or drapes and with a single light source directed toward the back of the screen. A thin, cotton, senless fabric, tinted light blue is recenended fer the screen, but plastic screens are available which have a higher coefficient of translucency. A rear projection screen sq be used if nothing else is available. The actors and/er ob- jects should work close to the back of the screen for realistic effects .16 Shae. are effective and can be achieved either by the lighting or by the distance of the perforser behind the screen. M. The use of silhouettes present an artistic treatsent for both realistic and stylised settings. Ordinarily only one lidlt source is used behind the screen, however, the use of sore than one light source 5 Wade, 32. 2%., p. 118. -— o 93 or changing the position of the single light source can provide inter- esting distortion effects. Lighting is the key to good silhouettes, therefore, proper and adequate control of the lighting is essential if the desired effect is to be achieved. The canon tendency is to over- light when, for onesple, a thousand watts of illusination is usually enough light on the back of the translucent screen. Bisplicity in light- ing is necessary since the isportant features of a silhouette are the fern and outline of the figure or object. The lighting sust asphasise these isportant features . The use of scenery to provide interesting silhouettes is very practical also. it does not require painting. But ‘ once again, the esphuis is upon the fern and outline of the scenery when it is viewed in silhouette . A ssall silhouette screen say be used for aninated effects, for titling, or for the purpose of introducing production asters . The anination of anisals to be used on a children's progr- ceuld be eficuted is silhouette very effectively. A distant shot of an elephant, for ample , could be faked by using a cut-out elephant with hinged legs and other novable parts. It would actually velk‘ along a narrow track behind the silhoutte screen as the effects-sen operates the control strings .h6 is is the use of other effects, the linitation of silhouettes de- pends upon the ingenuity of the production staff and the tise, space, and budget which say be sale availble for the enperisentation afi develop- nest of the desired effect. E6 lailton, 31. 31;... p. 150. 9h 1. MINIATURE AND DIM Definition. The niniature setting is the realistic representation of a live object executed on a very ssall scale. For emple, a distant view of a town or building actually looks like a ssall nodal; therefore, a niniature when televised cannot be distinguished fro- the full-scale subject. Contrary to their nae, niniaturos can be of an sise, They should be large enough to depict the detail necessary in fulfilling the script and technical production recur-outs and nall enough to fit within the restricted floor space of neat television stations .m Miniatures are often referred to as diornae. Dior-as usually .ploy three-disensional construction and/or the perspective treat-est of large areas such as, a city, or harbor, where a niniature would show a single house or ship in detail. a) Construction. Miniatures and dior-as do not require expensive naterialsnthick cardboard, plywood, plaster of Paris, balsa wood, papier-sache', thin setal and glue are the basic el-ents, but they do involve construction tine and labor sith such painstaking hand crafts-an- ahip by carpenters, scenic artists, and specialists .118 The factors which contribute to the successful televising of niniatures are scale and detail, perspective, notion, color, and lighting. If a niniature set is to be convincing, it sust be realistic, as! if it is to be realistic it nust be constructed with attention to scale h? Willi- c. Eddy Television: The s of Tomorrow. (low Turk: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1976) p'TTS. 1 - .""'J‘:H 138 John 1. Royal , Television Production Problns , (low Iork: Icarus-Hill Book Coupon, . , p. . --~' 0..-"- 95 and detail.” The scale sust be rendered precisely or the television syst- will show the niniatm up for what it is, a fake. Generally, exteriors are sore iJlusive than interiors because tbe~viewer cannot easily cupare the relative sise of details in the exterior niniature .50 The scale of the sinisture or dior-a is the starting point for construc- tion, and it is deternined by the requir-ents of the niniature as op- posed te the restrictions and linitations of the particular television operation. Perspective is also isportant in creating the proper effect , and since niniatures are usually televised at short distances, it is often necessary to construct the niniature in forced perspective. It takes sore than carefully rendered scale and detail of a ninia- ture or dior-a to sake it effective en-the-air. Unless novuent is introduced, the results will be only slightly sore effective than those obtained fr. a two-disensional drawing. lotion tents to elisinato the ispressien of artificiality and should be carefully considered in the planing and construction of a niniature of «norms. A swaying tree, asoke fra a chisney, lighted window, fog, wind, rain, snow, or even an artificial cloud shadow will give the required effect and efface the two-diseasional, inanisate feeling.51 If the siniature is devoid of notion and is to be seen by the viewer only as a long-establish-shot 1:9 Dettinger, g. 313., p. 56-7. 9 "w, 1.1. 2;!” ’o 118-,o 51 Eddy, 32. £11., 1. 216. \ . -n e I . . . I . ,.— . . .i - , a O r‘- " t I -—.-— a. e a o a e . . a e \l ' s 1 a s , a o ' u. _u-.-- -- .4- 96 and/or on a one-tine basis, a good piece of art work will be Just as effective . 52 i retouched photograph, a two-dinensional drawing, or a painted illustration could ad should be substituted with noro satis- factory results and with infinitely less work and expense. Despite the need for detail, scale, perspective, and notion, the niniaturo should be lighted softly. If the lighting is too harsh, a- ploying intense hidI-light and high contrast, the desired illusion of roalisn and naturalness '11]. be destroyed .53 The 11;?» should cone fro- ene direction ad fru a single light source if at all possible. All shadows should fall in the sac direction unless the scene is few, or nurky with no apparent sun. The cheico of lens used in shooting a niniature is another inportant factor to consider if the desired effect is to be achieved. A narrow- angle lens will allow the caera to shoot the scene from a distace ad still provide the necessary illusion of reality even when the niniaturo is asll in sin but represents quite a large area in real life .51‘ A wide-eagle lens will allow the caora to shoot the scene at close range but with an illusion of space due to the optical distortion of the lens. The optical distortion introduced by using the wide-angle lens is often objectionable 3 however . 52 Bottinger, 33. 933., p. 56-7. 53 Arthur Rosa, 'liniatures in lotion Picture Production" Aneriean custom, 33086-7, too-2, Beptabor 1952. 5); John E. Battisen, levies for 1", (low fork: Irho nacnilla 6””, 19”) po 35243. t ' a . s'. u H a‘ ‘ I l l‘ v . n . . ~ D D g ‘ n t . I I U ‘ r ‘ o I ‘IY~ V V .. 4 . V . J . .7 a . . n I. ', . . , ., . ,- e ' ' , . -. . n . o . a a . -- i )C I . . N . D -.— h K . .u..-.——. " 97 M. The use of niniatures and dioraas are equally as applicable to television production as they are to fill production, but their use in live studio prop-aim is linited by budget, construction tine, ad production preblans . hiniature sets at least in notion picture pro- duction serve a twofold purpose: (1) to achieve certain scenes which would be either inposaible or inpractical to produce or photograph full scale, and (2) to provide backacunda or settings which would be too elaborate and/er costly to reproduce in full scale.55 lininture scenes are very often a necessity in order to create the illusion of reality, since there is no other way to shoot the action. For ample , deliberately crashing a full scale ship, plane, train, or autonobile off a cliff, or nahing a full scale fire, flood, explosion, or ternule to perforn in the studio at the appropriate tine and for the television caeras is slightly iuprastical. niniatures obviously cannot be created within a few hours or as easily as stadard scenic units and properties. The coat of producing a carefully scaled three-dinensional niniature setting or dioraa is often prohibitive, especially if it is shown on the screen for only a few seconds. The results achieved by the use of a niniature nust warrant the amuse. Per staple, the cost of a niniature in sac cases would be nuch less than the cost of a notion picture crew out on location trying to fill the particular sequence live.“ 55 Rowan, 33. 93.3.. 56 lettinger, 22. 931., p. 56-7. e ‘ I I e ', a I v a - u a a - l e . '- . . | , ; a V - ‘ ‘ ' ." - v ' a ' A ' C v ‘ v o < . . . r " e r e , . I n . g I ' ' ' e ' J C e ‘ r d a ‘ y I . . e» _ _' - _ . , .- a y . u is ’ . . a, ‘ . ‘ _ , ‘ ‘ ‘ v a . . , ~ ' ‘ I ' ' V e a a ' . " e‘ ' ' 1r . - , ., ,e . y n " ‘ h . V e . . a Q ‘ " .1 I . . . . ‘ . * ' . . I .~ , . - ¢ . . a _ » -l ‘-I k ‘4 s ' d . . .\. ' e s l - I i I ~ - I -- Or-e.---.e "v I 0 e a v I e u e 1 ,. I. u ,v C - ‘rd ' - ‘ I e , e' i 1 . . e u - . e a . o e I .I e ‘ .. . ' ' e I~ I‘ A I ' .i v . . n e .- - -e. o..- .... - 98 the use of niniatures to establish the scene or locale at the begiaing of a scene is can» practice. The television caara looking at the niniature nu give a bird's-eye view of a. city, harbor, etc., or show the outside of a particular house. The caera nay dolly-in on the front door of the niniature house, for ennple, than a cut or dissolve is nadetothofullscaledeoronthosetadtho actionofthascene begins. liniaturos nq also be aployed as caera nets with the actors ap- posringbohindthe cut-outportions of thoniniaturo adinfront of the- full scale background. Perspective problas no evident since the live actors not be conpatible with the scale of the backgrounl ad with the scale of the niniaturo . Il'his problen is a knotty one ad best solved by constructing “niniaturo first, setting it up in front of the un- painted scenery and viewing the whole through a optical view-finder using the prodoternined caera lens and fron the approxinate oaora position. After establishing the relative position of the caera, the niniaturo and the actors, the full scale background nay be first shatchod ad then painted in, within the area viewed em the optical view-finder.” The distances and positions of the various elaants should be carefully noted so that they ca be duplicated when shooting the scene on-tho-air. The use of niniaturos and dieraas offers unlinitod scope for the production of scenes whose nature ad siso forbid actual reproduction 57 "m, ’2' file, ’o 118.,e t . C . a. I e a) .l . I . . . ‘ [k I «e. .i O u .. O I e‘ n . lf' ea, . 99 in the studio. However, the results achieved nost warrant the total cost spent in budget and tine to achieve the affect. II. SLIDE AND BAIDPTICANS Definition. Slides are an indispensiblo part of everyday operation at on television station. Slides provide graphic naterisl in a con- densed fern which is easy to handle and inexpensive to produce . Station identification, progra identification ad intonation , connercial sales nessagos, pictures of proninent people in the news, and original art work are Just a. few of the services provided by slides and baloptioons . e) m. the 2'' by 2- slide is the nest canonly used type ad is processed fren 35-~filn.' All at work or intonation that is to be used on the slides nust, of course, conforn to the 3 by h aspect ratio of the television systen. The 2" by 2" slide has an aperture of 2)- by 33a and a copy area of 22nn by 29.}. or approxinately 3/h' by 1 1/8" .5? specially built 2" by 2' slide projectors are used to project the inogo onto the ncaiac of.the iconoscepo pick-up tube which is used in the filn-chsin east-a. b) 191. the -he1ep~ derives its nae fra the type of projector used to trasfor the infatuation free the h' by 5" opaque slide to tin fill-chain caera. It is called a baloptican projector. The traaission field of the opaque h' by 5" card is approxinately 3' by h" with a copy 59‘ area of 2 1/2' by 3 1/2' . 'fhe baloptica is a reflector. type projector 58 Wade, onration BacksLsgg, 32. $3., 1:. 56. 59 Wade, Dosing; for TV, 2. 9_i_t_., p. 152. 100 which traafaro the graphic naterisl from the It“ by 5' card placed beneath the nirror systa which is set at the proper angle to reflect the inage through the lens and focus it upon the nosiac of the icons- scope pick-up tube used in the file-chain caera.6° 12g, Slides are indispensibla in television station operation. The use of slides is noro practical ad less expensive tha the use of live title cards in the studio where they must be picked up by a live studio caora. The cost of operating the filn-chain is considerably less than the cost of operating a live studio caera. The iconoscopo pick-up tube is less sensitive tha the inage orthicon tuba used in the studio caara as it is not subject to burning-in problas which develop with the inage arthican aon exposed to tho saa inage for a axtan‘led period of tine. hay stations reduce progra titles and coaarciala fron title cards to 35nd filn which is processed into transparencies and than bound up intothet'byZ' slide. Thoslidea aroprejectadbya2'by2' projector me the fill-chain caora ad' the picture is switched to the progra line via the regular video switching paal. rho inages froa two projectors nq be received into one fill-chain and by controlling the light source of each 2' by 2' projector, a cut or dissolve an be effected between the two slides. If two filn-chain caeras are available , a slide projector nay be used on both canoras, and the switching between slides will then be achieved on the regular video switching panel. 60 Specs, 33. _c_i_t_.., 1:. 7h. 101 Another type of 2' by 2' projector enploys a circular drun with dlides nountod in sequence around the circusferance . The director, by operating a control button on the video switching panel, ca rotate the dra showing each slide in the proper sequence. This projector presents sane preblons especially if the slides are loaded out of sequence or the projectionist forgets to re-orient the slides fron the opening to the closing sequence. A recent develop-ant consists of a dual 2' by 2" projector designed to operate into a single filo-chain caara. Cats and dissolves are possible fron its self-contained controls or it nu be renotaly controlled fra the video switching paol. Care should be observed by the projectionist, naking sure that each slide is clean, that is, free free: dmt, dirt, and finger prints. Each slide should be inspected before it is placed in the projector for use on~the-sir. Dirty, or crooked slides indicate an operation which hasn't learned the narits of shoaenship . 9 Sinple anination nu be achieved on the baloptican by using a strip 1:” high and as long as necessary with the necessary infornation nountod upon it. the strip is fed through the balopticon fron one side to the other thus providing graphic naterisl which follows in sequence. the trend seas to indicate that nost stations will. use the 2' by 2" slide because the projector is less bulky ad the slide itself is inexpensive to produce, to handle, and to file. 102 III . FIIISI‘RIPS Definition. Graphic naterisl, titles, pictures, or art work can be photographed on the individual francs of 35a filn.61 When developed ad processed, this strip of filn, which nu contain au nunber of pictures or fraes, is threaded into a projector specially designed for use in television production. The inage will be projected into a filn- chain caera. it the appropriate nonant, a new picture or frae nu be brought down into the aperture of the projector in 1/200th of a second.62 Control is either direct, or it nu be renotely controlled fron the video switching panel. 933. Bone television stations use these 35. filn strips in lieu of, or in conjunction with standard 2' by 2' slides. The filn strip is particularly suited for use as a stadard open of a show where the pictures are the sac week after week or progra after progra. Another advantage is that all of the graphic naterial or pictures to be used on a specific progra nu be cabined on one filn strip. There are linitations in the use of filn strips , however . For exaple, it nu be necessary to use a picture that occurs in the niddlc of the filnstrip. This necessitates either running off the unwanted picture or cutting out the particular frae wanted and binding it up into a slide which say be prohibited by station or agency policy. Perhaps the progra content has been changed ad some of the pictures on the filnstrip 61 Graphic production is contained in Chapter V . 62 wade, 32. £13., p. 152. 103 have been elisinatad fra the script; however, they still rennin on the filnstrip, where they nust be skipped during the air porfornance. The tine amused in getting the correct picture up on the nonitor is all inportant since the director nu need the next picture before the ones in between ca be skipped. the filnstrip ie also subject to dirt, fingerprints, and scratches which is not usually the case when the individual pictures as bound up into slides . Slides ao noro flexible since they nu be arranged in any order even if pictures have been elisinated or the sequence of the progra content or title slides have been changed. nu. ma, rm curs no) more The use of file both 35- ad lb in television progressing ad ' production is extensive. Pasture filns on both 35'.- ad lhn as used by new stations. The 1h kinascope recordings of networks and undi- cated progras and the specially produced 16a filns are failia to nest stations since these filns provide a significant part of their tole- vision service. Stations nu use the kinescope recording when they ac not directly connected to the network via coaxial cable or nicre-wavo rolu and/or when they are a naber of noro than one television network, or when they as on independent station. Pill co-orcials produced by advertising agencies for national and/or local sponsors are used through- out the television industry. It is not the purpose of this study to discuss the technical aspects of filn production for television but only to point out that the use of 10h filn is universal. It is not only used as progra content and for con- narcials but also as an adjunct to television production. A . FIR! CLIPS Definition. In the production of all types of television progras certain scenes or visual naterisl cannot econcnically, physically, or effectively be produced as live studio action. Exterior sequences , show- ing far-ing nethed: or the out-of-door , full-scale background treatnent required for a draatic show are frequently shot locally on either Bins or 16- * notion picture filn, or rented fron‘ stock filn libraries . This filn is later interpolated into the live action produced within the studio.63 This type of production aid is usually referred to as a filn clip. Au ember of scenes hey be joined together with appropriate space between ad then inserted at the desired tine into the spaces pro- vided in the script and between studio action sequences. M. Piln clips nu be used to bridge the space between vaieus scenes of a drastic progra, thus alloulng tino for actors to sales a costao chage or for the stage hands to change the scenery. The viewer is not aae of this stoppage of live studio action because he sees the actors strolling down Fifth Avenue or in acne other appropriate action. The filn clip nu be used in all types of infer-national progras. Of course, it is better suited to acne than it is to others. For axapla, in a ayicultural progra the filn clip nu show the viewer a 63 see, 33. 33., p. 126. 105 wheat-cabins vet-uh; in the field, which would certainly he inpossibla in the studio. The filn clip nay be used to denoustrata various techniques in athletics with the filn clips edited fron the filn of the actual play by plu. Use of the filn clip adds vaiety and interest to the progr- as wall as providing naterisl which canot be duplicated in live studio production. B. FILM more Definition. Pile loops as a continuous filn clip. The filn loop nu be of au length, if it can be handled adequately by the projector, but usually it is about three feet in length. It is forned by splicing the two ends of the desired piece of filn together, thus forning a con- tinuous loop. After the loop is threaded into the projector ad the projector stated the we will run continuously waiting to be switched into the progra at the desired tine.6h M. The filn loop usually consists of a background which will be used behind other progra alaents ordinaily in a superiaosura. The filn loop is particulaly useful in producing backgrounds for titles since the filn nu be switched into the prograu line at on point in the loop since a appropriate backpaund is alwus available. ' The linitation of the filn loop eeeee to be in its length. the shorter the loop the noro repetition of background and if the background 61. Judy Dupuy, Television Show Business, (Schenectau, law fork: General Electric; liaque Ecaay, 195;) p. 53. a 106 tends to be dainate, the repetition will be quickly mticod by the viewer. A repetitious background will draw attention to itself, thus distracting the viewer fron the inportant visual elaent . Therefore , the filn loop should be nade as long as practicable, the background should be subdued, or the loop used for only a few seconds . CHAPTER” cm IV EWCAL-PIHSICAL ms lachanical-Plusical Effects aa 'creatcd in the studio by nanually operated contrivaces designed tocontrol, utilise, or sinulate natural and na-nade phase-ens. Binplo nachanical devices like a sauce trap, or piece of wood spinning in front of a spotlight nu be used to break a shine vase at the appropriate nonent or to create telephone-pole shadows whisking peet treih windows. the creation of natural phenonanon such as, rain, dust, fog, stars, or cobwebs virtually requires the work of a specialist. These effects nu be used in conjunction with the picture fron aothor studio caara or they nu be used for their own inherent effect. _ A trasition between scenes or sequences nu also be provided by these effects. Since the use of snow, or snobs is often necessay, particularly in a drastic scene, nachanicsl-physical effects are an essential adjunct to the adequate staging ad production of television prov-s. In this chapter, the author, till discuss the creation and use of selected nachaical-physical effects . I . ”MINE-CW Definition. 'Sobjective-anra' occurs when the snare ceases to be a inainato object, that is, a technical piece of electronic gea and bocenos an aninata object. The caora bacaes a person, for exaple, and the scene is revealed to the viewer through the eyes of this person. 108 In other words, the caara‘becones a character in a ccunerciel or a draatic scene. M. The subjective-conera effect is a particularly interesting visual effect , although its use is senewhat linitod. One linitation is the aount of tine required in perfecting such an effect. The viewer is another liniting factor since the affect nust be accepted ad under- stood by hin if it is to be effective . Therefore the viewer nust be orientated either before or during the use of the effect . Here are two emplas of how the subjective-caera was used in actual production. In a baseball sequence the cacra becae the pitcher. The viewer saw the pitched ball on its way to the catcher ad could follow its sig-sag, or cork-screw course. The viewer could also witness the perplexed look on the batter's face ad the contented expression of the catcher.1 A ccnnacial nosssge provides the second illustration in which the caora becae the salasna for the sponsor's Harvester cigas. The viewer head the caera's voice, saw the caera'a had held the cigar, strike the natch, light the ciga, ad then saw the exhaled puff of ache. Actually it took three nan to acconplish this affect; the cacraa , a second na to be the voice ad hands, ad still another na to help hold the cigar ad to do the puffing.2 I It is evident that this effect has interesting potentialities not only in novelty scenes but also in serious draatic scenes . However, it 1 Arthur R. Railton, ”They Pool Tau Every Iight,‘ Popula hechanics, 96315-150 , October , 1951. 2 “Cigar snaking Genera Acts in TV Show” Popula Science, 1583106, February, 1951. 109 is further evident that it takes a great deal of coOperation and co- ordination on the part ef the perforners. A great deal of inagination, nuch careful planning, ad painstaking rehearsals by the director are needed to achieve an effective use of the subjective-cans. II. LENS 3120311116 Definition. Lens blocking consists of decreasing the aount of light energ which enters the lens. This is accenplished physically by placing a object in front of the lens thus blocking the adnittance of light energy. Egg. Lens blocking is useful as a physical transition device between scenes . Per staple , an actor nay finish delivering his line and walk directly teward the caera, blocking the lens with his body. He is noving as quickly toward the lens that his cestune will go out of focus and thus an indistinguishable blur will fill the screen. Lens blocking nay be achieved by having the caera pan with the actors as they leave the set at the end of a scene only to have a pillar, hanging, sons other object, or piece of scenery block the exit. Generally the pillar, er haglng is a part of the basic set ad the novaent ad business of the actors has been carefully planed and rehearsed so that at Just the correct nonent the snare. will nove past a solid object, thus blocking out the view of the actors ad terninsting the scene.3 3 Edward Stasheff, and Rudy Brats , The Television Prog- , (New Iorka A. A. Vyn, Inc., 1951) p. 198-9. 110 Lens blocking nay be an interesting way to begin and close a pro- ga. The personality would stand directly in front of the snare blscld.ng the lens with his back and would nova on cue to his position on the set thus opening the prega. To close the progr- , he would nove toward the caera, blocking the lens with his chest and shoulder. In nusical an! vaiety pregr-s, dance sequences lend thaselves particularly to the technique of lens blocking. The oasra nay be out ef focus on the principle dancer located in the niddle ef the dance group and as the caera dollies back, the dacer and his group will cone into focus and the dace sequence will begin. Or the principle dancer sq enploy the lens blocking technique ad by noving rapidly away free the caera, he will reveal not only hinsolf but the group of dancers. The sequence nay be closed by having the dancers join hands ad nove toward the snare in a double file. At the caera the dancers will split, one going to the right of the caera, the other to the left leaving the principle dancer who would one directly toward the snare blocking out the lens. A . DIAPER“! Definition. A ring, or plate pierced with a circular ad central aperture readily adjustable for siae is a iris diaphragn. By operating a lever on the side ef the diaphragn, the central aperture nay be in- creased or decreased in size, thus allowing ears or less light energ to reach the lens ef the television casra. 111 £222.- The iris diahrap is useful as a lens blocking device. Mounted on a H-shaped franc in front of the caera. ad between the scene to be televised, the diaphragn can be operated by an effects _, technician to open or close the scene. (See Figure 1?.) Depending upon the effect desired, the osnera nay either focus upon the diaphragn it- self, or beyond the diaphrap upon the subsequent scene to be televised. If the snare. focus is upon the diaphragn, the diaphrag- an be visible when the aperture is capletely closed. The diaphragn will serve as a circular franc for the action of the scene when the aperture in the diaphrap is opened. However, if the caera is focused upon the scene to be televised, the diaphrap should be fairly close to the caera. The diaphrap, than, serves only as a blocking device, when the aperture is closed. Nor does the diaphrap true or in am way interfere with the inage being picked up by the oneera when the aperture is opened. B. LENS TUBE Definition. A partically closed tube which is slipped over the camera lens to block out the passage of light. The tube is constructed fron black cardboard. The circular portion which closes the end of the tube nay be partially out out, that is, a quarter, an eighth, or a half of the circular section nay be renoved. M. This device is useful when "special effects aplifisrs' are not available. By use of the lens blocking tube, portions of the inage nay be physically blocked fron entering the caera lens . For exaple , when two pictures are combined in a superinposure only the desirable 112 image on monitor Camera F-e é PfiEbEhTING title card \ I (\ j 5*.ESEZbJ1ien / \ \ I small masking doors L \ / \\‘.l—v—Mfl‘ MMW-.‘~_//J \ I composite on monitor FIGURE NC. 17 - LENS BLOCKING 113 portions of the inage nay be visible. Three-quarters of the lens on one caora is blocked. The inage, a girl's face, comics the renaining quarter of the franc. The superinposure is executed and the girl's face will appear in the appropriate corner of the conbined picture . Conclusions. This type of lens blocking is rather crude ad often very unreliable. However, it is nore practical on recent caeras , where a lens blocking or filter holder is built-in directly behind the colors lens but in front of the inage orthicon pick-up tube. Lens blocking devices need not be elaborate . Sinplicity ad visual interest seen to be conpatible. For ample, a cap or stole held in front of the caera lens by a nodal when ruoved and placed around her shoulders will afford an interesting open to a fashion sequence. Other types of lens blocking devices nay be constructed. snall niniature doors, built in the aspect ratio, which open either town'd or away free theocaers to reveal a scene or title card beyond are effective lens blocldng devices . III. LIGHTS AND FILTERS Definition. Multiple settings, costune , and nuke-up changes nay be achieved by the use of appropriate filters over the onus lens in conjunction with settings which have been executed in corresponding color conbinstions. The settings no also be lit by corresponding colored light sources . Egg. The use of this effect has nunerous applications, since it may be used to produce trick effects with scenery, costunes, or nake-up, 11h as well as , practical scenic, costune, and make-up changes. Although the use of various conbinations of colored pipents , light and filters will be discussed in the following paragraphs of this section, it nust be pointed out that the canera pick-up tube responds to, and reproduces these colors in shades of grey. Even though colors are used to effect a scenic change, the two scenes will be reproduced on-the-screen in various shades of grey. A very practical application of this effect would be the transforn- ation of a winter scene containing a barren tree and landscape into a lush, green spring scene. To achieve this trasfornation, the tree trunk and branches are executed in shades of red while the leaves, foliage and other necessary bits of the landscape are rendered in shades of green. When a red light source is used in combination with a red filter over the caera lens, only the tree trunk, branches, and other itas of the lad- scapo which have been rendered in shades of red will be visible. However, if green light is used in conjunction with a green filter over the caera lens, only the green elenents of the scene will be visible. If both the green ad red light are used and the red and green filters are renoved from the snare lens , the lush spring scene will be visible , the tree being couplets with trunk, branches, and leaves. (See Figure 18.) The use of colored lights in the television studio, however, has practical linitations . Producing colored light in the television studio in sufficient quantities and with flexible control requires expensive lighting equipent , noro standard lighting instrunents , and nore tech- nicians to operate the equipnent. A nore practical solution is to light 115 red light 6% “r“? I L" I/ \p I/ // / w. ,,’» color filter \ red or cream ree trunk red leaves green ‘, :7 ( \ L. - 1 image on monitor when red light & filter is used ( l\- / w ‘\ on w o J o image on monitor when image on monitor filth— srcen light & filter is use cutvlinht and filters. alternative scenery FIGURE no. 18 - LIGHTS AND FILTERS 116 the setting in the standard nsnner sith incandescent and fluorescent lighting instruments and to use color filters over the caera lens. The filters I111 allow only a certain color or combination of colors to pass through it into the colors. A red filter, for ample, will trans-it only the red light rays into the cuers. Using the filters is much ' easier than producing large quantities of colored light and the effects achieved by use of the filters over the cmere lens are noro reliable. Standardized filters are nailsble fron the East-an Kodak Company. Although, interesting filters nay be naie fro- theatrical lighting gelstine purchased fra the Brighsn Gelstine Conpsrw, Shall pieces of the gelatine may be nountod between two pieces of glass and placed in front of the callers lens. By careful testing, s scale of color responses for each particular color of gelstino can be established. Standard filters or golstine filters may be used over the caters lens to create scenic, costue, or make-up effects. For smile, a novelty background nay be designed consisting of alternate squares and circles which are pdnted with a prinu'y color and its cuplinent. The background is lit nonally but a filter is used over the canera lens. One of the appropriste filters will produce a background consisting of light and dark squares. (See Figure 19.) The other filter 1.111 produce circles upon a nontrsl beckgronnd. If no filters are used, the book- g-onnd will consist of a pattern of alternste circles and squares. Therefore, three different backgrounds are possible from the basic back-- ground and are produced by the use of en sppmpriste color filter placed 117 blue light TV Camera color filter yellow for blue scenery painted yellow and blue (background seen depends on light and filter used) 9 0 m "Almaty. ' image on monitor when yellow filter is used image on monitor when blue filter is used FIGURE NC. 19 - LIGHTS AND FILTERS 118 over the csaera. lens .h A lake-up change can be created in this fashion. in actor's face is node up with the nornsl or standard base, but the aging lines and shalows are applied in shades of red nuke-up. The cameras are all equipped with red filters which, will blend the liner and shadow into the actor's face. As such, he will appear in the full bloom of youth. During a brief transition, the filters are renoved fro- the score lens and when the next scene unfolds, the actor will appear to have aged. Since red, especially dark red, cones out black when the inage is re- produced in shades of grey, the actor will have dark lines and shadows. conclusion. The use of colored filters nountod in front of the c-era lens and the effects which can be achieved by their use is still in the experimental and developmental stage. Bone of the networks have been using the filters to achieve nuke-up changes . It sense that further careful experinentation will standardise the variables in the use of filters nountod before the onera lens and nake their use an exceedingly practical device in television production. A. BLACK LIGiT Definition. I'Black. Light" is the torn applied to ultra-violet light which exists below the visible color spectrun of light. Fluorescent naterials or paint have been designed which are sensitive to ultra-violet light, hence all visible light an be absent, but the fluorescent 1; 'Guide to Television Special Effects, " Tole-Tech, Caldwell-Clements, Inc. , Part II, April, 1952. 119 naterials will be visible when ultra-violet or ”black light" is shown upon it. I M. The 'black light“ effect has natw applications both in the theatrical. and in the display world. “Black light“ nay also be applied to television. A drop or backyound o... be painted in both ordinary and fluorescent paint. Under nonal lighting the design painted with the ordinary paint will be visible . When the visible lights are extin- guished and the 'black light“ projectors are turned on , the design painted with fluorescent paint will be visible. Thus two designs are possible on a single background. Oostue changes nay also be effected in a sinilar nanner.S The use of this effect in television will probably be confined to a few special and trick effects as has been the case in the theatrical world. B. Dim-BLACK AREA mas Definition. If an actor is dressed all in black, except for the area or areas which are to be televised, am perforss in front of a dull black background, only the non-black areas will be pichd up by the tele- vision cuera.6 The non—black area inage nay then be the head and hands of a person, for staple. (See Figure 20.) Other objects nay also be treated in a sinilar fashion. It should be pointed out that proper 5 Ibide 6 Ibid. 120 black background \ *7 \\ \ ‘---’ TV Camera \ subject all black except parts desired to show up $4 image on monitor F'IGURE NO. 20 - NON-BLACK IMAGE 121 shading of the picture by the video engineers will increase the effec- tiveness of the non-black area inage. Usage. lion-black area inages nay be used for ghost effect, invis- ible nen, and other sinilar trick effects. They nay be used in a super- inposure combining the ghost, for enple, with the shot fron another 6-”... IV . W10“. DEVICES Specially contracted nechanicsl devices are used to achieve various effects. They say be used to effect transitions between scenes or to furnish additional infer-ation to the viewer . In this section several of these nechanical 'gi-icks' will be described. Although the data is linited it should suggest further possibilities and perhaps the reader will construct other nechanical devices especially suited to his needs. A.TUIRLIR Definition. The 'twirler' is a circular piece of plywood about 18" in di-eter that is attached to a variable speed noter er geared hand ' crank and rotated with its flat circular surface facing toward the ossers.7 A sinpler nodel can be built by attaching a length of broou handle to the back in the center of the circular piece of plywood, so that the device nay be rotated by hand.8 A spiral pattern sq be painted or drawn on 7 Robert J . Wade, Basia; for TV, (New forks Pellegrini and Cudalv, 1952) p. 150. '8 Lynn Poolgfi Science via Television, (Baltinore: The John Hopkins Press , 195°) P . 122 the circular surface of the 'twirler.’ Or the circular surface nay be left plain, so that, titles,.photographs, or other objects nay be attached to the surface with tacks, nasking tape, staples, or other suitable neans. (See Figure 21.) . m. The 'twirler' is used to whirl objects into a close-up as though they were suing toward the esters tree a distance. The device nay be noved toward the cued-a, or the cuera nay dolly toward the twirler. The cued-a dolly provides the snoother and noro effective way of achieving the effect. The I'twirler" is rotated and as the canes-a dollies in on the spinning object, the'atsirler- is gradually slowed down so that, by the tise the canera dolly is complete, the 'twirler' is also stopped with the picture or object frued in a close-up, preferably right side 1113.9 It is ertrenely inportant that the picture er title appear right side up on the screen since the inpact of the effect will be lost i-ediately if the title is up-side down. . When the spiral pattern attack-eat is used on the 'twirler' the speed nay r-ain constant or it nay be varied, depending upon the effect desired. The c—era is usually stationary. The cued-a is focused upon the spiral pattern as the disc begins to rotate, and as the rotation becaes faster the cued-a nay be de-focused to produce a blurred, dissy effect .10 Pictures fren other cued-a sources can be superinposed ever the spinning spiral to produce interesting transition effects. Although the spiral pattern nay be used by itself. 92.9.. 9.13.- 10 Wade, gp. gig. a man Operating twirler 'PRESENTS title card mounted on plain twirler FIGURE NO. 2],. - TWIRLER 123 GIVES BLURRED EFFECT HAND MCDEL OF TWIRLER 12h The 'twirlor' is designed to attract attention and to hold the visual interest of the viewer. However, care should be onrcised in the use of the 'twirler' in its several ferns, since its inpact is so strong that over-use will euickly disapate its advantages . B. WNW Definition. The 'gloccanorra' is a device that is used to create the effect of a noving train by casting light and dark shadows across the faces of the passengers as the stationary train in the studio roars across the countryside. The II'gloccnorra" is a plywood wheel with four s-ehaped, curved openings, spaced around the radius of the wheel. The device is nountod on the front of a studio spotlight which is oined at the rail- road-coach set. The I'glccc-orra" nay be rotated by hand or by a snall notor. The speed'of the train is largely deternined by the rotation speed of the 'gloccuorra' since the faster the train, the faster the 'glocca- non-a" will spin. The effect of a telephone pole or tree shadow whisking by the train window is achieved each tine one of the 8-shapod openings passes the spotlight lens and the light snakes across the set.n £252. The 'gloccanorra' effect can be used to create the perfect initation of a train roaring along the rails. (See rigors 22.) or course, appropriate sound effects nust be added by the audio technicians. The use of the" Bloccaorra' can be conbined with rear-screen pro- Jootion to note the effect of th train still noro realistic. The viewer _._ 11 Richard r. Donpowolff, IMystery Men of the Television Bereon,‘ mar hochsnios, 93280-6, 258, May, 1950. ‘ 125 / V ' Whig/1% photo: \\;\ out-away section of train gloccamcrra .F spins in front of spot spotlight camera GLOCCAMORRA F’IGURE NO. 22 - GLOCCAMORRA 126 would see the passengers on the train, the scenery whisking by the windows, as well as the light and dark shadows cast upon the passengers' faces by the 'gloccanorraJ' r The 'gloccuorra' effect nay also be used in an autonobilo-intorior sequence, but it nust‘uaually be supplemented with rear-screen projection. When used with the mtonobilo-interier sequence , the rotation or speed of the 'glocconorra' would be very irregular and not nearly as fast as the speed required for the train sequence. V. NATURAL mm Introduction. Ivory day occurrences, such as , rain, snow, ice, fog, dust , etc . , which are taken fer granted in nature but which present problens when they bocene an essential eluent in a realistic television production, will be discussed in this section. The author will give a description of various ways in which the desired effect nay be created or achieved. Ins-plea of usage will be enployod in the descriptions given. However, the uses given are by no neans the only ones, since each pro- duction will dictate its own particular needs and nodify the usage. A. HATE a) m. Rivers necessitate the use of water in the studio. shallow wooden troughs are constructed in various sizes on! shapes to hold the water. Metal troughs nay be used rather than wooden ones 3 however, the netal troughs are often noro expensive to construct and their shapes and sises cannot be as easily ro-nade or adapted for various uses. 127 The wooden troughs nust be lined with water-proof canvas which can be painted to resenble the botton of a creek or other sinilar river bed. Each downstroan trough nust be constructed to retain a water level of an inch or so lower than the preceding trough. Thus, a realistic flow of water can be created as the water flows from one trough to the next. Of course , it will be necessary to install a peep to transfer the water fr. the bottm to the top of the studio river. Rocks , branches, grass, etc. , last he added to conceal the troughs and to conplete the realistic setting.” If a scene, such as a warf or pier is to be viewed free the river, a large trough can be constructed to cover the entire floor of the set. Caution should be exercised, since naking the trough too large will nake it difficult to handle, especially if it has to be noved with water in it. Again, only an inch or two, at the nest, of water is required to create the desired effect. Such itens as oil, soap, sticks, cigarette butts, swooping conpound, all a little point nay be added to the water to create river front son. A snall fan blowing on the water can create the necessary surface novenent and ripple. The use of too large a fan should be avoided. b) Egg. Ocean waves often present a problen, although they nay be needed for only a few seconds. The trick is to not only get the correct novenont, but to create the proper appearance. Laundry blueing will help to inpart the desired color, soap chips or washing detergent whipped into 12 Railton, pp. 355;. 128 the water will help foam the necessary bubbles . Powdered chalk will give the waves that foany look when they break. A deeper trough will be needed for the creation of the waves . The construction of the trough mies depending upon the roquirenents of the script. For emple , it nay be built to hold sand at one end so that the waves can break upon a sinulated beach. The botton of the trough should be constructed in steps with the shallowest step nearest the beach. In the deep end of the trough a board or paddle, approxinately the width of the trough, with holes bored in it should be rigged, so that it can housed to nove the water town-d the beach. As tm water is forced against the stops in the botton of the trough, the waves will break on the surface of the water. 01' course, the operator of the paddle, the paddle, and the out- lines of the trough should not be included in the enera shot. Hence , a close-up lens should be used in shooting this effect and also so that the waves will be nagnified as they break upon the beach. (see Figure 23.) c) Reflection.13 Effective reflections fron a pool can be obtained by filling a wooden trough with a few inches of clear water and shooting the reflection of the actors as they look down into the water. It should be noted that the reflections will be upside down. The actors are tele- vised by pointing the canera at their reflection in the water. The water has to be perfectly snooth for the reflections to be effective . Ripples can be created by wiggling the fingers in the water outside of c-era range, and the ripples nay continue to grow in size until the inage 13 Consult Chapter II Section I, Part A and Section VIII for nethods of creating electronic water reflections . 129 xom m><3 .. mm .OZ udDOE <——h——> Egret 6 C m><2 4-53:5 >o / / /' 0., 130 becomes sufficiently distorted to achieve an effective closing of the scene.” A call reflection pool could be used for an effective transition device. Snowflakes, rain, cherry blossons, leaves, or other objects could fall on the surface of the reflection pool to denote a chmge of season, of tine, or of place .15 d) Underwater . Underwater effects are interesting to achieve and are satisfying visually. The scene is set with a background painted to resemble the botton of the ocean, for exanple . Here the dancers will perforn their elaborate underwater ballet. Before the caera is placed a thin glass tank containing the water, appropriate fish, and underwater flora. The tank should be set so that it conpletely covers the field of novenent through which the canera will be shooting. (See Figure 211.) sufficient depth of focus sust be naintained because not only the dancers, but the fish in the tank nust be in focus. The effect produced will be that of the dancers performing their ballet underwater , song the fish and other underwater flora.16 The underwater effect nay also be achieved by using two cueras. One cuera will shoot the dancers, and the other caera will take the shot of the glass tank or gold fish bowl which is placed in front of a black 11: H. Mann, 'Television's Five Ring Circus ,' ngular Science, 157 2110-6, October, 1950. . 15 Stasheff and Brats, pp. 23.3., p. 201:. 16 John H. Battison, liovies for TV, (New York: The Hacnillan Conpany, .1950) p. 3111-2. . 131 u. \;\.\s\.\.\.\o\-v\r / };:::Z{f:‘+fi;fw ”new :13? TV Camera -. .«- glass fish tank composite on monitor FIGURE NC. 24 - UNDERWATER 132 background. The two snore shots will be superimposed and the fish and the dancers will appear to be in the sane picture.17 Another way to achieve the underwater effect would be to take filn footage of a swi-er performing underwater. The fill would be shown on the filn chain callers, and the picture superimposed over a live studio camera's shot of the water and fish contained in the glass tank or in a gold fish bowl . If desirable , the gold fish bowl itself could be visible in the picture thus confining the slum-er to the life of a gold-fish . Perspective nust be carefully controlled, since the size of the swimmer and the relative sise of the fish are inportant if the proper effect is to be ahhieved.18 e) &.19 For perfect rain naidng, a set of pipes are extenied over the entire set, behind windows and doors and with a special spray in front of the cal-era lens to ensure that the cuera will really have sese rain to photograph. such is the procedure in nevie production.“ In television production, however, wster on the set and in the studio is very undesirable and presents nany problens and linitations in pro- duction. The procedure is then to sinulste rather than trying to produce perfect rain in the television studio . l7 Theses H. Hutchinson Here is Television, Rev. Ed. (New Iork: Hasting House, 1950) p. Zia-é. 18 Despewolff,'m. _o_i_._t. 19 The production of electronic rain is discnssed in Chapter II, Section I, Part I. 20 Battison, pp. git” p. 3147. 133 Rain can be sinulated by picking up the water owing fron a sprink- ling can and superinposing this picture over a picture being picked up by a second camera of the live action which is taking place on the set.21 Rain can also be produced by another sinple nethed. A notor or hand driven drun is covered with black, sparkling enery cloth. Ihen the drun is spinning at the correct speed before a live studio score, a realistic rain effect will be produced. (See Figure 25.) This rain effect can then be superinposed over a picture taken fron another camera.22 1 Creating rain in a niniature setting provides an interesting job for a special effects technician. Shaking pulverized nica through a wire screening will do the trick. As the light plays upon the falling nice, it gives the effect of falling rain. Flitter dust, which is powdered tinsel, nay also be used. Of course, if the sound of the rain nust be heard, it is supplied free a record by the audio engineer.23 .Rain falling upon water is easily and effectively achieved by throwb ing rice into the pool of water. Such a rain sequence is very realistic because the rice will hit the water Just like actual rain drops. However, the effect nust not be overdone because the audience nu easily see through the deception, especially if the effects technician is careless and the rice does not hit the water but is visible to the sinners.2h 21 Ham, gp. _c__it. 22 'fl's Cost-Cutting Gadgets' W ,Vol. 71,110. 19, Septenber 22,1952, p. 36-7, 60-6. 23 31111- 0.Te1evisiona The Eyes of Tenorrcw, (lew York: Prentice-Han, Inc. 19 5) P. 253. 214 n.3, 22. 2.1.2- 134 ”V washtub drum “' TV Camera sparkly cloth rotates on drum man throws rice in pool FIGURE NO. 25 - RAIN 135 f) Vet Effects. Dew on flowers and shrubs can be obtained by spraying tha with water in which a few drops of ink has been dissolved. flyuerine sprqed on properties will give a wet appearance. It should be used full strength and allowed to dry. Bap walls nq be suggested by spraying thin varnish over the background coat of paint. Or a pint of aninal glue to a quart of water sprayed over the backpound will darlnen the area as well as produce the shim surface which is characteris- tic of a wet surface.25 g) _8_t_e=. Btesn can be produced effectively sinply by placing dry- ioe in hot water. The uount of steam produced nay be controlled by using various counts of dry-ice. A stean cup of coffee is easily pro- duced in this nanner. It should be renenbered, however that drybice burns, and gloves should be worn when handling it in large quantities. B.” In filn production, snow is produced by large fans which silently and gently waft large qumtities of soggy, and bleached cornflakes onto the set. Cornflahes were found to be better than amthing except real anew. The cornflalses are soaked to renove the crispness which would certainly nake an unrealistic noise if trodden on.26 This technique nay also be applied to television production. However, the fan nust be a silent ene . 25 Kelvin a. white, Be innin Television Production, (ninmspolis: Burgess Publishing Conpany, 5333) p. 38. 26 Battison, 22. 31.1., p. 3&8. 136 Another way to effect a snowfall for an entire set would be to construct a basket-like container from nuslin or sheeting by splitting it into ribbons and suspending it double thickness between two battens above the set. Lines can be rigged to the battens so that the battens nq be raised or lowered. The basket-like container is filled with white confetti and by shaking or oscillating the battens with the lines, a record snowfall nay be achieved. Depending upon the nethed and speed of oscillation, the effects technician can produce anything from a few flakes to a genuine blizzard.27 A sinilar nethed nu be employed to achieve snowfall. on a miniature setting. However, the snow should, of necessity, be of wash finer con- sistency than the confetti used on the full scale set. Synthetic snowstorns nay also be achieved by shooting through a tank of water containing the flaky white ch-ical uployed in children's snowstorm globes . A superinposure would incorporate the snow with the- appropriate picture.28 When snow on the ground is required, confetti or corn flakes nay be used, however, powdered upsun, narble dust , or dairy salt produces a nore realistic effect. The dairy salt can be stacked, shaped, and finally sprayed with water to give the effect of frosen snow.” 27 m, 220 92".!" Fe 225. 28 Richard Hubbell, Television Pro and Production, (2nd ldition Revised; Iew Iorka finehart onpany, no. , p. 121;. 29 White, g. 933., p. 57. 137 C.FROSTIHIMS Frosty winter windows nq be achieved at am tine of the year for the benefit of the television viewer by spraying the window pass with a nirture of stale beer and epson salts. A canon fly or bug sprayer is used to nake the application.30 A cunercial snow, which is narketed at Christ-as tine and which is designed for the specific purpose of putting a snowy, flaw frost en the windows or upon the Christnas tree, is excellent for use in television production. 13 . FOG Fog is difficult to produce and control within the studio. It nust not be so thick as to obscure the vision of the caera, nor on it be injurious or harnful to the actors who nust work in it. ru- productions uplcy fog produced by spruing Nujol oil through a very fine nossle . It is about the closest known representation of real fog, since it can be noved around by fans in billowing clouds, and when it settles on the actor's faces, it gives than that shiny, danp look so peculiar to a foggy night. Nujol oil, however, is very expensive and the snaller filn con- panies prefer to use senething cheaper. Fog filters are also possible, but the resulting picture does not look realistic since the fog does not nove around as it should. A fog filter can be nade very inexpensively fron a piece of white naterisl which has a finely woven nesh. The filter so Denpewolff, 32. 3313..., p. 83. 136 is placed close to the lens so that the caera can actually see through the nesh or weave of the cloth. Enough light nest be shown upon the filter to nake the scene hasy and indefinite.31 Sons authorities believe that in television, unless the fog is created eptically by a filter in front of the canera lens sinilar to the filter Just described, that the effect will always seen to be sonewhat of a experinent.32 I log can be created in the television studio by fanning stem across dry-ice. A special box can be constructed to hold the fan, the pails of hot water or live ste- Jet, and the true of dry-ice. The elenents should be so arranged that the fan will blow across the top of the pails of hot water, pick up the stone, blew it over the tray of drybice, and out into the studio.33 ’ A dense vapor sonetinea suitable for fog can be produced by exposing a few drops of titauiwntetrachleride to the air.“ A fan should be used to nove the vapor about the studie . Another nethed of producing fog for television is by oubining a nixture of titaniun chloride and caster oil with carbon dioxide produced by dry-ice in a pan of water. A thick aim billov cloud of feg will 31 Battison, 32. 92.13., 1). 31:6. 32 Stasheff and Brets, 33. $3., p. 269. 33 Dupewolff, g. 53.5., p. 33. 3h Willia Hodapp, The Television Manual, (New Iork: Parrar, Straus, ad Ieung, 1953) n. 135. 139 result which can be easily blown around the set with the aid of a snall electric fan. The effect should be constructed in a shallow wooden box with the tray of water and dry-ice in the botton. (See Figure 26.) The ninture of titaniun chloride and castor oil are sprayed into the box with a powered paint sprayer, or hand fly-sprayer, and the fog will cone out the slot on the other side ef the hex.35 E. 340KB Snoke presents a problen sinilar to that of nating feg, since too nuch snoke will fill up the studio and too little will be invisible. Lathes powder has been used with good results. It is a vegetable prep- aration which nust be burned in a special burner. The asthna powder will give off a thick cloud of whitish-yellow snoke . The snoke is scnewhat difficult to control at first, but a little practice will produce the desired results . Powdered charcoal, sprinkled on the burner after it is inited will produce black snoke with equally satisfactory results .3 6 Var surplus snake bcnbs or pets can be utilised to a good advantage, since they will produce large quantities of thick snake . Caution should be exercised, however, because too nuch snake new be injurious to the actors and crew, as well as, to the ventilating systen. 35 H. W. Secor, "Television 'Sight Effects“ Radio-Electronics P. Bit-6, February, 1950. 36 Eddy, 32. g_i_t_., p. 226. 140 spray gun with titanium tetrachloride ( : \8§:&*v\JL>433& _‘ fan blows steam riven (/off by hot water dry ice in tray FIGURE NO. 26 - FOG 11:1 A fairly dense snore nay be produced by exposing a few drops of titaniun tetrachloride to the sir.” It nay be blown about the set with a snall noiseless electric fan. Keep it away fron hunan eyes, and the tunes should not be inhaled. Handle it with an eye dropper. Titaniun tetrachloride is particularly good for sinulating the snolce given off by the logs in a fireplace sequence. One pound of saltpeter nv be dissolved in water, that is, one part saltpeter to three parts of water. Rags should be dipped into this nix- ture, allowed to dry, and then lighted; a fairly thick snoke will be produced as the reg burns. The rag should be burnt on a non-infl-able surface. Heavier snoke nay be produced by using several rags, piled one ontop of the other.38 A delicate white snoke can be produced fron nagnesiun ribbon or powder. It is quite effective and is cheap. The ribbon or powder nust be burned in a netal container and the snohe can be directed and noved to the desired location by using a snall electric fan.39 Necessary safety precautions should be taken in handling this inn-noble naterisl. Live etc. can be used for snobs; however, it does not last very long and is very unpleasant for the actors. Too nuch ste- will ruin the scenery unless it has been waterpreofed. Even a snall quantity will foul up the air-conditioning systen. The handling of live ate- in the 37 Hadwp’ £0 .Lit-o 38 White, 22. 21-30, D. 57o 39 Battison, pp. 333., p. 31:6. lh2 studio is also dangerous and burns are frequent to If only a snall uount of snoke or etc: is required dry-ice in a container of hot water, or nelted by a stun of hot ate. will probably produce enough white vapor to do the job. The vapor does not last too long, but it is toxic when used in especially large quantities . Ordinarily the carbon dioxide gas produced by dry-ice fill hang to the floor. A snell electric fan can be used to nova the gas about the set. A 60,, fire extinguisher can also be used to produce a colunn of snoke or stean such as night cone out of the snoke stack of a train. The effect achieved by using a 003 extinguisher is excellent , but the white cloud is soon gone. The extinguisher can .be used directly in front of the snare; that is, the caera can shoot through the vapor. Used in this nanner, the effect fill last for several ninutes if the control valve of the ex- tinguisher is adjusted properly. F. FIRE AND FLAMES Using live fire in the studio is dangerous and nay in acne cases even be prohibited. If fire is prohibited, filn footage of flues nq be used satisfactorily by superinposing the fines ever the apprOpriate shot taken by a live studio canera. If it is necessary to show live fire in the studio, paper can be burned in a large netel container before the snare. These flnes nay be anperinposed over the scene shot on ho Loc, 2}}. 1143 another camera. A nat shothl could be employed, that is, the metal container could be located directly in front of the'camera, and the caera could shoot through the fleece to pick up the action on the set. The netal container and the necessary effects technicians would be Just out of the cuera range .h2 Canned heat or sterno can often be employed. hall pieces of wood, paper, cellophane, and other sinilar naterisl should be added to the sterno can so that the flames will have noro character, that is, contain nore red flmes rather than the characteristic blue flue of sterno. (See Figure 27.) The sterno can is easy to handle and nay be nountod below the cuera lens Just out of range so that the flanes will leap up into view. If the nounting is secured to the front of the csnera, the novaent of the conera fill not be restricted as it shoots through the fl-es-‘to pick up the setting. Fire nay also be created by igniting lycopodin dust which is burned in a special burner.“ Once again, the net shot technique nay be en- ployed, with the cfiera shooting the action through the fire and fines. or the flutes nay be shot on one csnera, the setting shot on another cmera, and the two conbined in a superinposure. kl See Chapter III, ‘Section VIII for infonation on the use of the closers nat. ~ L2 Louis A. Space, Television Priner of Production and Direction, (New Iorks HcGraw-Hill Book Conpany, Inc., I557) p. 77. 1.3 may. 32. 53., p.225. 144 “me/r composite on monitor T V CAMERA Q can of sterno FIGURE NO. 27 - FIRE 115 The illusion of a flickering camp fire, fireplace, or other sinilar fire and the shadows that they cast can be created by the use of a few strips of paper or cloth, a small electric fan, and a suitable light source . The crepe paper or cloth strips about one-half an inch wide . and of varying lengths can be scotch taped to the wire-guard on the front of the electric fan which should be nountod face up. A suitable light source which can be nasked properly should be nountod so that the light rays from it will shineonlyon the paper strips when the device is in operation. (See Figure 28.) The capfire loge may be built up around this basic unit to mask the fan, light source, and paper strips from the canera, if the entire camp fire is to be shown. When the device is in operation, the paper strips , blown out by the fan will interrupt the light rays, causing flickering shadows to be cast upon the faces and bodies of. the actors seated around the canpfire. A similar device can be used in Heat of a spotlight to create the flickering fire effect. The cloth strips about an inch and a half wide would be attached to a wooden handle, and the effects technician would nanipulate it in front of the spotlight .hh G. 1103! A few handfuls of flour tossed into the air will create the illusion of flying dust. The flour-dust will settle slowly, and realistically to the ground. The flour nay be tossed into the scene free the canera Mi Denpewolff, 93. 93.3., p. 83. A. LIGHT AND CLCTH STRIPS subject in front of fire place ~———-—-—-> cloth strips flood’::::://—:::Eik camera shoots thru _ fire place 146 t /) ,,J:::( w prop man wivqles cloth strips in front of spot B. FAN METHOD spotlight with barn doors . ”5? 5? /, subject fan with paper strips FIGURE NC. 28 - FIRE PRODUCED BY LIGHT AND CLCTH STRIPS 1h? position or fro- m other spot which will give the desired effect as required by the action and the script.b’5 Flying dust, such as would be kicked up by a bullet hitting a rock or well, could be rigged with the use of a common spring mouse trap. If a large hole is to be blown out of the rock or wall by the bullet, the louse trap is buried and the hole is filled with broken plaster, fine powder, snall stone chips, and finally sealed with paper and painted to resuble the wall or rock. A long trip-wire leading off the set to release the spring trap is all that is needed to activate the device}6 If the bullet hole is a small one, the mouse trap can be nountod so that the spring lover will knock the plug out of the bullet hole when the trap is sprung. The effect is very realistic, especially when the hero is showered with dust and plaster which is supposedly knocked out of the wall above his head by a bullet fro: the villain's gun. H. CLOUDS The front projection or rear projection of clouds and cloud effects nq be frequently called for . The creation of three disonsional clouds nay seldcn be necessary, but when called for, present a very real problem to create. Satisfactory results have been obtained by the use of glass- wool batts which have been fluffed out to the proper proportions. These clouds are then suspended above the setting. The use of spun-glass is also reamendad. Cotton, however, is very unsatisfactory because 16 £932., p. 81. to soar, 32. 93., p. 226-7. V 1’48 unfortunately it looks Just like cotton. The glass-wool and spun-glass are highly reflective, and thus they respond to good lighting which is extremely important in producing realistic cloud effects 3‘7 For snall nebulous clouds in front of the canera, dry-ice dropped into a dish of water will give off enough carbon dioxide to produce saall rolling clouds through which the caera nay sheet. A small electric fan nu be employed to blow the vapor in front of the colors. The effect is also heightened if the camera is slightly out of focus .1‘3 I. STARS Realistic-looking twinkling stars can also be produced. Many tiny holes are punched in two pieces of black cardboard. The two pieces of cardboard are held back to back in front of a spotlight. By wiggling the back piece of cardboard the light will shine through alternating holes in the front eardboardfi9 The canora is focused upon the front cardboard. A noro elaborate way of creating the twinkling star effect would be to punch new tiny holes in the botton of a cardboard box which has been painted black on the inside. A circular piece of cardboard with irregu- lar wide-slits cut out of the circle is attached to the front of a spot- light. Tha spotlight is shown upon the back of the cardboard box and when the wheel is revolved slowly, the canera looking into the blackened box, will pick up the twinkling stars . Light passing through the revolving h? Eddy, g. 3233., p. 222. ha Poole, 32.93., p. 55. h? Kane, 22. £31. 11:9 wheel will cause the stars to sparkle interaittently through the holes punched in the bottom of the box.50 J. COBWEBS Cobwebs can be created in corners and on various objects to give the setting that unused, old, hunted look. The cobwebs are generally sprayed on. Liquid latex, and various plastic solutions are used to produce the oxtreuely natural looking cobwebs .51 Stiff rubber ceuant can be used to good effect if liquid latex and application equipuout is not available .52 Dusting the entire set , as well as, the cobwebs with talcun powder will provide the set with the appeal-ems of antiquity.53 LEASBAN‘DTREES Artificial grass which is used for display purposes nay be used equally well in television production. If such artificial. grass is un- available , it can be nade fro- various types of uohair or other deep-pile fabrics. The naterisl nay either be dyed green or the surface shellaced and then dusted with green lint or velvet dust .5 1‘ Both uethods produce so Poole, pp. 23.3., p. 56. 51 Eddy, 22. 23.3., p. 225. 52 Battison, 32. 93., p. 3&8. 53 Eddy, g. 333. St Eddy, 22. 333., p. 222. .I r .111 ‘ asp”, 150 satisfactory grass. In niniature construction, finely woven, deep-pile turkish toweling which has been dyed to resenble grass can be utilised. “hen trees are necessary on the set, they nq be rear-projected if they appear in the background, or they nay be constructed of set pieces in the niddlc or foreground. However, if an illusion of towering trees and dense Jungle is required in the foreground, it can best be achieved by the construction of a c-era ”$.55 Snell trees ani shrubs can be arranged close to the camera lens and shooting through this apparent undergrowth to pick up the actors in the background will achieve the de- sired effect.56 The actors nay seen dwarfed by the trees in front of then, depending upon the construction and location of the users eat to fulfill the requirsnents of the mm. The quick-sprouting tree, which every nagician owns, is operated, of course, by a spring releasing device. Such a tree can be used in television for its trick effect. VI. HAN-MADE PERIOJENA Introduction. In this section, the author will discuss such nan- nade phenonena as explosions, crashes, and flying arrows. A description of various ways in which the desired effect say be created or achieved will be given. Although there are lore effects which could be discussed, the description will be linited to those effects on which production 55 See Chapter III, Section VIII, for use of c-era Mat. 56 Battison, 32. 23., p. 3&2. I... F. 151 naterials and data has been nade available . A nagician's supply store can provide the answers to new effects and should be consulted for ad- vise as well as for naterial assistance. A . EXPIDSIONS Explosions are usually engineered with flash powder and snake bonbs, supple-outed of course, by the use of sound effects.” Lycopodiun dust suspended in the air and ignited will produce a safe and convincing explosion.58 Theatrical flash pots, which when ignited nit a flash and then a cloud of white smoke m excellent for caplex explosions. The aunt of flash powder or the size of the flash pot to be used will depend upon the sise of the explosion required. Necessary safety pre- cautions should be taken when handling inn-usable and explosive nateri- als in the studio. Metal containers should be used in transporting the explosive naterisl about the set and it should also be set off within a natal enclosure. aloha bonbs can be used to give the lingering nuke necessary in certain types of explosions. Of course , the scenic artists nust provide the acconpaning destruction. in ordinary photo-flash bulb can be rigged to create ninor explo- sions. Or a number of flash bulbs nq be wired together to produce vari- ous sises of explosions. when the flash powder is used it nay be ignited in the following nanner. Inside of a natal be: about two feet square and six inches deep 57 Delpswolff, 32. 21;. 58 Hodapp, 32. 93., p. 152. 152 with a heavy sotal screen over the top is placed an ordinary household surface sount socket. The wires fros this socket lead to a switch off the set and then to a regular 110 volt electrical outlet. A three-upere fuse plug is screwed into the socket . The transparent window is raaoved and flash powder is poured into the fuse. The flash powder is ignited bypthe short circuit which occurs when the control switch is closed .59 The nount of flash powder used say be varied until the desired effect is produced. Emerinentation with this effect before air-tino is an absolute sust . All details should be worked out several days in advance of final rehearsals. B. GLASS cm ' The breaking of a window, nirror, laps, Jars, or of a gun target can be achieved by the use of a spring type souse trap. The souse trap say be adapted so that it will throw a lead pellet at a window pane, . which has previously been out to sake it shatter in a pro-arranged pattern.60 The sense trap is no respeotor of property, and various sizes of sense traps can be osployed to knock off the appropriate object, be it lap, vase, or Jar. (See Figure 29.) The lead pellet is attached to the snapper are of the sense trap with a short length of heavy black thread or a stiff piece of wire depending upon the location of the ousra and the require- sents of the Job. Of course, the sense trap sust not be visible to the casera. 59 m“, Re 9-1-12" po 58-9. w Eddy, no fie, po 227o 153 W , T ///’/ //. %#/ glass plate /’/l-‘ / I’l:/ II I - .1 I ’/ l/ / / / ,//l /" _v/ r . '. . / ,- I .1 v .1 . l / ——--—-'~..mouse trap . I window is broken When - mouse trap is tripped 'l'GIffiE NO. 29 - MOUSE TRAP DEVISE 1514 A shooting gallery trick is a good exasple of the tricks possible The onus is looking frau behind the He sins the rifle, fires, and the target Of course, the sense trap by use of a sinple souse trap. target towards the custuer . hashes to bits as'though hit by the bullet. did the trick with a large nnt soldered to the snapper. when the trap 61 was tripped, the are swung up to ssash the target. C.ARRCH8 Flying arrows thud into trees beside the hero , but they do not one free the bow of m snort sarksssn. Instead, the arrows thuds into the tree in reverse. The arrow or arrows are held inside the tree by an elastic, and they pop out so rapidly when released that the viewer would be sure that they c-e free a bow. A hollow arrow say also be used which would slide along a taut length of piano wire to its destination. Such 62 a device could be used for a Villios Tell apple shooting sequence. D. GIN FLASH” Gun flashes are often requind in systery and detective druas . The flashes are sade by using ssall pills of sagnesiua powder in which a resistance fuse wire has been isbodded. When the control wires are energised frss a switch located off the set, the flash can be accurately times! with the action of the play. when packed tightly as well as when loose, the smesiu powder is highly explosive am should be handled 61 sultan, 32. 93., p. 115. 62 Ibid., p. 11:9. 155 with extra-o caution. All safety regulations in regard to its use should be carefully followed .63 The flash should never occur directly in frost of the cane lens, since it will dosage the sensitive isage orthicon pick-up tube . It is rusorod that an electronic gun flash is being used experi- mtally by one of the networks . E. ACETILEHE TORCH As acetylene torch which would be used in a burglary, crash, or accident sequence can be easily sisulated with a Fourth of July sparklor.6h The continuous sparkler is fed out of aruhbe'r tube, so that only the burning and is visible. Two fingers over the end of the rubber tube can accuplish the feeding process, since the yet—to-burn portion of the sparkler is still cold. The burned and of the sparkler can be pushed into the hole which the torch is cutting, so that it will not be visible to the cuera. F. BUBBLE Bubbles can be sanufactured that will take the place of expensive These bubbles could be used for lavish balloons or plastic bubbles. dance sequences, or to fill a bath tub during a bathing scene. The sagic formula is detergent, plus green soap, plus glycerine , plus coloring. 63.nov, 32. g}... p. 225. 61: D-powolff, 32. gig. _c. .H I H . . I ..n0. "Iln>bll?!., .E c .1. =3.th 1.500! ' :ulif‘y‘f 156 This sixture is stirred and then pusped full of air. In less than ten seconds there will be plenty of tough, elastic bubbles, as large as four feet in dineter.65 Man-sade phenomenon will continue to plague the tele- Conclusions . The sisplest sethod of solving vision director with production problems . the probless is for the producer-director to elisinato the effects by asking significant script changes. If a particular effect is repeatedly called for, a to- of production assistants, or effects personnel, will be put to work solving the probles. when the effect is finally created on-the-air , the ingenious effects technicians turn their attention to the creation of another effect. The first effect is not forgotten. It has a way of being resesbored and passed on , but the secret of creating an effect does not often bosons published naterisl. 65 Ibid . cummv «anti... F19 - . CHAPTER V CRAPHIC All) TITLING EFFETB kaphic and Titling Effects are devices and techniques osployod to More specifically, present visual inforsation to the television viewer . graphic and titling effects are those effects which enploy the use of graphic arts and the presentation of this graphic naterisl by using These effects are generally pre- suitable titling and display devices . Graphic saterials are sented in the studio before live studio c-sras . used during progrus to present essential visual inforsation to the viewer. When displayed via appropriate titling devices, the graphic saterials are used to provide beginning and closing titles and also to The paphic effect suitable transitions between progr- sequencss . saterials which are usually picked up by a live studio suera say be combined with the pictures free other signal sources to produce sore elaborate or couples effects. Graphic and titling effects are an essen- tial part of television progr-ning and are required in the day to day operation of a television station. I. PREPARATION 0!“ (RAPHICS AID TITLDIG A majority of the graphic naterisl which is prepared for telecast is rendered in the 3:1; aspect ratio . Therefore all title cards should The individual station should standardise various conform to this ratio. sizes of cards to be used in their particular operation for the rendering of' graphic naterials. The following sises are used in the industry and 158 9' by 12"; 11' by 114'; 12' by 16"; 113' by 18"; 15" by are roconnendeds Sosa sises will be found 20'; 20' by 30': 30" by hO'; and 36" by h8'. to be sore advantageous than others, but day to day usage will help the station to detersino the proper sises for use in their particular opera- tion. If the station uses a baloptican projector sons of the graphic work will be done directly on the h' by 5" I'balop" card. However, the naterisl is often rendered on 11" by 114' title cards, for ample, and Two by two inch then reduced photographically to the h" by 5" sise . transparencies for use in slide projectors are also reduced photo- graphically fron a standard. sise title card. At present since television is nonocbronatic, that is, producing an inage in shades of gray, never pure white or pure black, paphic naterisl nust be rendered in shades of gray or in colors that will repro- duce the desired gray shale, The Eastnan Kodak Gray Scale, their published saterials on its use , and the Bastsan Color Separation Guides provide the 1 The Eastsan nost useful and conplete reference data on the gray scale . Kodak Gray Scale contains ten steps from black to white; however, it is generally adsittod that the television systen will produce only 8 or 9 2 values or steps of gray ranging fron near-black to off white. To check gray scale response, swatches of the specific color are placed along side 1 Kelvin R. white , Be innin Television Reduction, (Minneapolis: Burgess Publishing Cospany, 1933; p. h. 2 Robert J. Wade, Designigg for TV, (New York: Pellegrini and Cudalw', 1952) p. 3&5. 1...».IIIlrbfi|* vs ’1‘ . \uel. 159 of the standard pay scale and both are viewed on c-era under norsal lighting conditions . The gray shade produced by the color swatch is conpared and natchsd up with the apprOpriate gray on the standard gray scale. A gray scale nunber is then assigned to that particular color. Often it is helpful to add a plus or minus to the amber, so that the color of pipent, cloth, illustration board, or chalk will have a more accurate gray scale number. When using either naterisl rendered in shades of gray or naterisl rendered in color, there should be fru three to five (3 to 5) steps or values between the background and the object or lettering.3 Extreso contrast should be avoided, such as , white letters on a black background except when the naterisl is to be used in a smerinposure where high contrast is desirable. High contrast or a wide range or nunber of steps between the lightest portions of the inage and the darkest portion of the background will cause the inage to ghost or' blocs. This quality of 'blooning' is cannon when nastor-of-cerenonies wear white shirts with black tuxedoes . Lighting can help to elisinato 'bloon' , but controlling the contrast is such sore satisfactory. Excessive contrast will also cause the inage to burn-in on the target of the inage orthicon pickbup tube especially if the tube has logged considerable hours of usage , that is, beyond 250 to 500 hours. 3 Clair R. Tettener and Harold Niven, ”Production Standards for Television Becordings' (Unpublished Study, Ohio State University, 1952) . 160 The graphics should employ a variety of backgrounds to add interest and texture to the displqr of visual information. Generally graded and tinted illustration or mat board is satisfactory. A mat surface is preferred to a glossy or shiny one, since the mat finish will usually take the color media or ink much better than a slick surface. When viewed on camera, the mat surface will be sore satisfactory since it will absorb or disfuae the light which strikes it, rather than reflecting the light directly, into the owners lens causing a burn or flare to scour. Clay coat poster board is available in many tints and colors and has been found to be excellent for all types of graphic work. Opaque water colors, casein (in tubes), transparent watercolors, and combination of these with other types of pignents, inks and dyes are the most generally used color media.5 The color media should also be checked for gray scale response and an accurate record made, so that, preper contrast between the lettering and the background say be naintained. Various nethods or processes are used to produce suitable titles economically and in sufficient quantities to supply the daily needs of the average television station. Hand lettered cards, although applicable to certain types of productions, generally cost too much in tine and labor to be the standard nethed of titling. Emboss-o-graph lettering is satisfactory and can be used to present a wide style of titles. The enboss-o-graph consists of metal type over h Wade, 33. 232., P. 155. 5 Ibid. 161 which is placed a lettering sheet, colored paper which is to become The background illus- the letters, with the gunned surface facing up. tration board is placed on top and the type is pressed against the back- ground , cutting through the lettering sheet and pressing the letters The eaboss-o-gaph will provide fairly into the illustration bond. The initial cost of the machine may be prohibitive, inenlensive titles . The device is limited since however, for the ssall station Operation. it requires considerable tine to set-up the type and process the title card. There is also a lisit to the size of card which say be handled Another feature which is most un- effectively on the enbcss-o-graph. desirable is that the letters tend to peel off especially if the title However, if the cards are card receives rough handling in the studio. handled carefully, they say be used live in the studio or they say be photographed and reduced to 2' by 2" transparencies for use in the slide projectors . Another printing device used for the production of window and price- card work by department stores can be adapted to television purposes. This device is sinilar to a proof-press and uses regular standard all- The type is metal type, which is set and locked in a fona, face up. inked with a hand roller and the ispression is pulled off by exerting pressure fro. the top onto the background illustration board or paper. However, cepies require frequent The cost of such a press is noderate. retouching and title artists generally do not feel that this proof press is suitable or adequate especially for fast production work.6 6 Ibid., p. 161. 1.?t 162 The nost effective printing device is the 'hct—press," since it say be operated by inexperienced personnel and still produce acceptable titles. The hpt-press employs regular, standard, all-setal type frcs 21; point to 72 point. The type is set in a special stick, pro-heated and locked in the press where the tesperaturs is increased slightly. when the proper te-perature is reached, the type is brought down upon a plastic ribbon which lies between the type and the background title card. The plastic ribbon is nelted and bonded to the cardboard, illustration, photograph, or other title background. Additional ccpies of the title can be sade sinply by advancing the plastic ribbon and re-prhssing on another background. The 1;" by 5" 'balop' cards may actually be printed directly with 36 point to he poiht'typofi The hot press will print over an flat surface 3 thus titles say be printed directly over artwork, textured papers, photographs, or transparent acetate sheets or 'celle.' The hot press can be used to fake newspaper sastheads, headlines, ad- vertisesent , fictitious books, prescription blanks, slall sale cards, labels, price tags, nsse plates, ferns, and letterheslds.7 It has already been sentioned that the photographic process plays an isportant part in providing 2' by 2" slide transparencies for trans- nission over the television systen. Pictures frm various sources can be utilised by the-selves or they say provide suitable backgrounds for titling . 7 Ibid. , 163-h. 163 The titling can be executed directly on the face or surface of the picture, or it say be rendered on an acetate 'cell' and placed over the picture for processing. The acetate I'cell' method. is particularly use- an when producing a series of title oars: all with the ease background picture. Various sizes and styles of three-dimensional plaster or card- board letters are very useful in preparing titling for 2' by 2' slides. However, the letters nay be used live on cmera if they will adhere to the background . On all title cards whether they are reproduced live or photographic- ally reduced to slides, the graphic material is confined within a specified uea. Titling and artwork sust be confined to this copy area which leaves an .ple sargin so that the csaera nay frue the title properly without shooting off the end also allowing for the individual variations in receiving set adjustments and necking. There is also a lisit to the size of letters and the mount of lettering which say be used on a title card. Regardless of the original card sise, the picture which the viewer sees is always the sise of his receiving screen.8 Readability of the visual inforsation is essential; hence, the lettering lust be of the proper sise and the nunber of characters kept to a sinisus. For television work, Battison believes, that three lines of type should be the sexism with not sore than twenty characters on each line including all punctuation. For the under titles such as the time of the production , the number of characters should be linited to ten or less 8 Thomas H. Hutchinson, Here is Television, (Rev. Ed., New Iorks Hastings House, 1950) p. 250. 161; per line.9 When the nusber of lines and characters are reduced, the size of type say be increased. 'Pive lines of about twenty letters each 10 is roughly the present capacity of a receiver ," reports Hutchinson. Here are use recossended sinisus type since to be used with the various sizes of title cards. The actual copy area or seeking area of the title card is also given. For a card lh' by 18" with a usable copy area of 9 1/2' by 11" a sinisus type sise of 96 points or one inch should be used. an . 12- by 16' title card with a masking area of 8- by 10', the sinisus type size should be 72 points or three-quarters of in inch. (5» Figure 31.) A 11- by n.- card with a copy area of 7- by 9 1/2' should use a sinisus type sise of 614 points. (See FigurejO.) an a 9- by 12' card with asasked copy area of 6- by 7 1/2- the sinisus type sise should be one-half an inch or 1:8 points .11 Of course, the type sise so be increased if the nusber of lines and characters is decreased. Variety is introduced into titles by the use of various styles of Visual interest is stisulated and the viewer is kept alert by the If the sue style of lettering is used fer The type . use of interesting titles . every progr- , progras individuality and character will be absent. progrn will also acquire a sonotony only akin perhaps to the sonotony of the entire station operation. Graphics, especially titling, should not be elaborate, but should be sinple, bold, and easy to read. The 9 John H. Battieon, Hovies for TV, (How Iorkt The Hacsillan Gospssy, 1950) P. 206-7. 10 Hutchinson, gp. 333., p. 250. ll Tetteuer and Niven, 22. SEE!- el \‘fl 'll'llll‘ vfljflawdwr \ll, 165 Qou w4mcou 2o :1. _ ohm...“ (mm—.23 .: sise \\ Dado mat... Oddanw 166 ’ A (0?. :4 ,. ‘I ll '14 8% >7 l l g l I, I/ ,2 7% I __'___L —< [6” >— t FIGURE NO. 31 - 12 by 16 TITLE CARD WITH USAGE COPY AREA l6? selection of lettering for a particular program should confers to the progr- content. The style of type selected should suggest the nature of the progrn. The titles for a Shakesperian drna, for ex-ple, could be hand lettered in sodified Old English. In selecting type fonts, the style and type of productions which will be presented by the particu- lar station should be considered. Only the scat desirable and useful fonts should be pmhased. The following suggestions are offered as to the fonts best suited for use in television production. Two broad classifications are condensed and non-condensed type. Condensed type consists of narrow letters spaced closely together. It is used when saterial sust be crowded to get it all on the page. Although the letters sq be used with non-condensed spacing, the con- densed type is still difficult to read even under ideal conditions. Therefore, the use of condensed type is not race-ended. Non-condensed type is generally preferred for use in the production of television graphics .12 Five thicknesses of type are generally available in the various styles: light, sedius, bold, extra bold, and ultra bold. The best re- production on the television systes is provided by sedius, bold, and Itis extra hold. The light thickness of type is not recon-ended. difficult to read because the fine lines are lost is the television transsission systu. The ultra bold is also difficult to read since the open spaces in the letters are very ssall and the letters sq appear as a solid block. Open, italic, and script letters are not recs-ended 12 Ibid. 168 for general use, although with extreme care they say be used in special cases. Any sise of type face say be used, however, if a large enough letter is selected .13 The graphics depart-ant should begin with a linited nuber of type fonts and continue to add new styles and sizes until a sufficient variety At first, is stocked to serve the saw needs of the station Operation. a half-dozen fonts of condensed Gothic, Vogue, Caslon, and Brush in various sises will provide a sufficient variety for conventional title work.“ Additional fonts of Twentieth Century Hedius, Stencil, Broadway, Bodini Bold, Radiant Hedius, Flash, and Stylescript will prove useful .15 The effective use of graphics and titling should not be overlooked since they are essential to television production and closely linked with the power of the visual isage. The visual pictures received by the viewer especially graphics and titles indicate to his the character and Type is expressive; therefore art directors personality of the station. and production personnel should sake full use of its ability to suggest, to ilply, and to isdicate.16 Titling and type used wisely will add to the effectiveness of the sisplest progr. because both are isportent Titles and type can establish a seed and conjure factors in exposition. up ,for even those viewers with linited isagination sose associations 13 Ibid. 11; Wsde, 22. 91.2., p. 16h. 15 Tsttaer and Niven, gp. 9g. 16 finds, 92. Eli-s p. 161:. 169 and ispressions . It should be resesbered that what the viewer sees on his television screen is all important . II. TITLE CARDS Definitiens an artwork or graphic naterisl which is rendered on a card : ‘ ssaller than 36" by 148" and which is not scenery, is usually referred to as a I'title oard." The title card provides all types of inforsation fru hand lettered and printed titles , cartoons , graphs , and sounted pictures , to ding-us and sketches . The naterisl is generally placed on the under chosen so that it will confers to the 3th aspect ratio of the television systen. The title card generally speaking pro- vides static infonation to the viewer . M. Title cards are used to display all types of inforsation before the live studio cueras. One of the seat omen uses is to provide opening and closing titles and credit lines for various progrns. Bose directors prefer to present all titles m y'aphics through the fils chain cuera by using slides, balops, or fils. When presented in this fashion, they say be easily previewed and conveniently cosbined into the television progrn. Reducing the title cards photographically te slides resoves title stands, easels , and necessary display devices fros the studio which is often desirable, especially when the studio is ssall. Using slides also frees the studio share so that it say concentrate upon the progres content . However, title cards picked up live in the studio have several advantages . For ample, last sinute changes in credit lines or in progr. content naterisl can easily be rendered on the title 170 cards and inserted into the progru. The necessary tise required to produce a slide of the graphic naterisl say not be availdale. This is often the case and the director say have a conbination of slide titles fros the file chain snare and smelive titles fros a studio c-era to cosbine into the title sequence of the progra. Other directors prefer to have all of the visual saterial associated with a particular progr. concentrated in the studio. They will insist on using live titles, that is , titles picked up by a live studio c-era.17 Although the studio . is often cluttered with display devices, the director can concentrate his attention upon achieving the desired effect by using studio facilities and can forget about interjecting fils or slides into the progr‘. Title cards are usually presented to a stationary c-era. They say be displayed in a wide variety of styles . Bose of the sore shen sethods and techniques of displaying title cards will be discussed. Also various neans are esployed to effedt the change fra- one title card to the next. The card is often Just simply resoved fros the cesera field. This is a sinple but effective way of adding sovuent to an otherwise statis picture and it does create and stisulate visual interest in the viewer. Ifenlyone cardis tobo shown, itssybe setup onaneasel in front of am available studio c-era. Metal or wooden sheet susic racks A and stands are often used with a considerable degree of success. The m1. rack should be sturdy, rugged, adjustable as to height, and if the display surface can be tilted, additional flexibility will be achieved. 17 wade, 32. 3133., p. 152. 171 The cueraan should focus and True the naterisl in the center of his viewing scope and theoutside edges of the card should be lost, that is, not visible on the air . If sore than one card is to be presented in a continuous nanner, there are several ways of achieving the presentation. The cards sq be stacked in alternating sequence on easels in front of two studio caeras. The titles are changed by switching fros camera to caera. While one of the cueras is showing the picture on the air, the title card in front of the second csaera is changed, and when the new card is properly lined- up, a cut or dissolve is sade to the second csuera. This process con-r, tinues until all of the cards have been shown. This process requires the use of two valuable studio caeras, when the sac effect could be achieved satisfactorily with the use of only one caera. The title cards sq be stacked on one easel in front of a single casera and the cards pulled away one by one. They sq be resoved fros the frsae in any fashion. Usually thpy are, either pulled out vertically or horizontally. Or the cards say be stacked, and the first card tilted forward, toward the caera, displaying the second card behind the first. Actually the card is tilted forward and let fall. Care should be exercised by the operator so that each card will fall ssoothly and at the ease speed. Too such force behind the card will tend to sake the bottos edge of the card flop up into the picture after it has supposedly drapped out of sight. ,» a-‘s.wr v ' l 172 Title cards sq be put into the picture, that is, the cuera views the first card and additional cards are placed in front of the previous cards until the final title is reached. A. TITLE FRAME A box-like title frsse say be built to hold the particular size of title cards used. Grooves spaced approximately a half-inch apart can be out along the top and bottom of the structure . Title cards are guided by these grooves and sq be slipped in and out of the device, horizontally. Another title frae say be constructed so that the cards say be resoved vertically fros in front of the casera. The two frues sq be conbined in a cosplex device in which cards sq be resoved in an alternate hori- zontal and vertical sequence. The title frame sq be built with an cosbination of horizontal and vertical sections . The soderate cost of construction is exceeded by the devices' frequent use and its effective- ness on the air. A suitable arrangement would be to have space for five or six cards which say be resoved vertically, followed by the sue ntmber of spaces for the cards which are to be resoved horizontally. B. FLIP CARDS Flip title cards are punched at the top and fitted with ssall gros- sets. (The width of the top sargin of the card say have to be increased to take care of these holes and to insure that they do not appear in the picture.) The cards are then suspended on rings, ordinarily an oversized 173 notebook ring-binder which is nountod on a display board .18 The location of the rings upon the display board is critical and should be so arranged that when the card drops or is flipped, it will fall ssoothly and rest against the back of the display board. Since the cards are allowed to build up as they drop, one after the other , the caerman may have to ad- just his focus to bring the latter cards into sharp focus. If this device is constructed preperly title cards will dr0p into frsue and hang sotionless before the casera. (See Figure 32.) The cost of constructing a flip title stand is soderate. Bose linitations in the use of flip ' titles will be presented especially if floors, and casera sounting are not level. One of the probless encountered frequently is the fact that letters on the title cards are not centered preperly. This can be traced to isproper construction of the display device, bad centering on the card which seldom happens , or an unlevel floor upon which the title stand sits or upon which the casera is operating. Moving the title stand to another location can often solve the problem. C . MASK CARDS Masking devices say be placed in front of title cards. A decorative sask with a cut-out or aperture in the center of the seek is called a 'cartouche." Ordinarily the aperture in the I'cartouche" sust be in the 321; television aspect ratio . Grooves behind the “cartouche' card hold 18 Robert J. Wade , rations Backst , (New Yorke Network Operations Departsent, Te endomfi p. Sh. side view gnu FIGURE fie. 32 - FLIP C 172+ note book binder ring~-¥~e; *F:f t< DEATH m TE ._ Nu standard title ’ HE card-"'T—f front View ARD STAKD concave surface Front and side views one complete frame DEATH IN \ \ TWdE’ PVIG+4T' \\\\ \. \ /‘~ __ camera lens 5’ M (3‘41 / \/ ”WW // / «’24 (/2 ”WV r—T\,...——\- / u.,,....._ J — / TH E Ll TTLE SHOW pan title card pan title stand FIGUfiE NC. 33 - EnTICAL PAN TITLE CARD 175 the additional title cards.” The construction of such a device has already been discussed in this section. With masking devices the visual interest is stimulated by the three-dimensional effect of the titles which appear behind the cut-out. Another type of masking device is the proscenium arch of a miniature stage. A miniature stage with a decorative proscenium my be used to display nain titles and credits. The cards new be hand lettered or printing and appear as 'drops' behind the proscenium. On cue, these miniature title card "draps' rise to reveal additional titles. Of course, the entire device should be built sith the 3:1; television aspect ratio in mind, so that, standard sise title cards may be enpleyecl.2O Sometimes it is even desirable to have the final 'drop' rise to re- veal the live actors and the beginning action of the drama through the miniature proscenium. To achieve this I'mat shot" it is essential that the niniature stage and the full scale setting be in the correct per- spective and that all related information be rendered in the aspect ratio .21 D. PAN CARDS A title card may be extended in length either vertically or hori- zontally, so that, the camera can 'pan' the card to pick up the visual information. Movement of the title is introduced as the camera pans 19 Ibid. 20 Ibid., p. 55. 21 See Chapter III, Section VIII for intonation on using the "lat shot” technique. . 176 the stationary card. The movement of the camera creates the feeling that the titles are moving. The pen is nonally from left to right or fros top to botton. When a limited count of program titles or credits are to be shown, The first and last itens on the they say be rendered on a pan card. card should be surrounded with suitable nargins , so that the snare can frno the beginning and closing titles without including any of the other information which is on the card. That is, the beginning and clos- ing Irene should have standard masking areas around the title, in order that the pan nq begin with a complete frame and end uith a complete The pan card should conform to the aspect ratio except in the fume. vertical or horizontal plane which has been extended. , There is a limit to the mount of visual information which the cuera may pan on a flat surface without introducing optical distortion. This optical distortion of the lettering occurs at the top and botton of a sertical pan card and on the extreme right and left ends of a horizontal pan card. Therefore, the pan cards should not be too long. If a great new program credits lines are required, it is better to use a 'roll drum” device which will be discussed in the following section. Optical distortion on a long pan card may be corrected by delib- erately distorting the lettering on the card in the extrene fr-es . Mann viewed on camera the lettering is distorted into proper slignent A special stand may be constructed to hold the and appears straight. The pen pan card and thus eliminate the problua of optical distortion. title stand has a slightly concaved surface, so that the optical distance 177 free the camera lens to the surface of the card will be constant, thus alienating the optical distortion. (See Figure 33, page 17);) . Pan cards provide, another means of presenting visual information during the coarse of live studio presentations. There are those who feel that a 'roll drum“ is more practical. This is certainly true when ex- tensivejcoPy muat'bo presented. However, if a standard open and close is used for a progrme series, they may be permanently painted on canvas- cevered plywood or poster board. Such materials are more durable when used extensively than the heavy paper used on the ”roll drum.‘ The cost of the pan card is somewhat less than the cost of individual title cards . The cost of a permanent pan card is perhaps more than the cost of individual title cards but if built properly should last the It is somewhat easier to work with poster life of the progr. series. board, and canvas-covered plywood than it is to apply titles to the heavy paper used on the ”roll drum.” The cost of building the special stand to hold the pan card is moderate. The cost nay be further reduced if other titling devices are incorporated into other usable sides of the pan card stand. III. MOVING TITLE DEVICES. A crawl m, an endless belt , and the scroll-roll are Definition . all devices desiped to present a moving title before the stationary The titles and credits are studio can‘t: and to the television viewer. printed. or hand lettered on long strips of heavy paper , canvas, or trans- parent acetate filn. Three-dimensional plaster or cardboard letters nq « ”ii, Iva-"V V ’ I: lllllll.v!‘.ll.la|-lv.\lt ally/\a 178 also be used on some of the devices. The device must be built to pre- sent titles that conform to the television aspect ratio of 32h. The moving title devices are operated by a direct ratio hand crank, geared hand crank, or by a variable speed notor. 93153. Moving title devices serve a very useful purpose in tele- vision production. They stinulate and increase visual interest by introducing movement into basically static inforsation. The television viewer has been conditioned to expect moving titles by exposure to cine- natic techniques. At the close of a progra, the noving title device provides a convenient and flexible nethed of presenting progru credits . The speed of presentation may be controlled to correspond te the mount of tine available, since progrsn content may run over or under its allotted time. When a great deal of uritten information must be pre- sented in a short period of tine, the moving title is the only answer. The use of fill in the presentation of moving titles is the ideal method, since control of many factors is achieved. However, the fill occupies a definite period of tine and its speed cannot be varied to confers with existing conditions. Copy changes are also more easily made when live titling devices are used in the studio. The cost of naking a fill title is excessive when suitable live titling devices as available . The live noving title devices should be carefully constructed, so that they will do their assimd Job efficiently and effectively. Ilprove- nents in noving title devices are constantly being made in order to improve the quality of the visual presentation. 179 A. CRAWL DRUM A long, vertical title sheet, nountod on a drum which revolves slowly in front of the camera is called a ‘crawl' title.22 The drum varies in diaeter from 18 to 36 inches and its width on the circus:- ference is deternined by the size of titles which are going to be used. It nay be 11; inches wide to accept the 11' by 1h“ title naterisl, for example. taller title sheets nay also be utilized. (See Figure 31;.) Masking devices may be used in front of the 'crawl" drum, or the camera nay be focused directly upon the convex surface of the drum. If a decorative neck or frane aperture is used in front of the 'erawl' dried, the canersman will include part of the decorative mask in his picture. The size of the nest is dependent upon the over-all sise of the titles used. For emple, a satisfactory sise of a decorative nask would use an aperture of 7 1/2' by 10" with an actual cuera field of 6" by 8" en the title naterisl and the copy area would be approxinately 5" by 6".23 The ”crawl" drma is probably the nest reliable fora of presenting. noving titles . The endless belt, and the scroll-roll each have their particular disadvantages which will be discussed in the following parts of this section. I'Crawl" drans are considered to be standard equipent in nest stations; however, their construction varies from station to station and an be a factor in their reliability. The drum must rotate 22 Edward Stasheff and Rudy Brats , The Television Frogs, (New fork: A. As "33, Inca, 199-) pa 268s 23 wade, 22. 931., p. 5b. 130 aperture thru which camera shoots title drum / title roll mounted on drum speed of drum is controlled by rheostat adjustment FIGURE NO. 34 - ROLL OR CRAWL DRUM 181 freely, and play from side to side nust be non-existent. The construc- tion lust be solid, and rugged since the drun will be moved fro- studio to studio, and yet when placed in operation must give a faultless per- formance . It say be equipped with rollers . If so, it should be heavy enough to renain find and steady or a brake should be used to keep it in position during operation. The entire drum say be enclosed in a box, with only the titles visible through the masking aperture , or the con- struction nay be upon with provisions for changeable nasking devices. B. DIDLESS BELT The endless belt is a device for the presentation of three-diluen- sional titles. All endless belt goes around and over two rollers. The front roller is usually snaller than the back one, so that there is a gradual incline fro: front to back. The three-dimensional plaster or cardboard letters are mounted in an upright position on the endless belt . The canera is focused on the tap of the rear roller, in such a aanner that when the endless belt is started, the titles will cone up from the back and into the center of the picture picked up by the studio caera. The titles will then move toward the caera md gradually disappear out of the bottom of the franc. The endless belt nay also be operated in the opposite direction. The titles would cone up into the botton of the picture franc, out of focus, continue up the incline, and when they reached the top the letters would be in sharp focus. The letters would then drop out of sight as they go over the back of the roller. (See Figure 35) . A neutral or decorative curved background should be used i";‘“—~‘_- . filling. 182 newton e‘m ES? HEM mquQZm ..\0M .02 mania Lhwm m<>2< a 33.533 onmm .568}; «no.» , 05.533 v3 m L L m m . , Xa<$ Fro... 3C3: Lzoxu / m33d cue/«Du 183 behind the rear roller . Vith appr0priate lighting the letters will cast interesting shadows upon the neutral background.2h The endless belt is useful in presenting small, three-dimensional objects as well as three-dinensional titles. The three-dinensional quality is very desirable but the mount of titling is limited by the size of device, that is, the length of the endless belt .25 A consider- able amount of time is involved in mounting the letters on the travel- ing belt, although the effect achieved usually warrants spending this .ount of time in preparing the device . Troubles nay also be encountered in securing the letters to the belt. Animal and fish glue may be used satisfactorily. The major disadvantage of this device is the limitation upon the amount of titling which may be presented. The device should be constructed so that the belt nay be renoved, thus allowing the use of additional title belts , each designed for a particulu- prograu. The device may be built for a moderate price. The canvas belt and the plaster letters are also relatively inexpensive . A variation of this device would he a dru- upon whose surface the three-dimensional letters could be affixed. The druu could be slotted to receive the letters providing a convenient way of mounting the letters with proper spacing between the lines. A drun with a soft porous sur- face could be used so that letters with pins in their base could be 2h Hilliam 0. Ed , Television: The Eyes of Tomorrow, (New Turk: Prentice Hall, Inc. 19 mm. 1. 25 Ibid. 18h stuck on the surface very easily. Once again the amount of titling is limited. The circumference of the drm will, in relationship to the size of the letters used, determine the amount of titling which may be nountod on the surface of the drum. C. SCROLL-R011. The scroll-roll title device, or endless roll-up as it is sometimes called, consists of two rollers, one at the top and one at the bottom of a vertical frame approximately four feet high with an endless or con- tinuous piece of canvas, heavy paper, cloth, or transparent acetate film moving between the two rollers .26 More information may be presented if the belt is scroll-like , that is , if the material is stored on one roller and moved to the other roller when the titles are displayed on camera. The rollers should be large, so that the belt will move smoother and tension problems will be reduced. A plywood tension plate should be used behind the scroll-belt. The tension plate should be free-floating and press against the back of the scroll-belt with a constant pressure. The plywood tension plate will also provide a flat, firm surface upon which the camera may focus. (See Figure 36.) A decorative mask nay be used in front of the scroll-belt.27 26 Mmard A. Speece, A. F. Skelsi, and K. H. Gaspin, 'Visual Aids' A Roport on United States Department of Agriculture 's Television Research Project, Section II Visual Aids, Radio and Television Service, Office of Information, United States Department of Agriculture 19, p. 6. 27 Ibid . 185 take up roll spring to furnish constant pressure on tension plate tension plate . miniature stage scro l with COPY FIGURE NO. 36 - SCROLL - ROLL TITLING DEVICE 186 In constructing this device the television aspect ratio should be considered. A convenient size would use a belt from 12 to 16 inches wide. Additional flexibility of the device may be achieved with the addition of a miniature stage behind the scroll-belt. A transparent belt is utilized to combine the titles with a suitable background. Silhouette titles would also be very practical with this device if both front and back illmination is provided . The scroll-roll is particularly useful in the presentation of ex- tensive copy required in a title or in a synapsis. The major limitation of the device is in maintaining preper tension and a smooth roll. There- fore, the size of the rollers and the Operation of the tension plate we critical factors in the construction of this device. If the device is constructed with the miniature stage, its flexibility and usefulness will be increased. The titles for a fashion program may be presented on the transparent scroll-belt with apprOpriate fashion accessories displayed in the background. An interesting visual transition for a drastic pro- grm can be achieved with this device. For example, the ccpy on the transparent scroll-belt will bridge the time, while a significant program motif is displayed in the miniature stage behind the ccpy material. when the transparency is used, lighting problems will be encountered. It is therefore best to light the miniature stage and let the light spill out through the transparent acetate film upon which the letters are written. The scroll-roll titling device will add variety to the ways in which a station may present live titles. If the device is carefully 187 constructed, it may prove as useful as the 'crawl" title drum. The cost of construction depends upon the size, but generally it is moderate. ' D . PRODUCTS DRUM A moving cylinder or drum about 30' wide and varying in diameter from 18" to 36" may be used to display small commercial products which are mounted upon its convex surface. The drum rotates in front of a stationary c-era bringing the various products into view. Smooth apera- I tion is assured with a geared hand crank or variable speed motor.28 The products drum is useful in animating or giving movement to static displays. It will show all sorts of small three-dimensional ob- jects, such as cigarettes, breakfast cereals, soap, shirts, ties, and small household appliances. The display may be arranged in such a way that the products will spell out the ness of the sponsor, the progrma , or other suitable words. (See Figure 37.) The effectiveness of the products drum is limited by the size of the object which may be affixed to its surface. Problems in attaching the various products to the drum may present problems. However, product boxes are usually displayed empty, or if the object is too heavy or bullcy to be used, a cardboard facsimile is often used. The graphics department can usually produce such a facsimile within a few hours. The cost of the ' drum is within the means of most stations. Stations which present new live cosmercials during the operational day will find the products drum useful in adding variety to their methods of commercial presentations. 28 Wade, _02. 31.3., p. 63. 188 KELLoco's CORN\ / *- L E ~ :1": 3‘ F hKf/f’tP/ t “£24 \\\ /, /e/// m W @ drum rotates in front of camera live girl for products tie-in FIGURE NO. 37 - PRODUCTS DRUM 189 IV. ZOCMS Definition. The process by which a small title, or object rapidly approaches the camera, becoming larger and larger until it is framed in a close-up, is called a 'zoom'. The zoom may be achieved in several different ways. The easiest method is by using a Zoomar lens. This is a special lens whose focal length may be varied by the cameraan, there- by bringing the image into a close-up. This type of lens is used ex- tensively in special events and sports coverage. A box-like frae, about four feet long, may be built which will support, on a metal sliding track, a title card holder of approximately 20" by 30'. The cmera is located at one end of this zoom device while the title‘card and holder is rapidly moved toward the snare. The snooth- ' ness of this movement is very important. The cameraaan may focus on the card as it is moving toward him, or he may choose to adjust his focus so that the title card will move into focus as it comes into the close-up. Experimentation Idll determine the correct owners lens , the correct size of the letter, or object, and the correct size of the title or back- ground card. The smoothness of the zoom greatly determines its effective- ness. A third way to effect a zoom is to use a 35- lens and to dolly the camera in on the object. The size of the original object and the desired size of the close-up image on the monitor will determine the length of the dolly-in. with this technique a small emblem may be used which is complstdy undistinguishable in the long shot but will fill the frue in a close-up when the zoom is completed. 190 11333. The use of the zoom technique for emphasis of an idea, object, or title is excellent practice. Visual interest of the viewer is definitely stimulated as his attention is sharply focused upon the desired title, object, or detail. The effectiveness of the zoom lies in its visual impact upon the viewer. The zoom should be used with discretion so that the impact of the technique is not destroyed. However, it may be used purely for its novel effect. Over-use is some- thing to guard against. V. TURNTABLES Definition. The basic turntable is a circular, revolving table which will move at varied speeds either by the use of a geared hand crank or a vm'iable speed motor. The diameter of the tables varies from 12 to ’48 inches .29 The height of the turntable should be variable, from ap- proximately five feet to about tso feet above the floor. M. The turntable is another device used to introduce movement into static material. The television camera remains in a stationary position and the turntable brings the objects into view. Products of various sizes and descriptions may be displayed to the viewer by using the revolving turntable. It serves equally well in displaying packages, shoes, appliances, dishes of food, or in exhibiting the successive series of a particular manufacturing process. The items or objects are generally placed around the edge of the turntable and 29 Wade, 33. 3:53., p. 63. 191 each in turn passes before the camera. Depending upon the position of the cuera in relationship to the turntable, various effects may be achieved. The camera may shoot down on the turntable, for example, or the canon shot may be on a level with the turntable. (See Figure 38.) A circular background may be placed in the middle of the turntable and various objects displayed before it. Models of the latest cars could be shown in front of a scenic background, for example. Or the cir- cular background could be draped with cloth. Books displayed on end in front of such a background would be effective. It sould be a suitable display for a library program on current books and magazines. Progrma titles may also be effected in this manner. Small revolving turntables may be purchased; however, these are not always suitable since they may not be heavy enough in their construction or afford the variation in speed that is necessary. A turntable can be built for a relatively low cost, although the variable speed motor may be hard to acquire. A. REVOLVING STAGE A revolving stage with six or eight smaJl triangular stages may be utilised in conjunction with the turntable. The stage will be hexagonal or octagonal in shape. The size sill depend upon the number of stages employed and upon the size of title cards used by the station. The pro- scenim arch of each stage should be grooved to hold title cards.” (See Figure 39.) 30 Spoon, 22. 2.93., p. 6. 192 camera title card mounted in stage no. 1 stop to 4-/’hold each each stage in position before camera FIGURE NO. 39 - MINIATURE STAGE 193 This miniature revolving stage can be used to display models and small objects. Background scenery may be utilized to provide a minia- ture setting. The device may also be used to show portions of a products story. As a titling device it has several uses. Front surface title cards may be used as well as mounted pictures and other graphics. Trans- parencies may be utilized to display. titles lettered on the acetate cell before suitable background scenery within the stage. Objects and title cards may be removed from the stages after they have been shown on the air and replaced with other title cards or scenes. One of the major advantages of this device is its flexibility in the presentation of visual material. It can show two-dimensional material, that is, title cards, or it can show three-dimensional objects and materi- als within the miniature stages. on. of its disadvantages is the fact that each stage must be stopped in the sue position each time in front of the snare lens. This is somewhat difficult to achieve unless some type of mechanical stop isvusdd. A pull-out pin attached to a spring can be used to stop each stage at the proper position, but it must be re- leased each time the stage is revolved. The cost of building the revolving stage is mater than the cost of building sue of the simpler titling and displu devices . Lighting of the small stages individually will further increase the cost. However, if the device is constructed to serve a variety of purposes it will warrant the cost . 19h VI. SPEIAL TITLING DEVICES There as man simple objects which may be employed as titling devices. An object that is unusual or will catch the attention of the viewer should be considered. The cost of the device is seldom related to its effectiveness on the air. Often the'cheapest and simplest device is the most effective. ' The "Lucky Strike Hit Parade' has consistently presented novel, and interesting titles in the staging of the hit songs on their weekly pro- gram. They employ simple ideas and devices to achieve their titling. The titling is generally appropriate and in keeping with the staging of the song. The titling 'gi-ick' must fit into the particular progr- sequence or it will call attention to itself and distract from the in- tended point of visual interest. Here are some suggestions on possible titling devices. A miniature clothes line my be used, with progr. titles and credits printed on the clothes .31 A multiple sign post with its many directional signs point- ing to different cities may be used as a novel introduction to a travel program. The sign post titles could be so manged that they would spell out the title of the prey-.32 A toy train with program titles or sponsor slogans painted on the individual cars presents an interesting moving title displu. A theatre progrn, a football progrn, ,a newspaper, 31 Hutchinson, pp. 33., p. 252. 32 Battison, gp.-g_i_.t., p. 208. 195 real or faked, a simulated book with faked cover, a restaurant menu, baby building blocks, and nary other similar objects. may be utilized for titling. Hardware md variety stores will provide many of these special titl- ing effects or at least furnish semeiideas which may be worked out in the station shop . The production staff of a station should be alert to the possibilities of the simple devices which can be picked up in a dime store and they should frequently check the stores for new merchandise . VII. PROCRAH VISUAL AIDS Visual aids for use on television progrus do ' not differ greatly fru classroom visual aids. The essential difference is in their prepara- tion. A visual aid which has been used satisfactorily in the classroom can be easily adapted for television usage. Any visual aid must be care- fully thought out and prepared if it is to be effective. The major advantage in using visual aids in television production as opposed to their use in the classroom is the fact that the television cuera can concentrate the attention of the viewer upon the visual material. In the television presentation all viewers will be able to see the visual aid with equal clarity and the camera can provide a close-up of significant parts on sections to provide further emphasis and clarity to the visual material. Action or the suggestion of motion, that is, animation, realism, fmailiarity, immediacy, simplicity, availability, convenience in use , 196 and cost, are the najor factors which are used in determining the effectiveness of visual aids for television.” In preparation of the visual aids for television, all of the factors considered in Section I of this chapter should be reviewed. Beyond these suggestions, all lines and figures should be bold enough so that they nay easily be seen in wide-angle shots as well as in close-ups. The visual aid should be sinple in desim rather than complete and conplex. All fine detail should be eliminated.3h Simplicity is the basic essential for all visual aids . A . ADHESIOII BOARDS Definition. There are two types of adhesion boards in general usage, the flannelgraph and the nagnetic board. The flannelgraph consists of a plywood board covered with high quality flannel cloth upon which cut-outs of heavy cardboard, backed with flannel or strips of sandpaper will adhere. Since the flannelgraph should be built in the television aspect.‘ ratio, a three-quarter inch plywood board, 36" by 148" is a~ con— venient size. The plywood board is fairly heavy so that it 1:111 be rigid when placed upon display easel and will fora a solid backing for the flannel. The flannel cloth is stretched tightly over the wooden ‘ frue to form a smooth surface and is tacked down on the reverse side of the board. Since the cut-outs depend upon surface contact to stay 33 Spaces, 22. 3%., p. 9. 3h Tettener and Niven, 92. 93:1... 197 'put' , they should be handled carefully so that they will not beccne bent.35 Once the nap is worn off the flannel, the cut-out 1.111 no longer stick to the bond. The flannel cloth may be renewed by brush- ing with a stiff brush or new cloth an be purchased. The nagnetic adhesion board nay be of two types. One enploys snall rectangular magnets which adhere to a natal board. The other type of board has a magnetized backing, so that cut-outs and other objects, backed with a natal strip, will adhere to the board.36 Only natal ob- Jocts which contain iron will adhere to the nagnetiaod board. Only flat naterial nay be used on the notal back board since snall nagnets are used to hold the naterisl to it. However, the small magnets nay be enbeddod in the base of an object so that it will adhere to the netal back board. 1233. Adhesion boards are extrenely flexible and nay be used in the presentation of a wide variety of visual program naterisl. Econonic naterisl, furniture mangenents , kitchen planning, utistic drawing, and letters of the alphabet, as well as conercial nessages nay be dis- played by using the flannelgraph or magnetic board. Football plays can be demonstrated with the flannelgraph, or a sports announcer can use it to display the scores of the najor football gases. The sise of the cut- out for use on the flannelgraph mics . Large cut-outs often present problens since they tend to slide off the flannelgraph, but if enough sandpaper is placed on the back of the cut-out and the board is tilted 35 Speese, 22. 335., p. h-S. 36 £115., p. 5. 198 back at the top, good results should be achieved. The use of the flannelgraph provides a cheap but interesting method of presenting factual information, a visual story, or stimulating visual interest in static infornation. The nagnetic board is noro expensive than the flannelgraph, but it is more dependable and creates noro interest. Shall three-dimensional objects nay be used and since the nagnetic pull of the board is conpara- tively strong, objects nay be pitched from a distance and yet cling to the board. Also, since the nagnetic board has a stronger pull than the flannelgraph, it will support noro weight .37 B. OVERHEAD PROJECTOR Definition. The overhead projector or Vu-Graph projects an image onto a screen behind the operator. The image has been picked up by a lens systen fron a flat transparent surface upon which the Operator works. The usual size of this transparent surface is 7" by 7", but additional lenses and accessories are available which adapt the device for 3 ll” by h” slides, 35‘ filmstrips, or 2" by 2' slides .38 ‘ M. One of the particular advantages of the overhead projector is that the operator can work upon the transparent surface and just by glancing up, look directly at the snare. He never has to turn his back to a score such as is the case if a blackboard were used. Another '37 Ibid. 38 Ibid., p. 7. "is 199 advantage of the Vu-Graph or overhead projector is the fact that the operator, by using a pencil can point out important features in a slide upon the transparent surface, and this definitive movement will be pro- jected upon the screen behind hin where it is picked up by a television canera. Pointing to the naterisl directly on the slide is much easier than pointing to the naterisl on the screen. Visual interest is also stimulated since pointing to the naterisl directly on the slide intro.- duces a forn of animation. The naterisl for use on the Vu-Graph may be prepared on a black opaque plastic film which produces white letters. This material is particularly good when used to produce magical drawings. 0n the black, opaque, plastic film the operator nay sketch or cartoon with a stylus the image being projected as he proceeds. The hand of the operator is not visible on the screen and the image appears as if by magic. This fern of simple animation is excellent in presenting a visual story.” A collaphane roll is also provided. Writing, figures, drawing, or sketches are done on the cellophane roll with a grease pencil. The naterial is projected dark upon a light screen. Information nq be placed upon the cellophane roll before the progra, and the roll can be advanced from one frae to the next during the air performance. The operator can draw, or write as he talks and when the frame is filled with inforsation and he has finished talking about it, the collaphane roll is advanced to a clean spot and the Operator continues. 39 Consult Chapter III , Section IV , for additional infemation. Trmsparent acetate sheets or 'cells' may also be used on the Vu-Graph. Grease pencil or special'colored inks we used to place the infer-ation upon these 'cells'. The acetate transparencies my be placed on top of each other to achieve simple animation effects . The cumulative stages in the construction of a building, for ex-ple, nay be shown. The initial transparency may show the foundation, and the second ”cell ,' which is placed.upon.tho first, will show the walls of the building. This process would continue until the conplete building is shown. By starting with the simplest element, a build-up or overlay of "cells'I will visualize a complex process, effectively, accurately, and interest- ingly.)4o This overlay process may also be used with the black opaque plastic film. A strip-tease effect is created as the various sheets or I'cells" are resoved and noro and noro infornation is displayed to the viewer . - When colored ink and grease pencil are used in preparing the 'cells', appropriate color filters over the cues-a lens nay be used to block out ~ certain elements of the picture fron the viewer. As the filters are moved, additional features of the conposite drawing will be visible to the television viewer . The details of this operation should be carefully worked out with the station, and they should be perfected during the rehearsal periods. On the infer-national type of progru, the overhead projector is extruely useful in the presentation of visual naterisl which is adaptable to 1!. Mann, 'Television's Five Ring Circus ," Popular Science, 157:110-6, October 1950. 201 to use on a transparent slide, I'cell", or lends itself to visualiza- tion on the cellophane roll. The projector nay be operated by the talent; that is, the projector and screen are a part of the setting. Or the projector nay be operated by another person off the set. When the latter nethed is used, only the projected picture will be visible to the viewer. The cost of the Vu-Oraph is comparable with the cost of other pre- jectors. If the overhead projector is used extensively by a skillful operator to produce live graphics, it is well worth the cost. C.LIVECEAPHICS Definition. Live graphics generally refer to am writing, sketch- ing, cartooning, drawing, or sinilar activity which is originated by the perforner as he is being televised for the viewer . M. In the intonation type progrn, the use of live graphics increase the effectiveness of the progru content. The use of live graphics stimulates the visual interest of the viewer, because he sees sonething actually being created. The demonstration is a for. of live graphic, having been used successfully for new years in classroo- teaching. Using the graphic arts to clinch important points and to help describe or present difficult or couple: ideas is an excellent tele- vision technique. Sone of the naterisl used in presenting live yaphics are: chalk on blackboards, grease pencil on pappr or plastic, colored crayon on sketch paper, charcoal on paper, and print on paper. Experimentation 202 will deter-nine the best colors to be used. The grq scale responses of all color nedia and backpounds should be checked by the station. Often a list of acceptable naterials with indicated contrasts between nedia and background , is available fros the television station. If the station has not checked the gray scale responses of naterial to be used in live graphic presentations, they should be checked in the rehearsal period. Section I of this chapter should be reviewed for the inferna- tion on the preparation of graphics for television broadcasting. D . I'm-(BAH! Definition. The 'ferrier-graph' emloys the principle of the conic valentine where a string is pulled or a tab is noved to aninate the valentine. Binple anination of the valentine results as the eyes of the inage, for emple, are caused to roll by noving a tab. The 'ferrier- graph' say have as new as three or four tabs which when pulled it the proper sequence will aninate the idea. The I'ferrier--gl~eph' is particu- larly suited to television since the tabs .1... operated off-Lenora with only the resultant action being seen by the caera and the television viewer. M. The 'ferrier-graph' is used to add novenent or sinple anina- tion to a static idea. The inpact of the visual nessage is increased by adding sinple anination. Generally there is an appropriate basic back- ground drawing, and as the story is related, the cut-out of an object kl Speese, 32. 91.3., p. 11-2. 203 will be inserted through a slit in the basic drawing. A tree nay grow, for emple, when a certain mount of fertilizer is added to the soil. The growth of the tree could be aninated with the 'ferrier-graph' technique. The II'ferrier-graph" nay be rendered in any size, but a stan- dard title card sise would be the nost convenient. Simple anination of ideas by use of the "ferrier-graph' technique is neat effective . The najor advantages of the device are its inexpen- siveness, the easy availability of naterisl, and the ssall .ount of tine required in the preparation of the device .h2 E. PULL-TAB AND STRIP-TEASE CARDS Definition. Pull-tab or strip-tease cards use the principle of a sliding panel which is pulled to reveal additional inforsation behind the panel. A cut-out is usually present in the intonation card. This is backed-up with the pull-tab which uses the sue background color so that the cut-out portion of the inforsation card is not visible on c-era. In other words, except for the lettered inforsation on the initial card, it appears perfectly plain on once. flhen the pull-tab is pulled or slid out fren behind the cat-out , however, additional inforsation is re- vealed written on the pull-tab itself or located on another card behind the cut-out and the pull-tab . With the strip-tease card, nasking tape or paper nay be used to cover certain particular pieces of inforsation. At the appropriate tine , hz Ibid. 20h the nasking strip is “stripped“ off, revealing the visual inforsation which had been hidden from view. The one effect can be achieved by using cards of the sac backyound color in front of the title card. By renoving each cud in a left to right nanner, and in sequence, a strip-tease is effected, and the viewer sees lines of print appear across the supposedly blank card. M. The pull-tab and the strip-tease can be used to give nove- nent and anination to static inform ation. If the visual inforsation is not revealed until the appropriate tine, the inpact of such inforsation is pester. Visual interest is stinulated since the viewer wants to see what is going to happen. Also the vieuer will retain the inforsa- tion longer, since his attention has been focused on various details as they were revealed to hin, rather than seeing and trying to conprehend then all at once. The pull-tab technique neg,r be used in showing a bar graph of popu- lation increases, for ample. The space occupied by the bar of the graph is cut-out. Behind this cut-out is placed a novahle slider or pull-tab, one-half painted the ace color as the background of the in- forsation card, the other half painted a contrasting color since it will fol-n the color of the bars on the graph. When the canera first sees the geph card, no bars are visible, but as the pepulation inforsation is given, the slider or pull-tab is pulled, so that the bus on the graph becone visible and continue to increase in length until they fill the whole bar with color. (See Figure ho.) 205 pull-tab card \ :f light green s t'i‘t‘.t \ t stationary front card light green when tab is pulled bars are animated FIGURE NO. 40 - PULL-TAB CARD ' 206 The pull-tab or strip-tease technique nq be used in question and answer sessions. For exanple, the picture of a person is shown and at the apprOpriate instant his nae will appear below the picture when the pull-tab is moved . The pull-tab and strip-tease devices are easily constructed. Their cost is slightly nore than the cost of a standard title card. To be effective they nust be carefully constructed so that they will operate snoothly. However, their effectiveness on the air warrants the tine and effort spent in their conception, construction, and in their use. F. HOIELS Definition. Models are an exact reproduction or cut-away view of an actual object, rendered in a scale which my either be larger or snaller than the scale of the original object. A nodal of a large object which has been rendered on a very snall scale is usually called a ninia- ture. 11333. The construction and use of niniatures and diorias was discussed in Chapter III . However, sonething nore should be said about the specific use of nodels in television production. A nodal should be used when an of these factors are present: (1) when the real object is too large or non-portable, (2) when the real-life object is not available, (3) when the real object does not reveal the inforsation which is to be enphasised, and (h) when the real object is perishable or difficult to obtain st a given tino.“3 1:3 Ibid. p. 15. 207 Host nodels nay be displayed on a table. The height of the table will depend upon the size of the model. The camera should be able to look at the nodal fron all angles . It should be remembered that the apparent scale of the nodal can be altered by the canera so that the nodal will appear full scale on the television screen. Objects which are not in the sac scale should not be used with or located near the nodal if a sense of realis- is wanted. The construction of nodels is cmparatively expensive and is usually prohibitive for the local television station. However, nost schools have nunerous nodels of the hunan eye, the ear, the torso, and the head, to nae a few. Many nodels are available and an be borrowed fron sanu- facturers . They have been built as advertising pieces but their use is generally not objectionable on the television systen. Children's toys are very useful as inexpensive nodels. Many of these toys have noving parts which stinulates noro visual interest. Toy trucks, cars, dolls, and nodal buildings are non; the list of children's toys which nay be utilized.m‘ Often the toys nust be repainted, however, to obtain the best contrast for reproduction on the television system. In the presentation of visual naterisl via television, the nodal, outside of the actual object, will stinulate more interest and nske the progr. noro inforsative and enployable than any other visual aid . Therefore , nodels should be utilis ed whenever practicable . hh Ibid. 208 G. ANHATIW Definition. Mechanical and graphic devices which produce or inpart by various some life, or seening novenent , to static and inminate ob- jects are called anination devices. Almost everyone is fuiliar with cinenatic anination, since most notion picture theatres show animated short subjects or cartoons. Anination is heat produced on filn. However, there are certain nechanical and graphic techniques adaptable to live titling and for use in television production. Most of these live anina- tion devices are used in the studio. The najority of these aninations effects are easy to construct and their cost is nominal. e) Overhead Prom. The use of the Vu-Graph or overhead pro- jector has already been discussed in part 'B' of this section. However, it nay be again stated that the Vii-Graph provides an inexpensive method of anination when it is used by skilled artists. The possibilities of the overhead projector as an animation device are still being explored. b) B932. Books which as used as titling devices or to present a story line in a particular progra nay be easily aninated. A regular or over-sised book may be used. A hand that appears in the picture to turn the pages, one by one, before the television camera, is a form of anination. Progral titles may be displayed on the cover and credits on successive pages of the book. Used as a titling device, a technique often employed in the notion picture, the viewer so as the book and its title which is incidentally the title of the series or particular progran. The book is opened, either mechanically or a hand introduced into the 209 picture, turns the pages. After the Opening titles and credits, the viewer may see a portion of the printed story as the narrator begins to tell the story. A dissolve to the live studio action is executed and the story is revealed. At the close of the story, the viewer is re- turned to the book, this tine to the final pages. The cast credits and other necessary information is presented before the- cover is closed and the prey-- is ended. (See Figure hl.) The individual pages of an over-sized book may be attached to wires or levers which are extended beneath the table upon which the book is mounted. When the corresponding wires are pulled or nanipulated, the individual pages of the book will turn}5 c) negate. Magnets are very useful in the animation of title cards, graphs, and cartoons. For exanple, a magnet may be placed behind a title card and its magnetic strength will hold a small metal arrow, bounding ball, or other object to the surface of the title card. When the magnet is carefully noved through a series of pro-determined positions on the - back of the card, the bouncing ball, or arrow will perform on the front surface of the title card. i I Graphs'nqbe animated by using an apprOpriate symbol or object which will move either. up for down, on the front of the card, to correspond with the graph line, then a magnet is moved on the rear of the card. The various parts of a sinple cartoon may be successfully aninated by using small, but powerful magnets. The cartoon of a boy's and girl's 1:5 Louis Sposa, Television Primerof Production and Direction, (New York: McGraw-Hifi Book Company, Inc., 1957) p. 73. 210 ' subjects on a title card \F’ ’. Jagnet by moving magnet. mouths are animated cresent shaped mouths are me e of iron FIGURE NC. 41 - ANIMATION. Book and magnetic cartoon 211 face may be animated by having the corners of the mouth turn up or down. The cartoon uses a metal mouth which is attached to the title card with a piece of black thread. It is turned either up or down depending upon the placement of the magnet on the back side of the cartoon. (See Figure 141) Eyes may roll or a tongue may move when the corresponding magnet is Operated behind the cartoon. This type of animation device is very easy to construct. The magnets may be obtained from a novelty store and the metal parts which are moved in the animation my be cut from sheet metal or tin cans. d) Maps and Charts. Graphs, maps, and charts may be animated in several ways. One animation device uses a graph or chart that is drawn on a piece of transluscent paper. The paper, which can be ordinary trac- ing paper, should be in the television aspect ratio and mounted in a franc. This frame can be incorporated into the set so that a man may stand behind the graph or chart without being seen by the television caters. Te effect the animation, the artist‘in one complete stroke paints a black line on the reverse side of the paper. Since the paper is translucent, the viewer sees the line begin and continue to the end. It my be necessary to have a small light source behind the translucent paper screen to further illuminate the graph line. The amount of light permitted to shine through the translucent paper should be carefully controlled .16 ’46 Arthur R. Railton, "They Feel You Every Night, " (Popular Mechanics, 96:1hfi-1so,0c1’;ober, 1951) p. 150. 212 Another interesting way to effect a graph line is to apply a saturated solution Of potassium nitrate, which has a small amount of gum added, to the yaph line. The line should be rather thick and the paper rather thin. When the solution dries, the graph line will be in- visible. At the appropriate moment the camera is focused upon the translucent piece Of thin paper and a lighted cigarette is applied to the starting point of the graph. A rapid spark of fire will follow along the line and. trace out the rising and falling line of the graph. The solution may also be used to write invisible words which suddenly appear on a translucent screen. When letters are written, caution should be used in tracing, because if the letters are completely closed, the centers will fall out when they are burned .147 b) Pull-aways. The pull-away device is similar in construction and Operation to the I'prull-tab" and “strip tease'I devices discussed in part «an of this section. It may be useful to point out that the pull-aways take many forms. For example, a drawing is rendered on transparent paper which is mounted on a backing of bristol board, heavy cardboard, or plywood. This backing contains appr0priate designs which have been cut-cut. The pull-away slider is mounted on the bacld.ng so that it covers the cut-out. A 2SO-watt spotlight is directed on the back of the backing. When the pull-away is removed, the title message, design, graph line, or other material will appear on the front of the title card as the light shines through the transparent paper. Transparent water h? Battison, pp. git” p. 217. 213 colors should be used lightly over the areas on the drawing through 8 which the light will be projected}4 f) Other devices. Other devices which provide animated material for use in television progrming are numerous and varied. Such‘devices as clockfaces with hands that turn, speedometers , temperature, indicators, windshield wipers, gauges, elevator indicators, and calendar pages which turn are animation devices which are essential to the production of many television progrus .h9 Their construction and execution is fairly simple and routine. The use of the device and the effect which is desired will determine the manner in which the device must be constructed. Imagination and ingenuity are two assets which are extremely helpful in creating these simple but effective animation devices. Conclusions. It is difficult to detenine what effects are pure animation, since graphic and titling devices may have multiple uses. The definition applied to live animation in television production is rather broad and embraces a variety of devices which are difficult to categorise. Hence, the devices described under ”animation" are only a few of the effects which are possible. It is hoped, however, that the devices discussed will give the reader some ideas which he can expand and utilise in his particular situation. Many of the titling and graphic devices discussed in this chapter are designed to add movement and life and to stimulate visual interest in static material, but strictly speak- ing they are not animation devices. Film is still the perfect medium for the presentation of simple and complex animation . 1:8 Wade, Design-g for TV, 92. 3%., 1149-50. h9 Wade, 22. 33.3., p. 150. . . ' . I . . ‘ . t .A .. , .....v -. . . . - . l" 1,: ', . , . . . . A < . - . . .. . . . \ s w I 'I I ' s . _ .. . . . . . e . . . ,‘ . . . a ‘ L e . .u , ' a . O .. -7 ... . . . . . . .- . . . I 1 n ‘. e‘r . A . A , . I . . | ‘A 7‘ e . , . . . . . . . .. . . . . I' I v . , ‘ .\ - . . , . . . ..' . . . . .. ' I .‘ I e ’l ‘ I . ee-u . I..-. I . O ‘ I ... .. . ..-. . - CHAPTER VI cum: VI COELUSIOIS Because of the truendous number of new television stations , both co—erciel and educational, and with a corresponding emphasis upon null local station Operation, there is an increasing need for inform- ation on the use and production of video effects in television progra- Iing. This study was undertaken to provide basic information about video effects for the student of television production and for the trained professional, whether educator, station manager , or production manager who wants to broaden his sphere of knowledge in this particular area and to provide his with readily accessible reference material. As far as is known this is the first time that such an extensive bow of intonation on the production and use of video effects has been compiled into one value. From the amorous sources of published material which the author emuinod , pertinent data on the production and use of video effects was selected. Sources of current information were also investigated. The author visited television stations to observe operations and to talk uth the station personnel about their use of video effects. The view- ing of many television prop-s gave the author a failiarity with new current uses of video effects in television production. Problus in the creation and use of sue of the basic effects were exporiemod by the athor in the Television Developent Studies at lichigan State College. 215 This body of intonation was organised and presented in four chapters . The basis for this particular organisation lay in the metho- dolog employed to produce each effect. For ample, when the effects were produced uthin the television electronic system, they were dis- cussed in the chapter titled, 'Electronic Effects.” The three successive chapters dealt with the production and use of optical, mechanical- phyeical , and paphic-titling effects . In each chapter the simplest effect was discussed first since many of the more complex effects are derived from a combination of effects and techniques. A description of each effect was given along with information on how it is constructed or created . A representative ox- .plo of how the particular video effect is used in television production was given where specific information was available . If the data was limited, only a genus]. explanation of how the effect is used in tele- vision pregr-img was given. Thecenclusions and suggestions in this chapter are drawn from the data presented in tin previous chapters of this study. The most practical and applicable effects for use by the small station, that is, the basic video effects,‘ will be pointed out in the following conclusions . Electronic effects are an inherent part of the television trans- mission syut. . Electronic effects are production tools which the di- rector may use very easily, since the basic electronic effects can be produced at the flick of a switch. The use of cute, fades, dissolves, and euperimposures are possible even in small station operations, since a simple video switching unit is included in the basic equipent set-up. 216 .the use of I'lloverso Vertical or Horizontal Scanning," however, presents additional probl-s for the mall station since equipment nest be adapted in order to achieve these efforts. Also the creation of a 'Split screen, lorisontsl Vipo,‘ or 'Ieyed Insertion” are not essential when the tele- vision station is engaged in linited live studio production. However, if the budget ia aiaaaato and the productionrequir-onts are extensive, the saall television station could purchase the additional and special electronic equipent necessary to expand their production facilities. It should he pointed out that electronic effects will continue to be explored, especially by the najor television networks, since they give a flexibility and scope to television production techniques which is desirable. As a result of this- experinantation new electronic devices will be created and present effects will continue to be improved and perfected. Also as a result of this exporinentation the nail local station nay eventually he able to purchase special effects oquipont which is at present rather prohibitive in cost . I The newly-organised, small television station may not mood to use many of the devices or effects discussed in the 'Optical Effects. chapter. However, the -all station will rely heavily upon the use of slides and fill, which new constitute the major portion of its program naterisl. In linited studio production, the following optical devices will probably ' be the nost useful: “Forced Perspective, Silhouettes , Genera late," and the 'lirror Periscope." rorced perspective may have linited use, but it on be particularly-useful to the aaall television station which has 217 limited studio space . For ex-ple , by using forced perspective in rendering the scenery and by uploying a wide-angle lens on the canera, a few feet of studio space nay be turned into a spacious ct gallery. The I'Gnera Hat“ when used effectively will provide an adequate sub- stituto for the-onauive electronic matting or keyed insertion upli- fier. Use of the onera not will help the station to produce expansive and elaborate settings with a ninimum nount of ,full-scale scenery present in the studio. The most useful optical device “is the Mirror Periscope' which will allow the studio cuera to achieve a variety of overhead and down-angle shots which would only be possible by the too of an expensive and bulky c-era crane . now other opportunities for the use of the periscope will be experienced by the average nall station. Without adequate operating space in the studio, "Rear Screen Projection' is inpossiblo, even though it could be used extensively and to a good ‘ advantage by nost stations. The intonation on the construction and use of “Miniatures and Dioruas' , although mt frequently used even in network operations, will be volaoblo wbn such a television setting must be created. ‘ The extensive production and use of 'lochanicalq-Physical Effects. will not be required of the snall television station. The creation .5: natural phenomena will find only limited usage; however, basic infern- ation on the production of rain, snow, hail, dust, and other natural phonona is included. The technician my find it necessary to adapt the information to the particular effect which he desires to create. The natural phencnena effects discussed are operative, and nost of th. 218 nay be easily notified to nest special requirements. "Lens Blocking' and lens blocking devices nay be found very useful by the ssall station which desires to add variety and sparkle to its productions with the use of a sinple technique. The mechanical-Physical Effects' chapter is not caplete in all details since nuch necessary data is lacking. However, basic intonation is provided which should stimulate ideas for the production of additional effects , as well as giving intonation on the production of specific effects . Probably the nest useful single chapter in this study will be the chapter dealing with ”Graphic and Titling Effects ,' since all television stations, regardless of sise, nust be concerned with this specific area. A great deal of visual intonation is graphic in nature and its pre- sentation in the nest suitable fashion is desirable. Therefore, the author in the ”Graphic and Titling Effects. chapter outlined the basic roquirenents of good titling, discussed the various titling devices which nay be used in the television studio, and described various types of progrn visual aids and how they could be utilized on the air. Although the snall station may not have its own graphics department, basic intonation contained in the discussion on the 'Prepu-ation of Graphic and Titling“ will help the station to establish standards for the graphic naterials which are used by then but produced by outside agencies. The use of titling and display devices in the studio gives the station noro flexibility of Operatinn as well as a variety of nethods in the presenta- tion of visual materials. 'Progran Visual Aids ," such as graphs, nodels, 219 and aninated cartoons will be found useful in the presentation of the sinplest I'talk program." There is a somewhat linited mount of inton- ation on the construction and use of certain graphic and titling de- vices. However, it is believed that sufficient basic intonation has been provided so that the individual or station can create the effects described as well as creating new effects for his special purposes. In conclusion, this study, although somewhat extensive in its con- ception and scape , contains only basic intonation which the author believes essential for individuals and stations who are engaged in tele- vision production. The creation and effective usage of the nany video effects discussed in this study as well as the new effects which will continue to be devised are dependent upon the ingenuity, imagination, and hard work of a production ten. It is hoped that this study will provide the student or individual. who is interested in television pro- duction techniques and the snall station Operator with a better under- standing of the possibilities inherent in the creation and use of video effects in television pmgming. muons for Future Research: It has been pointed out that this study is a basic one 3 therefore, much additional research is possible in many specific areas which have been discussed only briefly in this study. 1. Filns on the production of various video effects would be nost valuable as a television training and teaching aid. 2. A film on the use of progru visual aids would be very valuable to the specialist who finds hinsolf faced with presenting his complex 220 intoreation.to the television viewer. 3. Additional investigation into the creation of natural phone-ens would'be interesting and particularly helpful in the production of dranatic programs. h. Further investigation into the standards for the production of graphic materials would.provide information which is vital to every television station, since nost stations have worked out their own particular standards. 5. Further investigation should be made into the creation and use of live anination devices applicable to television production. 6. Additional intonation on sinple mechanical devices which nay be used to effect visual transitions between scenes of a.drauatic progrn would provide an interesting study. 7. A study of the psychological and emotional reactions of the viewer to the basic electronic effects, that is, cute, fades, dissolves, etc., would.provide valuable data.for the television.director. 8. A study of the reactions by the viewer to various effects would provide information which would give more exact inforsation to directors, and would be extremely helpful in their use of effects. 9. A central consultation service operated by the major networks and designed to supply information on the production.and use of standard and newly deve10pod video effects would be extremely useful, not only- to the stations of the network but also to the small independent station, or to an individual interested in video effects. 221 10. A service to educational stations providing up-to-date infern- ation on video effects which are cepecially applicable to educational progrms would be desirable. Such a service could be handled by the United States Department of Agriculture, or the United States Office of Education. The reader of this study may also wish to pursue individual in- vestigation into particular areas of his interest which have been stinulated by suggestions contained in this compilation. BIBLIOCRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Battison, John 11., Movies for TV , New York: The Macmillan Company, 1950, 376 pp. Bettinger, Hoyland, Television Technigues , New York: Harper and Brothers, 1914?, 237 pp. Bolen, Murray, Fundamentals of Television, Hollywood: Hollywood Radio Publishers , Inc., 1930, §7O pp. DeForest, Lee, Television Today and Tomorrow, New Iork: The Dial Press, 19142, 361 pp. Dunlap, O. E., Jr., The Future of Television, New York: Harper and Brothers, 19112, 191; pp. Dupuy, Judy, Television Show Business, New York: General Electric Haqua Colpany, I953, 21:5 pp. Eddy, w. 0., Television: The Eyes of Tomorrow, New York: Prentice-Hall,“ Inc., 1913, 330 pp. Fink, Donald 3., ed., 2 Television Engineering, New York: Mchaw—Hill Book 00., 1952, 721 pp. ' Fuchs, Theodore, StE Lighting, Boston: Little, Brown and Cora, 1929, 2h? pp. Gable, L. s. H., The Miracle of Television, Chicago: Wilcox and Follett Co., 1919, 1i pp. Giraud, C. and G. R. 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L., TV and Our Children, New York: Longnans Green, 1951, 9 pp. Southwell, John, Getting a Job in Television, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 9 7, pp. 22h Sposa, L. A. Televisiorll Primer of Production and Direction, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 19117, 237 pp. Spettiswoode, Raylond, A Gruear of the Film, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1990, 323 pp. Spottiswoode, Raynond, Fill and Its Technigue, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1932, E16 pp. Stasheff, Edward and Rudy Brats, The Television Progn, New York: V’ A. A. Wyn, Inc., 1951, 355 pp. True , Herbert, TV Dictionary for Smnsors , New York: Sponsor Publica- tion, Inc .7336, lrpp. Turnbull, R. B. , Radio and Television Sound Effects, New York: Rinehart and Co., 1951, 226 pp. Tyler, K. 8., Telecasting and Color, New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 19146, 213 pp. Wade , R. J. , Desiggiflg for TV , New York: Pelligrini and Cudahy, 1952, 216 pp. Wade, R. J., much Bukstagg, New York: Network Operation Depart- ment: The National Broadcasting Co. , 1951, 79 pp. Weiss, Margaret R. , The TV Uriters' Guide, New York: Pellegrini and V. Cudahy, 1952, 133 pp- i'hite, Melvin R. , Begi%ng Television Production, Minneapolis: Burgess Publishing Co., 19 3, 107 pp. Unpublished Materials Bluen, A. U. , "A Descriptive Analysis of Television Drastic Production Techniques' , Unpublished M. A. Thesis, Ohio State University, 1950. Fox, Jack J. “1111 Analysis of the Methods Used in the Production of Three Informational Filns for Television ," Unpublished M. A. Thesis, Michigan State College, 1952, 210 numb. leaves. Jones, Kenneth, Jr., "A Survey of Television“ , Unpublished M. A. Thesis, Leland Standford Junior University, 191:9. Orth, R. G.,"A Handbook of Television Directors and Actors Participating in Studio Productions ," Unpublished M . A. Thesis, University of Denver, 1950. . 225 Shafter, E. M. Jr., 'A Study of the working Tools of Television“ Unpublished M. A. Thesis, Mayne University, 1950. . Tettener, Clair R. and Harold Niven, "Production Standards for Tele- vision Recordings' Unpublished Study, Ohio State University , 1952 . Periodic als Ace, Goodman I'Odd Thoughts About 01d Things", Saturd urdgy Review of Literature, 26 (May) 1951, 31.: 31-2 Alicoate, Jack, “The 1952 Radio Annual", Radio-Television Dai:l,y, Vol. 15,1330 pp. ‘ ”Background Settings for Big Town" New Yorker, 10 (March 1951) pp. 2h-25. Battison,hJ. H. ”Titles for TV',-Movie Makers, June 1951, Vol. 6, #37, p. 1 . "Big Screen" , Life, 21 (May 1951) pp. 39-h0. Boone, A. R., “WorkshOppers' Tricks Tickle TV Audience“ , Popular Science, March, 1951, pp. 173-175. . Bret: , Rudy, “Television Cutting Techniques' , Journal of the Socie of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, March, 9 , Vol. 3, 3, pp. 257-237. I'1952 Broadcasting Yearbook“, Broadcasting-Telecutgg, 1952, pp. 1486. 'Cigar Smoldng Canera Acts in TV Show', Popular Science, February, 1951, p. 106. Icon. of Age”, r143, 25 (February 1952) p. 78. Cracker, B. B., 'Captions that Clock", Movie Makers, November, 1951, p. 17. . Denpewolff, R. F. , "Mystery Man of the Television Screen“, Po ular Mechanics, May, 1950, pp. 80-86. I'I“iln Handling in TV Stations'' , Tole-Tech, March, 1952, p. 59. Freedley, V. ”Producing for TV', Theatre Arts, February 1951, pp. 148-149. 226 Friedman, F. "Movie wizards Create Unknown Worlds",P0pu1ar Photo- m, December, 1951, pp. 135-36. Gore, E. M., "Video Special Effects Systen", Television Engineeri 2g, 0c,tober 1950 , pp.l 1.14-16 "Guide to Television Special Effects", Tole-Tech, April 1952, p. 31-37. Hart, 16., "Directing for TV", Theatre Arts, February, 1951, p. 51. Hautzinger, J. "Take Your Tithing Easy", Movie Makers, October, 1952, p. 27. Hockman, L. "Unique Ghost Effects", Pppular Photo m, December, 1951, p. 187. Horne, H. V. "Chicago Touch", Theatre Arts, July 1951, pp. 36-39. Horne, H. V. "To See or lot to See on TV Review of Seasons Shows", Theatre Arts, April, 1952, pp. lat-‘45. . Hunter, M. "Stage Director in TV", Theatre Arts, May 19149, pp. ’46-‘47. "Idea Man", Newsweek, 7 (April, 1952) p. 60 Love, 3. "Blueprint for Television Design", Theatre Arts, February, 1952, p. 38. "Magic Carpenters", Tin___e_, 21(Mq, 1951) p. 62. Mann, M. "Television's Five Ring Circus", Pepular Science, October, 1950, pp. 110-116. Miner, H. "Training For Television", The Quarterly Journal of Speech, October 1950, pp. 351-3514. Monro, C. R. , "Flying Spot Clara, Type TK-3A", Broadcast News, September-October, 1950, pp. 17-21. _ "New Deve10pnents in Teleconunications" , Tele-Tech, February, 1952, pp. 56-57. "New Devices Fakes Scenes: ScenescOpe", L__i._f_e, 26(February, 1951), pp. 67-68. 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A Report on United States Department of Agriculture's Television Research Project, Section II, Visual Aids, Radio and Television Service-- Office of Information, United States Department of Agriculture. Newspapers Variet , New York, July 9, 1953. APPENDIX 228 Animations: Mechanical devices which in various ways impart eeuing movement te inanimate subjects . Aspect ratio: Preportienal relationship ef the width of the picture te the height of the picture 3 in motion pictures and television hte3. Background: Any material, set, drape, drop, etc., used behind acteraor other foreground subjects. Background projection: The prejectien of a scene on a translucent screen to be used as a background for a studie set. Balopticen: An optical device in which an inage of a lighted piece of opaque copy may be projected by reflection into the tele- vision filn c-era. Chara: A unit containing the optical ant. and light sensitive pick- up tube which transforms the visual image into electrical impulses. Caera field angle: An angle of divergence fr- a parallel line inscribed by the berders of the camera picture at various distances fra the lens . Cnera Terms: CU: Close-up (of person's face or detail of an object); LS: Long-shot; MS: Medium shot; BCU: big close up; 2-shot: coup of two peeple; 3-shot: group of three people. Close-up shot: Very narrow angle picture, i.e., head shot of person. Credits: ‘ _ ._ Listing of actors, singers, dancers, desigiers, technicians, directors, e_l_t_ al. , in titles preceding or directly following the progrn. C'Fedits are also given to suppliers under certain circustamces. Dior-a: Dis solve : Dolly in: 229 A miniature setting usually uplcying free perspective in its execution, and used as a means of establishing large locations, impossible of construction in the studio. In actual practice, small local areas of such a fierce may be produced in actual sise to acct-modate actors . In television, the act of electronically fading out a broad- cast image and fading in a new image simultaneously. To move in fra far for close-up by means ef a ouera mounted on a perambulator . Electron gun: A system of metallic cylinders arranged in the narrow ends of both the camera ani receiver tubes in which the electron be- used for scanning the image before the television camera, and for reproducing it in the television receiver, is formed. Fade in: To bring up the television image electronically so that it appears gradually. A Fade-out: The padual eliminstion of picture infonation on the "screen" by electronic means , that is to black out television image electronically so that it disappears grmlnally. Film strip: A sequence of several 35-- fr.» shown individually. Filters: Lens filters used to eliminate or reduce a portion of light spectra. Flip: ‘ Art work en cardboard. (Always in the 3 by h aspect ratio). Designed to flip over enstand to provide titles er credits. Fr-e: A single cuplete picture . Free perspective: The deliberate falsification of normal pars ctive in the painting and/er construction of television or stage) settings in order to achieve a (seemingly) greater depth or distance. [(1 230 mlost: An unwanted secondary image of the transmitted picture appear- ing on the receiver kinescopo caused by a reflection or several reflections of the transmitted signal. Gino: Generic term. In television, anything for which a technical designation is lacldng or has been forgotten by the speaker. Gobo: A dark mat used to shield camera from lights. Iconoscope: A cues-a pickup tube used in the RCA television system, consist- ing essentially of an electron gun and photo-sensitive mosaic plate enclosed in an evacuated envelope . Inage-orth: (Abbreviation of image-orthicon) the standard studio and field caera tube developed by RCA which is extremely sensitive to light. It replaced the iconoscopo broadening the scope of the TV cuara. Line: A single scanning line across the picture containing high- lights, shadows and halftones . 525-line definition is the standard for television. Live talent: Television broadcast of animated or live subjects. Live titles: Titling material which is photographed directly by television cameras in the studio rather than supplied from slides or film. Mat shot: - ' A c-era shot taken through an opening in a small opaque piece of copy, the intonation on which corresponds in some manner to the actual full-scale background. Microwave: Special high-frequency relay unit used to transmit the video signal fru point to point, that is, ruote to station, or fr:- station to transmitter. 35-: Standard motion picture sise film . 231 lb: Snell sise (generally hone novio) filn. Hiniaturo: » ' ' A snall scaled setting or display usually used to establish a locale; a naquotto. (See: special effects) Mosaic: A large nuber of photo-sensitive elenents covering the nice plate in the television cuera tube which is backed by con- tinuous conducting surface (signal plate) . Its counterpart in a filn score is the photo-sensitive enulsion of the filn. Narrow angle lens: . Lens with narrow angle of projections; i.o., picks up snall portion of set at a given distance . On-the-sir: Progru in process . Optical lens: The lens focusing the inage of the scene to be televised on the light—sensitive plate of the c-sra tube. Electronic view finder: The device on a television snore which allows the caoransn to frano and focus accurately the desired portion of. the scene to be televised. Pan: To follow action to the right and left or up and down with the caera; to save canera across a soone-o.g., “pan left" or I'pan right." - Picture: - ‘ The inage telecast, but usually used with reference to the inage as subject natter sith fern ad content. Production facilities: All the physical and naterisl requirements of a television progrsn including scenic design, construction and execution, painting, art uork, wardrobe, nuke-up, properties, titling an special effects, both visual and sound. Projector: A notion picture or slide projector. hell it: A cue to start the filn projector. 232 Scanning: The process of electronic analysis of the optical inage, focused upon the nosaic of an iconoscopo or the target of the inage-orthicon by neans of a noving electron boa, into a series of parallel horizontal lines traced fros left to right in sequence fra top to bottu in the sonar of reading a page of print. Shadowgraplu A The device of showing characters and decoration in silhou- ette by allowing light free a single source to cast realistic or stylised shadows on a translucent screen, usually node of cellulose acetate or‘ equal. Signal: m transnission of electronic uavos. Slide: Usually a title or picture on a single 35-- filn fr-e pro- jected into cenora. Special effects: Miniatures , dier-as, and various electrical and nechanical devices used to sinulate netoorological or other natural phenomena and which are used to achieve scenic or druatio effects inpossible of actual or full scale production in the television studio. Split Screen: One half of picture fru one score and one half of picture free nether caora conbined together in a cenposito picture. Stem-pours: Two inagos sinultaneously picked q by two different enoras and electronically nixed on the face of a Iinescope tube in such a nanner that both inages are visible. Switch or cut: , ‘ To switch fru one cuera to another. A change of caera angles . Synthetic distortion: Painting technique utilised to inpart seening irregularity to lines and surfaces which are actually snooth and rectilinear. Telecast: A television broadcast . 233 Telephoto lens: , Lens of very narrow angle used to provide large sise inages at extrue distances. Toleviewer: A labor of the television audience . Televise : To trannit pictures electronic ally by neans of television oqwipnent. Television: The transnission and reproduction of a view or scone, especially a view of persons or objects, by an device or apparatus that converts light rqs into electrical inpulses in such a way that they nay be transnitted and then roconverted by a receiver into visible light rays forning a picture . Texture: A feeling of depth and irregularity inparted to a plain surface through the use of paint or other decorative techniques. Tight: A cuora shot that is restricted in area and that includes only essential infer-nation. Tilting: A vertical noment of the c-era. Title artist: Artist or drafts-an who prepares titles, cards, sins, title backgrounds , naps, special displays, slides, etc. Title Backgrounds: Illustrative naterisl, either drawings or photographs, usually indicative of sene characteristic scene or idea over which lettering is hand-drawn or inprinted. Titles: Specifically, typographical nattor integrated with progr. naterisl to provide necessary or supplementary inforsation, including the no of pregra, gooyaphical locale, period, was of characters, credits to actors, producers, and ' sponsors . Generally, typographical or illustrative nutter such as snall backp-ounds, photographs, cartoons, and flat displays used in both the progru and cennsrcial portions of the propel. V 231: Transparency: Illustrative or written naterisl executed on a transparent surface through which background naterisl of various types nay be seen as the transparency is photographed by the television canera. ' Video: ‘ Pertaining to the television broadcast of inages: scnetinos used as a new to desimte sight broadcasting as opposed to sound broadcasting. Video signal: . That portion of the output of the television caora which is the electrical counterpart of the scene televised. (Also called picture signal) . Wide angle lens: Lens having wide angle of view, i.o., picks up broad area of set at a short distance. Wipe: A line traveling across the picture, which wipes one inage off replacing it with a new inage. Zoonar Lens: Special lens winch can produce dollying effect without nov- ing the score. Has a focal length of 5 to 22 inches. . :l. . 2.45 ‘6‘ . ‘ . 0}}: . re '| o to. a 71:. A a . :I.l\.:l {lo :.I MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY LI II III lfll HINII 3 1293 ARIES III 4 3015 567