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ABSTRACT
THE VIREIAI
By
Charles Stephen Larkowski

A compendium of research in the general area of medieval secular
song form does not yet exist. This has resulted in considerable
difficulty for students and scholars,’ especially because many of the
"standard" works published on the subject have been the targets of
much disagreement and debate. Some”; such as the pioneering writings
of Friedrich Gennrich and Pierre Aubry; are significantly outdated.

The virelai especially seems to have suffered in this respect.
It is generally included with the rondeau and ballads among the forges
_1_'_ix_e_s_," and so one is led to believe that it was a form which was (a)
relatively inflexible and (b) contemporary with the rondeau and the
ballads. However, those examples most often encountered in anthol-
ogies are apt to show a baffling diversity of form and dates of
origin.

It is hoped that; by presenting a chronological development,
and especially by examining the views of some writers whose works
are unavailable in English; this paper will help to remove some of
the obscurity now surrounding the virelai. The emphasis is primily
on form; but style mst also be taken into account in my instances.
Where disagreement exists. the various views are presented with
little attempt made at value judgements. As my examples as prac-
tically possible are given here in their entirety." thereby avoiding

Charles Stephen larkowski

the necessity on the reader's part of obtaining scores for himself.
This paper will include (a) a discussion of the for-mes fixes and
their origins, (b) a scrutiny of the virelai in chronological sequence.

and (c) conclusions and summary.

THE VIRELAI

BY

Charles Stephen Larkowski

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University

in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MSTER OF ARTS
Department of Music
1971+

Copyright by
Charles Stephen Larkowski

1971+

ACKNOJIENEMEINTS

Sincere gratitude must first of all be earpressed to Professor
Richard E. Klausli. who provided the initial idea for this thesis. and
who has diligently assisted me toward its completion. I an also
indebted to Professors Comer L1. Jones and Russell Friedewald for
their most valuable suggestions and for the time they generously spent

in proofreading .

For permission to use copyrighted materials, grateful acknowledgenent
is made to the following publishers:

American Institute of Musicology. Dallas:
Alexandri Agricola. Qpera Omnia. Edward R. Lerner, ed.
Willi Apel, ed. , French Secular Compositions of the Fourteenth
Centlrz.
Guillaume Dufay. Opera Omnia. Heinrich Besseler. ed.
Gilbert Reaney. ed., Early Fifteenth-Century Music.
Nigel Wilkins. The Works of Johan de Lescurel.
Biblioteca Central de la nlputoclén. Barcelona:
Higinio Anglos. La Musica de las Cantigas de Santa Maria del Rey
Alfonso e1 Sabio.
Cambridge University Press. New York:
Rigel Hilkins. ed. , One Hundred Ballades. Rondeaux and Virelais
from the Late Middle Ages.

11

Editions de l‘Oiseau-Lyre, Les Ramparts. Monaco:
Jean Marix. ed.. Les Musicians de la Cour de Bourgogne au
xve Slecle.
Yvonne Rokseth. ed.. Polyphonies du XIIIe Siecle.
Leo Schrade. ed.. Polyphonic Music of the Fourteenth Century.
Harvard University Press, Cambridge. Mass.:
Archibald T. Davison and Villi.Ape1. eds., Historical Anthology
of Music.
La Libreria dello Stato, Rome:
Fernando Liuzzi. ed.. La Lauda e i Prinordi della Melodie;
Italiana.
Max Nieneyer Verlag, Tubingen:
Friedrich Gennrich. Rondeaux, Virelays und Balladen.
The Mediaeval.Acadeny of America. Cambridge, Mass.:
Uilli.Ape1. ed.. French Secular Music of the Late Fourteenth
Century.
The University of Chicago Press, Chicago:

Helen Hewitt, ed.. Qttaviano Petrucci: Canti g. Numero Cinguanto.

iii

I.

II.

III.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

The Refrain Forms in Medieval French Secular Song

The Virelai

A.

The Cantiga and the Lauda in the Twelfth and
Thirteenth Centuries

The Virelai in the Late Thirteenth Century
The Virelai in the Fourteenth Century

The Virelai in the Fifteenth Century

Conclusions and Summary

Bibliography

iv

11

11
24
35
80
110
116

I. The Refrain Form in Medieval. French Secular Song

The important song form of the Middle Ages which utilized
refrains are the rondeau, the virelai and the ballads. often re-
ferred to collectively as the m figs. For the purposes of
this discussion the rotrouenge will also be introduced. although
this forn apparently had a much snaller impact than did the other
three.

The rondeau, generally of one stanza. is characterized by the
appearance of a part of the refrain within the stanza. and (usually)
by the close correspondence of music and text. The form is repre-
sented by the diagram ABaAabAB. in which the capitals indicate the
refrain. and the letters a and 9 refer to the two different melodic
segments as well as to the rhyme scheme of the text. may exanples.
especially early ones. are without the initial statemnt of the
refrain. thus resulting in the six-line fora aAahAB. Ebralple 1 is
a rondeau by Guillaume d'Amiens which dates from the late thirteenth
century.1
Maple 1

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1. Davism'. Archihld T. and Apel. Willi, eds., Historical
Antholfl of Music. revised ed.. 19%. p. 17.

2

Many rondeaux show an expanded form of up to twenty-one lines.
especially in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. This expansion
allowed for much variation: these several types have been thoroughly
examined by Gennrich.2 One example will illustrate. this being an
anonymous eleven-line rondeau fron the Manuscript Paris. Bibl. nat.
franc. 8&4. as transcribd by Gennrich (maple 2).:3 The piece my
be diagrammd:

A7383837‘7b8b8A78838'u

haplez

       

    

      

    

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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ltu- b/I' mi‘ 6'; i. d7a- mer loi- au- M Ma Pi-c.
Another variation of the basic eight-line rondeau is occasionally
found. in which the two musical phrases do not differ except at their

 

2. Gennrich. Friedrich. Das Altfrang’ésische Rondeau und Virelai.
1%3' PP. 79.860

3. . Bordeaux; Virela und Balladen. I. 1%1. 266.
ll. The subscripts indicate the number of syllables per line. In

this example and my of the virelais given below, the piece is to be
perfoer according to the numbering of the text. The generally accepted

 

 

formt for a random: is! . 44,7, 2,],
l i: '6' ll
Likewise. the formt for a virelai is: H / 5 2
4. ‘3' H

When the stanza contains more than the minimum number of lines. the form
must of course be adjusted accordingly.

cadences. In these cases. the text often has only one rhyme. The follow-
ing example is the contratenor of a three-voice wed: of Adam de la Hale?

Example 3

 

1.4.7.4' f d 3'? + 30' 5:) 2.9.JWn'1‘er macho ”‘f‘ plyimeredn'.
3' V" re 5n” "9“- e ”’3'- ” L Vo-fmymm‘ fink-far mar-w

.r. .5; n’ - res pi- +6 Jo mi
Th... *7»? was we

An extra degree of cohesiveness is obtained here in the great sim-
ilarity of lines 3 and 6. This is a technique which figures prominently
in French poetry of the period". and which will be especially germane to
our discussion of the virelai.

The virelai. like the rondeau. has an initial refrain. usually of
two lines. This is followed by a rhymed couplet set to a repeated new
phrase of music. often with W and gigs endings. Then comes a
couplet rhyming with and set to the music of the refrain. and finally
the refrain is repeated. This may be diagrammed ABccabAB; more common.
however. is the simplified scheme AbbaA. It is understood here that the
letters of the diagram do not indicate parts of equal length.

Unlike the rondeau. the virelai generally had more than< one stanza,
so that the form AbbaAbbaA . . . resulted. As in the rondeau'. expansion
of the form often occurred“. resulting in stanzas of more than sight lines.

Theballade differs fromthe rondeauandvirelaiinthat ithasno
initial refrain. Here the chief characteristic is the repetition of the
first section of the main. with a text retaining the initial rm'me

 

5. Coussemker. H. . genes Completes du TrouVEre Adam de la I-hlg.
1872; 220-221.

scheme. There are then several lines. ending with the refrain. The
form ababch is representative of many ballades. Musically, the refrain
may be a repetition of the previous line: ababcdD or ababcdeE. Since the
number of lines after the repeawd first section is variable. no single
diagram will fit all examples: but the form aabC or aabcC will usually
suffice. with the understanding that again the letters of the diagram do
not sipify equal parts of the stanza.

The ballade is illustrated by the following example. from the
Rom de Fauvel‘. from which it can be surmised that. like the virelai.
the ballads is a multi-stanza form.6

multiple it '
(L b

 

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6. Gennrich. Rondeaux. Virelifi und Balladen. I. 292-291}.

Et vous. dame note at pure.
qui n'avez ou monde per.

qui veez qu'en tele ardure
m'estuet pour vous demourer.
done autre desesperer

se pourroit par aventure.

pour quoi m'estes vous si dure?
L'en voit touts creature
naturelment encliner

par reson et par droicture

a tout oe qui l'aime amer.

Et vous. que je Mes nommer.
helas! do moi n'avez cure.
pour quoi m'estes vous si dure?

Though the rotrouenge.‘is of lesser importance. it is presented
here because of its relevance to our later discussion. Reese includes
it among the "litany-type" forms because it involves a great deal of
repetition.7 It consists basically of an indefinite series of musical
repetitions. ending with a refrain. Often the penultimte line is set
to the refrain music: aaa...(b)B.8

There are varying theories concerning the origins of the medieval
song forms. For my years the pioneering work of Friedrich Gennrich
(especially qrmdriss einer Forme_nlehre des mittelalterlichen_Liedes.
1931) was generally accepted. Gennrich begins with the latin rondellus.
a form consisting of several four-line stanzas. each with the form
aAbB." Several of these are preserved in unuscripts of the Notre Dame
School. dating from the late twelfth or early thirteenth century. A
few have the six-line form aAabAB: this could have easily been derived
from the four-line rondellus. The eight-line rondeau is then arrived

 

7. Reese. Gustave. Music in the Middle Ages. 191m; 220-221.
8. See Gennrich. Die Altfranzosische Rotroue . 1925.

6

at by placing the refrain at the beginning as well as at the end. Mean-
while: with the rise of courtly life"; the form was transferred to use in
vernacular settings.9

Gennrich then postulates that lines 2 and 3 of the eight-line
randeau were replaced by a new rhymed couplet"; resulting in AbccahAB'."
the virelai. From this Gennrich goes fizrther to derive three types of
ballads. In the first; the mic of the refrain within the stanza is
replaced by new material; giving ABccdeAB or ABcdcdefAB. The second
type retains the inner refrain melody but also inserts a new section:
Ascdcderame. The third type omits the initial refrain; but is other-
wise identical to the first type: cdcdefAB or ababch(F).1o

The main challenge to Gennrich's theory has come from villi Apel.

who has raised several ob;jections.“"1

First”; Gennrich seems to derive
the simple from the complex)” a process which Apel finds highly unlikely.
Second," no examples of ballades have been found which we can be sure
were performed with the initial refrain; as in Gennrich's first two
ballads types. Gennrich simply assumd that this was intended; but
that they were left unwritten in the mnuscripts‘,~ since the initial
refrain was supposedly a tradition already established in the roudeau
and virelai. Apel goes so far as to say“; “Gennrich's 'balade' is

entirely fictitious.‘12 Also“; Apel claims that the virelais in

 

9.; The rendellus‘," like the conductus‘,‘ was often neither clearly
sacred nor secular in nature.“

10. Reese uses this theory almost verbatim in opicitl .’ 2214.

11. Apel',’ Villi',’ 'Rondeaux’," Virelais and Ballades in 13th-Century ,
Song?” Journal of the American Musicological Society VII; 195% 121-130.

Apel,’ Willi, review in Journal of the Anerican Musicolcgical
ietz IV, 1951, 262.

Rondeauxj Virelays und Balladen are all either manipulated by Gennrich
to fit his theory or are hypothetically reconstructed from incomplete
sources.13

It is pointed out that in the thirteenth-century chansonniers there
are no examples of rondeaus or virelais in their "standard“ ferns. Forms
which are at least similar to the ballade (all lacking the initial
refrain) abound; only the troqure examples consistently utilize refrains,
the troubadour pieces generally being simple aab stanzas musically; with
little or no textual repetition.

Apel admits the derivation of the rondeau from the Latin rendellus.
However; since it is found only in secondary sources (especially notets).
he concludes tint it was a form of the jongleurs,” who were generally of
a lower social station than the trouveres‘; and who seldom if ever wrote
dorm their compositions. Examples of virelai in the chansonniers are
almost nil. Virelai-type forms are numerous among Italian lLudg and
Spanish canth of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries; but are not
found in abundance in France until the fourteenth century.

To sumsrize; Apel holds the view that; of the three for-es fixes.
onlytheballade istrulyatroxm‘ire songforn,'whiletherondeauwas
in the province of the itinerant professional musician (jmgleur); and
the virelai was not a part of the thirteenth-century repertoire at all.
He therefore mintains that Gennrich’s process of derivation is invalid.

Gilbert Reaney seems to occupy a middle-of-the-road position in
this argunent. In one article, he presents many of the conflicting

 

13. Such as notet tenors. Many rondeaux have also been salvaged
in this form. .

ideas on the origins of the refrain forms. and comes to no definite
conclusions.“ With regard to the rondeau. he recognizes the influence
of the Latin rondellus, but also considers the possibility of an earlier.
secular dance fora from which the rondeau nay have evolved. (hi the
virelai he seem to agree with Apel that it arose from the lauds and
cantigas, but still leaves open the possibility of derivation from the
rondeau. since the two are so apparently similar. Likewise, Reaney sees
the ballads as coming from the non-refrain troubadour chanson: but he
parts with Apel in saying that the inclusion of a refrain nay well have
been due to the influence of the rondeau, the virelai, or both.

It is highly interesting tint these more recent opinions , which
consider the virelai as outside the nainstream of troubadour and
trouvere music, agree in essence with the work of an earlier expert on
the subject, Pierre Aubry. In Trouveres and Troubadours.15 which first
appeared in 1917, a chapter is devoted to the song fans. The virelai
is not nentioned, and even the rondeau and ballads are hardly presented
as the predominant ferns of the period.

One of the obvious problems here is the difficulty of establishing
even an approximate chronology. Many of the manuscripts are undated;
even those which do bear dates give no evidence of the dates of the
compositions they contain. We are at an especial disadvantage in the
cases of those songs which survive only in secondary sources and met

be reconstructed.

 

14. Rooney. Gilbert, ”Concerning the Origins of the Bandeau,
Virelai and Ballade Forms,” Musics Disciilina Vi. 1953, 155-166.

15. Translated by Claude Aveling, New York. Cooper Square
Publishers, 1969.

Also, there is considerable doubt as to the actual extent to
which the music, as opposed to the text, determined form.16 Com-
paratively few scholars until recently have sought to attack the
problem from both aspects. It must be realized that hybrid forms
existed in which the text was in one form and the music was in an-
other.17 Music and text were perhaps not so intimately connected
as in.later eras, as can be seen from the numerous contrafacta
which exist, as well as texts Which have been found with more than
one setting.18

Many of these problems have undoubtedly arisen from the music-
ologist's desire to codify, a desire which is not completely recon-
cilable with the diversity which is always a factor in art. It is
perhaps unfortunate that we have inherited the term formes fixes,
which results in a serious misapprehension of medieval secular song.
and especially that of the thirteenth century. The term.arose in
the fourteenth century; it cannot be accurately applied to the music
of earlier times.

The rondeau, virelai and ballads did become more or less fixed
in the.drs Nova. notably in the works of Guillaume de Hachaut. Text-
ually, certain matric patterns emerge as standard, and subject matter
is more stereotyped. Both musically and textually. the three forms

are more distinct; fewer hybrids exist, although cross-influences are

 

16. See Reaney. op. cit.. 155ff.
17. Such examples will be examined below.

18. See also Perrin..Robert H.. letter in Journal of theihmerican
Musicological Society VIII. 1955, 77-78.

 

10

never entirely absent. Thus, we do have formes fixes at this time,
but the application of the term to earlier music is not justified
by the music that has survived.

In the fifteenth century these forms continued to be important,
although new variations appeared. The rondeau seems to predominate.
especially among the works of the Burgundian composers. With the
rise of Renaissance styles, however, the through-composed chanson
began to assume greater importance. The Italian frottola preserved
a form.akin to the rondeau in the sixteenth century, and the Spanish
villancico retained characteristics of the virelai; but for the most

part the dawn of the Renaissance marked the end of the formes fixes.

 

II. The Virelai

A. The Cantiga and the Lauda in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries

The cantigas of Spain are among the earliest examples of the
virelai form in secular music. Approximately four hundred of these
pieces were collected under the guidance and patronage of King Alfonso
1: (E1 S‘abio) of Castile and Leon, who ruled from 1252 to 1280,; these
are collectively known as the Cantigas de Santa Maria. Alfonso, while
not distinguished for his handling of governmental mtters, was known
as a patron of the arts, and was himself a writer and musician. He
had in his employ several Provencal musicians (troubadours), and to
these men he assigned the task of collecting as many known cantigas
as possible ,’ as well as composing new ones. Although Alfonso undoubt-
edly contributed some himself, there is little information available
which would allow a determination of the actual extent of that con-
tribution.

Textually', most of the cantigas are semi-sacred in nature and
are concerned with the Virgin Mary. may are folk legends concerning
miracles or certain holidays: others are simply songs of praise. A
few of the cantigas contain allusions to contemporary historical
events, or concern members of the royal household.

Since the cempilers were troubadours, the notation is that of
the Provencal chansonniers. With regard to rhythm, the old six

nodes are essentially preserved, but with certain freedoms and idio-
syncrasies; these perhaps can be accounted for by remembering that

many of the cantigas my well be considerably older than the muscripts

11

12

in which they are preserved, so that the notation had to be "stretched"
somewhat in order to accommodate certain rhythms.

One of the earliest researchers into the cantigas was Julia/n
Ribera y Tarrago, whose study Ia Musics. de las Cantifl appeared in
1922.1 Ribera held that the cantigas,’ and indeed all of the Spanish
secular music of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, were directly
influenced by Moorish/Arabian music and poetry. In particular, he
cites the 22;. an Arabian form which probably originated in the ninth
century. This form originally consisted of a refrain of two lines
plus several four-line stanzas, the final line of which rhyned with
the refrain:

AAbbba(AA)ccca(AA)...2
This is similar to the virelai, and later the zajal becan even more
like the later French form. Home is an example from the cantigas,
the music of which corresponds to the diagram AA'bb'aa"AA' etc. The
text is in the medal form AAbba‘.‘ all lines being of fourteen syllables.3

Example 5

 
   
    

C0“ ”'0 DCUS (CZ Vfl'nnb dé‘gua 801‘)ar_ 6/):st -—¢rj -—

nno, 6m 35— 5/ dc p043 fa Madr’a— arc-can «fact a VI.-

 

1. Translated as Music in Ancient Arabia and 82111 by Eleanor
Hague and Marion Ieffingwell,‘ Stanford University Press, 1929.

2. Ribera, . oit.. 125.
3. Angles, Higinio,’ ed.. La ltfisica de las Cantifl de Santa

Maria, 1W3. III, 31. For complete text, see Marques de Valuer,
Las Cantiga de Santa Maria, 1889.

13

Example 5 (cont'd. )

‘1' \

 
 
 
 

 

nno. 73,634‘0 dI-Iti an m/— re—jn: gas Fez] en Br: -' fa —

 

nna’ San- is ”)2- n' - a’ for 53 -a 610-713 mu] 58h sa —'

 

"”3; c" flue ”mi- fo 60’) “5“ film, 6 mm'- fa £3-3 m3 '—

 
   

   

nna Dem 199- «he, one qwi 43: -/a

Sc-cr- Stu re -Zy,
'D.C. 3| “he

   
 

fine .

Ribera also theorized that the cantigas are rhythmically akin to
Arabian music. He includes a table showing a comparison between Arabian
rhythm and the French nodes." His transcriptions are apparently an
attempt to realize these Arabian rhythms, but with modern tin signa-
tures. In the original edition, any of the cantigu are even harmonised.

Under the scrutiny of later scholars, Ribera's ideas have not found
acceptance. Higinio Angles published a new edition of the cantigas in

19%. in which the notation is transcribed according to the Provencal

 

h. Ribera, o cit.,195.

11+

tradition.5 More importantly, Anglés discovered, in a manuscript
of the Catalonian monastery of Ripoll, a number of conducti which,
in form, are closely akin to the cantigas, and which antedate them
by a century. Thus we have the possibility that the actual origin
of the cantigas, and perhaps of the virelai, lies in nmsic of the
Church.

A convincing case can be made for this. Isabel Pape Ins found
strong similarities between earlier Spanish secular songs, which
are often structured in paralled strophes with a refrain, and the
Mozarabic Page", or penitential No.6 The Pieces are in many
ways similar to sequence hymns, though they seem to have developed
independently; however", they all utilize refrains, and retain the
same pattern for each strophe throughout.

Reese and others rave therefore concluded that Ribera's theories
cannot be accepted as fact.“ Reese also rakes the sensible observation
that similar forms my well have developed simultaneously in different
lecales.7

The term ”cantiga" is a generic tern much like ”med” or ”Chanson,"
and so they display a variety of forms. The great majority are multi-
stanza wozdss with refrains which appear at the beginning and again at

 

5. Angles, o .‘ cit , 195.

6. Pope', Isabel," ”Medieval Latin Background of the Thirteenth-
Century Galician Lyric,“ Smculum IX, 1931+, 3-25.

7. Reese, Q, cit,', 246.

15

the end of each stanza. may are identical to the virelai, nuaically.

but noet of theae do not have texts which fully eonforn to the nueical

structure. The following exanple has the musical fern ABocabAB (or
8

ABb'b'ahAB). but the text follows the zajal pattern MbbbaM.
Ennple 6

 
   
 
 

- )
Tor-'7‘? gc— n- a jfande. es-me— 3“-

 
 
  

° )
pren- 2;" ma! d3 V/k- yen $56 fl - ju ~ ’8- 0nd

 
     
  
 
 

 

3-V};r_~ 0 en 55,; mi-jue/ dc 72m - be, an

  
 

   

Ag d’d—agran'

mg’eT- 4a-” flue jag :o-én: Am-

 
  

e-na a: 'a udnf’é 6;? , en flue my...”
” 3’ j i figl ,c, -

p

£¢-n'q MiUCS-v Ca - r3.

Expanded form are frequently encountered among the cantigae. as
in thin exanple which has a four-line refrain and lines of double

length within. the «tuna.9

 

8. Angles. o cit . III. #7.
9. Inma.. 50.

16

Text: *8 B7 ‘8 B7.;c15c15015b15A8 37 A8 B7
Music: A B A' B'cd ed abab'A B A' B'

maple 7

      
      
    
    
     
        

fl Wr- gen mm’ jro‘ri -— o -—:a, Pay - me e:-— pi- n‘ —

   
 

   

7‘3!) (145 eat. a- ma e c: —- o -— 56, (2.; non gut; ¢uc Pa-Qan
) v - .
"73/. 'D'csf’un mi-ra ~jr¢ 16m 'n’w—JO, and a -— Va n: ;

des 58— bar, V05 00— ’63)?“ a V/f—gen Ma -— dye

   

dc nosv +ro 521‘. nor, Pet-fly: {T-rou de gran ta ..

  
 

  
 
    
 

m"-u—
’D.C. 3’ pine

a an mui falss’ a- ma' dur

10-58

   

bia—vva SOUS a'mor-vcs Wuhan al.

Hhile the preceding exanple sinply doubles the length of the fern.
irregular variations also occur. Heat of the texts consist of lines of
equal length. but Eranple 8 is such nore cenplex in this respect. The

stanza has a six-line text set to five lines of nusic, so that an

17

internal rhyme results. 10

Text: A8 A8b7c5 b7 c5 a2a8A8 A8
nusic: A A'b c d a” a'A'A'

hnple 8

 
    
   

 
 

 
 

’09.. D005 {'5‘ Se-nnor

me.

rum-+0 Eva!) 4w: +o-da dovor

 
 
 

  
 
 
 

 

1L0“) Ed ml. Es-ta San-Mr 6195 dd“) 8i 6 San—

 
 

fa Ma. r; — a, qua 3 ’Deus sea Fu’vllo 2:3 r0“

    

  

   
   
 

  
 

 
 

33 +0 — da 'ch'al p? sea at 39c mos gum-dc
' me

     

(jn-v For: nal .

1
"

Another cannon fornal feature is the variation of the refrain
neledyinthe secondpartefthestansa.asinExanp1e 9. Anew

nusical phrase (9) appears where there is nomlly a repetition of

the first line of the refrain.11

 

10. Ibid“ 89.
11. Ibid,. 18.

18

mm ‘9 ‘1obiobiobio‘10‘9 ‘10
Music: A B c c d b A B
Eranple 9

 
 
    
        

 
 
   

   
 

\/

° d6:
a»— sa das "° ' 53‘

c{» Fror J35 (“4'“) Dana
”16

' J
do -' 08$, 51:— nnor d3: sc—nna~r~cs

0- 58 d8 63’ —Jdd)§v

 

d5 pa-I‘C-Cer 8+ Fflrd‘a'IC-jrl.'a 61‘ d( Pra-

   
      

20" 3-09 en

. - V J '
J mm ‘P"a- 4" Sc 55— 8f,

 

S¢—nn0f‘€l\ 1‘” — ”CF Co; —+a; (J dos [Ct-:5-

(he of the cantigas (m1. 10) is unique in that the refrain

reappears within the stanza. as in the rondeau.12

A sinilarity to
the rondeau is also evident in the nusic. although it is difficult to
ingine any direct influence here. Perhaps the antiphonal singing of

Psalns and litanies in the Church is the nest plausible precedent.

“m ‘10“1031; ‘id‘io‘id‘io‘iobu ‘10‘1031;

MusicsABCaaaabcABC

 

12. Hit]... 310.

19

Rxanple 10

 

Sam 1‘: I273. 17' -- a, va- led’ (bf. 56 - nnor/ c+ a-cor—

 

rsd’a v06 — So 't‘m'ba-dor) qua Ina-Its V811 AM/anynan

  
     

me] e a- w‘an 3m do -— or. San-fa ”78"?" 9, va- labs/)5}-

    
   
   

   

nnor,’ (lo-ow :aFr’ car—1‘s v05- .10 /0' ‘9 ' 69";

Synufa fl)a—- r7" 3, (13- /Ed’ 1.9!;5g- nnor/ 67‘ 53-8

 

J's, Se Va: an pra-zer for, do gas dl'z 7.4;!”

It seem reasonable to suggest that the cantigas possibly represent
an inextricable nixture of Arabian. Provencal and Church influences. The
sajal fern is undoubtedly present, but this hardly necessitates that
one assume with Ribera that all aspects of these pieces are traceable
to Moorish prototypes. To proceed a step further. there is little
evidence that the French virelai is a direct product of the cantiga.
Unless any nore moripts and such sore historical docunntation
cone to light, thee problens are quite unsolvable for the present.

20

The lauds, which were penitential songs associated with bands
of flagellants and pilgrims in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.
constitute an important body of medieval Italian music. We have
approxintely 135 of these. preserved mainly in two mnuscripts,
HS Cortona. 91 and HS Florence Magl. II, I. 122. About a dozen are
in a form similar to the virelai.

Chaytor has documented the activities of troubadours in Italy
in the late twelfth century.”13 Provencal was in fact the language
of the noble classes for a tin. It has therefore been suggested
that the virelai was introduced into Italy by the troubadours. This
view is not now widely held, because, as previously mentioned, the
Provencal chansonniers are nearly devoid of songs with refrains.

The lauds was essentially sacred in character, but non-liturgical.
Its secular counterpart was the ballata,’ which is mentioned by Dante
and others; however, the absence of surviving examples suggests that
they were popular in nature and therefore not preserved in notation.1u
The form was described in terms which had been used in connection
with earlier dance music. The three parts were the ripresa or
refrain; generally of two lines; the iedi, two rhyned lines often set
to a repeated melody: and the 35212:, a new two-line section often set
to the music of the refrain. When the piedi are musically identical

and the volta is set to the refrain melody. we have the form of the

 

.13. Chaytor, H.J., The Troubadours, Cambridge University Press,
1912, 95ff.

14. The balJata was widespread in the fourteenth century as a
polyphonic form; see below.

21

virelai. There has been sons disagreement over whether the ripresa
was repeated after each stanza (it undoubtedly occurred at the
beginning): nore recent scholars tend to argue in the affirntive.
The following ennple shows piedi with different melodies and
the volta set to the refrain nusic. The form is thus ABcdabAB, very

close to the virelai. The text consists of fourteen statuses.15
Example 11

 
   

‘ a;
Vc— nah-t: a Ian-da—m,Pcr a— m- recou’fa— re la-”

p

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

J /\
0 s h. {111. . ‘
(as—aw in. .lfi
Txu 1i ‘1: 1 Ir) 1 r 1 1'11 1
V—sa Vsr— c-nc We—ri-wB. m3""3 3'04" 0 - $6 5,-—
re 3 ,

   
 
 
 

 

   
  

Lens

3- 4a ’ 50",?“ Why'd-4t lau— ole-r 3 Pre—jhiaow D-C.

si’ 3- vo-ce- +3 .4 4W4]; "ohm--3. 135-3.

The next enm‘ple exhibits the standard virelai pattern. AbccahtB.

and consistsoof five stanzas.16

 

15. Liuzzi. Fernando. La lauds e i Princrdi della Melodie
Italians. I, 1995, 257ff.

16. Davison and Apel, mu. 19.

22

Encample 12

5‘ J
A; i i I I T -T I I
T I I 1’ I 1 A - .. 1 1

- I . All . .s ‘i ‘ I.
A)”. A 'hd’v is en - {8 Pa - CID PR— ‘550 e d'! - Co Che Ida-dc.
4; Am ci papa- dc _ 3”! la {6- dc Cri-J'fiva - ‘na Che see-Cid

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

   
     

 
     

mc-co Mdr- a—r-i -— e quen-fe. 1,0 yer—gi-ne,clvc’n PIC‘CO -/a
VB' ”3 a 3 Die ser-VCII—fC- 3.5,! non yo—Ie-Sk' per fie-'6!"

      
    

    

     

c— +3 - do ,4 DI.» vi ale-st: e fo-cc—visuASPo-sa
ll.’ +3 "- dc 0,6 £53) C01 Vo'l‘ CS’W d8! MM'dO “’58-

Liuzzi was of the opinion that the lands were prinarily in bimry
neter'.’ and his transcriptions were made with that in nind. However,
the notation is not noticeably different from that of Gregorian plain-
song; Apel's transcriptions are therefore urn-stored.17 It is also
worthy of note that the tonality tends toward a major-ninor feeling.18

Whereas the virelai pattern was apparently arrived at in Spain
through a nixture of influences coming fron Arabian music, the Church
and the troubadours, the only clear influence on the laude is dance
nusic, as shown in the terms used to describe the fern. The secular
tern ”ballets” would tend to support this, but the actual mnuscripts
which would confirm it are lacking. Troubadour influence here cannot
be demonstrated. All indications point to a tradition of laude from

the early twelfth century, while the troubadours were only active in

 

1?. I‘M-(1.5 19.

18. Reese, o cit , 238.

23

Italy approximately fifty years later, and then only for a relatively
short time. Furthermore, the troubadours had contact mainly with the
upper classes; the penitential movement which gave rise to the lauds
was of an entirely different social level. We also have scant evidence
that either the lauds. or the ballata nade any substantial impact in

France before the fourteenth century, if at all.

B. The Virelai in the late Thirteenth Century

Secular music in twelfth- and thirteenth-century France was
largely carried on by the troubadours in the South and the troqures
in the North. These men were musicians as well as poets, whose com-
positions were almost entirely concerned with chivalry and courtly
love. Thus. as in the case of the Elizabethan sonnet. the texts tend
to be stereotyped: themes of unrequited love or comparisons of the
beloved to the Virgin are common. Most of these songs belong to
two types: through-composed. or having a repeat of the initial section
of music. (These were called respectively 3953 and c_§_._nz__g by the
troubadours.)1 Songs with refrains were relatively rare. and are
found almost exclusively in the repertoire of the trouv3res. The
ballads is most common, but the rondeau occasionally is found: there
are a handful of pieces which my be considered virelais.

Gennrich mintains that the term ”virelai” is dervied from ”virer,”
neaning to turn or veer, plus “11,“ the third person singular of the
personal pronoun. This form of the word. ”when,” appears in a few
texts. such as the refrain ”Faites ainsi oo vireli./Faites ainsi,”2
According to Gennrich, this was an earlier form, later corrupted to

”virelai."3

 

1. But see Apol. JAMS VII. 12a.
2. Gennrich. Rondeaux; Virelajs und Balladen; II. Refrain 636.

3. donation”. "Die einstimmige Virelai," Die walk in Geschichte
und Gegenwart, XIII. 1808.

214.

25

Another theory has been advanced by Manfred Bukofzer.” He
presents the possibility that the virelai was derived from the
Lag, which in its simplest form was constructed in strephes of
parallel lines: on bb cc etc. From this could have come the form
aabB (which.' incidentally is a type of ballads) . If the refrain
is also performed at the beginning of the stanza, we have Baang
or. by reversing the letters of the diagram, AbbaA. the virelai.
Thus the tern would indicate a lai with the melody ”turned back"
into a refrain.

Latin etymologies have also been proposed; but this is un-
likely, as the word seldom appears in a Latinized form even in
Latin treatises.5 Gennrich indicates an origin in dance music.

He proposes as one hypothesis the idea that the tern ”virelai?!“
denoted a dance, while ”virelai" neant the song which was composed
for the purpose of dancing.6 This at least seems plausible in that
”rorldeau" and ”ballads“ are generally thought to be dance terms

as well.

One of the few thirteenth-century virelais which has been
preserved in nanuscript as a nonophonic piece is "C'est la fine”

by Guillaume d'Aniens (hample 13).? This piece has received such

 

4. Bukofzer,’ Manfred. ."The First English Chanson on the Continent,“
Music and letters, XIX,‘ 1938‘,” 130.

5. Gennrieh'. nae Altfrans‘dsischmuc 16.
6. Ibid..' 20. .
7. Davison and Apel; mu. 1?.

26

attentiai because it serves as the cornerstone for Gennrich's belief

that the virelai was derived from the rondeau.
Era-pie 13

      
 

     
  

 
  
   

       

1.5.C'ed/a Ik’ £43}
IAJu: cf 6am I

   

one nus 00— g j’a— rnq— refs.
a /c-- Vex, 6:7: a- fine BI.

 

.9

       

2,. (is! Is ju en mi: [es pang
3.£’e:/ la fins, je veal a - mer)

The form is diagram A11b7h7‘11‘11" which indicates a clear-
cut virelai. Closer inspection. however. reveals that the third line
hasmchincononwiththerefrain. Thuswehaveatleastahintof
the inner refrain which characterizes the rmdeau. If we consider
tlnrefrainaeconsistiagoftwelines, thetextnybediagraued
‘833c7c7c7bh‘833' 8 This shows a further complexity in that the
caesura within line four of the'first diam: is lisplaced relative
tetherefrain. Also.’aninternalrhyne inlinestwoandthree is
revealed.

Benrkably'. we have here a fan very close to the sajal fan
of the Spanish oantigas! Since the cantigas also include one exanple
which utilizes an inner refrain (see above). this raises the possibility

that "C'est le fins“ bears the sari: of a direct'Spanish influence.

Unfortunately." biographical internation on Guillaume (Pa-ions is slight.

 

8. This is basically Gennrich'e diagnn. See Das altfraus'o'eische....
114.

27

It is when whether he traveled to Spain, and so any further proof

is inpossible.9
Example 1'4 is fron the Manuscript Oxford, Deuce 308, which dates

10 Here we have a piece which is perhaps

fro: approximately 1300.
acre regular in fore, but which represents an expansion of the virelai.

Unlike “C'est la fins,'.' the nusical structure of this song does not

correspond closely to the poetic structure.
Text: A635A7Bl+ c7c7a6c7c7a6 a6b5a7b4 A6Bf73u
Music3ABACdefdefabacABAC

Ennple 14

 

 

l5. E da- ”'5 o — NV -— e Man caer sans Foa- car mcr‘
d, 5, Air menf hw'a- -yrr —- 6’ 1.; don/.5 nae/z dd me/r Kc
8n ros - +r‘6 66i—//\:'/ 8 [6 ac 3a, yo 1x1}.

r :a Si - -r/ - C W 60- wen?‘ den-7’73”“

 

2. 50- MM me ro/x con— plat - 7nanf ff an man cuer

3. Don} has /; mouS an mam‘ Doif a — Vo/r /c

   
 

 

         

610— /q -580/ 311— m: 013/— /a/ - 40E"
CuEr Jo-' Iant‘ Cw {Er/z Ina/z ma}: - *n' -

C
C .
The fern has been expanded to eighteen lines, and there is a
considerable diversity to line-lengths. Note-worthy here is the fact

that lines seven and ten are rhyled with the first line of the refrain,

 

9. Generich analyzes the piece in detail in Ibid“ 113-116.
Though aware of the cantigae, he does not point out the siailarity.

10. Davison and Apel, HAM, 17. For conplete text see Gennrich,
Bandeau, Virelaye uad Ballad_o_n, I, 129ff.

28

a procedure which is not found earlier, but which is conon in virelais
of the fourteenth century.

Many secular songs of this period survive only because they were
borrowed for use as tenors of lactate. Because the tenor was probably
notsung, onlythefirstphraseofthetextwasgenerallyrecordedin
the unuscripts (perhaps for purposes of identification). Thus we
can reconstruct the couplete song only if the text is preserved else-
where. the such exanple, for which the text is unfortunately lacking,

is found in the hentpellier Codex.11

Exawple 15

A

 

2154/: NE vous mar
I

    

 

 

11. Bokseth, Yvonne, monies du m1" eioole. III, 2A6-
zue.

29

Example 15 (cont'd.)

 

The nelody is readily recognizable as a virelai. Conjecture lust
suffice as to the fern of the hissing text.
Another virelai which was a motet tenor is ”Je la truis" fro: the

2 The text was not included in the manuscript. but

sane manuscript.1
has been reconstructed from other sources. As in the previous example.
the peer: shows an irregular patten of line-lengths:

A? 32 A? c8 c8 b8 b2 0.7 A? 32 A7.
In line sir we have another anomaly. The rhy- should match the corre-
sponding portion of the refrain, 23 however. it rhyme _b_. with the

two-syllable interjection.

 

12. Ibid. . 173-171».

30

balple 16

  
 
 

 
 

          
 

r2113 he; as - pas - rm}! yo,',../ fl
0/1, 0/1/ 665/

Life /8 .
4.2): CCU kc nla— vc- Pal dc: rho/)3)

     
      
 
 
    
 

  

   

 

   

leper oa-fn: Cal"

ccu kc/le as; m, 72/6 ~ *5“ (’72; 1.6 dem-c es-

2.
am kc p/us me 6/6.: -- Ce. 3.

   

. / '
dice me 113/45)
+n: oer - ‘fams

Musically the fora is sore regular. although a three-line refrain
is relatively unusual at this tine:
ABA‘ ccaba'ABA'.
If the two-syllable second line were reneved along with its counter-
parts elsewhere, a fairly ”norml“ eight-line virelai would retain:
AA' cc aa' AA'.

Am the works of Adan de la Hale (c. 1230-c. 1288) is found one
piece which is a curious hybrid of forms (Maple 17).13 The composer
called the piece a rondeau, bet formal analysis reveals traits of the
virelai. Musically the piece is a rondeau: abaaabab (wusical repeti-
tions are senehht altered. but these changes are urely mutation.)
But the text follows the form

‘fiebvbvbfim

 

13. Coussenker. H. de.‘ ed.. 0 cit... 211-212.

31

Again we see the fora of the Moorish zajal. Thus we have neither a
rondeau or a virelai; but a piece which includes features of each.
In addition; the predominance of the riddle voice was scathing of
an innovation. a fact which gives strength to the idea that there
was at that tin no firnly established convention with regard to

the virelai.“ or indeed any of the song form.
Example 17

Diea.’ 51' ne
3

 

“no

/,0r man dc— ref m’a , mi-
3

 

Maple 17 (eont'd.)

e — 1‘6, (Pal es:t Caim‘c cf Jb- I; — e - 7‘: 5‘ S’esf

3

5/ see we rou- 942- 749 555-14.- m;-

3 3 s

 

(3rd stauza al Pine)

 

33

2. Et sele est de moi enchainte.

Tost devenra pale et tainte;

S'il en est esclandele et plainte.

Deshonnerée l'arai.

Fines amouretes....

3. Hieus vaut que je m'en a tiengne

Et pour 11 3011 no tiengne

Et que de 11 me souviengne.

Car s'onnour li garderai.

Fines amouretesJ.J
An important literary source from the late thirteenth century is the
Bit de la PanthEIe of Nicole de thrgival.“ This is an extended
narrative peer: into which short lyric poems were inserted by the author.
thus anticipating a fairly common practice of the fourteenth century.
he music accompanies these texts. but Reaney is of the Opinion that
musical settings were intended.” Several poems by Adan de la file
are included. for which msic exists elsewhere.

Two poems in particular are germne to this discussion. One .

”Pour ennuy ne por contraire."16 is a rondeau with three strophes.
It is apparently the only one of its kind in French. although several
exist in Latin.” The result is a form resembling the virelai:
ABBaAabbA BBaA etc. A settinginwhichthe msic forlines
res and five differs from that of the refrain m produce a piece

very much like the previously-discussed "C'est la fins.“

 

14. Todd. Henry. ed.. Le Dit de la Panthere d'Anours par Nicole
de Margival, 1883.

15. Reaney. "The DeveloPnent of the Bandeau. Virelai and Ballade
Forms962 “from Adan de la Ihle to Guillaume de Macheut." Pestscrift Fellerer.
1 9 23e

16. Todd. 0 . cit . 83.
1?. Reaney. o cit .' 421+.

31+

One other poem is included in the Dit de la Panthers which is not
a rondeau. yet bgiirs with the refrain: "J'ai eii commendement."18
Called ”rondel" in the nanuscript. it has two strophes of different
lengths. falling inthe patternA BBabA BBabbA B B. Since there
are only two rhymes. this is akin to the rondeau. The characteristic
inner refrain is absent. however. and so perhaps the poem could be
viewed as a shortened virelai.

Most of these interpolated lyrics are either ballades or chansons
royales (the latter being a non-refrain form. generally of five strophes.
which had its highest popularity at the time of Machaut in the fourteenth
century). One regular rondeau and a handful of free “chansons” are also
included. If one agrees." with Reaney. that the Bit de la Panthers ”is
an anthology of the forms of lyric peotry in use at the time of Nicole
de Margival'.”19 then one must conclude that the fixed virelai was not

among those forms.

To summarize. the virelai does not seem to occupy an ilportant place
in the output of the trouveres in the thirteenth century. Those coupes-
itions which can be considered virelais are mfliedly diverse in form. Many
show unlsical or textual features (or both) of the rondeau. which was by
that ties a popular and standardized form. Though this can be taken in

support of Gennrich's views of formal development. the presence of features

also found in the cantigas of Spain cannot be denied. whether this is by

coincidence or design is. at this tine. pure speculation.

 

18. T0dd9 ‘0‘. Cite; 95s
19. Reaney. o . cit . #24.

C. The Vilelai in the Fourteenth Century

The second decade of the fourteenth century ushered in something of
a revolution in musical style. a change which affected fora. rhythm and
harmony. Sons of these innovations are evident in the Manuscript Paris.
Bibl. Nat.'. fr. 1%". dated 1316. This is a source of two-fold inportance.
in that it contains the famous copy of the Bonn de Fauvel with its
musical interpolations. as well as a number of works by Jehannot de
l'Escurel (d. 1303?). The latter comprises thirty-one compositions.
of which five are virelais. The arrangenent is essentially alphabetical.
but stops with G, thus suggesting that it is an incomplete collection.
Two of the virelais are especially noteworthy for their striking sini-
larities of structure (Examples 18 and 19).1
Example 18

 

/.i’. Deuce fl ' mom; son- er- fez moi, za- leaf:

5‘ tea/f a - . C’Ch‘ he:

    
 

    
   
 

  
    

   
   

6/: -
'e

l/am -

at de: - con- For- 1‘6 - e;
Ouam‘

ole:— fi- ne’ — e,

  

         

v
mcnf j: was en Pm, 0a dd MOI/e 0- m

fut.
/’aI}n en bon- nc for, [am/cl polhfg ne /I a'

 

1. Wilkins. Nigel. ed.. The Norksfiof Johan Iescurel. 1966.
12-13 and 18.

35

Example 18 (cont'd.)

  

  
 

    

Lear vans 'e sui - '-
3.Ce- 3:3.— V‘Duf {a :4 Esc- al- 3::

     

   

        

2. Chascuns amine cells prise
et proie humblenent.
qu'il aim; ne sui mum
ains couvient souvent
que le proie. et. quant 1e voi.
pour dire 11 na pensée
vers li vois; lors. par desmio
s'en tourne: ainsi sui nenée.

Dance Weee

3. E! mart, qui touz cors (3011313109:

prens moi 11 present:

c'est men miex. et sans faintise
1e faitemprerentt

car non cuer compare en soi.

dent 3e sui pres forsenée O

1'orguo11 d6 18. gent. 66 013019

qui bien sine et n'est en‘s.

Deuce Amour. . .

37

maple 19

/\

 
 
  

 

  
 

«W as - div/'7‘ flour: 14 "'

1.5‘. Dir {ans ,
- fax, me: jranz don. - " 36:

la:
4. Ale Jena P '

 
 
 

  

  
 
  
  
 
 

    
 
 

        

v

for}: an mon‘l‘ °«"¢““
gas vous "3 ‘ jib—K

”7001‘ a . was :a- la: 61‘ dpu -— “’5 ff
Eh mu Cuff-fed adv-Si a - gears [of '

—/

   

é:
me:

(3ch
an ;

 
  

     
 

 
  

 

       

           

  

  
 

     
 
  

   

 

e V e ° '
‘—-" led (’a- mer- mu You: {0.10% 3.182 -

out pa}: per was a, leg .

  
 
 
 

       
 
  
 

      
  

  

En
HI. ‘

c+ eel/e
cf

- cu. - 5c
mou -

 

9".“

cf rev
"eja-

     
 
       

PC.

you: a/ M man car an}; .
caco- dpas ’7‘?“ ' 41$ .

free:

2. En fais et dix savoureuse.
sage dare au core faitis.
car soiez dance at piteuse
vers moi qui sui vos aais.
Raisons veut gqu soie tons jours
en vous servant cois et doutiex'.
larges. courtois..si grans honours
vient de vous; pour co. cuer gentiex.

Dis tans plus“ .

38

3. 0r proi amour que soigneuse

vers vous. doucete an cler vis.
soit pour moi et curieuse
si que vo cuer soit espris

aussi com sui et par tieux tours;

lore serai celans at soutiex

vers vous plus qu'ore et nuis et jours

et pour ce. pour plaire vous miex.

Dis tans plus...

These two compositions are nearly identical in form. Each has a
four-line refrain rhyming abab. each has three strophes, and each
preserves the same rhyme throughout: cdcdabab. The one significant
difference lies in the musical structure of the refrains. The refrain
of ”Dance incurs" has the form a his b2. while that of "Dis tans Plus”
introduces a third melodic segment. resulting in abac. But even here
the fourth line has some melodic nterial in common with the second
line. so that the music is not entirely new. In earlier examples we
have seen widely diversified form; the remarkable foml similarity
here seems to bring closer the concept of the virelai as a. fixed form.
Nme of the previous examples had both mic and text which closely
corresponded to the diagram ABccacAB. with little difficulty; both
of the above examples could be so construed (considering every two
lines of text as a single unit of the diagram).2

(he of the virelais exhibits considerable for-ml freedom (33331316

20).3 One obvious difference from the previous examples is that there

 

2. Mention should be rude of the acrostic formed by the first
letters of the lines "Dis tans plusi' DAME. JEHAN DE LESCUREL V008 SALUE.

3. Wilkins. o . cit . 20.

39

is but one strophe. The refrain here is again of four lines. but
rhyming aabb. The next section has also been expanded. but there is
no four-line section set to the refrain music; this has been abbreviated
to a single line rhyming with the first line of the refrain. Finally.
the last statennt of the refrain has been rearranged and rhythmically
altered. The following diagram indicates the structure.

A B c c (ab) A B

m“ ‘5‘79636 °6du°6du°6du°6du “ 5 ‘736‘736

Music: ABCC deded'e'd'e' a BCBC
Examplezo

a, 6

   
 
  

 
 
 
 
 
 

   

 

    

e . .
éra— 6- cu- S‘cf‘fe, La {rip 1944- ”77- lie-7%,

(L b

  

       
 
 
   
 
      
 
  

 
     

\w J. I \a \i + I
Dex wwa: dom?‘ 7’!!! 600 Jour, 6’ “Deg w“: 407;], 4,,“

 

J'our. ” -me’ Wu: a" 80) £01. H a -- mc- r813 ,4~ mg,
cl d}

  
  

 
 

Was a" an [of E/ a - me-rai S's J's :4" gu’en —vm me;
C; ctr

 

Ai-ez cuer- vrei, .94: J}: 5.," ft” ~ yer: mi Qi-ez cuer-wet

Ennple 20 (cont'd. )

  
    
 
 
 

 
 

pm. a, 4...- care, is 4:. please“; 3.7- the,

    
   

V

Dex you: l'n'f ‘r‘fé! ban four ,’ [a

  

 

M. p/ai- in, ,7-

 

-e—

e ’ V I .
[0‘49 Dee war doz'n‘f 101:: 6M jam“.

"Bier se lace” (Exanple 21)“ also has only one strephe. but
otherwise is highly regular. In the diagranibbai. each unit con-
sists of three lines. (lily four- and seven-syllable lines are used.
The repeated section following the initial refrain has m and
91.93 endings. This piece well illustrates the highly nelisrstic
style tint was coming into vogue. in contrast to the essentially
syllabic settings of the thirteenth century.

 

1+. Ibid. . 5.

l+1

Example 21

      
   

 
  

 
 
      

/-5- Bush 5:
43 S" fam‘

  

?- cc Gui em- bre— cc
3- ccvfl-mour r-

     
 
  

 
   
 
     

. - mour:

gun, la o —- //.': -/ra- cc:

noise .9 doa — cc Pa - cc.

    

       
 

   

Z-CW ’3 beach, 5"

«an-{- - ' .9)» c er 3
3e Fa; " +6 dc cor: 1d a m!: a

dc w; A Ian d8 -—

  
 
 

     
    

 

my} 5!) de' Sir-
you" I/ ’9’le

’8’- a v m" -
plus at: w‘ —

  
     

 

r _/ u/
6.

e)

The one renining virelai of Jehannot de l‘Escurel is even more
foreclly strict (Example 22).5 This piece. with its eight-line stares
(counting both statements of the refrain) . precisely fits the schen
ABcoabAB both musically and textually. Also. we have again three
strephes. This is the first example we have seen in which the simple
virelai is clearly an independent form. free from the influence of
the rondeau. the cantiga or other forms.

5e 92—19;! 13e

#2

Example 22

   

  
   
 
 
    

 

V01: — c a-
.S‘or ‘

m1} en ls
lieu in: J6

[b
3,
L‘.
l
R‘
k
e.
O.)

   

mar d 5&- - Vl'r cf /0 -
nus . out +oc+ en Tina-f pen -

    
   
     

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

er. 2. A": 8/ a- mour 35* “fine a- ren-
0 Ssr. 3. 0m m’a nav— ne’ 4’“- nc cam- cc Pain '
V Ju-nc
\ ‘I‘R'N . — — — -
2.8 Dent doi 5e bien estre en envoiseure.
car bonne estes et do gents faiture.
Li souverains no tient touz acne en joie
et tout aussi de nerci esperer.
Deane“.3
3. ' Amour graci. qui J'ai nis n cure

on vous anr. t s noble creature.
jams de vous partir no no querroie.
si vraienent me veilliez vous aner.

Basel...

Among the interpolations of the Bonn de Fauvel namiscript are
motets. liturgical pieces (including slleluias. sequence hymns and

“3

responsoriss) . and several secular (vemacular) songs and refrains.
All. were carefully labelled by the scribe. and male are called “vire-
lai.” Most of the secular compositions are rondeaux. ballades or
lais . but two are worthy of our attention because they feature the
initial refrain. yet avoid the inner refrain.

”Providence 1e sores" is called a ballads in the unusoript. but
is actually a virelai (nasple 23).6
Example 23

   
   
 
   

31;- vi- -cc Ia
m'h en - cli —- 02’ a sa- m} gas dc: "
e I 0
1" ' ""3 m’a dc:- genes on des-

né I. For -¥a- nc par- man dc: - my

   

en- ha - i, no not gas 50/ - 6 mar my,

 

fa- i‘e m’a 1919- A.’. Valh- ncj/oi-rc m’onf

       

     

1. dan- tie/~13 J clone, J's VD} gas 520'

6. Gennrich. Rondeaux, Virelays und Balladen. I. 295-297.

Maple 23 (oont'd.)

  

 
 

I»- my tea—24c Iu'lwnvncar 5.74 W

A

 

 
        

DE — C ) 5/. AC, I’d“ - "C $64.6 fut. ”C .

2. Ferment no doi doulouser

de ce qu'envay
tele dam d'espouser.

Des adonc clay.
Trap m vint fole pensee,
quant ce chenin chenille;
j'eusse fait mllieur Joumée
d'avoir non clos rebiné.

Providence”,

3. C'est mrveflles a center

do co qu'enveyr

l'osay; do trop heut mater
doit l'on plus chair.

Cele en est vers noi inee,

do co lo chief enclin 6,

most d'endurer tel haohiée

con per 11 yert terniné.

Providence...

As George A. Harrison has pointed out.7 the piece would necessarily
be considered a. ballads were the initial statement of the refrain not

included. Harrison proceeds to suggest that this is evidence that the

7. Wises, George Meander. jr.. The Mongzlgonic Mimic in the
Roman do Fouvel, diss.. Stanford University, 1 3. 95.

 

45

virelai evolved from the ballads . The fact that these two forms are
closely related has long been recognized. German nusicologists in
particular often describe the virelai in term of the Minnesinger
barform. which most likely developed from the ballade. The bar was
generally a one-strophe composition in the form aab. in which the 5
sections are called the Stollen. and b is called the m. Related
to this terminology is Gennrich's practice, in which the parts of the
virelai are called Refrain, Stollen. Gegenstollon, and Strophenabschluss.8
However, there are exceedingly few ballades which show the unexpanded
for-n aang most have stanza structures considerably more complicated.
Furthermore, most ballades and virelais before the fourteenth century
show a difference in musical treatment, the virelai being generally
more syllabic and simple. Also. the virelai tended to internix lines
of various lengths, 'while the ballads is much more often isom‘tric.9
These facts would seem to indicate separate origins.

At any rate, "Providence 1e sense" is remarkably similar to the
two virelais of Jehannot do l'Escurel, “Deuce incurs” and ”Die tans
Plus.” discussed above. Once again we have found a four-lino refrain
rhyming abab, three strophes, and the 3am rhyme scheme in each
strophe. Reaney adnits the possibility that some of the Ml pieces
were by l'Escurel, a supposition supported by comparison of details

of poetic and musical constrlulctionf"0

 

8. e.g., in Des Altfranz'osischo.... 113.
9. Apel, JANE VII, 1951}, 123.

10. Rooney, “The Development. . ," Fostschrift Fellerer‘,’ #24-
425.

46

The other piece from the Roman do Fauvol which is of interest
here is "Deuce et de tout noble affairs," given as sample 21+.“
Example 24

 

V

30?" e+\—/ de ma nobles—Fai— m,

    

      

$945“ /\/ fads —— .Sduf NIL

n’as -— scu- 1‘cz

 

Dance at de tout noble affairs,
n‘assentoz,
qufen languissanLnoncrcors s'uze on vous servir.

Lonc temps de cuer sans noffaire
ai sorai par douleur traire

3a tempt”.
s'amnt doit par ce nul jour bien deservir.

Douce...

mques no vous diagna plains

:01 air n'a vous atraire.

otplus sui par tel contrairo

tourmontoz, . .. ,

quant vers vous no veul oncor plus asservir.

Deuce. . .

 

11. Gennrich'," Londeauxkvuelazsgpidjalleden, I, 301-302.

47

De vous prior, debennaire,

do secours no no puis tairs.

s'en priant sanz fans tour fairs

no sentez

pour grace enquierre endurant sanz mosservir.

Deuce . . .

This is another example of a m'brid form. The text may be dimmed

A8132610 at8a 8 38b3° 10 ABBBCIO'

bosungtothonmsicofthebeginningofthorefrain (thisistheenly

Since the fourth and fifth lines are to

line which fits metrically), we have here a rondeau with the refrain
expanded to three lines. However, there is no inner refrain; and the
piece has three strophies. Also, the heterogeneous metrical structure
is more characteristic of the virelai than of the rondeau.

The rendeaux, ballades, virelais and leis of Guillaume do Machaut
are in a certain sence an anachronisn. In theme and content they are
similar to the compositions of the trouveres. and in that respect result
in a somewhat nostalgic atmosphere. This seem to apply especially to
the Lois and virelais. All of Machaut's rondeaux are polyphonic, as
are all but one of the ballades; on the other hand, twentyfive of the
thirty-three virelais. as well as most of the Leis. are monophonic. 12
0f the eight polyphonic virelais, seven are written in only two parts:
this in an era in which three-voice polyphony was established as the norm.
As in previous time, the virelais are more syllable than the rondeaux

and ballades. When mellsm does occur. it is nest often at cadence

 

12. This is problematic. because it has recently been discovered
that groups of three strophes of lay 19 combine to form three-part
polyphony. Others of the lays are canonio.. See Hasselmn and walker
in Musics. Discipline XXIV, 7ff.

48

points, a practice reminiscent of the twelfth-century conductus.13
Thus the virelais are written in a style which is generally much
simpler than that of the rondeaux.and ballades.

l It should be noted that Machaut, in his Remede do Fortune. re-

 

christened the virelai "chancen balladée." This was. according to
Machaut's pupil Eustacho Deschamps, because of the great similarity
of the ballads. The new term.never gained acceptance; apparently
not even the loyal pupil used it consistently.

The use of first and second endings became widespread in the
Are Nova. and the nature of the virelai allowed for much utilization
of this device. Since all of the refrains in Machaut are expanded
to three lines or more. this expansion also appeared in the other
parts of the form. Later examples. however. tend to limit the use
of first and second endings to the Stollen.1u

Formally, Machaut's virelais exhibit more variety than do his
rondeaux.and ballades, though all have three strophes. .Among the
monophonic ones. refrains consist of from.threo to eight lines. with
four- and six-line refrains in the majority. All of the eight-line
15

refrains and some of those of six lines are produced by a repeat

with first and second endings. This is illustrated in Example 25.16

 

13. Reaney. Gilbert. Guillaume do Machaut, 1971. 35.
in. Ibid.. 36.
15. Nos. 7. 12, 19 and 27 of Schrade's edition.

6 16. Schrade. Leo. Eolyphonic Music of the Fourteenth Century. III.
195 t 1770

49

The text follows the schem ABAuB¢8A437c7c3b7c7c3b7 a8a4b7a8a4b7 A8. . .
This includes a favorite device with Machaut. tint of utilizing a rhyme

common to both the refrain and the Stollen. This device eliminates some
of the form's similarity to the ballade; only Virelai 1 has completely
new rhymes in the Stollen.17- "Helas! et comment” also uses the old

second rhythmic mode alnost exclusively, another conservative elemt

which is present in mny of the virelais.
Example 25

    
 
   

 

 
      
     
 

rpi- c
FIT/“9”“

 
    

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a —
anan‘ Pei - r: we. pm: $1“

   

 
 
  

           
  
  
 
 
   

 
  
  

oeu— dour
dou-

— roif

o"- 0g

2. 106 ~ 1'»ch no A: 5 NC :a’
3. Pour c3 ’a~dc.s,5onsdc-/ , 4 l’c -

a; no Vi"?! ”3 ”’5
Ali/lg VJ OOI‘C) Dé" Inc, V0

   
 
  

   
   

       
    
 
       

Can?

  

     

kn}: 4? V0445 J'Ia -ou.r;
d‘a- volr v‘oa- 1% do - lea/j

         

 

ll CA"/ . 0“ V0“ {Wef- m'a - nu:- e E" 46-06::
. 30"} 5: Mn: a- mum ”é”. .' "if- c) J: Jar-4w ‘8
Mon cuer of 'fi'cm‘ on. I._ mar. v/ DC.
dour-

Lon~ gas-no“ 84g *8”: 8r-

 

17. Ibid” 167.

50

2. Nonpourquant tant com vivray.
Vous seray
Loyaus. sans penser folour,
Et vostre gentil corps gay
Serviray
Humblemont et a s'onnour;
Si que durer no porroie,
So n'avoie
Confort do vostre valous
Centre desir qui guerroio
Et mistroie
Mon cuer et tient on langour

gages! et comment.._.

 

3. Las il tient on tel essay
Mon cuer vray
Que jo no scay lo piour
Esliro des Inns que tray:
Tant en ay,
Et tent desir 1e retour
Ver vous. dame simple et coie,
0r n'ost voie
Que puisse trouver no tour.
Et dou pis qu'Amours n'envoie,
C'est que soie
Loing do vo faitis atour.

Holes! et connnent. . .

 

Thirteen of the monophonic virelais use only two rhymes: the same
is true of all of the polyphonic ones. while this is a feature ren-
iniscent of the rondeau. no gesture toward an inner refrain is made.
One such piece is Example 26.18 The text proceeds in the pattern
AwhAlFAltB? a7auaub7a7auaub7 auahauaub7 Aw... Here we have a
favorite metrical scheme , the exclusive use of four- and seven-syllable

lines. This feature also appears in Virelais 16. 24. 26. 29 and 33.

thereby pointing out another contrast with the rondeaux and ballados.

 

18. Ibid.. 184.

51

in which Mohaut prefers a decesyllabic line. Evident in this sample
is the newer duple tine and prolation, found as well in nine other of
the virelais.

Ennple 26

    
     

I”! Tm} m; 730- mar 55% m dzs' 52:,“ Eu ”“5 a.‘
4‘. Ce {ah‘dm- 6/61“ 157‘ cm bra- Scr 57‘ a— 50-

 
      
 
     

 

mer EI‘ hon- noa— —n:r/nadoa cccoc- a- -¥u- re.
yar- Par dc —— Sl'f‘dr‘ ”ion a— —mmvrcuscar-¢u.—- "€-

   

      

      

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

31.L/on «1,3185 me: yea! 522- 014— /£:r 3e re- 3““: -4" 57‘
3. 41¢ P05 ”64L man war 05'— fcr ‘b’a-dcs f}
L L 1
° . 7L :W n , { t D ) 1 fl
IL I 1 I

l v

35’ ’23- m/ -/~cr- Vofat- 1‘5 :paur—h’ai-fit -— n:

9 r0 V13 C/cr 51‘ 3 yo ban-fa pa— re.

2. this, tent con porrey durer,
Le wail porter
Et nndurer
Hunblenent, sans hidure.
Ne je ne vous quier rouver
Gmrredmmer
Ne denoustrer
Quejo la tieme a dime:
Car trop parlor
Pact noult grover,
. “ -_.~ Et‘refuser
Feroit crever
Mon cuer de sa pointure.

Tnit 111011861. 9

52

3. Si que,’ tree belle sens per.
Que voy pesser
Et sermtor
Tonto oeuvre do Reture.
u no no doit pea blaster,
Se non penser
Ay sans feusser
His et touts 3 euro
h vous leer.

En vous gender,

In vous color,
h vous douter.
Ger (Post no. nozreture.

Tuit sips-er,“

Vinleie 13 an iii are for-.11: imgulsr. Their mice]. ton is
com.” Textueny they seen to be We. but they are hissing the
repetitien at the rennin mic which is nor-.1 in heheut's helledes
(app). Stylisticelly they are cleser to the visenis with their pse-
doninently eyllsbic settings. MID 27 is Vireisi illv, "J'eil sens
20

penser. "

unple27

 

as”; m peawbI’-l4¢-n of a, lonct’qa a-me’ eel/c

 

”assess- h- rem-f newest/,4; W Arlene-a-

 

fi<~ no dIm-neur a Jar-mm- {.3’. 2 it??? eta-n: sans mc-susre

"Wt" jaw-4w?

 

p 19. It is difficult to account for Reeney's renrk (in lichen-t.
p. 37) thet YHusieelly, they ere just like the other virelsis.“ Porhepe
this is intended to refer only to stylistic treetnent.

20. Schnde. n, cit“ III, 171+.

53

Ennple 27 (cont'd. )

IT’

 
 
 

 

 

n’c/Ie. "’8 P’.' *3 Mrgwoéutg.

2. So. miere seuro,
donce et simple, e. non gre,
et la. riche faiture
do ea. plaisant biaute
par leur douce pointure
ren'ont conquis et outro.

01‘ West dmw

3. this co n'est pas droiture
qu'oinsi pour loyaute
soie s dosconfiture.
car j'ay sans faussete
a. dam netto et pure
servi et honnouro.

g; n'ost duroup
It is perhaps surprising flut'i'sorhnhn plays a very 8.9.11 pert
in Hachsut's polyphonic rondeaux, hellsdes and virelais. Of all these
compositions only one ballads is isortnrthmic.21 Many of the two-voice

virelais ere sinilar in texture to the thirteentht—oentury notet, with

long note-values predominating in the tenors, as in multiple 28."?2

 

. 21. Rooney. Gilbert, ”The Ballad”. Bandeau: end Vilereis of
Guillaume do Reheat: Melody, Rhythn and Porn,” Acts Musicolpgice,
mIID 1955' 53e

22. Schrade. 92. cit... III, 187. Virelais 21F, 29, 32. and to a.
lesser extent 26 are similar in this respect.

Ennple 28

iacan dj-a- mam“

 

All of tho polyphonic virelais have six- or seven-line refrnins,
end all utilise only two rhynos. Renney hes theorized that the longer
strephes ere found in the lnter compositions,23 and so we my conclude
that the polyphonic virelais are, genernlly spanking. nture products.

Example 29 is Virelni 32.2“ with the verse pntten A8A835B7‘835

b7b7‘6b7b7‘6 n8n8b5b7e8b5 A8.... Though the toner of this piece can--
tributes very little te the rhythnic activity. the descending stepwise
netive of the opening four hers is used proninently in both voices. The
piece is else renrknble for the cadences. which are like deninsnt-
tonic progressions, in neesures 26 and 30. This is n technique not in
general use until the enrly fifteenth century.

Example 29

. /
/.5 De rm 3/ 0311- r— 1‘6 - C

+.'Car /e:- a; doc-— con~ Ar- 1‘6 - 3;

 

 

23. Rooney, Gilbert. ”The Poetic Fern of Mneheut's Musical
Works.” Musics Discipling XIII, 1959: 35.

21+. Schrndd. op, cit“ III, 191.

55

Exnnple 29 (cont'd.)

fix sitar-Sc n’u-
53- 2‘? km: W: 3;?

fl) man 6448'; am~ ' cc/ '0‘” c
Mars J6 me Can .. £ff2- gm 1‘

v . 2.318.!) fair: 67‘ a ‘ Volr‘ cuer
ray. 3.30M //°e d /o - au/z Sc -

I7?"

6651‘ find; flu: n’6m- Par- {-3. ray) 3! {It-r7 A;

51‘ /c - fraz— n: F:—

 

Example 29 (cont'd.)

 

3.

f7.

e" 3.: ma ale-57‘}

Si que gaye no tenrny

Ne 3e. no le guerpirsy
Hours no journée,

Car on costs pol sonny.
Fore tent que je undirey
Longue denourée;

S'onneur et sa. renonnée,
Qui "tout passe" est sppellée.
Toudis gardeny,

E‘t tent con duror porrny
Plus que creature nee

Li obeymy.

Dye tout sui si emerge";

A insi riens no soufferay
N'n chose no penseray
Qui ne

Et 1e temps oublioray.
Tent que revenir vemy
D'estrnngo contréo

Li qui trep plus n'sfie.
Servi, gardee, honnourée
Que nulz; bion 1e scny.
Pnys et foy li porterey.
Pour co qu's li sui donnéo
De fin cuer ot my.

p. tout sui s1 confortée...

57

It is apparent that in the works of Guillaume do Machaut we
can at last speak accurately of three fornes fixes in French secular
nusic. The three ferns were essentially established prior to Machaut,
but it was he who. at least in a quantitative sense. raised the virelai
to an importance equal to that of the rondeau and the ballado .25 Machaut
also established the practice of setting these forms polyphonico.lly.26

There are stylistic features which distinguish the virelais from
the other secular compositions, so that it any be said that the virelais
are generally simpler. and include fewer of the innovations of Machaut's
era. Also. they display a greater variety with regard to poetic
technique than do the rondeaux and ballades.

The late fourteenth century after Pachaut produced an amazingly
large number of French secular music. alnost exclusively polyphonic.
The Papal court at Avignon no a particularly active center of music
and poetry. Interestingly enough. sacred music plays a lesser role in
this period. even it Avignon. Apel has divided the period into three
styles: the Machaut Style. 1350-1370; the Manneristic Style. 1370-
13903 and the Modem Style, 1390-ilt00.27 These dates are of course

approximte and overlap a great deal.

The Machaut Style is characterized chiefly by rhythnic unity:

—25. Dealing, Holfgang, Die hehrstwn Balladen, Rondeaux und
Virelais von Guillaume do Machaut. 1970, 1.

26. Apel. Hilli, French Secular Coupositions of the Fourteenth
Century, I. niii.

 

 

..27. Apol. “1111, French Secular Music of the Late Fourteenth
Century. 1950, 9-1“.

58

”There never is any radical departure fron the rhythmic formulae
presented in the initial measures."28 the of the conposers whose
works clearly typify the hchaut Style is Solage, who my indeed
have been a pupil of Enchant.” Maple 30 is from Solage's "Tros

”30 The conservative use of long note-values in the tenor

gentil cuer.
and contratenor is shown in Exanple 30.a. The end of the refrain and
and end of the Stollen are unified by nusical rhyne (30.1). and c.).

a device cannon in hehaut's virelais.31

trample 30.a.

2‘ m”; Aonr noa— ref d‘fihc rl'r,

 

 

28. gig” 10.

29. _I‘_b_i_t_1_,_. io.

30. _I‘3_ig_,_. sot-61*.

31. Reaney. "The Ballades. headache: and Virelais....." 50.

59

Ennple 30.b.

Ned fro ole—sir a- stir J6 M ‘m’. -

 

mmple 30.0.

 

60

Ennple 31 is an anonynous virelai fron the Codex Ivrea. Bibl.
capitolare 115.32 On first glance there is a decided sinilarity to
Exanple 25. especially in the sinple two-voice texture and the use of
nodal rhythm.

Example 31

/.5'. Be- nor .3 a- Gee/Cr gui me Iroh‘

4f (23/ J’aj per- IuJofC -— -— ..—

Por— +u- la bc—Ic Plus c/u; n:
god'sdcm‘oa mi' . ncpucfdu-rer a In— c:

er- du [aux n: .
gig- '2’: dc aniific’ par droif.

nc fa; Pars aspan' or. 0" mam‘ J.‘
no mam M eds lc- var 0a.: fram‘ Jba—

 

 

32. Apel. Flench Secular eggpositions.... III. 7.

61

Exanple 31 (cont'd.)

' If

    

a I. 73" /cr fn au- can ”Cu SC-Cm-‘fc- mem‘.
08 '6 VIP 55/; Ghanf

a? per- la /’o-nardb-— mom‘.

’3

 

The hanneristic Style is prinrily known for its extreno complexity.
especially rhythnic. Apel has consented on the sinilarity to twentieth-
century rhythnic techniques.33 In the sons paragraph he writes. “If
rhythnio independence of the single line is considered the min prereq-
uisite for true polyphony.... one will have to concede that the poly-
phonic idealwas wasnever noro fully approximted than in the late fourteenth
century. " The Manneristic Style is especially strong in French works

of Italian composers at Avignon. such as Mathew do Perusio and Anthonello

 

33. Apol. French Secular Music.._., 11.

62

do Caserta. Exanple 32 shows the opening of a virelai by the forner.3u
Ennple 32

1-
fl“ j’aym Saar

 

Of course, French conposors also wrote in the Hanneristic Style.
and there was leach activity in Spain as well. For example. Jacob
Senleches was a conposer who worked at the court in Barcelona. The
beginning of the Stollen of his virelai "no gracieux tanps” is given

as Maple 33.35 in which the rhythnic organization is clearly

 

3“. Ibid“ 9*.
35. Apel, French Secular Ominous“... I. 175.

63

Innnoristic .

Ennple 33

 

Another virelai by Senleches appears in manuscript as a puszlo
canon in the shape of a harp (maple 310.36 Canon was certainly

nothing new in the fourteenth century. The shoe. in France and

the caccia in Italy were constructed canonically. The device.

 

36e Ibme 9 176e

6#

however, lent itself particularly well to the Manneristic Style.

Example 3!

l0 — df-C Pai— 1‘6

 

Apel defined the Modern Style in term of an abandonment of unner-

istic intricacies in favor of sinplicity and "natnnlness of expression.”37
Though this is often sinilar to the earlier Hachaut Style , the groundwork

is here um for the magic of the Burghndian School. A feeling for

 

3?. Apel, French Secular Musioy" 13.

65

chordal progression begins to emerge, and the rondeau takes precedence
as the preferred vernacular fora. Later works of Natheus de Perusio.
for example, show this stylistic change. There are often instrumental
preludes. interludes and postludes set off by rests. and short points
of initation are occasionally found.38 Example 35 is a virelai of
Perusio which has an instrunental prelude, and an interlude in measures
25-28; note also the initation in neasure 29.39

Elm-91¢ 35

 

 

38. Apel. French Secular Geranium... I, m.
390 Ibidsg 115-1160

Maple 35 (cont'd.)

You: 33- chc’:
61'“. a: - :e’J

 

m

    

di- ner- 2 Vous a“ 1"“ Cht‘

1‘11: per. 3. Ale me /ou- E:
-r:\ _

67

Exalple 35 (cont'd.)

mar-dik- 56"“
489% no Qua/‘1‘,

 

The virelais of the late fourteenth century often tend to be mach
more folkish or pastoral than the other form. Regular four-bar phrases
in the nusical settings often contribute to this general tone. A large
number, neatly from northern France. incorporate onouatopoetic devices ,
especially bird-calls; these are known as ”realistic virelais.“ me
such piece is "Par naintes fey" by Johannes Vaillant, active in Paris
in the 1360's. The use of bird-calls is illustrated in Maple 36.40

 

40. Ibid“ 222-223.

68

Realistic virelais uere also composed by Berlet. about when we know
little nere than that he composed for the court in Aregou. Thus this
was not entirely a phenonenon peculiar to the North.

2333910 36.a.

Cu—cu CuoCu fou 1’1: 5‘8 W."

 

 

Exanple 36.b.

724-: {11-6 {'u-c ‘D‘fl'

 

69

M10 36.b. (Cont'd.)

e o- co o-c.’ O- c:' o'ci o-ci o-ci 0- Ci H-Jo/f if d: II“ 0.4: /I'
2.

 

Though the stanza forts of the late fourteenth century virelai
differ little free those of Hachaut, the three-atrophe pattern is neat
often shortened to one. more syllabic writing had given way to a
more nellsnetle style, especially in nonnerlstle works: in addition,
the frequent use of textual repetition, notable in realistic virelais.
tended to nuke the pieces men longer. Thus mltlple stanzas resulted
in an unwieldy length. Sene scholars have suggested that additional
stanzas were omitted fro: the nmlscripts’ by the scribes, in the

70

interest of conserving space. This seems unlikely, because additional
stanzas have not been discevemd elsewhere. (lily one virelaiiin Apel's
late fourteenth-century collection has three strophes ("Pres gentil
cuer” by Solage). and there are a handful having two strophesf"1
The virelai fern is shortened in several pieces by omitting the
third section (Abgesaug). thus resulting in Abbi. Such a work is
"S'en vos por nay" by J. Alanus (Jean Alain. ca. 1370-1437. Example
37).“2
fern are anonynous, so it is inpossible to determine nether this

Most of the fourteenth-century examples of this abbreviated

pnctice had a localized origin.

Exalple 37

 

 

41. Apel. French Secular Music.... 6.

1+2. Apel, French Secular Congenitions..;. I. 1.

71

sum-pie 37 (Cont'd.)

2. Car a de:
3. For {M {as W

m: du-rcr no puis.
m

50"" En man M,- d -
° c-SII‘

 

72
maple 37 (Cont'd.)

177' {3 F2.’

0

     

J‘i— he {as ar- alas mar}.
(A

One unuscript stands sonewhat apart fren the rest of the fourteenth-

century repertoire. the IB Turine. Blbl. Nan” J .II.9. Conpoeitions of

a group of French conposers who were active on the island of Cyprus are
included . and several of the texts contain local references. The vir-
elais and random occupy the fourth section of the muscript, and all
were copied by the sane scribe, who did not work on the other sections.
All of the virelais lave only one strophe. Hoppin rejects the idea that
this was sinply a utter of space, because a few pages do have unused

43

space for additional text. It is also perhaps noteworthy that no real-

istic virelais are included here.

while those virelais tut were set to nusie in the late fourteenth
century tended toward a flit-like sinplicity and even playfulness, the

virelai. along with the rondeau and ballads. becane a purely literary

 

#3. Heppin, Richard H. , ed. , The Cypriot-French Repetery of the
Manuscript Torino, I, 1960, ix.

73

product in the hands of some writers. Machaut left a few examples of
lyric verse which he did not set to nusic, and an increasing msical
complexity nade it more difficult to taster both poetry and music in
the trouvere tradition. These purely literary virelais retained the

three-strophe pattern of Machaut. Many. such as Encample 38 by Chris-

tine de Pisan,“ repeat only the first line or lines of the refrain

after each strophe. This was perhaps merely an abbreviation, but
such poems occasionally appear side by side with virelais in which

the entire refrain has been written out.

Example 38

En ce printemps gracieux

D'estre gai suis envieux
Tout a l‘onnour

De ma dame, qui vigour
De ses doulz yeulz

Me donne, dent par lesquielx
Vifs en badour

Toute riens fait son atour
De mener joys a son tour.
13018 et pres tieulx
Sent, qu'ilz senblent do verdour
Estre vestus et de flour
Et qui nieulx nieulx.

Oysiaulx chantent en naint lieulx;
Pour 1e tenps delicieux
‘Et plain d'edour
Se nettent here do tristour
Jeennes et vieux;
Tous neinent et ris et jeux
Ou temps paschour.

En ce printenps gracieux.

 

141+. Wilkins, Nigel, ed.. (he Hundred Ballades, Rondeaux and
111818.18 from the Later Middle Ages, 1%9, 93-9“.

7b

Exanple 38 (Cont'd.)
Et noy n'ay je bien coulour
D'estre gay. quant la neilleur,
Ainsi n'aist Dieux.
Qui soit. .19 acre sans erreur.
N'a autre je n'ay favour.
Car soubz les cieulx
N'a dam on biens soient tieulx;
Si doy estre curieux
Pour sa velour
D'elle servir sans sejour,
Car anieux
Ne pourroit estre hone nortieulx
De tel doulcour

En ce printemps gracieux.

Enmple 39. by I'achaut's pupil Eustache Deschanps. is uniquefw
The stanza. including two stateronts of the refrain. is only five lines
long. The fourth line is only a ”Slant rhyne" (that is, there is asson-
ance but not full rhyme) with the refrains. Most striking is the use
of two alternating refrains. There are eleven strephes. so that each
refrain appears six tines. In the last three strophes a fall rhyme is
finally mde between the refrain and the previous line.
Maple 39

Sui 3e. sui 3e, sui 5e belle?

11 no senble. a non avis,.
Que j'ay beau front at doulz viz

Et la bouche vermeillette;

Dittes may as je suis belle.

J 'ay vers yeulx. petis sourcis,
Le chief blont. le nez traitis,

 

1+5. Ibis... 79-80.

75

Exanple 39 (Cont'd.)
Rent nenton. blanche gorgette;
Sui je, sui je, sui 5e belle?

J'ay dur sain et hault assis.
Lona bras. gresles doys aussis

Et par le faulz sui greslettez
Dittes noy se je suis belle.

J 'ay bonnes rains. ce n'est vis.
Ben dos. bon cul de Paris,

Cuisses et gambes bien faictes;
Sui je. sui je. sui 3e belle?

J 'ay pies rondes et petis.
Bisn chaussana. et biaux habis.

Je sui gaye et joliette;
Dittes say so je suis belle.

J'ay nantiaux fourlez de gris.
J'ay chapiaux. j'ay biaux proffis

Et d'argent uinte espinglette:
Sui je. sui je, sui je belle?

J 'ay draps de soye et tabis.
J'ay drape d'or et blans et bis.

J'ay minte bonne chosette:
Dittes may so do suis belle.

Que .xv. ans n'ay, je vous dis;
Moult est nes tresors jolys.

S'en garderay la elevette;
Sui je, sui je, sui je belle?

Bien devra estre hardis
Gila qui sera mes amis,

76
Example 39 (cont'd.)

Qui are. tel damoiselle;
Dittes may as je suis belle.

Et par Dieu je li plevis
Que tresloyal, se je vis,

Li seray. si no chancelle;
Sui je, sui je, sui je belle?

Se courtois est et gentilz,
Vaillans apres, bien apris,

Il gaignera sa querelle;
Dittes noy so je suis belle.

Italian secular msic of the fourteenth century. like that of
France. had three predominant ferns: the mdriga . gag-:9; and ballata.
The ballata was discussed above , and fourteenth-century emmples tend
to be quite regular in fora. corresponding to the scheme Abbaa. Most
are written in two or three voices. but there did not seen to be any
strong tradition governing the number of stanzas; the mjority have
only one. while the French polyphonic virelais occasionally had texts
in the tenor or contratenor. this is extrane1y rare in the ballata.

lbny ballate show a nelisnatic style which my indeed have some his-r..-

torical relationship to chant or aelismtic organ‘un.“6

mample 1m is a work of Francesco landini, notable in that it has

 

“6. Reese, o cit , 371.

77

four strophe."? The style here is relatively plain, avoiding the
heavy use of syncopation which was so predoninant in conteaporar'y
French music. There does appear to be a hocket-like effect in the
cadences of the piedi. and this is perhaps a French influence.

Exanplelto

(a. line comes c
{'6 m4": fa: m

vir- —

,9}-
Cam- baf'

w'r uh? cor-re chi rao/
\ e 0 \
7/2? 7‘03") 3 Wm foepld 5

-' uc/ Che “M'
g: a" ,3] if? jet—gm w‘: fa {3 b.

 

 

“7. Schnade, M, IV, #2.

'78

Maple #0 (cont'd. )

53 E Cl. [-de9 — .
In Fl'n C56 . all’

 

Maple #1. free "I' piango, lasso!“ by the sane composer. shows
a nuch lore elaborate settimf"8 In l+1..b.. note the syncepation which
creates a poyrhythnic effect.

 

#8. Ibid, . 61.

79

manple Mun.

/a:-50’/

 

Maple 41.b.

Elamp/e 146.

[this] ’

 

D. The Virelai in the Fifteenth Century

The year 1400 marks a division here only for purposes of cmvenience.
Of course. some of the composers discussed previously were active well
into the fifteenth century; conversely. some men whose works are discussed
below composed before the end of the fourteenth century. Moreover. as we
have seen. the last decade of the fourteenth century brought with it
stylistic changes which foreshadowed techniques of the mid-fifteenth
century.

Few clear-cut examples of the virelai are to be found in the first
half of the fifteenth century. The great najority are found in the
Phnuscript Oxford, Bodleian Library, Canonici Misc. 213. which contains
ten virelais, five of which are anonymous. Reaney has conjectured that
the dates of the pieces contained in this source range from 1380 to

1430. so any precise chronology is difficult}

The only virelai which

is orthodox in form and whose authorship can definitely be ascribed is
”So j'estoye aseii'ree" by Haucourt (Johannes de Alto Curie), who is known
to have been in the service of the Papal court at Avignon. Thie piece

is unreadable family, having a five-line refrain and three-line
Stollen. There is one strophe. a procedure which was cannon by this tin.
The tenor is very sinple. and the contratenor provides rhythmic interest
only briefly. The texture is very close to the treble-dominated style

of the Burgundian School (see Maple #22). There is some rhythnic

 

1. Reaney, Gilbert, "The )hnuscript Oxford, Bodleian Library.
Canonici Misc. 213,” b_tusi_ca Discipline. Di, 1955, ?# and 77.

2. Reaney. hrly Fifteenthientury Music . II, American In-
stitute of Musicology. 1959. 36-37.

80

81

conplexity in that the treble often has triplets set against duple
divisions in the lower voices, but this is mild coup-red to the
unneristic polyrhvtlm in others of Hancourt's compositions (e.g..
the rondeau, "Se doit 11 p1us"3).

Ennple 42.8..

 

 

3. 1112;. II: 34-36.

manplo #23:. (Cont'd.)

 

Three unusual pieces survive among the secular works of Guillaume
le Grant. about whom almost nothing is known. All are in the form A33.
The mnuscripts of the time are extremely varied in the notation of
repeats, and so prehaps the first section was neant to be repeated.
resulting in Abbi, a shortened virelai for: of which any fourteenth-
century examples exist. Many of the rondeau: of contemporary composers
are preserved with incolplete texts, and so the possibility also exists
that these are actually inconplete Abbot form. Nevertheless. Remy

does not dismiss the possibility that the intended form is A33, and

83

therefore has little if any connection with the virelai.“

One of these chansons, ”Or event, gentilz fillettes,” has the
text in all three voices. Especially interesting is the use of rhythnic
imitation alnost throughout , with the contratenor following the hono-
rlwthnic tenor and treble. Willy. the piece belongs to the
Middle Ages, but the texture is more akin to Renaissance styles (see

Marple 43

0r 3400': fit-1"": 3/ — lei‘ - hr,

01- awed,” . I’d-lef-

 

 
  
 

Or a- waif-£72 37' k/- 3’85,

de M A’s—rcz- vous ole—pea“?

dance mars-Jess: mar— hour

in; dc f“? fo-mz—uao Pea“ ? (5..“ may: do .2: mar—

 

! dc 2‘07 Fe-rcz - was cAa-peaux?

(bro: nay-slam 09”“ 793‘“

 

a, man 11. iv.
5. Ibid“ II. 50-51.

Exanple #3 (Cont'd.)

3 fol-C, la: W"- 0" IC?‘ — 'I'CJ’: morf 50"“- I./ dc

3+a-c’ la: y}, ,0ch5: mon‘ Soh‘- i/ la

 

3 'hl'é-S IE: w" 0" /d' RS: mom‘ 591.7" -- 17 de

in ccsf a - vp'l 8: jours 6m,
05- ppm ou-lr oy- 5c - aux

fcaax/ En as! $4”? ‘5 '
cf Par M’ll‘ 63-56

 

-e-

‘3.’ En cuff 34",” :5 J‘our: beam,
d pear Old-Ir og- e:-— au;

16le

can - feast!

IT

 

34:? au 60": par flea-peas! -.- > - -
“wk, br/a- 4a, m. dam pour am 1., doc-fa: rd hr

630‘“, a-Ic’:au6.' . '4‘ .
w Men—1‘0- sd‘ Pm" Wm" ' Flaw-rd fa

. 6 O r 1‘13““ x ;/./r ‘f - -
Chin-Ive; i§./:iz;) (”0.71:3qu Wane I 1314 I?! ”oar re!

7—

85

Example 43 (Cmt'd.)

[7.

0" dc eel-k: Cfian— Son - net‘- 743:.

deem a‘ dc bah/cs 6/9164»- net- v‘ex.

 

d d: (SC/J“ Cbn— son— new‘ ’ ~25.

By sons indeternimte date before 1’60 the virelai lost its formr
stylistic distinction from the rondeau and the ballads. Line-lengths
were no longer so varied within the stanza. for example. The deeasyl-
labic line which had been established by Hacknut in his rondeaux and
ballades became predominant in the virelai as well. The verse structure

of one of the anouwnous virelais of the 16 Oxford is representative:

6
A101311131o“11"1o"1o"1o"1o"“1o‘°11"10"‘11“i0° ° °

Also. the subject-mtter was no longer clearly differentiated. nearly all
secular songs falling into predictable amorous memes.

The composers of the so-called Burgundian School devoted more of
their creative energies to sacred nusic than had fourteenth-century
composers. and consequently secular nusic is less important in the whole
corpus of works we possess. Giles Binchois is an excepticn, and although

 

6. See Ibid.. Iv. 60-61.

86

virelais are among his works. rondeaux and through-composed chansons
are much more numerous. We also have virelais of Cream, Busnois,
Dufay and others of lesser fans. The form gradually became known as
the bergerette. which is generally defined as a one-strophe virelai.
The term itself indicates a pastoral association, but this is apparently
only an echo of the form‘s previous cmracter, inasmuch as the texts
show little differentiation from those of other genres. Apel raises
the possibility that earlier bergerettes are simply virelais, two
stanzas of which have not been preserved.7

Treatises of the late fifteenth century treat the bergerette (as
well as the rondeau) rather differently from those of earlier tines.
They generally speak of the parts of the form as separate stanzas, so
that the refrain, Stollen and Abgesang constituted three stanzas. and
the repetition of the refrain constituted a fourth. This was also done
with respect to the rondeau. The bergerette thus was spoken of as a
variant ofthe rondeau inwhichthe second stanzadepartedfronthe
rhyme scheme and misical setting of the rondeau, omitting the internal
refrain.8 This view is essentially identical to Gennrich's nethod of
deriving the virelai from the rondeau.

Maple M» is a bergerette of Nicole Grenon. who composed both in

 

7. Apel. Harvard mummy of Music, 2nd ed.. 1969. 91.

8. See Linker. Robert and theek, Gwynn 8.. “The Bergerette For:
in the Laborde Clensonnier.” Journal of the American Musicological
Societ , V11, 1954. 113-120, and Porle. George. ”The Chansons of Antoine
Busnois,” Music Review, XI, 1950, 89-97.

87

Italy and at Galbrai. where be my have taught Dufay.9 Insofar as verse
structure is concerned. Grenon seem to have reverted to a technique of

helmet. that of using only two rhyme:

A9 A9 39 139 A9 b9 b9 a9 b9 b9 a9 a9 a9 b9 b9 a9 A9....

Example 114

/.5. La p/us bcI/e
.9...’

 

 

. Harix. Jean, Les Musicians de la Cour dc 3W
Schle. 1937. u-s.

Exalple M (Cmt'd.)

be, ("851‘ ma dué

re dam: of mast fits —

 

89

Maple M (Cmt'd.‘)

dofnsr, did]! 31‘

.9.

'9-

2.6’es/ M m b/au,c’cs1‘ ”3, dc ’

 

Exaxple 1m (Cont'd.)

 

Ennple M (Cont'dJ

 

3. Quiservirrueilsusnuldestresse
De cuer taut que voglie nee Jesse:
ll'en oe nude d'autre n'ay euro.

4. Fern: is set dieux de nature
Balns. blons. tout par assure.

Playsannnt. y junta jesnesse.
Iargesse . honour. touts noblesse
En fais. on dis et en parleure.

Iaplus...

The bergerettes of Busnois and May. «like the above exanple. all
museums instansatwo (Stollen). on ofthefourmttenbythe
latterlacksthetextforstensatizree. andsopossiblyweheve herethe
fern Abba which had been relatively eon-on in the late fourteenth cen-
111111.

”Do as hhulte" seen to be unique aneng fifteenth-century virelais.
Here Dufay returns to the earlier style of netric variety: A9353¢10A539
°9du etc. Also. the fern is expanded by the inclusion of two extra.
stanzas. one corresponding to stone two (Stollen). and the other to

%

stanza three (Abgesang). The fern is thus Abbabbaa. The entire piece
is given as Enmple 16.10

Maple 145

{c c} ban—he a— vea-

m’a par -
/

 

 

10. Dufay. 9212a Omia. ed. Heinrich Bosseler. VI. 1964, 4142.

Example #5 (Cont'd.)

Fal'f ou- yer» 7‘“ -—

’ — me 41:53 n' die: —-
D: /68‘ 7&3

 

Examle 45 (Cont'd. )

 

95

3. Ce plaisir m paist et contents
Sans decevoir.

L». J 'ai confort doux pour douleur dure:
Choix de mistresse
Et secours de plaisant iosnesse,
Oubiens de grace et de nature
Sont sans mesure
Es pars d'outrageuse largesse.

5. Bel acueil enth es presents
A non vouloir

6. Et pour vieil dueiJ. jcye presents
Me fait avoir

7. Esperance n'est pas parjure
De sa prowess. ..
Car j'ay nompareille deesse
Et des biens a tel desnesure
Que ie vous Jure
Qu'aulre amer me seroit rudesse.

The works of the Burgundians reflect the rapidly rising
importance of the through-composed cinnson. This was a natural cor-
ollary of the movement toward a seamless texture which was inherently
unsympathetic to the refrain forms. The bergerette occasionally app-
cared among works of Flemish composers of the late fifteenth century,
but was no longer a form of central importance. Many of these homer-
ettes are difficult to identify as such except by omnining the text
alone. because the music is often not closely governed by the poetic
fern. One such piece is Ebtample ‘46. found in one of the first printed
collections of msic and attributed in one muscript to 'Raulin.“ an

otherwise unknown composer. 11

 

ii. Hewitt. Helen. Ottaviano Petruccis Canti B. Numero
Cigguanto, 1502. 196?. 111-113.

Ennplellé

- 1‘:

Jé 501:3
4v

pour 61" " c307 a - my) 5; ”(7"

 

Maple 46 (Cont'd.)

 

Example #6 (Ccnt'd.)

 

M16 ’46 (Cmt'd.)

Id - is ca 150,} a - was My (’aeil — //i-

I

vi- 0- /ei" *3 pear pas- JBr 80- my.

 

100

supra 146 (Omt'd.)

Sal's {rap Jeu {id-4‘6 pour fai—

£lé‘t pres - 7L5

 

101

Example ’46 (Ccmt'd.')

 

The text 18 in the old eight-line form, but varied to Mb‘laaAA.

consisting of two strophes. The piece is based on a pre-existing
melody.” but the cantus moves between two voices. In assure 28 the
opening melody should return, according to the dictates of the form.

but it is sigxificantly varied. The second stanza should begin in
measure 16. but there is no indication of exactly how this should. be
done. Hewitt has conclmd that the piece was not intended to be sung
at all, having noted that aside from the obvious problems of underlaying
the text. there are few adequate breathing places for the singers.13

 

12. Ibmg! 330
13. 21‘1" 320

102

The anonymous "Aquis dir'elle sa pencée" is found in the same
source.“ Again we have a cantus firms in virelai form, but the
effect is of a through-composed piece. The text is quite irregular.
beeause an extra line occurs at the beginnings of the second and
third strophes. Since these lines coincide mtrically with the
second (final) refrain line, they are apparently intended to be sung
to that music. This, in addition to an irregular rhyme scheme,
produces a curious foml diagram:

Texts AB/cac/cd/AB/efef/gd/AB/hihi/jb/AB.

Only the final refrain of each strophe is clearly distinguished by
phrasing, and so the loose virelai structure becomes a very esoteric
element in the piece.”

“Adieu ms anours,“ a chanson by Josquin des Pres, has its tenor
in the form MBBAA (Example 1W).16 Reaney suggests that this is a
bergerette without the repetition of the refrain. which would produce
MbbasAA.17 This is an argueable point. It would seem that there is
no possibility that we have here another case of omitted repeat signs;
the music has no final cadence at the end of the “refrain.” Also, the
bergerette in the fifteenth-century most often had a refrain of four
or more lines, though shorter refrains are not entirely absent. But

14. Ibid,, 13‘+-137.

15. See also Heldt. Elisabeth. Franzosische Vilrglais ans den 15.
Jahrhundert, 1916, 99-100.

16. Josquin des fires, Verken, ed. Smijers, Deel II. Bundel IV,
1'30

17. Reaney, ”Das nehrstinige Virelsi," Die Musik in Geschichte
und Gegenmggt. XIII, 1807.

103

the nost obvious argumnt here is that this is sinply a sonuhat

expandedABA form. The tenor seems to be a cantus firms, and very
likelyapopnlarorfolk nelodv. innhichcaseimwouldnotbean
unusual fern. Even if one accepts Renaey's opinion, it is apparent

that the form has been so eroded as to be nearly unrecognizable.
Ennple 47

 

    
  

mend, fl-dzéa 11: you: 61? jus-fucz 5“ prxh~ hut/3:.

  
 
  
 

 
 

 

JE Sal‘s ea Sou- ci

Jc (Lung J'c VI" "33’

  
 

 
 
  

La rai- Son Parquet! jc lc vous die raj: Ia 0'35 #6 (fer-

   
 

  
  

 
 

 

find-l vi, vraj je du vent S: Pay--904 du 20:1

  
   

nc Viem“ p/u: sou- ch‘.

10’4-

Anong the very few family regular bergerettes of the‘late
fifteenth century are those of Alexamdir Agricola, of which there
are eight known at present}8 One of these is a notet-chanson,
with a Latin text included for the tenor of the refrain only.19
Though the form is recognizable here, the stanza has been expanded
to twenty-nine lines:

AMBBBA cccdcccd aaabbba. MABBBA.20
No liturgical melody has been identified as the cantus of this piece.
and the other bergerettes are apparently free of borrowed Ielodics
as well. A fully imitative texture is very close here . as is illus-
trated in Example 1+8, taken fron the three-voice bergerette "Se 36
21

vous eslonge."

Example “8.3.

1

.52: je ms «2- J/m-yc

jc was s '-

     

fsJerm c- S/on- 36

 

18. A ninth is of doubtful authorship, See Agricola. Opera 0min.
ed. Lerner. V. lmiv.

19. "L'eure est venue - Circumdederunt ne,“ Agricola. M
,Om__,_13,.o Iv! $.57.

20. Reaney. DEG, XIII, 1807.
21. Agricola. cit., V, 13—15.

105

Enlple 48.b.

 

Maple 1&8.c.

Exam/ale 4!. c.

   

ll: - lax, de. mu: m

106

The Italian ballata, somewhat altered. survived in Spain in the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries as the villancico. The refrain.
called estribillo. was sung at the beginning. and then it alternated
with several stanzas (9335). As in the ballata. each copla cmsisted
of two sections, mdsnza and w, which were identical to the piedi
and volta of the ballets. may of these were written in a chordal.
or at least honorl'uthnic. style. Apel sumests that those exhibiting

a more polyphonic texture are probably earlier.22

A large number of
villancicos display the strict virelai fern, but. like the centigas
of three centuries earlier. they were capable of a certain anoun ' of
feral variety. Sole ennples lack a textual refrain conpletely.
thoughthennsicofcomrserecunp meofthenostprolificnnd
important conposers of villancicoe. Juan del Encina. often utilized
anABBA forninwhichtherefrainwasnerelythefinalline ofthe
g section. Maple 49 is such a conposition, the text of which is
in the fern ebht cdcd the.”

Mmple 49

-?

 

 

22. Apel. W Dictionagx, 903.
23. Datison and Apel, . cit.. 100.

107

Example #9 (Cont‘d.)

da .. no: Ala pus —
023— has, ch— "/5

i

f

57 me fel-
Ala df- ra

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

.u’ — --i 2 ~ ~ 2
F vflTr/TT'T T" r T F

E: 43/ W3 —-' fa a— doe:- Grando-lar ;

d 4;] wt: 3.5;- {a no nor, 5/ m: «Pa—

in, J ,1 1 J J 4;-

flyf 1! L -4! 7?

 

 

108

Ennple #9 (Cont'd.)

_/

s Tf’

fif-ce en mi-ree _

'24 A

 

109

Contemporary with the villancico was the Italian frottole.

which retained the terminology of the ballata: however, the piedi
were sung to the refrain music, and ”volts" indicated the final refrain,
which consisted of all or part of the original refrain. plus a code.
Thus, the musical similarity was weak. Like the villancicos. frottole
were often written in a chordal style . and harmonically they helped
to bring the major-minor tonality a bit closer. 2“

By the first quarter of the sixteenth century the virelai. as
well as the rondeau and ballads. was no longer a current fern in France
and the Flenish areas. Refrain forms persisted in Spain and Italy.
but eventually died out there too with the rise of the initative
madrigal and notet. Though the villancico and frottola preserved
some aspects in common with the virelai. both were really independent
forms. In actuality. the bergerettes of the late fifteenth century

can be considered the last virelais.

 

2h. See examples in Davison and Apel. cit. , 92-98.

III. Conclusions and Summary

Apel concluded twenty years ago that the virelai was not a song
form of the thirteenth-century troqutres. as had previously been supposed.
Unfortunately, the older view persists in many more recent books.
especially general history texts. even though most authorities on the
medieval song forms now agree with Apel. There is also a general con-
sensus that it was Machaut who established the virelai as one of the
”fornes fixes.” However. there is still a degree of doubt as to the
origin of the virelai and the subsequent development of related ferns.
Perhaps the virelai finds its roots in the Arabian zajal; perhaps the
lauds. and the cantiga developed from the sane or similar precendents
in music of the Church; perhaps the earlieSt bergerettes were simply
virelais with additional stanzas omitted from the rantiscripts. This
list of possibilities is long, and the questions are unlikely to be
resolved on the basis of the documents we now possess.

It can be said that the virelai and its related forms have a
history extending roughly from the twelfth century into the sixteenth
century. The Ars Nova, however, is the period in which trat version
we now think of as the ”strict" form was used consistently. This is
true especially of the works of Machaut and his imdiate successors
in France. as well as those of the trecento composers of ballate in
Italy. While the strict virelai is found both earlier and later. this

is usually among works of great forml variety, both musical and poetic.

110

111

In the Ars Nova the virelai was characterized by a close corres-
pondence of musical and poetic forms. Three stanzas became standard,
and the verse almost always featured a great deal of metric variety.
Even here. however. a variety within uniformity exists; the diagram
AbbaA could represent almost any number of lines. because each part
constituted a small form in itself. Soon after the period of Machaut's
activity variants began to appear frequently. Abbi was common. and the
number of stanzas was no longer standardized. In the fifteenth century
the bergerette emerged. but this was at a tin when the through-
composed chanson was already becoming the preferred genre in French
secular music.

The three forms fixes required a musical setting with clearly
articulated phrases in order to be intelligible. The polyphonic stylee
of the Renaissance hastened their demise because this requirement was
no longer met. Perhaps a humanistic desire for subjective expression
also helped to account for the eventual decline of more complex poetic
ferns, but this argument seems untenable when one considers that many
Renaissance composers subjected themelves to other types of restrictive
forml complexity. Thus it seems that the change of misical style is
the chief reason for the disuse of refrain forms in French music of
the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries.

In conclusion. a list of the virelai and related forms is given
here along with a chronological diagram, in the hope that they will
assist the reader toward a clearer perception of these forms.

112

1. Ballade: A French form which probably originated in the
thirteenth century in the trouvere tradition. The initial musical
section is repeated and is followed by an indefinite number of lines.
ending with a refrain. By the fourteenth century. the ballads con-
sisted of three stanzas, each of seven or eight lines: ababch or
ababchF‘.

2. Ballata: An Italian secular polyphonic form of the fourteenth
century. It perhaps also existed earlier as a monophonic form. but
examples are lacking. The ballata corresponds to the basic diagram
AbbaA. in whichgis the ri resa‘," 3313 thepigdg (tummy. and
a is the 393.31. The poetic structure does not always exactly match
the musical form. the most common occurrence being the reversal of
the rhyme in the volta. Thus the poetic scheme is often ABbbbaAB or
AbccbaAB.

3. Befirette: The fifteenth-century designation for a one-stanza
virelai. Because each section of the form consisted of (usually)
three or four lines. they were often thought of as separate stanzas.

1+. CantE: A Spanish monOphonic song. The term refers especially

to those songs of the thirteenth century. almost exclusively Marian in
nature. which have been preserved in a collection supervised by King
Alfonso X. The virelai form ABccabAB exists in my of these. but many
variants are also found. such as ABccdbAB. The poetic structure often
differs from the musical structure. AAbbbaAA is a common textual scheme.

and this is perhaps a direct descendant of the Arabian 2am.

113

5. Frottola: An Italian form of the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries . nany examples of which approach a homophonic texture .

The form is basically AB aab A- aab A- etc. The recurrence of the
refrain includes an extension or coda. and is called 121523. The
sections of the diagram represented by a were called piedi. The
form was derived from the ballata as the terminology suggests. There
were many variants. the above form being the most common.

6. Egg: An Italian devotional song. usually Marian. These
flourished in Italy from the twelfth century to the nineteenth century.
Thirteenth century laude show a certain French influence . and a few have
the virelai form Aficcabgg. though only the underlined portions of the
diagram were in any sense constant. The terms ri sa, 1133.3. and
931.; were apparently used in connection with Jaude.‘ and so a direct
line to the fourteenth century ballata is likely.

7. Bandeau: The simphst form dates from the thirteenth century

and consists of eight lines: ABaAabAB. The repetition of part of

the refrain within the stanza is the outstanding characteristic here.
and rondeaux were almost always of one stanza only. The form retained
its popularity well into the fifteenth century. but usually in forms of
eleven. thirteen. sixteen or twenty-one lines. The rondeau was pro-
bably derived from the latin rondellus of the Notre Dene School (aAbB).
Its importance in the tronvere repertoire res been greatly exaggerated.

8. Villancico: A Spanish form of the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries. similar in msical treatment to the Italian frottola. but
closer to the ballatax AbbaAbbaA etc. The poetic form found in the

11L}

earlier cantigas is often found here: AAbbbeAA. In sixteenth-
century examples the refrain often comprises only the last line or

lines of the opening section: chcchcaB etc.

9. Virelai: A fourteenth-century French form represented by the
diagram AbbaAbbaAbbaA. Thus. the noml length is three stanzas.
The parts are often described with Gernen terms corresponding to
another version of the formal diagram. ABccabAB: AB - Refrain.

cc - Stollen. ab - {95255335. Examples before MOO. exist. but they
are few and extremely varied in forml details. Though the strict
form appears among the works of Jehannot de l'Escurel. it was
Mchaut who established the virelai as a fixed form. The virelai
was probably derived from the Spanish cantfl. and so perhaps
:lltimtely from the Arabian gage; (or 933;).

10. £25539 An Arabian (Moorish) musical and poetic form dating
from about the ninth century. The scheme is AbbbaAcccaA etc. or
ABcccAdedAB etc. This is thought to be the form which gave rise
to the cantiga in Spain. and therefore may be an ancestor of the
virelai as well.

 

 

 

Rene.

 

 

 

 

 

 

115

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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its.
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8
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BIBLICERAPHY

BIBLImRAPHY

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v. V. 1970. Anerican Institute of Musicology.

Angl‘s. Higinio. ed.. La Musica de las Cantigas de Santa Maria del
Rey Alfonso e1 Sabio. Biblioteca Central. Barcelona. 1919.

Apel. Willi. ed. . French Secular Compositions of the Fourteenth
Cent . 3 vols.. American Institute of Musicology. 1970. 1971. 1972.

. ed. . Blanch Secular Music of the Late Fourteenth Century.
Mediaeval Academy of America. Cambridge. 1950.

 

. Harvard Dictionary of Music. 2nd ed. . Belknap Press
of I-hrvard University Press. Cambridge. 1969.

. Review of Die Musik in Geschichte end Gegewart Journal of
the American Musicological SocieTl. IV. 1951. 261-262.

 

 

t. ”Rondeaux. Virelais and Ballades in French 13th-Century
Song.“ L{our-rial of the American Musicological Society. VII. 195i}. 121-
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Aubry. Pierre. Trouveres and Troubadours. translated by Claude Aveling.
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Bukofzer. Phnfred. "The First English Chanson on the Continent. Mus__i__c
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Chaytor. H.J.. The Troubadours. Cambridge University Press. 1912.

Coussenaker. Charles Edmond Henri de. ed.. Oevres Conplétes du Trouvere
Adam de la Hale. Paris. 1872.

Davison. Archibald T. and Apel. Willi. eds.. Historical Anthology of
Music. v. I. revised edition. Ibrvard University Press. Cambridge.
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D3mling.-iolfgang. Qie mehrstinmigen Balladen..Rondeaux und Virelais
von Guillaume_de Machafi. Hans Schneider. Tutzing. 1970.

Dufay. Guillaume. Opera Omia. Heinrich Besseler.ed.. v. VI: Canticnes.
‘ American Institute of Musicology. Rome. 19614.

116

117

Gennrich. Friedrich. Des glfiranz‘dsische Rondeau and Virelai im 12. und
13. Jahrhundert. Bd. III of Rondeaux, Virelays und Balladen. Langen
bei Frankfurt. 1963.

 

. @mdriss einer Fornenlehre des mittelalterlichen Liedes.
Max Liemeyer Verlag. Halle an der Sale. 1932.

. Rondeaux Virela s und Balladen. 2 vols.. publ. as Gesell-
schaft fig Romanische Literatur. Bd. 1:3. Dresden. 1921 and Bd. 57.
Gettingenfi927. '

. “Virelai: a. Das einstimmige Virelai.“ Die Musik in
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Kassel. 1966718074 11.

 

Handschin. Jacques. “fiber die lauds.” Acta Musicologica. X. 1938.
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Harrison. George Alexander. jr.. The Monophonic Music in_ the Rom
de Fauvel. diss.. Stanford University. 1967

Hasselmn. Margaret and Walker. Thom. ”More Hidden Polyphony in a
Machaut hnuscript.“ Musics. Discipline. XXIV. 1970. 7-16.

Heldt. Elisabeth. Franzesische Virelais aus den 1;. Jahrhundert. Max
Niemyer Verlag. Halls. 1916.

Hewitt. Helen. ed.. Ottaviano Petrucci: Canti B. Nunero Cinquanto.
1502. University of Chicago—1 Press. 1967.

 

Hoppin. Richard H. . ed. . The Cmiot-French Remmomof the Manuscript
Torino. Biblioteca Nazionale J II. . 4. vols. .. American Institute
of Musicology. Rome. 1960. 1&1 1% .

Joaquin des Pres. Herken van Joaquin des Pres. A. Smijers. ed.. Deel II.
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Linker. Robert w. and McPeek'.,Gwynn.S.. ”me Bergerette Form in the
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Liuzzi. Fernando. ed...Ia lauds e i Primordi della Melodia Italiana. 2
vols.. La Libreria dello Stato.1 19.3 .

Marix. Jean..1es Musicians de la Cour be Bourgogne au )(V'3 Siecle.
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Perle. George. ”The Chansons of Antoine Bussois.“ Music Review. XI.
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118

Pope. Isabel. "Mediaeval Latin Background of the Thirteenth-Century
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Reaney. Gilbert. “The Ballades. Bondeaux and Virelais of Guillaume
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1 9550 40.580

.“Concerning the Origins of the Bandeau. Virelai and Ballade
Forms. " Musica Disc_iplina. VI. 1953. 155-166.

. "The Development of the Bandeau. Virelai and Ballade Ferns
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- . ed. . hry Fifteenth-Cent” Music. 1‘. vols. . American
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. Glxillaume de Machaut. 0th0111 University Press. London. 1971.

 

."The Manuscript Oxford. Bodleisn Library. Canonici Misc. 213.”
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0. . “The Poetic Form of Macinut's Musical Works. I! The Ballades.
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."Vilelais 13. Das mhrstimnige Virelai.“ Die Musik in Gesch-
ichte und Ge mart. Friedrich Blum‘e. ed.. XIII. Bannreiter Kaussel.
1%. 1302-1§07.

 

 

Reese. Gustave. Music in the Middle Ages. Norton. New York. 1940.

Ribera. y Tarrago. Julian. Music in Ancient Arabia and Spain. translaud
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Rokseth. Yvonne. ed.. Pthgnies du XIIIe 313219. 4. vols.. Editions
de L'Oiseau-Lyre. Paris. 1%

 

Schrade. Leo.-Pomhon1c Music. of the Fourteenth Century. v. II and III:
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Wilkins. Nigel. ed.. One Hundred Balladesdondeaux and Virelais from
the Late Middle _Ages. Cambridge University Press ."1969.

. ed.. The Works of Jehan de Lescurel. American Institute of
Musicology. 19%-

11 9
GENERAL REFERENCES

Anglés. Higinio. ed.. La Musigia en la Corte de los Reyes Cat6licos. v.
II. Polifonia Profana: v. I. published as“ v. V of Monumentos de la
Musics. Espafiola. Instituto Espafi’ol de Musicologia. Barcelona. 1?.

Aubry. Pierre. Les Plus Anciens Monuments de la Musique Fungus. H.
Welter. Paris. 7.1905.

Beck. Jean. ed.. Les Chansonniers des Troubadours et des Tram/Exes.
reprinted from 1927 ed.. Broude Brothers. New York. 1961+.

Bukofzer. Manfred. “An Unknown Chansonnier of the 15th Century.”
Musical Quarterly. XXVIII. 1942. ill-1+9.

 

Chase. Gilbert. The Music of 83in. 2nd ed.. Dover Publications. New
York. 1959.

Gennrich. Friedrich. ed.. Altfranzaailghe Lieder. v. II. Max Niensyer
Verlag. Thbingen. 19560

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