Ir

‘3

ABTRACT
A DECRIP’I‘IVE STUDY OF TRENDS
IN DRAMATIC STYLES IN THE SUCCESSFUL,
SERIOUS AMERICAN DRAMA OF THE mm
311$ IN THE 1920's

by Charles Everett Lauterbach

The purpose of this study was to describe trends in dramatic
styles in the successful, serious American dramas which were produced
in the couere'ial theatres of New York during the period from 1919 to
1929- The study attunptsd to find out what the overall stylistic
trends were, what styles appeared, what the dominant style of the
period was, how frequently different styles were uployed, whether
mutations of styles appeared in plays, and what similarities or
differences were displayed in plays related to particular dramatic
“7106. The study was limited to the consideration or popular]: and
”finally successful, serious plays (tragecb, drama, and melodrama)
“191! were written by native or foreign dramatists for original pro-
duction on the Broadway stage.

A method for identifying dramatic styles was established that
Profided for a consideration of the principles, general character-
istics, and form slants or a style. The method was uployed to
fowlate criteria for identifying eight modern dramatic styles-
ROIanticism, Realism, Naturalism, Symbolism, Expressionism, Formalism,
“turns, and Surrealism.

The criteria for identifying dramatic styles were used to
We forty-six successful, serious plays selected from the American
drill of the 1920 's. The plays were selected from every third

 

 

  
  

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Charles Everett Lauterbach
theatrical season beginning with the season of 1919-1920 and ending
with the season of 1928-1929.

The stylistic analyses of the forty-six plays were compared
and conclusions drawn. While only four of ten theatrical seasons
had bean studied, it was felt that the particular conclusions reached
in the investigation were reflective of the state of dramatic styles
in all the seasons of the period. However, it was not claimed that
all the trends in style in the serious drama of the 1920's had been
discovered.

0n the basis of the data collected it was possible to make the
following conclusions .

1. In regard to style, successful, serious American drama of
the 1920's changed from a state of near uniformity at the beginning
or the decade to a state of multirormity by 1929.

2. Successful, serious plays were written in four dramatic
styles: Romanticism, Realism, Expressionism, and Naturalism.

3. Symbolism, Formalism, Futurism, and Surrealism either did
Mt appear in the theatrical seasons covered in this study or they
We not adopted by American playwrights who wrote successful, serious
Grin.

1;. Romanticism was the dominant style of successful, serious
herican plays in the 1920's. Realism was the second most prevalent
Style in the decade. Expressionism and Naturalism were minor

“711st“ movuuts.
5. A trend toward electricism was evidmt in the styles of

l”Elms dram in the 1920's.

 

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Charles Everett Lauterbach

6. Similarities and differences among plays related to particu-
lar styles varied according to the styles. Romantic plays tended to
be divided into two different groups, but the plays in each group
were inclined to be similar. Plays associated with Realism were simi-
lar in style, but some were oriented toward the element of character
and others toward the elussnt of theme. Plays related to Expression-
iel tmded to differ from each other. Dramas related to the style of
Naturalism were quite similar to each other.

7. While Realism was not the dominant style of the period, it
was a very major influence on other styles.

8. Realism was the dominant style of critically successful
drums. Romnticism was the dominant style of popularly successful
Grease. Expressionim and Naturalism were not generally accepted by
the theatre audiences of the period.

- (: it In,-
6:)c0Ernuyh

1967

Mommas
EVERETT

 

A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY OF TREES IN DRAMATIC STYLES
IN THE SUCCESSFUL, SMOKE AMERICAN DRAMA
OF THE EIOADWAI STACE IN THE 1920 '8

By

Charles Everett Lauterbach

ATKESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirments
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHMOPHI

Department of Speech

1966

ACKNOWLED CMENTS

The writer wishes to acknowledge the help and thought of Mr.
John E. Clifford and Mr. Anthorw L. Kadlec who contributed to the
“1'11 planning and research of this study which was originally
M of a Joint project to describe stylistic trends in the Ameri-
“n drua from 1919 to the presalt.

The writer also wishes to encpress gratitude to Dr. John A.
Weite of the Department of English, Dr. Colby Lewis of the
Department of Radio and Television, Dr. E. c. Reynolds of the
Want of Speech, and Dr. John E. Dietrich, fomer head of the

DMmt of Speech, for serving on the Guidance Couittee of
“‘18 stuck. A special note of thanks is due to Dr. James R. Brandon

0: the Department of Speech for his patimce and understanding as

“‘9 author's maJor adviser.
Above all, the writer would like to thank his wife for her

“Shrifice and aid which contributed so much to the completion of
“‘1. study.

 

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Ammm O 0 O O O 0 O O O O O 0 0 O 0
Chapter
I moulm O O O O O O O O 0 O O 0

II DRAMATIC 8m: DEFINITION,
METHODOLOGY, AND APPLICATION . . .

ROMANTICISH . . . . . . . . . . . . .
WISH O O O I O O O O O O O O O O 0
mm 0 O O O O O O O O O O O 0

III
Iv
v
VII 3011531me.”...
11

O O O O O O O O O O O 0

W11, manna, AND
3033mm:

II THE mu THEATRICAL

SEASQI or 1919—1920 .

.1 THE EROADHAI'THEATRICAL
SEMSON'OT l922e1923 .

1:1 THE momma THEATRICAL
SEASON or 1925-1926 .

xII THE mm: THEATRICAL
SEASON or 1923-1929 .

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26
61

103
129

163

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275

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

4-

During the third decade of the twentieth century, American
theatre audiences witnessed the early plays of such renowned native
dramatists as Eugme O'Neill, Sidney Howard, Robert Sherwood, Elmer
Rice, Harwell Anderson, and John Howard Lawson. Broadway welcomed
movations from European drama and theatre. The "New Stagecraft"
mad. scene desigl an imortant factor in American theatre. By 1928,
the number of theatres in New Iork rose to eighty. "Without a doubt
th. twenties proved that the American drama had achieved its mjority."l

The flowering of American drama in the twenties was mrked by the

a”Durance of a variety of newly imported dramatic styles. American
N, along with the dram of other nations, "became more fully aware
or style than it had heal for cmturies."2 While most innovations in

Nth style began abroad, '"many of the most able and characteristic
q‘Vdomts of particular dramatic styles" came "from the western

a“hares of the Atlantic."3
\ _

lAllardyce Nieoll, "United States of America," W

M, ed. Phyllis Hartnoll (2d ed., London: Oxford
QiVersity Press, 1957 pp. 812-813.
'1'

zJohn Gassner, Th t s (New York: Crown

bliahwa, Ince, 1951a , pe 7e

3Allardyce Nicoll, World Drfl (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and

C
° ‘ . 191.9). p- 759.

 

2
The involvemmt of American playwrights of the 1920 's in various
experimmts in dramatic style has been noted in general terms on
numerous occasions. Yet investigations of this involvanent are needed
to render more precise observations on the appearance and development
of stylistic movnmts in the American drama of the period. This
thesis is one contribution toward fulfilling that end.

S tenant o ose
The purpose of this study is to describe the trends of modern
Cll‘anlatic styles in successful serious American plays produced on the
meessional New York stage between 1919 and 1929. The results of the
“W answer such questions as:
1. What were the overall stylistic trends of the period? What
Styles were exhibited in the dramas of this period?
2. Has there a dominant dramatic style in the 1920's? How
frequently were different styles anployed?
3. Did dramas of the 1920 '3 contain combinations of dramatic
at"lee?
1.. What were the similarities in plays related to particular
qhfilhatic styles? What were the differences?

Definitions
Before going into the content of this study, some terms which are
11. ‘d in special ways require definition. "Trad" is here used as the
bl“Vrs.:1.2l.ing tendmcy or inclination. 'Hodern dramatic styles" are

t
hQBe ways or manners of writing a play which are customarily labelled

 

O

3
as Realism, Naturalism, Symbolism, etc.‘ "Successful" in the
context of this study describes drama which were either commercial
and/or critical successes. A play is considered to be a commercial
success when its length of run was over one hundred performances.5
A play is considered to be a critical success if, (1) it was judged
by its reviewers at the time of its original production to be a worth-
while play; (2) it was singled out as a play of merit in the years
fonowing its production in the commtary of drama critics or
hilstoz‘ians; (3) it was anthologized; or (1.) it received recognition
”.7 winning any major drama awards. "Serious" includes the dramatic
1"7130!! of tragedy, drama, and melodrama. "American plays" are those
"with were written W for the American theatre by either
native or foreign authors. "Professional New York stage" is a term
“30d to describe the comercial theatres of New York City which produce

Limitations
This study is exclusively a descriptive study seeking to deter-

‘11:, the trade in dramtic styles in the American drama of the 1920's.

It is not an attulpt at a complete history of dramatic styles of the

\

0 “See Chapter II for a more complete explanation and definition
r Style. A

5111 the Burns Hantle Best PM series for the 1920 's , a production
of one hundred performances is the standard for determining whether

0
b not a play is a commercial success.

(The decision as to whether a play was produced professionally is

§°d on the information included in the statistical smaries of
NM seasons found in the appropriate editions of the Burns Mantle

M series.

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as Realism, Naturalism, Symbolism, etc.“ "Successful" in the
context of this study describes dramas which were either commercial
and/or critical successes. A play is considered to be a commercial
success when its length of run was over one hundred performances.5
A play is considered to be a critical success if, (1) it was judged
by its reviewers at the time of its original production to be a worth-
while play; (2) it was singled out as a play of merit in the years
following its production in the commtary of drama critics or
historians; (3) it was anthologized; or (1.) it received recognition
by winning any major drama awards. "Serious" includes the dramatic
types of tragedy, drama, and melodrama. "American plays" are those
which were written W for the American theatre by either
native or foreign authors. ”Professional New York stage" is a term
used to describe the comercial theatres of New York City which produce
Fla-YB for profit.6

Limitations
This study is exclusively a descriptive study seeking to deter-
mine the trade in dramatic styles in the American drama of the 1920's.

It is not an attupt at a complete history of dramatic styles of the

‘

I‘See Chapter II for a more complete explanation and definition
Of Style.

5111 the Burns Hantle Best Play series for the 1920 's , a production
run of one hundred perfomances is the standard for determining whether
01‘ not a play is a comercial success.

é'I'he decision as to whether a play was produced professionally is
based on the intonation included in the statistical sunrise of

seasons found in the appropriate editions of the Burns Mantle

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period, nor does it try to explain the causes and effects of style in
the drama of the time. The study is descriptive, rather than inter-
pretive or evaluative.

Secondly, although there are four areas of theatre which can be
discussed in terms of style (direction, playscript, scenery, and
acting), this study is limited to the consideration of playscripts
only. Thirdly, this study deals only with plays written originally
for production on the New York stage for the particular years under
«rumination. This excludes plays from abroad, translations or adapta-
tions of foreign plays, and revivals from past seasons of American
drama. The majority of sources consulted for this study are from the
broad area of drama and theatre. Historical, literary, and artistic

sources are «alloyed only when applicable or germane to discussions.

W

This investigation of the stylistic develOpment in the American
dram of the 1920's is significant for two reasons. First of all,
dramatic styles in thuselves constitute a major area of importance in
the criticism and discussion of drama. Second, the period under in-
'°8tigation is an important decade in the development of a truly
Alerican drama.

The concern with dramatic style, while not original with the
twentieth century, is of particular importance in modern drama.
Haskell a. Block and Robert a. Shedd, in their anthology, Masters o;
W, contend that, "although such tems as naturalism and
B“holiest, realism and theatricalism, are often artificial, we met

l“marlin the distinctive qualities of these and other movunaits if we

are to understand modern drama."7
As for the importance of the 1920 's in the history of American
drama, John Mason Brown describes it this way:
It was not puberty but maturity that the American theatre
achieved . . . , during the years which followed World War I

and preceded the Depression . . . . The twenties were good
days in the American theatre.8

He cites the influx of "noteworthy European plays," the scripts of "a
new gmeration of . . . native dramatists," and the "aesthetic revolt"
of dramatic artists as examples of "mmorable moments" in the drama and
theatre of the 1920's.9 Similar points of view are expressed by
Barrett H. Clark,10 Joseph Wood Krutch,ll and Allardyce Nicoll.12

This study has three distinctive features. The first is the use
of a consistent, systematic method to describe dramatic styles. Such
a method is lacking in previously written works, or is not uployed to
deal with a number of styles. Many books deal with the subject of
dramatic style, usually only as a part of a wider field of investiga-
tion. In such books the manner of describing styles generally consists

0f the selection of a fat striking characteristics firm a number of

‘_

7Hsskell H. Block, Robert G. Shedd, eds., Mastgs o; the Mg
m (New York: Random House, Inc., 1962), p. 3.

8John Hason Brain, W (New York: The Viking Press,
1963), pe 3e
ide, pe 8e

loBarrett H. Clark, "The United States," A 11 etc 0 Mod
Rag, ed. Barrett [-1. Clark and George Freedley (lieu1 " fork: ':i D. A'Jppll: E!eton-
c-ntury co., 191.7). 1» 654-

11Joseph Wood Krutch, The Amer Since 1 18 (New York:
George Braeiller, Inc., 1957 , pp. 10-25.
1"aillardyce Nicoll, W (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and

‘20-. 191.9). 1:. 759.

6
exuplary plays . This approach to stylistic description is operative '
in such recognised works as John Gassner's {cm and Idea 35' 14on
Thgtren and nordeeel Gorelik's New Theatres {or Old-1“ This approach,
while it may serve to identity individual styles, does not often clearly
reveal the interrelationships among the elements which appear in the
differing styles. In brief, no consistent or systematic manner of
description is applied throughout such books. A few works -- The M
o; the m by Fred Hillett and Gerald Bentley,” Theodore Hatlal's
Orimgtion to the Thgtre,l6 and Oscar Brockett's The Tthe: g
Qtroductionl'z—do unpley consistent approaches to style descriptions.
However, the first book merely groups observations about the elualts
of particular styles under a single heading of "quality" and does not
display any consistalcy of description within this heading. In his
book, Hatlm presents an organised and consistent approach to dealing
with styles, but only includes three styles - Realism, Naturalism, and
Expressionism. In the third book, The Theatre; An Introduction,
Hr. Brockett covers mam dramatic styles in a consistent manner, but
confines his descriptions to the analysis of a single eat-Iplary drama.

_~

BJohn Gassner, o in H Theat s (New York:
The Dryden Press, Inc. , 195 .

“Mordecai Gorelik, Egg Eggtges (or 91d (New York: Samuel
““1611, 19m).

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(New Iork: D. Appleton-Cmtury 00., 1935).

16Theodore a. Hatlen, Ori tat o to Th t e (New Tor-k:
AFilleton-C: entury-Crofts , 1962 .

170eoer G. sroekett, The Theatre An Introduction (New York:
Holt, Rinehart, and Winston—fl c., 61.7.

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A second distinctive feature of this study is the attempt to
reflect general critical opinions concerning the elements and attri-
butes of particular dramatic styles. The criteria for identifying
styles are compiled from a large number of sources which pertain to
the field of drama and consequently presmt general opinions of what
constitutes particular dramatic styles.

A third distinctive feature is an objective, systematic manner
of selecting representative plays which takes into account both
comercially and critically successful dramas. This process avoids
personal, subjective selection of plays and presents a more accurate
picture of given theatrical seasons in regard to their important
plays. This is in contrast to two comon practices of selecting plays
to represent the development of American drama in the 1920 's. One is
the citation of enduring, quality dramas as symptomatic of the growth
or drama, a practice which leads to the distortion of conditions as
they actually were. The other is equally distortive and relies on the
Perfomnce records of plays as an indication of achievement in the
Mb of drama. This study unites both approaches to treat quali-

tative and quantitative aspects of success in the drama of the United
Statue

Desi 0 St
Briefly, the design of this study consists of four parts. The
first part covers two aspects: establishment of a method for con-
aintent stylistic description and selection of the styles treated in
this study (Chapter II). The second part establishes criteria for
classifying eight dramatic styles (Chapters III-VIII) . In the third

PM. selected groups of plays from the 1920's are compared to the

8
criteria in order to determine the styles of the plays (Chapters IX-
XII). Then conclusions are drawn regarding the trends in modern
dramatic styles in the serious American drama of the 1920's (Chapter
1111).

Criteria for establishing descriptions of dramatic styles were
developed in the following manner. Information from books and articles
pertaining to the drama and theatre was (compared in order to determine
generally accepted views on the traits of particular dramatic styles.
These views were then presented in a form devised for this stuw which
includes the principles on which a style is based, the general charac-
teristics of a style, and the use of stylistic form elements associated
with drama (plot, character, etc.). When there was a difference of
opinion about what constituted a stylistic trait or when information
was lacking in printed sources, additional cementary concerning
particular aspects was supplied by the author of this study.

The plays from the American draw. of the 1920's were selected
in the following it“: every third theatrical season, beginning with
1919-1920, was selected for stuiy. This selection of every third
“Mon was done for two reasons. First, tralds "do not make thmselves
felt in a single season."18 Second, it was inpractical to locate, read,
"id analyze all of the hundreds of serious plays produced in the pro-
fessional theatre of the 1920's. The theatrical seasons selected for
this study were those of 1919-1920, 1922-1923, 1925-1926, and 1928—
1.929. Each season is treated in a separate chapter (IX-XII).

Next, uploying the infomtion included in the films Mantle
My editions for the selected theatrical seasons, a list of

1801311“ pe 678s

9

forty-six serious American plays and their lengths of production was
drawn up. All plays which ran over one hundred performances were
chosen for stylistic analysis. Any serious play which ran less than
one hundred but more than fifty performances whose reviews at the
time of its opening considered it to be artistically successful, was
also included. Any play which ran less than one hundred performances
but was afterward successfully revived or later anthologised, or in
an other manner singled out as a worthwhile play, was also included.

The forty-six successful serious American plays which were
shoes: by this selective process were analyzed to determine their
gmeral characteristics and form elements of style. These analyses
were compared to the criteria established herein for describing the
various dramatic styles in order to identify the style of the plays.
From such a determination, each theatrical season was summarised,
indicating the conditions regarding the dramatic styles. in that season.
When all four seasons had bem treated in this manner, they were com-
pared to one another, and conclusions about stylistic trends in American
drama of the 1933'- were drawn.

mas

Primary sources deployed in this study consist of forty-six plays
lelected from the period of 1919 through 1929. Of these, thirty have
but published and the reminder are in manuscript form.19 In addi-

tion, some use was made of essays, prefaces, and nanifestoes by

k

19Two plays were never located in either published or manuscript
fore. Rather than «elude th- entirely, an sttaspt was made to

l‘Otu'eate their basic stylistic traits from secondary sources such as
"View and the material contained in Best PM editions.

10
playwrights and leaders of stylistic movements.

A number of secondary sources were employed in this study. The
Burns Mantle editions of Best Plays from 1919 to 1929 were used for
information on plays produced in a given year, including length of run,
type, author, and other pertinent data. Books, journals, and magazines
devoted primarily to the fields of drama and theatre were used in the
developmmt of criteria for describing dramatic styles. Sections of
mcyclOpedias, dictionaries, and literary histories were used when
the information contained in thu had some bearing on the stylistic
aspect of dram. Non-dramatic sources which were cited or reconnended
by authors in the field of drama and theatre were referred to for this
study. uglish or hglish translations were used exclusively.

CHAPTER II

DRAMATIC STYLES:
DEFINITIW , METHODOIDGI , AND APPLICATION
The purpose of this chapter is to define "style" as it is used
in this study, to explain the method anployed for describing dramatic
styles, and to list those styles which will. be considered in this
study.

Def-igtion 0; Style

For purposes of this study, style in drama is defined as a
characteristic or distinctive way, manner, or mode of selecting,
arranging, and anphasiaing the elements of dramatic construction which
is peculiar to a play or group of plays and which at the same time
distinguishes it or than from other plays. This is in no way a final
or absolute definition, but serves only to identify the meaning of
Ityle seemed in subsequmt discussions.

The above definition was arrived at by comparing a number of
dOIinitions of style found in gmeral references, art histories, books
011 aesthetics, and works pertaining to drama. As such it is in funds--
lmtal agreqamt with generally accepted concepts of style. Among the
dfitinitions consulted are the following:

WW defines the word "style"
“I it pertains to aesthetics as "a quality that gives distinctive

.Wallace to something (as artistic expression) and that consists esp.

ll

12
in the appropriateness and choice of elements (as subject, medium,
form) combined and the individualism imparted by the method of com-
bining."
Hiram Hoderwell in The Theatre of Today describes style in drama
as a ”humor of executing a work of art, as contrasted with the work

itself."1
The art historian, Janson, writes that "style means the partic-

ular way in which the forms that make up any given work of art are

2
chose: and fitted together."

In The Ms M Their Interrglations, Thomas Munro states that

"a style is a distinctive or characteristic mode of presentation, con-

struction or expression in art."3
Oscar Brockett contends that style is a quality which results

from a characteristic mode of expression or method of presentation
and "may be applied to the dramatic expression of a period, a nation,

a movment, or an author."“

Finally, the Molongg o; the Ms says, "Starting with . . .

the figurative smse, style means those characteristics of foul which
are peculiar to a certain work or a group of works and which at the

‘———

lHiram Kelley Hoderwell, The Theatre 0: TM (New York: John
Ina-“0 Co., 19“), pe 118.

2H. W. Janson, Histggz of £2 (New Iork: Harry N. Abrams, Inc.,
1962): P' 36'

3Thonss Munro, he s and Th tic s (New York:
The Liberal Arts Press, 191.9 , p. 379.

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same time distinguish it or thu from other works."5
Canon el-amts found in these definitions of style are: a
characteristic manner of executing a work of art, that forms or
eluents are involved in determining the manner of expression, and
that works of art may be grouped according to their styles. The
definition of style adOpted for this study attenpts to include these

gmerally accepted ideas .

A Method for Describing aggtic Styles

The investigation of style in drama does not materially differ
firon investigation of style in any other art. The basis of all such
investigations is dependent on a constancy in. art whereby "direct
acquaintance with an unanalyaed work of art will often permit us to
recognize another object of the same origin, just as we recognize a
face to be native or foreign."6 The constancy in art may make possible
the recognition of stylistic similarities in works of art, but "the
single name given to the style 'of a period rarely corresponds to a
clear and universally accepted characterization of a type."7

Furthermore, "styles are not usually defined in a strictly logi-
cal way" since their "characteristics . . . vary constantly and resist
a systuatic classification into perfectly distinct groups."8

Sum J. Scum. "Style" W .a.
Dagobert D. Runes and Harry G. Schrickel New York: Philosophical
Library, 191:6). Do 971»

6Meyer Schapiro, "Style," A Book 0 Estheti s, ed. Melvin
Rader (3rd ed.; New York: Holt, Binehart, and Uinston, Inc., 1960),

p. 338.
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Although perfection in the description and classification of styles

appears to be impossible, "limits are sometimes fixed by convention
for simplicity in dealing with historical problus or in isolating
a type."9

In this section this study fixes limits by convention for the
investigation of dramatic styles. Since no standard manner for such
investigation exists, it has been necessary to develop and organize
a descriptive method which is applicable to dramatic styles. This
method makes possible an orderly and systematic presmtation of the
cmtary on dramatic styles found in writtm sources pertaining to
the drama. As such, the method provides a framework for presenting
the ideas and concepts of dramatic styles as expressed by drama critics
and scholars.

In brief the framework is divided into three parts: (1) princi-
ples, the over-all ideas upon which a style is based and which
determine its deveIOpment: (2) general characteristics, the qualities
and impressions of a style which are appaer when a play is con-
sidered as a whole; and (3) fona elements, the treatment of the parts
of a play (plot, character, language, and these) which make up the
whole.

Principles of Style
Styles do not arise arbitrarily. They develop or change accord-

ing to corresponding developents or changes in the philosophies,
attitudes, and conditions of either the culture in which they appear

or the art form of which they are a part.

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15
Thomas Munro writes that "trade in artistic styles are never
indepmdent, but parts of still larger cultural trmds embracing
all forms of thought and behavior: social, political, economic,
religious, and scientific."10 A similar view is expressed by
Theodore M. Greene when he states,

Mo culture or society, . . . , is static, and no individual
artist, . . . , is insane to cultural and social influences.
Societies and individuals alike are continually undergoing
internal change, . . . . These changes infiutlook are
reflected in the usergence of new styles.

The same general view is voiced in connection with the more limited

area of dramatic style by John Gassner. In Mucgg the Play he
points out that "different styles arose in response to different
points of view, intentions, and conditions."12 He amends on this

statamt in [on m g3 in the M9932 Thgtre when he writes

. . . . Irelatethe forms ofmoderndramato certain "ideas
of the theatre" -— that is, to certain conceptions of
theatrical art and certain annotations from it. By "idea" I
do not mean subject matter, but the view of theatre apparmt
in the play . . . . , and the special esthetic aim pursued in
the work . . . . It is oftm difficult to distinguish betwem
and artist's view of theatre and his view of life, society,
politics or religion . . '. . Hevertheless, I employ ”idea" to
mean something larger than mere topic or opinion, I use the
term to denote some specific way of conceiving the nature and
use of theatre, which in turn helps to determine dramatic form
and stage presentation.)-3

Prom these stat-nuts it can be seen that style is depmdent

loMunro, p. 339.

llTheodore Meyer Greene, Th e d e Art 0 C i ic
(Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 191.0 s P. 383.

”John masher, c the P (revised ed.3 New Iork:
Th. Dada Prua, Ines, 1953 , pe 53e

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16
upon and reflective of the outlooks, views, conditions, or ideas of its
mvironnent, whether it be that of the total culture or the more
limited one of an art form such as drama. The dependence of style on
underlying cultural or aesthetic principles can be seen, for maple,
in the drama of ancimt Greece. Here the dramatic style was influ-
mced by the religious and philosophical concepts of the Athenian
society. The idea that man's fate was predetermined, an intrinsic
part of Greek religious belief, was reflected in the drama of the
period. The unified structure of the plot, the consistency of charac-
ter, and the regularity of the poetic dialogue can also be viewed as
atmsions of the Greek cultural ideals of proportion, harmony, and
order.

In light of the above observations, it is deemed reasonable to
begin the discussion of particular dramatic styles with a considera-
tion of the ideas, points of view, or philosophical attitudes upon
which the styles are based. For the sake, of convmience, the word
”principle" is used as a heading for this portion of style descrip-
tion and is understood to be a general term encompassing the various

concepts of idea, world-view, philosophy, attitude, and point of view.

Characteristics of Style
Although a knowledge of the principles underlying a style.‘ is
helpful in understanding its developnmt, the 83m gentiggtiog

or gaggiption of a style dgpends on an mum of its character-

m. In this study the characteristics of dramatic styles are

separated into two groups, general characteristics and fem elements.
This division into two groups is prompted by the rmrks of

Meyer Schapiro, Professor of Art History at Columbia University, in

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his comprehensive essay on style and its description. He says that,
while there is no established system for describing style, "in general
the description of style refers to three aspects of art: form elanents
or motives, form relationships, and qualities (including an over-aall
quality which we may call 'expression')."lh He believes these aspects
to be the broadest, most stable, and most reliable bases for style
description.”

Two of the aspects of art mentioned by Schapiro are covered in
this study under the title of general characteristics. These aSpects
are qualities (including emression) and fem relationships. The third

aspect, form elments, is treated under the title of form elements.

Gongs; Chagacteristics
Although Schapiro lists form elanents first, and deans then quite

important, he does not feel that a description of form elements alone
is sufficient for delineating a style. He contends, "In order to dis-
tinguish . . . styles one must also look for features of another order
and, above all, for different ways of combining thu."16 He points out
that the eluents which mks up a style "seen to be marked by the ex-
pression of the whole, or that there is 'a dominant feature to which the
elanents are adapted."2L7 It is these "features of another order," "the
expression of the whole," and "dominant features ," together with the
previously mentioned qualities and form relationships, which are the
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18

For maple, the historic dramatic style of French Neo-
Classicism may be said to have an austere and artificial quality.
Its over-all expression can be described as one of reason and/or ration-
ality with dominant features of decorum, elevation, and dignity. It
displays a relationship of form elements in combining poetic ex-
pression, aristocratic characters, and a simple plot which adheres
to the unities of action, time and place. This very relationship aids
in the projection of the qualities of austerity and artificiality.

Another maple of form relationship as a characteristic of
dramatic style appears in the various uses of the soliloquy in drama.
The fact that a soliloquy appears in a play is not as significant in
identifying a style as is the particular relation the soliloqw has
to the rest of the play. A soliloquy can be "constructive" in ex-
plaining the plot or relating off-stage events, or "reflective" in
revealing a character's thoughts and feelings .18 In both instances
the relation of the soliloqw to the structure of the play is more
significant for determining the style of the play than the mere

appearance of the soliloquy itself.
In sumary, the general characteristics of dramatic style are

described as qualities, expressions, dominant features, and fans re-
lationships. They are the over-all impressions of the style arising
from the view of the play as a whole.

W
The most readily idntifiable aspects of a style are those of

its form el-ents. In drama these form eluents are gmerally

 

“Guam-r. W . p- 171.

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19

accepted to be those described by Aristotle in his Poetics. They
are plot, character, language, theme, music, and spectacle}9 Of
these, only the first four are included in the criteria for the
identification of dramatic styles. Music is excluded because it "is
no longer an invariable part of drama.“20 Spectacle is also concluded
because its primary means of realization is in theatre production and
is therefore difficult to discuss in terms of dramatic literature.

1. 119; is the structuring or patterning of the events of the
play and includes such aspects as content, action, conflict, point of
attack, exposition, climax, and resolution.

2. Chgactg is a term for the persons who appear in the drama
and who carry out the dramatic action of the plot. The term includes
the plwsical, mental, social, and moral aspects of these people.

3. W is the dialogue spoken by the characters. It in-
parts information, reveals character, and directs attention to the
developmt of the plot.

1.. M is the over-all meaning and significance of the action
of a drama. Its aspects also include the ideas, argummts, and thoughts
expressed in thoughts expressed in the play.

A 1 tie
The method of describing dramatic styles discussed in preceding

paragraphs is applied in this study to eight modern dramatic styles -

 

l9Aristotle, ”The Poetics," sto e's Theo o Poet
L11, ed. 5. H. Butcher (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1951;,
pp. 23-25. The word "these” has been substituted for "thought" which
is a canon translation of the Greek word for Aristotle's dramatic

elumt. "Thule" and "thought" roughly connote the same concept, but
"thus" some to be more widely used in modern dramatic criticism.

”Brocke‘tt, p. 26.

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20
Romanticism, Realism, Naturalism, Symbolism, Expressionism, Formalisn,
Futurin, and Surrealism. This selection is based on the fact that
they are recognised as being significant dramatic styles in modern
drama by critics and comentators.21 While these dramatic styles are
considered to be of equal importance to this study, there must be some
difference in the manor of discussing them in subsequent chapters.

Romanticism, Realism, Naturalism,22 Symbolism, and Expressionism are

 

21$», for example, John Gassner, Produging the Play (New York:
The Drydu: Press, Inc. , 1953); Mordecai Gorelik, New Thgtres for Old
(New York: Samel French, 191.0); Oscar Brockett, The Theatre: An
gtgoduction (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc., 196A}; Fred
B. Millett and Gerald Eades Bentley, The m of the Drama (New York:
D. Appleton-Century 00., 1935): Edward A. Wright, A Primer or P .-
3933 (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1958);
Kenneth Thorp Rowe A Theatre in Your Head (New York: Funk and
Hagnalls 00., 1960 3 H. D. Albright, William P. Halstead, Lee
Mitchell, Principles of Theatre Art (New York: Houghton Mifflin 60.,
1955); Haskell M. Block, Robert G. Shedd, eds. Masters of the Modgg
Drama (New York: Random House, Inc. , 1962); and Allardyce Nicoll,
W (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and 00., 191.9).

22The inclusion of' Naturalism as a major dramatic style requires
some clarification. An enaminat ion of twentieth century dramatic
commentary reveals two distinct theories concerning Naturalism as a
dramatic style. One theory is that Naturalism is only a heightaied
and intensified form of Realism, and not a separate, distinguishable
style. The second theory postulates that Naturalism is a distinct
style by virtue of Zola's so-called "sciatific determinism."

Typical of the first group, those who believe that Naturalism
"is an extrae form of realimn," is John Gassner (Producing the Play,
p. 62)- According to him, Realism is the general style "developed
by the militant champions of Realism" (kgsyg of the Theatre: M
Henrik Ibsu: to mm egg [revised ed., New York: Simon and
Schuster, 1950 pd. . He indicates that environment is a determining
factor in the idea of Naturalism (flog and Idg . . . 3 , pp. 66-67).
To him this is not sufficient reason to distinguish Naturalism from
Realism, since one of his criteria for Realism is also that environ-
mt and heredity are determinate factors in the formation of charac-
ter. As a result his logical position is that Naturalism (as an

adjunct of Realism) sigxifies only "a strict, often extras, mode of
Realism . . . andarathernarrowdogma introduced . . . byEmile

201‘ (Me, pe 67)e

The opposing view, that Naturalism in drama can be said to be
distinct from Realism, specs in part with the Gassner view. The

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20
Romanticism, Realism, Naturalism, Symbolism, Expressionism, Formalism,
Futurism, and Surrealism. This selection is based on the fact that
they are recognised as being significant dramatic styles in modern
drama by critics and c0n.sntat0rs.21 While these dramatic styles are
considered to be of equal importance to this study, there must be some
differ-«ice in the newer of discussing them in subseqth chapters.

Romanticism, Realism, Naturalism,22 Symbolism, and Expressionism are

 

2'15”, for «ample, John Gassner, Producing the Play (New York:
The Dryden Press, Inc. , 1953): Mordecai Gorelik, New Theatres {0; Old
(New York: Samuel French, 1910); Oscar Brockett, The Theatre: An
M21122 (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc., 1961.5; Fred
B. Hillett and Gerald Eades Bentley, Thg m 0: the Drama (New York:
a. Appleton-Century ed., 1935); Edward A. Wright, A Primer or P .-
m (Inglewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1958 ;
Kenneth Thorp Rowe A Theatre in Your Head (New York: Funk and
“Snails 00., 19605: H. D. Albright, William P. Halstead, Lee
Mitchell, Prgcigles of Theatre Art (New York: Houghton Hifflin 00.,
1955); Haskell x.- Block, Robert G. Shedd, eds. Masters o; the godern

(New York: Random House, Inc., 1962) 3 and Allardyce Nicoll,

D (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and 00., l9h9).

22The inclusion of‘ Naturalism as a major dramatic style requires
“‘0 Clarification. An mination of twmtieth cmtury dramatic
”unitary reveals two distinct theories concerning Naturalism as a
dramatic style. One theory is that Naturalism is only a heightened
intensified form of Realism, and not a separate, distinguishable
“110. The second theory postulates that Naturalism is a distinct
“’10 by virtue of Zola's so-called "scientific determinism."

,, Typical of the first group, those who believe that Naturalism
1‘ in «true form of realism," is John Gassner (Producing the Play,
p. 62). According to him, Realism is the gmeral style "developed
1” the militant champions of Realism" (Igeam of the Thgtre: £r_0_a_i
”mu Ibsen to bar a Eevieed ed., New York: Simon and
3°h‘18ter, 19507 13.1.). He indicates that environment is a determining
t‘ctor in th‘ id“ or natural“ (EOE fig Idg e e e g ' ppe 66-67)e
T° him this is not sufficient reason to distinguish Naturalism fmm
Ruin, since one of his criteria for Realism is also that mviron-
‘nt and heredity are determinate factors in the formation of charac-
t‘r- As a result his logical position is that Naturalism (as an
ad.‘hlnct of Realism) signifies only "a strict, often «trans, mode of

IiGalina. . .andarathernarrowdogmaintroduced. . .hynniie

201. (mee, pe 67)e

The opposing view, that Naturalism in drama can be said to be
mullet from Realism, agrees in part with the Gassner view. The

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21
dealt with in separate chapters (III-VII). Fomalism, Futurism, and
Surrealism are discussed in separate sections of a single chapter
(VIII) . This differmlce in the treatment of dramatic styles is
pronpted by a practical consideration. The critical cementary on the
three latter styles is not sufficient to allow a complete description
in tern: of the method outlined earlier in this chapter. However,
they are discussed in as complete aimmner as sources permit. Since
the criteria for stylistic identification in this study are based on
a survey of critical opinions, they can only reflect the state and «-
tent of couentary on individual styles. In view of the fact that the
cementary on Formalism, Futurism, and Surrealism appears to be
limited, their discussion in this study is also limited. However, they

‘1" Presented in a manner which allows than to be recognised should

cliffQt‘uices betweml the two styles are in their principles and gmeral
qualities, while their similarities, or near similarities, are in their
fem elasents. Hefi‘ner, for moample, claims that Naturalism can be
duforentiated from Realism "not by a method, but as a ph11050p1'w of

1 0 and literature" (Hubert c. Heffner, Samuel Seldom, and Hunton D.

S Modern Theatre Practice [5th ed.; New York: Appleton-Century-
cmfts, Inc. , 1959 , p. 73 . In practice it "«tends and intensifies
“1° methods of realism," but in idea it follows Zola (Ibid., p. 71.).
hckett advances an almost identical view when he writes, "Naturalism,
ho"'Ver, went much further than realism, for it insisted that art mist
b"mule scientific in its methods, and it placed greater aphasia on the
1d“ that all behavior is determined by the forces of heredity and en-
mmnmt (p. 275). It is the thought of these writers that Zola's con-
"Pt of scientific determinism with its resultant heavy emphasis on
l""‘tlity and environment as the sole determinants of behavior is signi-
m4‘Q-n‘t enough to warrant Naturalism's place as a separate style.

In this study Naturalism is considered to be a separate and dis-
tinKnishable dramatic style non Realism for the reasons «pressed by
“it-ere adhering to the second view of Naturalism in the discussion
1“lediataly above. This position is also taken in view of the fact
*km. the theory which treats Naturalism as a part of Realism admits to
4““ extremes and specialty of Naturalism. If Naturalism is indeed an

rune and strict mode of Realism, then these very «trues not be

“Fable of idmtification. They become the distinguishing features of
‘ naturalistic style.

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22
they appear in the plays selected from the drama of the 1920's.

In addition to the eight dramatic styles listed above, a number
of other styles are mentioned by critics. These styles are «eluded
from this stub for the reasons given in the discussions which follow.

The Epic theatre style associated with Bertolt Brecht, Erwin
Piscator, and the "living newspaper" plays of the American Federal
Theatre Project is not included in this study. While Epic theatre is
guermlly recognised as a dramatic style, it is quite unlikely that
any dramas written in this style would appear in the American drama of
the l9m's. This observation is based on the chronological developsmt
0f the Epic theatre movumlt. Techniques now associated with Epic
theatre style did appemr in the "living newspapers" of the Russian
"blue blouse" movnmit in the early 1920's.23 However, this movuent
had flmet completely disappeared by 1927.21‘ Its influence on the
“MOquait development of the Epic theatre style is questionable.”
Act‘ully, Epic theatre as it is known today was shaped in practice by
mater and in theory by Brecht.26 Yet the first major works of these
In in Epic theatre style appeared in 1928,27 the year of the M
"1"trical season considered in this study. The possibility of the
Productions of Piscator and Brecht having any significant effect on
“when drama in the space of less than one year is remote. The

p088ftbility of a native Epic theatre movuent in America in the 1920's

\

23Nikolai A. Gorchakov, The Thgtre in 501;ng Russ?” trans.
Rig“. Lehrman (New York: Columbia University Press, 1957 , pp. 1454.6.

25cor-elm, pp. Aka-1.5.

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23
is equally ruote. Mordecai Goxelik's New Theatres for Old, which
is well-documented in matters concerning Epic theatre, makes no
claim for Epic theatre in America until the 1930's. True, some
America "labor" theatres and playwrights' groups existed in the
1920's which formed the basis for the development of Epic theatre,
but the actual appearance of Epic theatre plays in America was re-
served for the 1930's.28 In view of this chronology of Epic theatre,
it appears fruitless to include a discussion of a style which evi-
dent]: had no bearing on Broadway productions of the 1920's. For
this reason, there is no further consideration of Epic theatre style
in this study.

Theatricalism is also «eluded from this study. Some plays
have hem associated with this style. But, as its name implies, it
1‘ Primarily a theatrical style. Theatricalism as a "pure" style is
nuts It usually appears in the fom of theatricalist devices in
91478 which are otherwise recognizable as belonging to a particular
dramatic style. The few plays associated with Theatricalism as a
“auntie style .- for couple, Thornton Wilder's w and 313
\Skill 0; Our Tmh -- already have beml identified by new critics.29
Th. actual number of plays written in what might be termed a dramatic
“310 of Theatricalism is rather insignificant. Since Theatricalism
1‘ Primarily a W style, there is little value in discussing
it further in this study of dramatic styles. 0

Also, so-called "basic" or "generic" styles are not discussed in
this study.

‘

28eon-elm, pp. ADO-ml.

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21+
Two "basic" or "generic" styles are recognized in drama. One is the
"representational" style in which a play is presented "in manner and
sequaace or actual life, as though people were being watched through a
peephole. "30 The other is the "presentational" style in which "the
object is to project the play's content frankly and directly to the
Minceflal Since it is 39; the aim of this study merely to divide
dramas into two stylistic groups, these "basic" styles are of little
value to it. The words "represmtational" and "presmtational" may
appear in subsequmt passages which discuss specific styles, but only
as descriptive terms to indicate general tendencies. There is no
att-pt to group plays under these "basic" style headings.

Although critics have referred to the styles of Impressionism,
SOlectiwe Realim, Cubism, Constructivism, Socialist Realism, and
Wm, these styles are not considered in this study. "Impressionism
1‘ a ten: that applies to a mood, or to an aesthetic mdeavor merely:
"1°“ is no particular dramatic form or technique (. . .) associated
"ith its aims."32 Selective Realism, Cubism, and Constructivism belong
t° the realm of thgtrical styles where they are useful in the dis-
“”1011 or the scenic slants or production. Socialist Realism as a
”Wheat is too narrowly confined to modern Soviet drama. Although
many plays have beam written in this style, they differ from Realism

only in content, that of a socialist ph.i.l|.osophy.33 Dadaism in drama and
\ .

30Gassner, Producgg' the Play, p. 51... 311E.
”Nisan. mama. p. 791..

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01' D p0 812s

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25

theatre did not endure long enough to provide a sufficient body of
dramatic works in which a definite style might be discerned. e.e.
cumings' fl and Gertrude Stein's flog; Saints in Three Acts are the
best known American plays which have been termed Dadaist. Indeed, they
alone constitute almost the entire canon of Dadaist drama. Any other
Dadaiat dramatic achievements remain obscure since "Dadaist theatrical

work was apparmtly confined mostly to private entertainmentsflph

Smut

This chapter has stated the definition of the word "style"
°P°rative in this study, outlined a method for describing dramatic
atvles, and listed the styles to which this method is to be applied in
mbsequent chapters. The operative definition is: Style in drama is
"a characteristic or distinctive way, manner, or mode of selecting,
8”ranging, and aphasizing the elements of dramatic construction which
13 POculiar to a play or group of plays and which at the same time dis-
tinguishes it or than from other plays ." The method of describing
dramatic styles is based on the general concepts of stylistic investiga-
ti°n in all arts. It takes into consideration the principles which
“7% the rise and developmt of a style, its gmeral characteristics
(qualities, impressions, and form relationships), and its form eleaents
(Plot, character, language and theme). The styles selected for dis-
WeDion are Romanticism, Realism, Naturalism, Symbolism, Expressionism,
“Min, Futurism and Surrealism.

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25

theatre did not endure long enough to provide a sufficient body of
dramatic works in which a definite style might be discerned. e.e.
cumings' L115 and Gertrude Stein's :03; Saints in Three Acts are the
best known American plays which have been termed Dadaist. Indeed, they
alone constitute almost the entire canon of Dadaist drama. Any other
Dadaist dramatic achievements remain obscure since "Dadaist theatrical

work was apparmtly confined mostly to private entertainments ."31‘

amen

This chapter has stated the definition of the word "style"
Opmtive in this study, outlined a method for describing dramatic
styles, and listed the styles to which this method is to be applied in
subsequent chapters. The operative definition is: Style in drama is
"a characteristic or distinctive way, manner, or mode of selecting,
”'1‘ Eu131mg, and aphasising the slenents of dramatic construction which
1’ POculiar to a play or group of plays and which at the same time dis-
tiJigtlishes it or then from other plays." The method of describing
d‘rfifllfitic styles is based on the general concepts of stylistic investiga-
ti‘m in all arts. It takes into consideration the principles which
“v.11: the rise and developed of a style, its gmeral characteristics
(qualities, impressions, and form relationships), and its form elements
(Plot, character, language and these). The styles selected for dis-
WeSion are Romanticism, Realism, Naturalism, Symbolism, Expressionism,
l’"1‘llelism, Futurism and Surrealism.

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CHAPTER III

ROMANTIC ISM

Historical Background

Although the term "romantic" had been applied to the literature
of a variety of periods and individual writers, including William
Shakespeare and subsequent Jacobean dramatists, Romanticism in drama
actually began as a solid movement in the late eightemth century.

The beginning of the movenent is marked by Goethe's m
W, produced in Germany in 1773.1 In general, after develop-
1118 in W, Romanticism next appeared in England, then in Frames,

and finally became an influence on all the major national dramas of the

"Stern world. For purposes of clarity, the following outline of the

dwfilopent of romantic style in drama is reported in terms of national
no“Clients.

Gummy

Goethe's W belonged to m. W
Phase of Games Romanticism, a phase which ended by 1781..2 A second
Phase of German Romanticism (contemporaneous with Sturm and Dr , but

m“lusting that phase) was marked by the drama of Goethe, Schiller and

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Heist. Schiller contributed The gathers (177s) and Don Carlos (1783).
In 1788, Goethe added another major work to the movement, M. This
was followed by Schiller's Wallenstein trilogy (1798-99), Maria StM
(lsoo), zhe gin o; Orlggs (1801), and W (1801.). Heinrich
von noist (1777-1811), while usually not ranked in importance with
Goethe and Schiller, wrote some notable romantic dramas, the best known
of which are W (1808) and The Prince 0; Hamburg (1809).

The first part of Goethe's most significant drama, M, appeared
in 1&8. In this same general period, the romantic style was also a-
ployed by other German literary figures. Romanticism was apparent in
the plus of Zacharias Werner and the "book-dramas of Tieck, Armin, and
Bl”Ethane."3 The publication of Goethe's second part or Eggs} in 1832
'38 one or the last significant works in the German romantic movuent.
Mticism as a major movuent declined but did not completely die out.

England
Throughout the first halt or the nineteenth century English

“'1th attupted to establish a vigorous romantic drama, but "failed to
Muse greatness in the romantic dramatic forum" Some of England's
”’t rmowned poets -- Byron, Shelley, and Browning -- directed their
hints to writing romantic drama. Byron's Manfred (1817) was one of

th. first notewortlv English romantic plays. Three years later, Shelley's
W and eus 0 were completed but were dmied stage
Motion. i lesser literary figure, James Sheridan Knowles, did
“hie" some success with the production or his W in 183). A

\

3M" P0 298°
‘Iicoll, Wogld m, p. “2.

ye his, Byron again

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28
year later, Byron again failed at romantic drama with W.
Perhaps the most vital of the English romantic dramas were Edward George
Miter-Lytton's The E! o: Lygns (1838) and Richgigg (1839) which held
the stage continuously into the twentieth century.5 Robert Browning's

infliffermtly received Pippa Passes (1&3) and A Blot on the 'Scutcheon
(181.6) were late contributions to the English romantic movmmt in

drama.

France
The birth of Romanticism in French drama was most clearly indi-
atod in Victor Hugo's preface to his pm gm; (1827), in which he
x"e'loo‘ted Recs-classic principles and outlined a program for Romantic
4.12.3.6 Alexandre Dmas pig's Hgi III in 1829 was the first romantic
Play to see production, but it was the success of Hugo 's Hernani in 1830
that. established Romanticism as a major movenent in French drama.7
During the 1830's, Hugo, Dumas 2‘53, and other French playwrights
DI‘<><:uced romantic drama of note. W by Dumas ple_r_e
appeared in 1832. In 1831., Alfred de Hussett added W and 39

W to the movmmt. The following year, Alfred de
v1Gray's best known play, Qhattertgn, was produced in France.

For all its vigor, the Frmch romantic movuent was doomed to be
“Orb-lived. The complete failure of Hugo's Les Burmves in 181.3
B:Lgl'ialled the end of Romnticism as a major movement in France. is a
Minor part of French drama, Romanticism appeared be. time to time in

“Na: plays as New: Wm (ms) and
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29
Roetand's extralely popular time do Buggy (1897).

America
Throughout most of the nineteenth century, American drama and
theatre were highly imitative of English and European models. While
American drama was not wholly romantic, it was strongly influmced by
the romantic movanent from abroad. Twp of the most highly regarded
native American plays written up to 1870, Robert M. Bird's The
W (1831) and George Henry Baker's Mcesca da Rimini (1855),

We romantic tragedies.8
Romnticism as a dramatic style continued in America well into the

t""GIu‘tieth cultury in the form of historical drama. Notable examples of
this were Madmen. Anderson's Elizabeth thg Queen, Anne 0‘ 8 Thoust

134%.MW-

Romanticism and Melodrama
A part of the overall history of Romanticism in the drama, but
‘%QMt mough in this study to warrant a separate discussion, is the
b‘J—ationship of Romanticism to melodrama. In 1919, Irving Babbitt
Qt‘ted in his famous book, Roussgu gag thigig, "Nothing is easier
than to establish the connection between notional romanticism and the
bunidigious efflorescmce of melodrama, the irresponsible quest for
thins, that has marked the past half century."9 This connection

meted almost from the beginning of Romanticism in drama. The generally
\

‘ .Richard Moody, eri '1' es s Sta e (Bloomington, Indiana:
Indiana University Press, 1955 9 Po 200.

9Irving Babbitt, Roussgau and thigism (New York: Houghton
“itrlin so., 1919), p. 189.

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30
acknowledged founders or melodrama (the German, Kotzebue, and the
Frenchman, Pixere’court) were contanporary to the initial romantic

dramatic wants in their respective countries, and often imitated

10
thm.

Allardyce Nicoll notes that in the years between 1830 and 1850

melodrama changed its settings and characters from the feudal to the

rural, to the urban. In other words, melodrama became more closely

connected with its contmnporary environment. However, melodrama

"ruins romantic in the basic sense of the term, only it passes from
“10 world of the past to the world of the present; it sheds medievalism

“1‘1 becomes material."u

Melodrama and Romanticism are not only closely linked in modern
drain, but also both have been highly influenced by Realism. As
Ja‘xlues Bax-sun observes, "Realism oftm appears side by side with an
atgm‘Qeable make-believe which I have teamed 'secondhand romanti-
913‘, . . . ."12 John Gassner makes a similar observation when he

gut» :

. . . A meretricious, vulgar romanticism has, besides, been

present everyumre in our cmtury, as in other times. It
masqueraggs as prose realism and tries to cheat with false

nationae
For purposes of this study, Romanticism is considered to be a

101mm“ Willson Disher, "Melodrama," o n the
w ed. Phyllis Hartnoll (2d ed. 3 London: Oxford University Press,
957 , pp. 525-523.

nNicoll, Hog; Drfl, p. 1.85-

I) 12Jacques Barsun, ssi Ro Modern (New York:
Q“illzileclay and Co., 1961), p. 10 .

13John Gassner, A Trees 0 the h tre: H Ibsen to
W (revised ed.; New York: Simon and Schuster, 1950), p. 259.

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31
single dramatic style encompassing two variant forms of a basic style.
The variants do not depart radically from the general characteristics
and form alumts of Romanticism. In order to facilitate discussion of
these variants in subsequent sections of this chapter and in the actual
idmtification of the plays which constitute the second part of this
study, the variants will be referred to as "historical" Romanticism
(denoting an imitation of historic Romantic styles such as Elizabethan,
German, or French) and "secondhand" Romanticism (denoting plays that
are basically Romantic, but which, in some respects, resemble prose
Realism).

fiingiples of Romanticism

The principles or basic ideas which underlie the dramatic style
or Romanticism can be traced back to the developnent of romantic philo-
IOphical theories in the eighteenth and early ninet emth centuries .
Though several theories were formulated, all had in comon a search
"for a new systu of explaining the nature of reality and the duties of
man."'“' These theories also shared an Opposition to a concept of God
and the universe which was implicit in the Hebraic thought of the Old
Testament and which had governed the thoughts of Western man since the
days of Plato: a concept of the universe as a perfectly functioning
mechanism created by a suprmne being and Operating according to
i-ltable laws.”

In the general concepts of romantic theory, God is not perfect

 

“horse Peckhan, "Toward a New Theory of Romanticism,” M-
: Points 0 V ed. Robert P. Gleckner and Gerald E. Enscoe
(Enslavood'”c'11::a,d New Jersey: Prentice—Hall, Inc., 1962), p. 216.

15Me , we 215-16e

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32

nor is His universe a perfect mechanism. Rather God is imperfect,
but is becoming perfect through a constantly creative evolutionary
process.16 Similarly, the universe, because God created it "out of
himself so that he night more easily contemplate himself, "17 is under-
going the same evolutionary process. Thus in romantic theory the
universe is conceived of as organic, growing, and changing rather than
mechanical, static, and fixed.

A second principle of romantic theory is the assumption that

18

everything in existence is a part of everything else. Since every-

thing in the universe has a cannon origin in that it was created by
God out of himself, it follows that God, nature, and man are all in-
ten-elated.
The world of'nature is ‘one manifestation of Spirit: man is
another and a higher such manifestation, for in man Spirit
seeks to become conscious of its own work. The metaphysical
process is the process by which the Absolute seeks to realifg
itself, and all particular things are but phases within 1 .

A third principle of romntic theory is that truth is appre-
hnded through intuition. "Reason, being artificial and analytical,
is inadequate to the task of comprehending the Absolute: knowing is
living," and nature must be approached "through inspiration, longing,
and sympathy."20 The artistic or poetic experience is seen as a form
of knowledge. "It is fundammtally the intuition of a cosmic unity:
the intuition that the universe is not an unintelligible chaos, nor a

well-regulated mechanism, but a living organism, imbued throughout

 

1611213., p. 217. l7Brockett, p. 221.. Egg.

19Iredell Jenkins, "Romanticism," Th3 Dictiogg-z o; Phgosowy,
Gd. Dagobert D. Runes (New York: Philosophical Library, Inc. , 191.2 ,
P0 272.

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33
with an idea which endows it with its unity, its life, and its
harmony."21
The concepts governing Romanticism in drama and the other arts
at. from the romantic philosophical theories discussed above. These
concepts include original gains, the reliance on «notion and intui-
tion as the prime means of apprehending reality, the inherent goodness
of nature and primitive man, freedom of the individual, the rejection
of established rules for creating art, and the depiction of the
particular and the strange.
"The conception of original genius" underlies the whole movement
or Romanticz‘Lsm.22 "Genius may be defined as imaginative perception
0f the universal,"23 or as "an innate ability to gasp intuitively the
greatness of the universe."2h The artist is most often the possessor
0f gains and his creativity springs "spontaneously from the depths of
the unconscious."25 Thus romantic art is based on intuition rather
than reason. Romanticism in art
stresses the values of sincerity, spontaneity, and
passion, . . . . It reasserts the primacy of feeling,
imagination, and sentiment, . . . . It commands the artist
to feel freely and deeply and to express what 58 has felt
with no restraints, either artistic or social.
Since romanticists stress the intuitions of genius as the true

bases for knowledge, they regard rational thought and all that is

 

21mm. Gerard, "0n the Logic of Romanticism," Romantici
Poms oz View, ed. Robert F. Gleckner and Gerald E. Enscoe Ehglewood
Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962), p. 230.
”Babbitt, p. so. 231nm, p. 1.1. ZbBrockett, p. 221..
”Babbitt, p. 51.

26Jenkins, p. 273.

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34

associated with it as artificial and false. "The conscious analysis
that is. needed if one is to establish orderly sequences and relation-
ships and so work out a kingdom of ads is repudiated by the
Rousseauist [romanticist] because it diminishes wonder, because it
interferes with the creative impulse of genius."27 The romanticist
also reflects Christian and classical disciplines because they, too,
artificially control the expression of genius.28 The romanticist
maintains that man can only Imow the truth of his nature by the "free
expression of his ordinary self."29 The romanticist seeks "to shake
Off the tramels of tradition and reason in favor of free and passion-
ate self-expression."30

The distrust of rational thought and its consequences led to
another principle of Romanticism in art, the turning to nature for the
discovery and expression of truth. The romantic "return to nature" is
based on Rousseau's idea of spontaneity - that is, "genius resides in
the region of the primitive and unconscious and is hindered rather
than helped by culture."31 This principle can also be traced to the
fundamental idea of romantic theory, according to which everything in
the universe shares a common origin. Thus, a "study of any part may
lead to a glimpse of the whole."32 But, since nature as a part of the
universe is not subjected to the artificialities of civilization, and
is therefore, closer to the original creations of God, "the more suit-
able it is in the search for truth."33 For these reasons, Romanticism

 

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35

exhibits "an intense interest in nature, and . . . attanpt[s] to
seize natural phenomena in a direct, immediate, and naive manner."3h

Related to the romantic "return to nature" is the principle of
the inherent goodness of man. This fundamental assertion of Rousseau's
philosOpl'y postulates that man is naturally good, but that he is led
into evil by an artificial and corrupt society. Society, with its
limits and rigidities, conflicts with man's desire for freedom of
action which leads to unhappiness. "Only get away from an artificial
society ani back to nature and the inner conflict which is but a part
Of the artificiality will give way to beauty and harmorv."35 In the
principles of romantic art, primitive society is "idealized as a con-
dition in which man was free to follow the dictates of his conscience
without economic and political strictures . "36

A final principle of Romanticism, that of revolt against estab-
lished political, social, and aesthetic orders or traditions, is linked
to the concepts of original genius and primitivism. The possessors of
"genius", according to romantic theory, must be free to follow their
intuitions of truth. The. “freedom to do so is hampered or denied by
established laws. Similarly, "artificial" society interfered with or
corrupted the supposed "goodness" of the primitive way of life. The re-
sult was a revolt against existing social and political structures.
Romanticists protested against "inherited laws and customs, rules of
conduct for life and art, and the barriers which would bind.';7 "The

equality of man and the freedom of action became battle cries of the

 

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36

new movcnmt."38 This principle of revolt was clearly manifested in
the American and French revolutions of the late eighteenth century.39

In the arts the romantic search for needom in expression re-
sulted in the rejection of the traditional Neo-classic rules. Genius was
believed to be in conflict with these rules which were regarded as too
confiningf"o Romanticism was in continual Opposition to classicism,
whose formalities it treated as fetters.“ Genius was able to make its
own rules, to discover new fonns which "would allow the maximum freedom
in expressing the infinity of creation."k2

As part of the search for new forms, romntic artists began the
practice of depicting the particular, the strange, and even the grotesque.
Since truth cannot he arrived at by rational standards or "nouns" but can
be seen in the infinite variety of creation, romantic artists sought to
"encompass the infinite variety of thingsflfi3 They maintained that "art
Should concern itself with the particular and concrete, observing and
reporting accurately the feelings aroused by nature."M In addition to
depicting the particular and concrete. Victor Hugo, in particular, ad-
vocated a union between the grotesque and the sublime, "the body and
the soul, the beast and the inte.‘l_lect."l'5 According to Hugo, the

 

38m0c1tdt , p e 2210» 39mg e
wage qukins, pe 273e
uBrockett, pp. 224-25. “Bug" 1). 224.

“Jenkins, p. 273-

ASVictor Hugo, "Preface to Cromwell," trans. George Burnham Ives,
Mean Theories of the Drg, ed. Barrett H. Clark (revised ed.; New
York: Crom Publishers, Inc., 19”), P- 369-

mm or oppcsites
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37

contrast of opposites would enhance beauty and make art truer to

136

comon experience. The pursuit of strangeness also served to "break

up the smooth and tiresome surface of artificial decorumufi'?

Characteristics of Romanticism

General Characteristics

Although Romanticism is the oldest of the modern dramatic styles
and has therefore undergone a number of changes in some of its particu—
lar slants, plays can be idmtified as belonging to this style by
virtue of five general characteristics cannon to romantic drama. These
characteristics are: (1) a tendency away from actuality which includes
qualities of ructeness and escape 3 (2) an aphasia on notionality and
subjectivity; (3) an insistence on needom and a corresponding rebellion
against strictures which limit the individual's acting according to his
desires; (h) a predilection for depicting the particular, the strange,
and the grotesque; and. (5) a concern for nature and uncivilised man.

First of all, remoteness and escape are grouped together as as-
pects of a general tmdency away from actuality in Romanticism. Both
of these aspects have in con-ton a rmval of dramatic action from every-
day reality as most hman beings experience it. Undoubtedly, this
characteristic can be traced to the romantic principle of freedom in
artistic creation. It is more accurate to say that it is a result of
the practices of romantic playwrights.

Relotmess as a characteristic of Romanticism in the late
eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries was largely confined to "a
return to the medieval and rmaissance worlds for subjects and settings

 

“613g. ”Babbitt, p. 55.

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38

1.8 '
and in spirit." For example, one of the "most characteristic
feattn'es of the French romantic drama" was an "historical reconstruc-
tion of the life, customs, and institutions of the Middle .‘utgesd'l‘9
This same feature is noted in German romantic dra.ma.5o Renoteness re-
mained an almost indispensable quality in Romanticism evm after the
French and German movaumts, but it was expanded to renoteness in place

and culture as well as in time.51

Today remotaless may also be seen
as ruotmess within a culture in view of a tendency in modern "second-
hand" Romanticism in which the adventures of secret agmts, detectives,
soldiers of fortune, and others whose lives and experiences are ranoved
mm the experience of ordinary human beings are portrayed.
Romanticism in practice exhibits the qualities of "escape litera-
ture" as part of its tendmcy away from actuality. Heffner, Selden,
and Seliman observe that "Romanticism tends to create an ideal dream
world, a never-never land of the imagination. The persons who inhabit
this world are equally idealised and colored by imagination."52 The
bench romantic drama of the early nineteenth century "proved to be a

complicated pattern of passionate characters, extravagant contradictions ,

ABEenneth Thorp Rowe, A Theatre in log; Head (New York: Funk and
Hagnalls Co., 1960), p. 178.

”FJJJ. Draper, The Rise 39g F; of the flash Rmtic Drama
("a Iork: EePe Button and 00e, node , Fe 1310

mm, p. 6.

SJ‘Hillett and Bentley, pp. 139-40.

”Hubert c. Heffner, Samuel Selden, and Hunton D. Sellman, Mod
Theatre gectige (hth ed.; New York: Appleton-Century—Crofts, 1959 ,
p. 760

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39

lofty declamations, and unbelievable intrigues."53 The romantic French
stage was filled with such imaginative and escapist fare as "moonlighted
or stem scales," "galloping horses," and "clashing swords."51‘ Escape
was also noted as a feature of the German romantic drama in which the
return to the Middle Ages in content and spirit "expressed a retreat
from the present, a deliberate turning away from everyday reality in
favour of an idyllic dream. "5 5 In modern usage Romanticism is used to
describe plays that provide "the audience an agreeable period of escape
from reality into a world more cocciting or pleasantly ordered."56 In
such plays the element of escape is heightened through the use of
"emetic settings" and "the pursuit of the spectacular and the sensa-
tional in situation, characterization, and emotion."57

An «aphasia on the notional and subjective aspects of human be-
havior is a second general characteristic of Romanticism. From the dis-
cussion of the principles of Romanticism it can be seen that the reac-
tion of the German and French romantic playwrights against the
"notional restraint and formal rigidity of the preceding neo «classicism"
caused a "turning inward on individual personal consciousness and ex-
perience as the knowable reality and a mirror of the universal."58
This resulted in a condition in romantic drama where the element of

action takes precedence over the elmmt of reason and the passion for

 

53s. A. Rhodes, "France and Belgium," A Histeg of Modern Drama,
ed. Barrett H. Clark and George Freedley (New York: D. Appleton-

Century 00., 191.7). pp. 235-236.

5"Ibid. 55m, p. l.
56RO'0, pe 179e 57Ibide, pe 180.

58Ride , pe l78e

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"59

fidelity for fact. Indeed, there appears to be "an idealization

of the instinctive and non-rational powers" of the human mindf”0 This
«aphasia on «notion and feeling is also noted by Heffner, Selden, and
Sellman.61 Bruce Carpenter, in his book The Way of the Drama, states
that "the coldly logical or matter-of-fact has no part in romanceg"62
"the emotional or spiritual element in romance should exceed the in-
tellectual."63

The notional side of human behavior was anphasized in French
romantic drama. It was the practice of the romantic playwrights to
"show us their protagonists at the zenith or nadir of their lives"
where "these leading figures are seen at the last actranity of an emo-
tion or passion."6h One of the "most characteristic features of the
Romantic drama" was the treatment of love as "an overmastering passion,
upon which, and upon which only, the action of the drama must be

malty“

66

A similar enotionality is characteristic of German Romanti-
cisn.
Thirdly, Romanticism is involved with the idea of freedom and a
corresponding opposition to any limitation of the freedom of the indi-
vidual. The romantics' revolt against classicism resulted in an

 

59Millett and Bentley, p. 139. 609g.

6ll'leffner, Seldm, and Bellman, p. 77.

62Bruce Carpenter, The W o t e Dr (New York: Prentice-Hall,
11160, 1929), De 13km

63nge “Wrap”, pe 118.
65mm, p. 131.

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"mhancanent of the freedom of the individual"67 and a "freedom of
form and expression in variety and content"68 For the most part, the
romantic revolt involves "assertion of [the] individual in thought and
expression against the reduction of rule and order,"69 but, in some
instances, it represmts "a defiance of aesthetic and sometimes moral
authority. "70

The characteristic danand for freedom in Romanticism was apparent
in the French romantic drama. As F.H.H. Draper says in his book, Th3

Rise and Fall of the [ranch Romantic Drag,

The same freedom which the Romantic writers demanded for
thuselves they allowed to the creatures fathered by their
own imagination. No conventions, no moral laws which have
been found to make for human happiness did they abstain from
flouting in novel, poem, or play.7

Aspects of political rebellion were also seen in Romantic plays that
presented the poorer classes demanding equality with the higrer classes,
disparagemmt of the nobility, and even deliberate attacks against the
monarch.72

German romantic drama shared the passion for freedom and rebellion.
The Sturm und Bragg phase of Romanticism was an expression of exagger-
ated individualism.73 Later, German Romanticism continued to insist on
"unrestricted individualism and subjectivism in art'm" This freedom of
the individual implied "the refusal to seek formal regularity, and to

 

67Hillett and Bentley, p. 139. 68Rowe, p. 179 6911539,.
whiuett and Bentley, p. 139.
nDrap”, ppe w-hle 721bide, pe 286e

”Tums, p. 13.
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subordinate motion to intellect."75

Romanticism has as its fourth general characteristic a pre-
occupation with the portrayal of the picturesque and the strange.
Earlier romantic authors took pride in their "faithfulness to pic-
turesque detail and local color."76 This cultivation of the presen-
tation of detail led ultimately to realistic drama.77 The desire to
disclose the wonder and nwstery of life led to an interest in the
strange, the msterious, even the bizarre and the grotesque.

Presser Hall Frye prefers to call this characteristic "a fond-
uses for the striking and unusual,"78 or a "a susceptibility to
irregular beauty.”9 He explains the development of this character-
istic by saying that

. . . , the writer who looks upon literature as a function
of life, . . . - such an author may succeed in producing
the characteristic waywardness and "wonder" of nature. In
this view the idiosyncratic as possessed of superior actu-
ality, tends to become the exclusive subject of representa-
tion. Individualisation, not typification is the desideratum.
The strange, the irregular, the unusual engross a correspond-
ingly larger share of attention. T38 exception rather than
the principle comes to be the rule.
The portrayal of the strange and unusual is inclusive enough to cover
the strangaless associated with evil, whether plvsical or psychological.

"The romanticist found it possible to invest with something of glamour

—

751bid., p. 20.
76Rhodes, pp. 235-36.
77N1¢°119 We 13' 1509-

78Prosser Hall Frye, R ce Tra (Lincoln, Nebraska:
University of Nebraska Press, 1961;, p. 35.

”mm.
8°Ibig., p. 3A5.

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even the Weically and morally deformed."81 Associated with the de-
piction of the strange and msterious in Romanticism is an "appeal to
the irrational or superrational; madness, hallucination, magic, witch-
craft, an! ghosts."82 ‘

As has already been noted in the discussion of the principles of
Romanticism, Hugo, in his "Preface to Cromwell," advocated the inclu-
sion of the grotesque as a part of the subject matter of drama. His
suggestion was followed in many French romantic plays, but the por-
trayal of the strange and unusual was not limited to the grotesque.
The French dramatists, under the influence of the novels of Sir Walter
Scott, also uployed such unusual or strange content as "disguis es,"
"duels with rapier, poniard and cloak," "superstition and the super-
natural," "mrders," "concealed trapdoors, secret rooms and passages,"
"dungeons," "alchm, sylphs, gnomes, salamanders, naiads, [any
unclines."83

German romntic drama, too, displayed a concern for the strange
and unusual. Authors devised bizarre situations because strangeness
was not only attractive in itself but denonstrated "detachmmt from
the inherited classicist rules of congruity and mums“ They
showed "an inconsistent sense of realistic observation in recording
bizarre -- . . . - details from life and behavior."85

The fifth and last general characteristic of Romanticism as a

dramatic style is the treatment of nature and man living close to

 

mfiillett and Bentley, p. 11.0.
82lbid. 83Draper, p. 52.

Bl‘Tyms, p. 19. 85%., p. 7.

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37
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Mt

nature. This characteristic is a logical extension of the importance
of nature in the principles of Romanticism. Nature and primitive man
are unspoiled by civilization and therefore supposedly are the best
links with original creation and universal truth. This concept leads
to dramas "about unspoiled men living in primitive times or for those
who were in rebellion against the false restraints of society."86

In Romanticism, nature is often more than a mere background for
a play; it is a means of projecting the thoughts and moods of the author
and his characters. In the bench romantic drama, the inspiration of
nature is seen in the use of the detail of rural scenes, parks, and
river banks. But nature is more than a background when a murder is
framed by the rugged shoreline and lightning furrows the heavens or
when lovers meet on a serene summer night lighted by the moon's first
rays.87 In these instances nature is conveniently reflective of man's
actions. In German Romanticism the attitude toward nature is markedly
subjective. Romantic authors "saw very much what they wished to see, and
distorted, blurred - in short 'romanticized' - the world of physical
appearances so as to obtain a projection of their om inner world of

fantasy and dreams."88

 

36Brockett, p. 221..

87Georges Pellissier, The Literary Movement in Eggnog 29;;ng the
Nineteenth Cent_u;_-y, trans. Anne G. Brinton New York: G.P. Putnam's
Sons, 1897 , pe 110.

88Tyulns, p. 26. This subjectivity in German Romanticism is
apparently connected with later German experimnts in Expressionism.
It differs in that it does not distort surface reality nor follow the
supposed psychological reality of Expressionism. The fantasy and
dreams of the German romanticists were usually possible but improbable
rearrangemmts of everyday reality.

  
   

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#5

Since, for purposes of this study, two types of Romanticism have
been noted, some coments on the identification of the general charac-
teristics as they apply to each type are in order. Regardless of
whether Romanticism in drama is "historical" or "secondhand," a play
in the romantic style has a tendency away from actuality and an
aphasis on «notion. "Historical" Romanticism is morelikely to show
a concern for nature and be involved in the ideas of freedom and re-
bellion. Opposition to social and moral codes is more common in
"secondhand" Romanticism than opposition to political and economic
restrictions. Depiction of picturesque detail appears in both types
of Romanticism, although it may not be obvious in "secondhand"
Romanticism, since plays of this type are at least superficially
realistic. The depiction of the strange and mysterious does not abso-
lutely need to be present in either type, but this characteristic
comonly exists. Strange and awsterious events in "secondhand"
Romanticism often have "rational" explanations, while in "historical"
Romanticism the appearance of the supernatural or waterious may be
accepted as a convention. The concern for nature and/or uncivilised

man is more comon in "historical" Romanticism.

Form Elments

Plot
Plots in Romanticism are "characteristically loose in their con-

struction" and are "free in their use of elapsed timfang shifts in

place, . . . ."89 "The essential characteristic of the structure of

 

89Charles Cooper, Prefacg _t_9 the Dry (New York: The Ronald
has COe, 1955), pe 139e

maczien . . ' for

 

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1.6
romantic drama is the substitution of the diversity of time, place,
and action . . . for the unities of time, place, and action."90 This
allows the romantic playwright a "froedom in the selection and presen-
tation of his material that is denied the strict classicist."9l The
"best examples" of romantic plays adhere to a unity of action,92 but
they are not "constrained to follow a single plot, "93 that is, the
subplot is used frequently. In early nineteenth century French
romantic drama, playwrights claimed to be free from the "unities,"
but in practice they were not disregarded entirely. Playwrights did
not observe the unity of place but were less free in violating the
unities of time and actions?“

A second feature of the plot structure in Romanticism is the
mingling of the serious and the comic. Gassner terms this practice as
breaking a "unity of tone."95 Thismixture of the serious and the
comic is also noted by Thomas Dickinson and Millett and Bentley.96

There are some secondary features of structure in romantic drama.

Romantic plays may use a chronological structure often composed of
many scenes.97 In keeping with a chronological structure, the point

 

9°Hillett and Bentley, p. 11.1. 91mg.

920arpenter, p. 131..

”Gassner. W. p- 61-
9“Draper, p. 1.16.

”Gassner. W. p- 61~
96

Thomas H. Dickinson, An Outline 0 Con Dr
(Cambridge, Mass: The Riverside Press, 19275. p. s, and Hillett and
Bentley, Do Me

97

Cooper, p- 139.

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46
romantic drama is the substitution of the diversity of time, place,
and action . . . for the unities of time, place, and action."90 This
allows the romantic playwright a "freedom in the selection and presen-
tation of his material that is denied the strict eleeeieiet."9l The
"best maples" of romantic plays adhere to a unity of action,92 but
they are not "constrained to follow a single plot,"93 that is, the
subplot is used frequently. In early nineteenth century French
romantic drama, playwrights claimed to be free from the "unities,"
but in practice they were not disregarded entirely. Flu-nights did
not observe the unity of place but were less free in violating the
unities of time and action.9“

A second feature of the plot structure in Romanticism is the
mingling of the serious and the comic. Gassner terms this practice as
breaking a "unity of tone."95 This mixture of the serious and the
comic is also noted by Thomas Dickinson and Hillett and Bentley.96

There are some secondary features of structure in romantic drama.

Romantic plays may use a chronological structure often composed of
many scenes.97 In keeping with a chronological structure, the point

 

9°xillett and Bentley, p. 11.1. 91%.
92Carpenter, p. 131..

”Gassner, w, p. 61.

9“Draper, p. 116.

”Gassner. W. p- 61-

96Thomas H. Dickinson, An Outme of Contmm Drg
(Cambridge, Mass: The Riverside Press, 1927 . p. 8, and Nillett and
Bentlfiy, p. m.

97

Cooper, pe 139e

 

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A6
romantic drama is the substitution of the diversity of time, place,
and action . . . for the unities of time, place, and action."90 This
allows the romantic playwright a "fraedom in the selection and presen-
tation of his material that is denied the strict classicist."9l The
"best examples" of romantic plays adhere to a unity of action,92 but
they are not "constrained to follow a single plot ,"93 that is, the
subplot is used frequently. In early nineteenth century French
romantic drama, playwrights claimed to be free from the "unities,"
but in practice they were not disregarded entirely. Playwrights did
not observe the unity of place but were less free in violating the
unities of time and action.9l‘

A second feature of the plot structure in Romanticism is the
mingling of the serious and the comic. Gassner terms this practice as
breaking a "unity of tone."95 This mixture of the serious and the
comic is also noted by Thomas Dickinson and Hillett and Bentley.96

There are some secondary features of structure in romantic drama.
Romantic plays may use a chronological structure often composed of
many scenes.97 ‘In keeping with a chronological structure, the point

 

9°Hillett and Bentley, p. 11.1. 91%.
92Carpenter, p. 131..

93Gassner, Musing thg Ply, p. 61.

9I‘Draper, p. 116.

95Gassner, Prod in the Pla , p. 61.

96Thomas H. Dickinson, An Outline of Contmm Drm
(Cambridge, Mass: The Riverside Press, 1927 s P. 8, and Hillett and
Bentley, p. 11.2.

97

Coop”, pe 139e

  
  
 

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of attack is early in the story which results in an "exposition in
action" that largely replaces narrative exposition.98

French romantic plays have some characteristic features that may
sometimes appear in other nations' romantic plays. Rapid action, for
mcample, is a comonplace in the French drama.99 Along with this
rapid action, there is often an illogical sequence of events; "scenes
are usually a succession of surprises, recognitions, unforeseen and
unforeseeable events, conceived in the manner of melodrama."loo In
many instances the plot "leaps forward by means of overheard conversa-
tions and actions beheld by concealed personages."101 French romantic
drama oftm uploys prologues or epilogues to carry "the story a step
onward or backward."102

Other features of the plot in French romantic drama were the re-
tmtion of the five-act form in which each act was a unity "aiding
with a climax and a striking final line.“103 Changes of scene were
rare within the act.10b’ Plots were simple or complex, but they had to
have "thrills arising from remarkable situations."los Lastly, the
French romantic dramatists made "frequent use of the soliloquy."106

The content of romantic drama is concerned with the "glamorous,

exciting, and admirable."lo7 It also includes "exotic settings and

 

98Donald Clive Stuart, The Develo t o D tic (New
York: De Appleton m COe’ 1928 , pe me

99Draper, p. 171. 1002314., p. 118.
wlStuart, p. 509. 102Draper, p. 119.
103Stuart, p. 508 10m.
105M" p. 509. 1°6Draper, p. 52.

10714111.“ and Bentley, p. 11.3.

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48
pursuit of the spectacular and sensational in situation . . . ."108
Closely tied with this is an emphasis in content on "the curious, the
strange, and the nwsterious."lo9 There may even be some amount of
realistic detail present in the content.
. . . , Romanticism is only partly opposed to Realism;

its true enaw is the haclcneyed and: humdrum present, whether

squalid or acadanic -- a very different thing. Snatches of

realism remain very welcome to Romantic sensationalists,

espec as an escape from the starched dignities of Classi-

cism.
lastly, nature often figures in the content of the plays. It is some-

times eval "wild and untamed" nature in man.”1

Gangster
In both "historical" and "secondhand" Romanticism characters

odst in an mvironment and atmosphere removed from everyday life.
They repreth "the idealistic and imaginative side of man."]'l3 As

a result, characters in Romanticism tend to be "very strange indi-
viduals in strange circumstancest "We know them; but we do not
lmow anyone like them."115 They are recognizable human types but are

removed from ordinary human eocperience.

 

108Rowe, p. 13). 109Moody, p. 2.

1101?. L. Lucas, The Decline all 0 the Romantic Id (New
York: The Mamillan Co., 1937 , p. 1.7.

mJohn Gassner, ed. , A Trees 0 the Theatre om Aes lus
to Turgenev (revised ed.; New York: Simon and Schuster, 1951;, p. 500.
nzliillett and Bentley, p. 11.1.

mEdward A. Wright, A Pr er or Pla oers (Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1958 , p. 88.

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In both types of Romanticism, emotion plays an important part
in the developnent of character. This emotional aspect of character
was developed in early French and German Romanticism and is still
discernible in modern Romanticism. For example, Franch romantic
dramatists created characters with traits of extreme sensibility
whose "abandonmalt of motion" did "more credit to their hearts than
their good sense," and which often took the form of self-pity - a
fondness for telling of their mental sufferings.116 Romanticism in
general is prone to portray characters who are "slaves of passion,
ambition, Jealousy, melancholy, avarice, [and] lust.":L17

Complexity of character is another attribute of Romanticism.
In "historical'l Romanticism, "characters are conceived . . . as a
complex product of a rather considerable variety of ispulses, moods,
motives, and anotions."ll8 Protagonists, especially, are "likely to
be complex in characterization" and even minor characters "may be
individualized out of proportion to their dramatic purpose.":L19 How-
ever, in "secondhand" Romanticism "there is not time for highly indi—
Vidualized characterisation" and the persons in the play "are cast
into types like melodrama figures."‘1"r‘,'0 It is possible that type
characters may appear in "historical" Romanticism, but if they do
they are usually quite complex types.121

Characters in "historical" Romanticism are usually of "royal
or noble blood."]'22 Although not always "conventionally heroic ,"

 

116Draper, pp. 2374.0. “’7pr”, p. 11.0.
HMO“; and Barkley, pe We 119C00per, pe 139e
wcmmtar’ pe Ble 121Draper, ppe 237-AOe

12214illett and Bentley, p. 11.1.

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50
123
they are at least "fashioned on noble proportion." In "secondhand"
Romanticism, characters are not usually of the aristocracy, but even
here "the commonplace man is not a suitable figure" for a leading
characterflzh Characters in this type of Romanticism usually have
some attribute which sets than apart from ordinary human beings.

Certain typical figures are connected with the romantic dramatic
style. Earlier romantic writers developed the characters of the

Byronic hero and the outcast from society. Both are depicted as

125

suffering under despair and ennui. Both have lives affected by a

wrong or a crime they conmitted in the past}26 Both are very anotional

beings, prone to self-pity.127 Both are oftml endowed with a mysterious

128

past. About the only difference between then is that the Byronic

hero wars against "Fate" or a personal manly, while the outcast from

society "is in revolt against the society which has wronged him."]‘;29

A third traditional figure in Romanticism, the romantic criminal, is an

offshoot of the outcast from society.130
Heroines in Romanticism are often non-entities, lacking in color

and personality.]‘31

Some female protagonists are "monsters of

vice, . . . of ambition, and heartlessness."132 Still other female
characters in earlier Romantic plays have many of the attributes of the
Byronic herml33 A last funale type is the "weak woman" who is caught

up in adultery and "powerless before her passion."13h This last type,

.—

123Carpenter, p. 130. mlbid. 125Draper, p. 219.

126mg" p. 225. 127;hid., pp. 2374.0. 128mg," p. 230.
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51
while not unique in drama (i.e., Medea and Phaedra), appears fre-

quently in Romantic drama.

lemmas

Language in Romanticism is "beautiful and reflects life as we
should like to imagine it but would rarely experience it."l35 Prosser
Hall Frye characterizes the language of Romanticism as having a "pre-
dilection for the coruscations of style -- for the glittering word and
phrase, for the exotic and exquisite epithet."136 John Gassner states

that Romanticism

may uploy considerable lyricism, . . . , but the lyricism

does not conform to a strict pattern like the classical

choruses; it is not formal. Its dialogue is ideal (charac-

ters express their thought and emotions as they would if

they were endowed with a poet's faculties), the aphasia

being placed on expressiveness rather than verisimilitude.

To this end, all the non-illusionistic devices of the

soliloquy, the aside, the direct commentary are used freely

and without anyBattempt to Justify their presence

realistically. 7 -
Charles COOper writes that "there is an imaginative and orotund quali-
ty to the dialogue . . . . Poetic diction, flights of fancy, solilo-
quies and asides, rhetorical set pieces of poetic reflection . . . are

8
the common features of the romantic dialogue."13 Soliloquies, when
used, are usually reflective rather than constructive.
The above descriptions of language in Romanticism are applicable

to "historical" Romanticism, but "secondhand" Romanticism, because it
is influmced by Realism, utilizes prose in its dialogue. This prose

dialogue is usually quite close in quality to that of Realism, but in

g.—

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52
some instances it may tend to ornateness and lyricism. It is mainly
functional and serves to advance the plot or to reveal character.
Otherwise the language of "secondhand" Romanticism attempts not to
call attention to itself, but tries to pass for an approximation of

ordinary conversation. Soliloquies and asides sometimes appear in
this type of Romanticism, but when they do there is some attempt to
justify them realistically.

2.11.9322

The major themes of the dramatic style of Romanticism involve
the subjects of escape, freedom, rebellion, emotion, and moral Justice.
Other thanes associated with Romanticism deal with nature and fate.
Many of these thmes are oftm interrelated in a play.

The general characteristic of escape in Romanticism is marked
by an avoidance of themes dealing with an orderly contemporary social
environment.139 This is a general tendency which may have some ex-
ceptions in "secondhand" Romanticism. "Historical" Romanticism
characteristically turns to "situations of social disorder and to the
romantic past" for its subjects.“0 The Romantic concern for the past
is but one aspect of the escapist theme of nostalgia, a longing to get
away from the here and now and back to the "radiant hues of one's
dreams."u‘l In Romanticism, nostalgia is not exclusively a longing
for the past, but includes the more inclusive desire to avoid the

the present.

139Ge.ssner, A Treasm o; the Theatre; Em Aesgzlus to
2223221. no 500-
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TOpics of freedom and rebellion are frequently associated with
Romanticism. "The untrammeled soul or the soul which seeks to break
its bonds" is a characteristic theme of a great many romantic plays .143
As (hesner writes, romantic playwrights are absorbed in "the struggles
of a unique individual, heroically, at odds with conventions and his
mvironmmt."lu‘ In "historical" Romanticism the theme of political
freedom and the rebellion against injustice, tyranny, and inequality
is more pronounced than in "secondhand" Romanticism. Both types of
Romanticism often include the theme of personal freedom from the limi-
tations of social and moral codes.u‘5

There is a wide range of emotional subjects in Romanticism.
Most of them are expressive of "inward life, moods, and anotions."lh6
Many aspects of love are covered in the themes of Romanticism including
"overwhelming love at first sight,"ll'7 "the courtesan regenerated by
love, "M8 adulterous love,ll‘9 and jealousy.150 Melancholy, anguish,
despair, and sentiment are also manifestations of emotion in the themes
of Romanticism.l5l V

Melodrama's concept of moral justice can be considered a theme of

"secondhand" Romanticism, and may even be found in "historical"

 

MCarpenter, p. 130.

“Gassner, Treasgn o; the Theatre: From Aesgmlus to Turgenev,
pe 500. .

usBrockett, p. 225. l“milieu; and Bentley, p. 11.3.
147m, p. 300.

M8Albert Joseph George, The Develogent of 331m}; Romtigigg
(Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1955 9 P- 29.
“fiDraper, p. 295. lsoCarpenter, p. 130.

lslGeorge, ppe 29-32e

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54

Romanticism. This theme is that "no matter how horrible the trials
of the virtuous characters or how powerful the villainous, the good
are always rewarded and the evil are always punished."152

Other themes of Romanticism are concerned with nature and fate.
First, since the influence of nature on Romanticism has been dis-
cussed in other sections of this chapter, it is sufficient to say
that the general ideas of the essential goodness of unspoiled nature
and uncivilized man are carried over into the themes of some romantic
plays. Secondly, the concept of the operation of fate in man's life
is not an exclusively romantic theme, but has been noted in some
romantic plays. This these is evident when a hero "is subjected to
an arbitrary uterual destiny from which he cannot nee himself."153
Often this theme takes the form of characters suffering because of the

sins of their fathers.15h

Sm: Criteria for Identification of the
Dramatic Style of Romanticism

Principles of Romanticism

Romanticism as a dramatic style is based on general philosOph-
ical theories forumlated in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth
centuries. These theories advance the view that the universe and all
things in it, including man, are manifestations of an absolute spirit
which is in the process of becoming perfect through constant creative
evolution and which can only be apprehended by the subjective mind.
Thus the romantic universe is an organic one in which everything in it
is a part of everything else since everything in it has a canon

‘_

152Brockett, p. 236. 153Tymms, p. 12. 15“!)raper, p. 228.

 

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55
origin. Knowledge of’any part may lead to knowledge of the whole,

but such knowledge is intuitive rather than rational.

Drama and the other arts, guided by the theories of romantic
philosophy, are created according to aesthetic principles which view
the artist as a person gifted with original genius - an intuitive
grasp of the universal -- which is expressed freely without regard to
any established rules, conventions, or standards. The artist's sub-
jective imagination is his only guide. This imagination is stimulated
by observation of nature unapoiled by civilization. Details, the par-
ticular, are studied because they are truer to the infinity of creation
than the norms or abstractions arrived at by rational thought. The
strange and grotesque, because they exist in nature, are introduced
into art and are used as a contrast to beauty. The romantic revolts
against society both artistically and politically because its rules
interfere with the expression of his intuition.

Characteristics of Romanticism.

General Characteristics

The first general characteristic of Romanticism is a tendency
away from actuality. Enough detail and suggestion of observed reality
is included to lead the reader or spectator to believe that the actions
presented could or might happen. However, the feeling of actuality is
.modified by the remoteness of a romantic play in time, place, or cul-
ture. Romantic dramas impress one as being an escape from.everyday
reality because they customarily contain elements of excitement, sensa-
tion, and imagination that are not common to ordinary human experience.
There is a great sense of the improbable in the drama of Romanticism.

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56

The second general characteristic of Romanticism is emotion-
ality and subjectivity. Logic and common sense seem to be excluded or
minimized. There is an idealization of the instinctive and non-rational
powers of humans. To some degree, emotional appeal is common in all
drama, but in Romanticism emotions seen to be aroused and expressed for
their own sake.

The third general characteristic of Romanticism is a search for
freedom and an opposition to any limitations which affect the actions
and desires of the individual. The rebellious quality in Romanticism
may take the form of opposition to any established political, social,
or moral order. "Historical" Romanticism is more likely to deal with
political freedom than is "secondhand" Romanticism.

The fourth general characteristic of Romanticism is an inclusion
of the strange, the nwsterious, and the grotesque. A part of this
characteristic is the depiction of the picturesque and local color,
but this is truer of earlier Romanticism in which realistic detail was
a novelty. "Secondhand" Romanticism, which superficially resembles
Realism, is an extension of this aspect of early French and German
Romanticism. Nevertheless, both types of Romanticism often deal with
unusual, even bizarre, situations, settings, and characters. Even the
supernatural and fantastic are not excluded. Physical and psycholog-
ical evil and deformity can also be encompassed under this character-
istic.

The fifth and last gmeral characteristic of Romanticism is its
concern with nature and man unspoiled by civilization. Nature is
idyllic and free from the evil that, in the romantic view, civilization

spawns. There is a tendency for nature to reflect the moods and actions

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57
of the characters. There is also the idea that the closer a man is to

nature - the less he is influenced by civilization - the better he

is.

Eorm Elements

Plot

Plot structure in Romanticism is loose in its treatment of the
traditional unities of action, time and place. The unity of action is
usually retained, but action is often complicated in the main plot and
sometimes subplots are enployed that add to the complexity. There is a
free use of elapsed time and shifts in place are not unconmon. The unity
of tone is broken by a mingling of the serious and the comic.

A comon trait of plot in Romanticism is a marv-scened chrono-
logical structure featuring an early point of attack with exposition
carried out through action rather than narrative exposition. The un-
folding of the story often appears as a series of thrills presented in
a rapid melodramatic manner. The use of overheard conversations, pro-
logues, and epilogues to advance the action of the plot is sometimes
found in Romantic drama. Soliloquies, asides, and other rhetorical de-
vices are anployed for the same purpose but are more comon to "histori-
cal" Romanticism.

Plot content in Romanticism usually provides for excitement,
suspense, imagination, and glamor. Exotic settings, sensational situ-
ations - in general, the strange and the msterious - are frequently
a part of romantic content. Subject matter from the past is character-
istic of "historical" Romanticism. The world of nature is often used
as a setting, but is less likely to appear in "secondhand" Romanticism.

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Character

Characters in Romanticism, while not wholly unrealistic, are
usually improbable persons. Their actions and reactions are guided
more by «notion than reason. They are often victims of emotional
states connected with love, ambition, jealousy, melancholy, despair,
self-pity, mental anguish, avarice, and lust.

Characters are rather complex personalities in "historical"
Romanticism, but tend to be "types" in "secondhand" Romanticism.
Royalty or noble persons are portrayed frequently in "historical"
Romanticism. Even in "secondhand" Romanticism, the commonplace human
being is seldom a leading figure.

Traditional characters of Romanticism are the Byronic hero, the
outcast of society, and the romantic criminal. Virtuous heroines in
Romanticism are usually colorless in personality, but less reputable
female characters are more complex and show traits of lust, ambition,
and heartlessness. Byronic self-pity and melancholy is also found in
heroines. The weak woman enslaved in adulterous passion is a favorite

figure in Romanticism.

Language
Language in Romanticism has two forms. In "secondhand" Romanti-

cism, dialogue is in prose which is primarily functional in advancing
the plot. It is seldom poetically ornate. As such, it is quite simi-
lar to the language. of Realism. In "historical" Romanticism, dialogue
tmds to be poetic and ornate. It is often an informal lyricism,

rather than a strict poetic form. Expression is idealized; characters

speak with a poet's gift for language. Language often takes the form

:1 reflective SL1
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59

of reflective soliloquies, asides, and even set speeches. These tech-
niques of language are not wholly excluded from "secondhand" Romanti-

cism, but if they appear they are realistically motivated - that is,

there is some attanpt to treat them as a natural occurrence rather

than as a convention.

Thane

Theses in Romanticism usually avoid ideas and problems of con-
tanporary society and environment. "Historical" Romanticism turns to
the past for its themes. "Secondhand" Romanticism, although often set
in a contemporary environment, usually evades extensive involvement in
the ideas of that environment. Both types of Romanticism often have
theses of nostalgia,la desire to ignore the present and a longing to
live according to one's dreams and memories.

Themes of Romanticism often involve a search for freedom of the
individual from political inequalities or the limitations of social
and moral codes. Characters are frequently seen as rebelling against
the conditions which curtail the free expression of their individu-
ality or desires. The theme of political liberty is more common to
"historical" Romanticism than to "secondhand" Romanticism.

Themes concerning the emotions of individuals are often found in
Romanticism. Typical of these themes are love at first sight, the
enabling power of love, the anguish of jealousy, the despair of
melancholy, and the degradation of adultery. Sentiment is also common
as a thans in Romanticism.

"Secondhand" Romanticism often projects the theme of strict moral

justice in which the good are rewarded and the evil are punished.

Cite: than
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60

Other thanes of Romanticism concern nature and fate. Things in
a state of nature are seen as being good because they are unspoiled by
civilization. This is particularly true of men who live apart from
the "corruptions" of society. Fate as a determinant of man's destiny
is not exclusively a Romantic theme, but is incorporated into some
romantic dramas. According to this theme, man cannot escape an arbi-
trary external fate. Often fate takes the form of the sins of the

father being visited on his offspring.

CHAPTER IV
REALISM

Historical Bacgmund
While the last quarter of the nineteenth century is generally

accepted as the period of the energetics of Realism as a significant
dramatic style, it must be pointed out that traits now associated with
Realism were discernible in the drama of earlier ages. Evidence of
this may be found in Elizabethan middle-class tragedy and such
eighteenth century plays as George Lillo's The London Merchant and
Lessing's Miss Sara Sampson.l

Prior to 1875 there was also a shift toward Realism in theatri-
cal production. As early as 1801., a stage designer in the court
theatre in Hannheim, Germany, "Joined pairs of wings that contained
practicable doors or windows.“2 Goethe's autobiography included an
objection to the use of the box set on the French stage.3 In England,
J. R. Planche's 1821. production of King John was one of the first
attempts at archaeological accuracy in production.“ Seven years later,

 

1Gassner, tom an; Idea . . . . , p. 5.

2Kenneth Macgowan and William Helnitz, The Living Stage (Engla-
HOOd Cliffs, New Jersey: Prmtice.flall, Inc., 1955 , pe 3M0

3Ibid.

”A. Nicholas Vardac, 310m Stage to Screen (Cambridge: Harvard
University Press, 191.9), p. xxi.

 

61

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62

Madame Vestris introduced "surface realism in English decor,"5 and in
181.l employed box sets at the Olympic Theatre.6

In drama the first three-quarters of the nineteenth century pro-
duced a number of Sporadic attempts at Realism. "Durable examples" of
this are Gogol's The Insgector-General (1836), Hebbel's 1.43332
Magma (181.41.), and Turgenev's A Month in the Country (181.9) .7 The
dramatic works of Egnile Augier and Alexandre Dumas Q13 in the middle
of the nineteenth century also tended toward Realism. In particular,
Dumas figs attempted to found a drama of "social utility" which would

treat contemporary social problems.8
Dumas {$13, Augier, and others developed realistic techni ues,

but it was such playwrights as Ibsen, Zola, and Shaw, along with direc-
tors such as Antoine and Stanislavsky who added idea, method, and skill
to technique to found a true style of Realism,9 a style fostered by
sweeping changes in the western world.

Although many of these changes had begun in the eighteenth
century, they reached their culmination in the nineteenth century.
Revolutionary developnents in agriculture, industry, science, politics,

and society,lo had a notable impact on many other aspects of world

 

5&331131‘, 20m an Idea 0 e e e , I30 299.
6

Clayton Hamilton, The Theog of the Theatre (New York: Henry
Halt and COO, 1939), p. A 0

7&331191‘, 201111 and Idea 0 e e e , pe 50
8Brocllzett, p. 263.

9&35ner, Eom am Idea 0 e e e , pe 5e

loAlan S. Downer ed. , (heat World Theatre (New York: Harper and
Row, Publishers, 1961. , p. 1.81..

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63
culture, including drama. The concern of playwrights with these
developnents led to the realistic dramatic style.
[Realisg] was the result -- or concomitant - of the urban-
ization and mechanization of life, . . . . It was the result --
or concomitant ~— of danocratic reformism, of the new concern
with the condition of the people. It was the result - or con-
comitant - of the rise of physical sciencesflhich aimed at
controlling nature by knowing its processes.

After its growth in the last quarter of the nineteenth century,
Realism attained a position as the dominant dramatic style of the
twentieth century. Among its notable practitioners were England's
Arthur Wing Pinero, Henry Arthur Jones, and John Galsworthy, Russia's
Chekhov, and America's migene O'Neill, Arthur Miller, and Tennessee

Williams.
Principles of Realism

The view of the world and man in Realism is an outgrowth of a
number of more inclusive ideas and concepts which have shaped the
modern world. Realism may be incorporated "within a larger historical
or philosophical framework -- which will be that of some form of modern
scientific anpiricism."12

Realism is "a by-product of the scientific movement."l3 The
development of the realistic style was influenced by a general tendency
of man to turn more and more to science and scientific method for solu-
tions to problems generated by the rapid and revolutionary changes in

the nineteenth century.

 

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One of the major influences on the growth of the scientific
movanent was the philosophy of positivism, eXpressed by Auguste Comte
(1793,1357),1h Comte held that observation of fact was the only solid
basis fer human knowledge and that from.such observation invariable
laws could be discovered. In effect, he postulated a scientific, ob-
jective method of dealing with the phenomena of existence. He ad-
vanced one idea in particular that had great relevance to the growth
of Realism. He called for the application of scientific or positive
knowledge to social phenomena. He felt that the establishment of a
positive social science would promote order throughout society.15

No less influential than positivism to the shaping of scientific
thought in the nineteenth century were the doctrines set ferth by
Charles Darwin in his book, The Origin of Species. Darwin's book con-
tained two major concepts: "evolution, or the idea that all forms of
life have developed gradually from a common ancestry; and . . . the
survival of the fittest, as an explanation of the reason for evolu—
tion."16

The works ofWHarx also had considerable influence on the
historical and philosOphical milieu of Realism. Marx emphasized the
conditioning effect of environment on human behavior, but contended
that the circumstances of environment could be changed by man..17 He

thus advanced the concept of change in human behavior and society.

lSAlburey Castell, An Introduction to Mod Philoso (New
York: The Mam C00, 1963 , pp. 217.26.

l6Brockett, p. 261.

17Hatlen, p. 162.

 

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65

The principles of Realism as a dramatic style stem from the
general ideas of Comte, Darwin, Marx, and other intellectual leaders
of the nineteenth century. From these ideas, playwrights evolved a
style of writing, but not necessarily a program for "realistic"
dramatic creation. There is no single source for the formulation of
the principles of Realism. The number of dramatists and their various
anployments of Realism make it impossible to render precise descrip-
tions of the views underlying Realism. At best, only the general bases
of realistic thought can be advanced.

First, Realism adopts the methods and views of science. It stops
short of the experimental aspects of science, however, and concentrates
on "meticulous and precise observation, analysis, and recording of
specific details."l8 As a result, Realism is limited to the anpirical
aspects of science.

Another effect of the scientific influence on dramatic art is
the concept of man as a natural object. Man becomes, in this view,
"another object for study and control."19 "He is a case study,
capable of being examined and investigated."20

Second, Realism views heredity and environment as the two main
factors which shape human character. Man is a product of the inter-
actions of the pmsical attributes he is born with, the conditions

which surround him, and his will. "His physiolog is as important as

 

lBHatlen, p. 12.7.

l9Brockett, p. 261.

20H:t1en, p. 11.1..

 

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18:1 in Realism

they hike-.2311

mi" °f treat:

 

 

66
his intellect in determining his conduct."21 Although heredity and
its effects appealed as subject matter to a number of dramatists, it
was environment that held a special fascination for realistic play-
wrights.

It is the concept of environment "as a dynamic element of human
experience" which marks the modernity of Realism.22 More importantly,
it is "the idea of the stage as an environment, rather than as simply
or mainly a platform for acting, that effected fundamwtal changes in
dramatic art."23 Environment has a double influence on Realism. Con-
tmt in Realism was affected by depicting the environmental factors as
they influenced character, and the conventions of Realism were a
result of treating the stage itself as environment.

Thirdly, the concern with scientific empiricism and the factors
of heredity and environment are linked to a principle of Realism which
anbraces the idea of progress in improving human relations and behavior.
This view stems from a philosophical-historical assumption which was aug-
mented by Darwin's theory of evolution. "If man has evolved from an
infinitesimal grain of being to the complex creature he is now, greater
and greater improvanent and inevitable progress seen to be clearly
indicated."2h "The notion of progress is essentially associated with
the theory that science will necessarily continue to increase the sum
of human knowledge, and the possibilities of human conquest in the
world of Nature, . . . ."25 Progress, although supposedly inevitable,

 

allatlm, p. 11.1..

22635an, Eorm and Idea , . . . , p. 23. 231nm, p. 19.

21‘31‘061‘6‘“. , p e 261 e

2Sliugh Sykes Davies, Realism in the Dry (London: Cambridge
University Press, 1931.), p. 91..

was believn to h
min: aSpects o
The concept
tion to iealisz.
realistic play-Hr:
is much em 1',
strate the Opera:
Primes is Ere
“'9 in Red of C]
a: social iii 1‘ is
i‘Lf"ii‘.£:‘.'10.:1 is t

the “311m: ct

67
was believed to be accelerated by applying scientific method to the
various aspects of human existence.26
The concept of progress requires some qualification in its rela—
tion to Realism. It is more aptly an assumption on the part of the
realistic playwrights rather than stated doctrine or program. Progress
is implicit but not necessarily explicit. Realistic drama could demon-
strate the Operation and effect of progress directly but the idea of
progress is more often implied in drama which depict conditions which
are in need of change. In such dramas, a supposedly objective picture
of social difficulties and problems only reveals the status guo. The
implication is that if some action were taken to deal with then, then
the resultant change would lead to progress. It is also possible that
realistic drama may be used as a stimulus to the society in general to
make it aware of problems in order that it may turn its attention to
them. All in all, the idea of progress is related to the principles
of Realism, although this relation is not always imnediately obvious.
The last principle of Realism is that it attanpts to be "true to

life."' According to Kenneth Thorpe Rowe,

The aim of realism, . .1 . , is truth to life, inner and uni-

versal; but what distinguishes realism is truth to life in

uternal and particular detail. Realism as a method ascertains

truth bg7observation and communicates it by direct represen-

tation.
While Rowe's statmnent seems clear enough and is representative of a

number of other statmnents by various critics, it glosses over a disa-

greement among critics about how true Realism actually is to life.

 

26Brockett, p. 261.

27Rowe, p. 180 .

The ergmem
Em state m:
mentors, beca
tion bet—veer Real:
it: to repeat th.
trait as a reproc‘:
literal picture 0;
hilt Strindberg t
L‘s: “It the g
i: this sezse is 3
ms’fiticn." I:
tritics believe t.
i‘~'.~i:tic:1 or the

tree to the 1
“9111‘s cu

"’59 0! heir
Pests and in

3331131, and '
m? held Up t

 

68
The argument about the nature of "truthfulness to life" in

Realism stans from two differing conceptions of the style. Some
commentators, because they believe there is little, if any, distinc-
tion between Realism and Naturalism, lay stress upon the realist's
duty to repeat the very look of life. They say that Realism sees
truth as a reproduction of reality since it demands "a more or less
literal picture of people and happenings."‘28 This view of Realism is
what Strindberg characterized as "photograply which includes every-
thing, even the grain of dust on the lens of the camera."29 Realism
in this sense is parallel to what Henry James called the "emotion of
recognition." It might be termed journalistic reporting. Other
critics believe that the "truth to life" in Realism is more than the
depiction of the externals of reality. They feel that Realism is

true to the deeper motives of human character and to the

underlying currents of social development; not in the

sense of being photographically reflective of other as-

pects and irrelevant details. It does not strain to be

natural, and yet it is never unnatural. The mirror is

not held up to life, but life is subjected to a rigid

selective sense, and through that transformed into art.30

In this study the concept that Realism is "true to life" in the

sense of being true to the obvious external aspects of the world of
observed reality is not accepted as a principle of Realism. This con-

cept is more germane to Naturalism which is treated separately here as

 

28Kenneth Macgowan and Robert Edmund Jones, Continental Stage-
m (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1922), pp. h—S.

29August Strindberg, "On Modern Drama and Modern Theatre,"

Pla 1 ts on Pla itin , ed. Toby Cole (New York: Hill and Wang,
1960;, p. 17.

30Sheldon Cheney, The Theatre: Three Thousand Y s 0 Dr
Act and S ecra (rev. ed. New York: Longmans, Gram, 1952 ,

P0 350

tire-nth style.
mettle with t‘.
This steely
that it apprcxizm
name of drazati
illusion of real:

the selecticn

, a

M

W-

‘4

J4-
!" “ii: t
”tease. ‘ e u

69

a dramatic style. In effect, so-called photographic realism is more
compatible with the naturalist's theory of the "slice-of-life."31

This study accepts the idea that Realism is "true to life" in
that it approximates "real life as close as is compatible with the
nature of dramatic illusion."32 Realism attempts to produce the
illusion of reality rather than rgroduce life itself. In Realism
the selection, arrangenent, and "manipulation of observed fact result
in the revelation of hidden or more general truths than accurate re—

production of the apparmt reality would yield."33

Characteristics 0; Realism

General Characteristics

Realism has been used to identify a wide variety of plays which
range "from the plain reportorial or slice-of-life sort over near
Naturalism, to the anotionally condensed sort over near Romanticism."3h

Millett and Bentley describe three types of realists as follows:

[ A . . right wing which J grasps only partially the
implications of the scientific point of view, is likely
to share a fairly hard-headed sentimentalist's views of
human character, [and] to judge his characters and their
behavior unconsciously in accordance with the mores of
his own social group. There is, besides, an important
type of realist . . . that not only does not attempt the
objectivity of the scientist but earnestly espouses a par-
ticular standard of morals and philosoptw, and uses the
drama to express his social purpose and his social criti-
cism. . . . The left-wing realist is the type of artist gho
in continental criticism is usually called a naturalist. 5

 

31$ee Chapter v, "Naturalism,"pp. 87-88. 32Damon, p. 119.
33

Alan S. Domer, Rim Years of Amgican Drama; lm-lfifi
(Chicago: Henry Regnery Co., 1951 , p. 61..
Bhuhmey, We: 0 e e e , pe #500

3511111.“ and Bentley, p. 11.7.

 

Desgite the e
:iin‘im, they a]
the as similar in
’1. catamaran u
3) an aphasis an

tics, and S) sele:
details (to: act:

Realism, r;

”35393137 see:

70

Despite the diversity of plays which may fall under the category
of Realism, they all contain some general characteristics which mark
them as similar in style. These characteristics are l) depiction of
the contemporary world, 2) a reliance on the concept of environment,
3) an emphasis on the element of character, 1.) the fourth-wall conven-
tion, and 5) selection and arrangement in the imitation of actions and
details from actual life.

Realism, with few exceptions, "is primarily concerned with the
contanporary scene, contemporary people, contemporary ideas and
ideals . . . ."36 This characteristic is traceable to the historical-
philosophical background in which Realism developed. As T. W. Hatlen
observes, ”when a. society becomes concerned primarily with the physical
and material aspects of living based on sense knowledge, then the
artist looks to real life for his means of expression."37 Given the
general thoughts and attitudes of the late nineteenth century, it is
logical that dramatists would create plays which "restrict themselves
to the minute observation of man in the ordinary and eternal conflicts
of daily life."38

Immediacy is a basic concern in Realism. In a realistic drama,
"the background . . . is immediate in time and place to the author and
his audience, specific in locale, and treated with fidelity to physi-
cal facts and social manners."39 Characters in the drama of Realism
are "normal to the background, more often than not representative."l‘0

 

36Heffner, Seldon, and Sellman, p. 73. 37Hatlen, p. 11.3.
38Downer, 21:92 Years 0 e e e , p. 53.
39Rowe, p. 181. 4011331,.

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353911151: they
the-'35 5m i
the cpxtcpil’irl.

A, ' I
:13“ @3315 0:
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1 .

 

70

Despite the diversity of plays which may fall under the category
of Realism, they all contain some general characteristics which mark
than as similar in style. These characteristics are l) depiction of
the contemporary world, 2) a reliance on the concept of environment,
3) an emphasis on the element of character, I.) the fourth-wall conven-
tion, and 5) selection and arrangement in the imitation of actions and
details from actual life.

Realism, with few exceptions, "is primarily concerned with the
contemporary scene, contemporary people, contemporary ideas and
ideals . . . ."36 This characteristic is traceable to the historical-
philosophical background in which Realism developed. As T. W. Hatlen
observes, "when a. society becomes concerned primarily with the physical
and material aspects of living based on sense knowledge, then the
artist looks to real life for his means of expression."37 Given the
general thoughts and attitudes of the late nineteenth century, it is
logical that dramatists would create plays which "restrict thenselves
to the minute observation of man in the ordinary and eternal conflicts
of daily life."38

Immediacy is a basic concern in Realism. In a realistic drama,
"the background . . . is immediate in time and place to the author and
his audience, specific in locale, and treated with fidelity to physi-
cal facts and social manners."39 Characters in the drama of Realism

are "normal to the background, more often than not representative."l"0

 

36H°ffner, Seldon, and Sellman, pe 73. 37113191311, pe 111.30

38Downer, Eim Years . . . . , p. 53.
39Rowe, p. 181. “01mg.

 

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enter"

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In Realise: t

 

71

While the emphasis in Realism is on the contemporary, a past
period may be treated in a realistic manner.“ The Crucible by
Arthur Miller is a notable example of this. Exceptions, however es-
teemed or striking, do not alter the general tendency in Realism to
depict the contemporary world.

A second general characteristic of Realism is its emphasis on
the concept of environment. In Realism the surroundings of the char-
acters are treated as more than the "local color" of Romanticism, the
latter often introduced for novelty. Realists expanded the idea of
imitating details of a particular locality and introduced environ-
ment which was treated "not merely as the background for a dramatic
complication but as the foreground itself."l‘2

In Realism the particular handling of environment is signifi-
cant. The realistic playwright avoids presenting the details of the
observable world for their own sake. He wishes to express "an aware-
ness of kinetic relations between the individual and society."43 De-
tails, both material and social, are selected to show the 231293: of
environment on the characters portrayed. The dramatist presents
"convincing representations of meaningful experiences ,"u‘ not a
totality of experience fiom the actual world of reality. In Realism,
environment is not anployed to deceive the audience into believing

what they are witnessing is like life in the actual world. It is

 

“Hermer, Seldon, and Bellman, p. 73.

l‘2John Gassner, A Treasu o the Theatre: om Henrik Ibsen
to Arthur Miller, (rev. ed.; New York, Simon and Schuster, 1950;,
p. 30

“mssner, row and Idea 0 o o o, p. 630 “Ibido

 

 

red to help the
ta: at its mat ex
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matteristic 0:
Principal object
in mid, coast:
to :L’sracter pot.
and action that. .
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33115:,

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,

71A
‘used to help the spectator perceive the relation between human charac-
ter and its material and social surroundings. I

An emphasis on the form element of character is a third general
characteristic of’Realism as a dramatic style. In Realism."the
principal object of imitation is always man; description of the mater-
ial world, construction of plot, are thus subsidiary and contributory
to character portrayal."45 Realism.attempts to present both people
and action that are familiar to the audience but the "best realistic
plays emphasize characterization rather than complicated plotting."A6
Due to Realismfs imitation of details of the observable world, the
realist commonly "is driven to an exacting study of the surface mani-
festations of character."l‘7 In its form relationships, Realism empha-
sizes the element of character, but not to the point where other
elements lack relative importance.

A fOurth general characteristic of Realism.is the so-called
"fburthawall convention." This identifying characteristic is
actually more apparent in the theatrical production of realistic drama,
but it can be perceived in the manner of writing plays in the style of
‘Realism. The assumption of this convention did much to change the art
of theatre and drama and to dictate most of the other conventions of
realistic theatrical style."8 In Realism this convention provides for

the presentment of the material of’a play "in the manner and sequence

 

LSHatlen, p0 1450

héLodwick Hartley and Arthur Ladu, Patterns in Modern (New York:
Prenticeqflall, Inc., l9h8), pp.8-9.

”Milieu and Bentley, p. 150.
hfibmm,p.4&p

 

2: actual life, a
RNA; ACCCI‘i
tram are “811pr
“110! am livi
audience permiu
Wit their eve:
PM

Selective tech?

5;“ , p

"r 1c».

“* (19 “"7
“7&3;

72
of actual life, as though people were being watched through a peep-

h9 According to the fourth-wall convention, characters in a

hole."
drama are "supposed to be seen as they would be seen if the fourth
‘wall of any living room.or bedroom were suddenly removed and an
.audience permitted to watch unsuspecting, everyday mortals going
about their everyday business in an everydaymanner."5O

Finally, a general characteristic exhibited by Realism as its
selective technique in portraying actual life. In realistic drama it
is essential that the actions of the characters and the setting of
'the play he accepted as a "true" picture of life.51 It need not be a
total, inclusive picture, however. The "true" picture presented in
.Realism.is accomplished by the suggestion of reality (rather than by
its actual photographic depiction) through a process of selection.
.Realistic plays commonly "give the impression of being the real thing
‘without including the infinity of unnecessary and confusing detail one
might find in real 11mm” In short, Realism pictures life, "but

not in stark photographic detail. Rather it selects, arranges, and

discards."53

 

49Gassner, Producin the Pla , pp. 53-5ho

50mm, p. 1.8“.

51hr)? McCarthy, "Realism in the American Theatre," Harper's
ccmn (July, 1961). 1.9.

SgRichard Corson, "Styles of Scene Design," Dramatics Ma azine,
m (19474.8) . 5.

53Wright , pp 0 89“” o

 

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We“: steal.

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| “‘

73

Form Elements

M

In Realism the element of plot is marked by l) a structural
compactness, 2) a late point of attack, 3) an attempt to reduce
theatrical conventions to a minimum, and A) the use of contemporary
story material.

Realism exhibits a "compactness of form that has not been
known since the time of the Greeks."5h This compactness in realistic
plots is achieved by "organic means" rather than "by means of tricks
and devices,"55 which are melodramatic and are therefore "foreign to
Realism."56 The compactness of structure in Realism is characterized-
by "careful construction, exposition, and motivation."57 It commonly
adheres closely to the three unities, "for it is likely to be econ-
omical in its shift of time and place and to the use of a single
plot."58

A secondary plot technique appears to be the employment of the
late point of attack. The plot tends to concentrate the action at the
moment of crisis.59 This late point of attack leads dramatists to
adopt Realism's "retrospective method of playwrighting,"60 which is

related to the tendency toward compactness in realistic plays.

 

51+Sheldon Cheney, The New Movement in the Theatre (New York:
Mitchell Dennerley, 19115.3. 36. " "'

5SGassner, Eorm and Idea . . . . , p. 35.

 

56011311”, New Movanmt c c c c , p0 [+5.
”Cooper, p. 140. 581bid. 59McCarthy, p. 1.6.

wmssnm‘, EOIE and Idea 0 c c o , p. 320

 

 

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scene." Eclj
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6‘7 “.9 5:31.

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71+

A third characteristic of plot structure in Realism.appears to be the
attempt to reduce theatrical convention to a minimum,61 in order to
produce the illusion of everyday reality.62 One technique is the
weaving of eXposition into the rising plot action.63 The minimiza-
tion of theatrical convention is perceptible in the omission of great
complications of plot and climaxes, and the de-emphasis of the "big
scene."6h Soliloquies and asides, both obvious theatrical conventions,
are eliminated from realistic plots.65

iMany critics indicate that the plot material in Realism.should
be from.contemporary life. Cooper, IOr example, claims that contempor-
ary life should be the source for all plot material,66 and Gassner goes
further by saying that the treatment of the character's contemporary
environment as a factor in the determination of human conduct and
destiny is also an attribute of story material in Realism.67 The
;practice of choosing content from.contemporary life is all but absolute
in Realism; however, there are some exceptions. Content from.past

jpiriods has appeared in realistic plays, but has been treated in terms

of ideas contemporary to the author and his audience.

Character
The element of character in Realism.can be described in terms of

four factors. They are 1) social class, 2) plausibility, 3) complexity,

 

6lRowe, p. 181. 6209.88ner, Produ in the Pla , p. 62.
63Cheney, New Movement . . . . , pp. 75-76.
61541119“ and Bentley, pp. lh8-lh9.

65Gassner, Eorm.and Idea . . . . , p. 30.
66Cooper, p. 1A0. 67Gassner, Eogm and Idea . . . . , p. 37.

7A
A third characteristic of plot structure in Realism appears to be the

attanpt to reduce theatrical convention to a minimum,61 in order to
produce the illusion of everyday reality.62 One technique is the
weaving of exposition into the rising plot actionf>3 The minimiza-
tion of theatrical convention is perceptible in the omission of great
complications of plot and climaxes, and the de-emphasis of the "big
scene."6h Soliloquies and asides, both obvious theatrical conventions,
are eliminated from realistic plots.“

Many critics indicate that the plot material in Realism should
be Dom contemporary life. Cooper, for example, claims that contempor-
ary life should be the source for all plot material ,66 and Gassner goes
further by saying that the treatment of the character's contanporary
environment as a factor in the determination of human conduct and
destiny is also an attribute of story material in Realism.67 The
practice of choosing content from contemporary life is all but absolute
1n Realism; however, there are some exceptions. Content from past
period: has appeared in realistic plays, but has been treated in terms

of ideas contemporary to the author and his audience.

Character
The element of character in Realism can be described in terms of

four factors. They are 1) social class, 2) plausibility, 3) complexity,

 

——.——

6:I'Rowe, p. 181. 62Gassner, Produ in the Pla , p. 62.
63Chmey, New Movanent c c 04 , pp. 75'760

6I‘Hillett and Bentley, pp. 11.8-11.9.
65%331181', F011". and Id 0 o c c , p. 300

66000per, p. 11.0. 67Gassner, EOE and Idea . . . . , p. 37.

. .‘C‘; .

 

m‘ i.) the mist ion
Realism in b:
grating taxi .23
tetiiile class, i
M‘s, the men
is the premium
heat-steam cer
3113 egg-fled,
class m the pea
Cher-asters
Z“*9.ilaihr‘egizt h
min that an 1
Mimi? trim
EM tries to
m :‘rtil‘atiernfi
imam d: 98

K4

is "H r ‘
”ugh 1: tr.

75

and it) the relation of character to his environment.

Realism may be employed to depict any level of society, but the
prevailing tendency in realistic drama is to portray characters from
the middle class, the lower middle class, and the working class.68
Today, the comon man -- whether ordinary, humble or downtrodden --

is the predominant figure in realistic drama.69

Earlier Realism of
the nineteenth century featured characters from the middle class. As
Realism expanded, characters were drawn more and more from the working

class and the peasantry.70

Characters in realistic drama are "credible men and womel."7l
The playwright in Realism "attempts to present types of people and
action that are familiar to us."72 "The characters are treated with
particular truth to individual lives and personalities."73 Overall,
Realism tries to be "faithful and accurate" in its "rendition of life
and character."7h However, faithfulness and accuracy in rendering
characters does not mean a rigid c0pying of observable reality. It
is enough if the characters in Realism present the illusion of being
plausible, probable human entities.

Characters in Realism are relatively more complex in their make-
up than those in older foms of drama. They are "composites of a

large number of varying and contradictory impulses."75 Realistic

 

W

 

 

éficCarthy, p. 15.5. 69Hatlen, p0 1490

70Gassner, Treasu_11 of the Theatre: Ibsen to Tiger . . . . ,
p- h-

71

J. N. Marriott, Modern Drama (London: Thomas Nelson and Sons,
LtdO, nOdO), P0 570

72Hartley and Ladu, p. 8.
7AM 75 .
illett and Bentley, p. 151. Iblg., p. 150.

73Rowe, p0 1810

flamigits o;

It is peculiai
. , 77
Reva.
It is a]

girl to char-ac

the imer cris

 

76

playwrights often reveal their characters as "individuals with con-
flicting psychological drives, products of heredity and environment."76
It is peculiar to realistic drama that often such conflicts go unre-
solved.77

It is also common in Realism that the imitation of action in re-
gard to character is not that of "violent physical action as much as
the inner crisis, thus penetrating the surface and giving insight into
their (characters!) desires, aspirations, and frustrations.”8 The
inner, or psychological-social, complexity of character in Realism is
accompanied by a complexity of detail in the external aspects of
character, such as dress, manners, and physical appearance. The
realist spends much effort on the "surface manifestations of charac-
ter."79

In dealing with the relationship of character to heredity and
enviromnent, realists did not overemphasize the mechanistic and
animalistic aspects of man as did the naturalists. "The realist
found it possible to show both sides of man and dealt. with many char-

acters who were close to the norm in behavior and outlook."

Langgge
Prose is generally considered to be a mandatory characteristic

of Realism.81 The dialogue is natural, even colloquial at times. In

 

76Bstlen, p. 11.9. 77Miuett and Bentley, p. 150.

79

78Hatlen, p. 11.9. Millett and Bentley, p. 150.

80
Hatlen, p. 150.

81See, for example, Gassner, Treasm of the Theatre: Ibsen to
Miller, p. 3; Wright, p. 89; Millett and Bentley, p. 150; Cooper,

p. 11.0; and Rowe, p. 183.

v-u.

speech patterns
mmst. It is
lineate cl‘sr'octe
csssicn is ofter
“lW’lih it is a
501-19 influence <
tecbmcil haven

77
addition, the dialogue should be functional, with individualizing
speech patterns and dialects, and even personalized details of human
interest. It is utilitarian, "serving to advance the plot or de-

lineate character, rather than to call attention to itself."82 Dis-

cussion is often considered to be an important feature in Realism.83
Although it is a part of the dialogue of realistic style, it has
same influence on plot, too. G. B. Shaw, when he wrote of the
technical novelty in Ibsen's plays, pointed out that the structure
of the "wellemade" play (exposition, situation, and unravelling) had
been changed by Ibsen to exposition, situation, and discussion.
Shaw felt that "the introduction of the discussion and its develop-
ment until it so overspreads and interpenetrates the action that it
finally assimilates it, making the play and discussion practically
identical" was the factor that aided in separating Ibsen and post-
Ibsen drama from.previous dramaturgical practice.

Discussion is "a manifestation of a critical spirit that helps
shape the modern realistic play and to give it a significance well
above that of merely pictorial realism."86 In.Realism, psychologi-
cal conflicts and social situations "can provide engrossing drama

when they are presented largely through discussion or argument."87

 

82Hatlen, p. 151.

830assner, Eorm and Idea . . . . , p. 1.2.

84George Bernard Shaw, The Quintessence of Ibsenism.(New York:
Hill and Wang, node), p0 1710
85%., 13° 1&0 86685an, £012 and Idea. 0 o o o , p. A20

871mm, pp. 43-41..

78
.22222
The word which most appropriately describes the themes of
Realism is "humanitarian." There is a general Spirit in realistic
plays which evinces a deep concern for contemporary social problems,

88 Cheney calls this general

and contemporary individual human problems .
concern a "sympathetic interest in the common man."89 Such concern and
interest leads realists to demonstrate in their plays that man alone is
responsible for his current plight. They attempt to indicate that
social change is needed or to direct the path of change.

Particular thenes deal more specifically with the humanitarian
spirit. They treat individual man's psychological problems, his duty
to share ethical relationships with his fellow man, and his responsi-
bility to social institutions. Society's obligation to each individual,
family relationships, sex, and economic conflicts also appear in the

themes of Realism.9O

Sm: Criteria for the Identification

of the Dramatic Style of Realism
Principles

 

Realism is strongly influenced by science and adopts the methods
of scientific anpiricism in which man is seen as an object for study
and control. Realism is concerned with the objective treatment of
heredity and environment as major influences on human character.

Realism is also linked to an idea of inevitable progress which can be

 

88Cooper, p. 140.

89Cheney, New Movanent in the Theatre, p. 38.

9°Hatlen, p. 151.

..ee:'sd up by scc.
aunts tc be ”t:
semble wcrld, b‘.

obsen'able facts

._ . ‘ m
:Racver. “,‘e

at his Sui-rein:
1931115 2: er.

‘V’ l}

Rains: :

:Twa'lt ngt 0:1;
5! .he drama.
“91113;; i:
Sifwlds am max
:19?» CR and a!"

79
speeded up by social action based on the methods of science. Realism
attempts to be "true to life" not only in closely imitating the ob-
servable world, but also in selecting, arranging, and manipulating

observable facts to reveal hidden or general truths and patterns.

Characteristics of Realism
General Characteristics

Realism is primarily involved with imitating the contemporary,
immediate world of man and society. Historical periods may be imi-
tated in a realistic manner, although such imitation is rare.

Realism emphasizes the concept. of environment in relation to
character. The perception of the relationship between the individual
and his surroundings is a primary aim, rather than mere copying of the
details of environment.

Realism emphasizes the form element of character more than any
other element.

Realism also generally observes the fourth-wall convention,
apparent not only in production, but also as an influence on the form
of the drama.

Realism imitates life but does not reproduce it. Realism
selects and arranges the asPects of life presented on stage. This
selection and arrangement aids in distinguishing Realism from Natural-

ism, since both styles imitate the details of empirical reality.

Eorm Elanents
Plot

Realistic plots are marked by structural compactness, late point

of attack, reduction of theatrical convention, and the use of

steeiad up by social 2
starts to be "true 1

smble world, but a:

cheer-able facts to re

 

Realism is prim

\‘va— ‘4.
saint} mrld cf 2‘1...

tated 311 a realist" ~-

Q
AV“

.3
teens: 2:5? 312.:
O

 

 

79
Speeded up by social action based on the methods of science. Realimn
.attempts to be "true to life" not only in closely imitating the ob-
servable world, but also in selecting, arranging, and manipulating

observable facts to reveal hidden or general truths and patterns.

Characteristics of Realism
General Characteristics

Realism is primarily involved with imitating the contemporary,
immediate world of man and society. Historical periods may be imi-
tated in a realistic manner, although such imitation is rare.

Realism.amphasizes the concept of environment in relation to
character. The perception of the relationship between the individual
and his surroundings is a primary aim, rather than.mere copying of the
details of environment.

Realism.emphasizes the form element of character more than any
other element.

Realism.also generally observes the fourthawall convention,
apparent not only in production, but also as an influence on the form
of the drama.

Realism.imitates life but does not reproduce it. Realism
selects and arranges the aspects of life presented on stage. This
selection and arrangement aids in distinguishing Realism from.Natural-

ism, since both styles imitate the details of empirical reality.

Eorm.Elements
Plot

Realistic plots are marked by structural compactness, late point

of attack, reduction of theatrical convention, and the use of

scion-scary stcry rate:-
23m. lets commonly a

.‘ .‘ ' ' -0
321.31. Caucus, traces!“

Characters in Real
"9 15?. oftm members c

”C111 position, they a:

masters are relative}

calcite-up. Often the:

“Pests or the drama p
credit; and mummy“

Li«Tings

The dialogue of I:

tea .
Batu-u t0 the

‘Qcticnal
e mt .
1” er than

cf.

Elie Disc

1410?“.

1.1851011 kid 4

K.
\c

 

 

8O
contemporary story material. RetrOSpective exposition is employed
often. Plots commonly adhere to the unities of time, place, and

action. Obvious, theatrical "plotting" is avoided.

Character

Characters in Realism can be drawn from any social class, but
are most oftel members of'5 the middle and low classes. Regardless of
social position, they are portrayed as credible, probable peeple.
Characters are relatively complex in their physical and psychologi-
cal make-up. Often their psychological conflicts are important
aspects of the dramas in which they appear. They are influenced by
heredity and environment. Characters are close to the norm in be-

havior and outlook.

Language
The dialogue of Realism is always written in prose. It appears

to be natural to the character and his position. It is primarily
Motional rather than ornamental. It seldom calls attention to it-
self. Discussion and argumelt often are an integral part of the

dialogue.

Theme

Realistic plays demonstrate a "humanitarian" concern for con-
temporary man and society. Their themes usually revolve around
responsibility -- man's responsibility to himself, his family, his
fellow man, and his society, as well as society's responsibility to
its individual members.

T-" 2: . .
«fie ..eahs:, 2.5
cfthe nineteenth ca...

" ' 7‘- ... ~ .
mums attztudes

u
are m been 3029 m

n
m: 3.7m; thm Her
——_-

'h

r1 4 1
W (13”2).n*
0' ‘n.’

‘ us novel, 75.31;“ 1
a &
‘ '4’ Mt» "
t1:

a “llama p“

1:13!

renew ..
1n hi3 footsten

N I
1“” hares n
W

”meg a

LVQ e
33m to

 

 

CHAPTER V
NATURALISM

Historical Background

Like Realism, Naturalism in drama developed in the last quarter
of the nineteenth century in response to changes in the social and
intellectual attitudes of the western world. Prior to this time,
there had been some "important forerunners" of the naturalistic
drama, "among them Henriette Mare’chal (1865), by the Goncourts; g
Revolte (1870). by Villiers de l'Isle-Adam; [any Daudet's
L'Arlesienne (1872)."1 However, it was finile Zola's dramatization
of his novel, The’re‘ase R in, in 1873 which marked the beginning of
a consciously naturalistic style.2 More important that the play was
Zola's challeiging preface to it which led other playwrights to
follow in his footsteps .3

After Ihe’r‘ese Ram, Zola continued to contribute plays and
provocative essays to the cause of Naturalism. His collection of

essays, dealing with the theoretical aspects of Naturalism was pub-
lished in 1881 under the title of Le Naturalisme au the’fitre. This

event spurred a developing trend toward naturalistic playwriting

 

lGorelik, p. 133-

Zulu-311cc, " word Companion to the Theatre, p. 291.
Baatlm’ p. 158.

amid by the 3??
and La Parisierzte (135

Kat's-slim in t3:
htcime when he {cards
:21: contributions we:-
izmrical style, his '
115° pmvided Exposure

15:1: in style, and he
{harms

Wiat‘calisz: as a
1 - ”6
~91. Yet, in the 1;

sever
al rammed mature

T": '
mus nations. R‘dSSj

5": -
‘ 30mm PM“. (ix-Q

 

 

82
exemplified by the appearance of Henri Becque's The Vultures (1882)
and La Parisienne (1885).

Naturalism in theatrical production was fostered by Andre]
Antoine when he founded the Theatre—Libra in 1887.“ Although.Antoine's
main contributions were important to the develOpment of a naturalistic
theatrical style, his Theatre-Libra in its brief existence (1887—1894)
also provided eamosure for over forty dramas, most of them natural-
istic in style, and helped transform the "character of the French
theatre."5

"Naturalism as a conscious movement was largely ended by
1900."6 Yet, in the last two decades of the nineteenth century,
several renowned naturalistic plays were written by dramatists of
various nations. Russia's Leo Tolstoi shocked the Victorian era with
his sordid peasant drama, The Power of Darkness (1886). In Sweden, a
letter from Zola praising The father led August Strindberg to create
a masterpiece of Naturalism, Miss Julie (1888).7 A year later the
German playwright, Gerhart Hauptmann wrote W, a seam
picture of life in a coal—mining village.8 This play was followed by
Hauptmann's most renowned naturalistic drama, The Weavers (1892). In
the same year in England, G.B. Shaw's Widower's House, with its attack

on "slum-landlordism, " appeared. Shaw also eochibited naturalistic

 

“Rhodes, "France and Belgium," The History of Modern Drama,
PP- 2h3‘h50

5Ibid., pp. 2A3-AA. 6Brockett, p. 277.

7Alrik Gustajson, "The Scandinavian Countries," The History of
W: P- 23-

8Franz Rapp, "Germany," The History of Modern Drama, p. 79.

   

rim mi techniq
Raven‘s Prefessi
Although 3c
2811, Kata-ans:
the turn of the
Les 5, ‘ie’s (ICC
N 1
2&1 treated
me Fear: the
lith the Mac
139 in the Hes
messed in 5.3:

Tke Thm
“ .y “A. ‘ .-
w

.1
4'2
in! Enter“ 3:?”

 

 

83

views and techniques in his treatment of prostitution in flag;
Wgrsn's Profession- (1898).9

Although somewhat lessened in importance as a stylistic move-
ment, Naturalism continued into the twentieth century. Shortly after
the turn of the century, the French playwright, Eugene Brieux wrote
Les Avarie’s (1902), "a study of venereal disease which, as Damaged
M. created a sensation in England and America."10 within the
same year, the Moscow Art Theatre scored one of its greatest triumphs
with the production of Maxim Gorky's now famous naturalistic drama of
life in the Moscow underworld, The Lower Dgpths.ll Naturalism also
appeared in such plays as Elmer Rice's Street Scene, Eugene O'Neill's
The Iceman Cometh and Long Day's Journey into Night, John Osborne's

The Ent_e_1_*t_a_iner, and Tennessee Williams' Cat on a Hot Tin 1200;.12

Principles of Naturalism
There is divided critical opinion as to whether Naturalism can

be considered as a distinct dramatic style apart from Realism. It
is true that certain similarities are apparent in the principles of
both styles. Naturalism and Realism are very similar in that they
are based on objectivity in observation and presentation... They are
somewhat similar in their concern with the factors of heredity and
environment, although Naturalism tends toward extremes in its in-

sistence on these factors in determining human action and character.

 

9Hatlen, p. 159.

10"Brieux," 0 Co on to the Th t e, p. 96.

11"Gorky," Mord Comion to the Theatre, p. 329.
12Rowe, pp. 186-187.

views and techniques 1:
Harm‘s meessic-n (1
lilting?) somewhat
:ent, Katu'alism cont in
the tum of the century
r . 'I ~
.es same: (1902), "a
Lon, created a sense:
we year, the Moscow A
rlth the producticm of
life in the Hoscw Lmde

appear“ in such plays

W and 1
Miami»

 

 

83

views and techniques in his treatment of prostitution in Mr_§_._
Wargen's Profession. (1898).9

Although somewhat lessened in importance as a stylistic move-
ment, Naturalism continued into the twentieth century. Shortly after
the turn of the century, the French playwright, Eugene Brieux wrote
Les Avarie’s (1902), "a study of venereal disease which, as Damaged
_G_o_qg_§_, created a sensation in England and America."10 Within the
same year, the Moscow Art Theatre scored one of its greatest triumphs
with the production of Maxim Gorky's now famous naturalistic drama of
life in the Moscow underworld, The Lower Depths.ll Naturalism also
appeared in such plays as Elmer Rice’s Street Scene, Eugene O'Neill's

The Iceman Cometh and Long Dgy's Journey into Night, John Osborne's
The Entgtginer, and Tennessee Williams' Cat on a Hot Tin Roof.12

Principles of Naturalism
There is divided critical Opinion as to whether Naturalism can

be considered as a distinct dramatic style apart from Realism. It
is true that certain similarities are apparent in the principles of
both styles. Naturalism and Realism are very similar in that they
are based on objectivity in observation and presentation" They are
somewhat similar in their concern with the factors of heredity and
environment, although Naturalism tends toward extremes in its in-

sistence on these factors in determining human action and character.

 

9H8tlm’ p O 159 .

10"Brieux," QBSIOEd COELion to the Theatre, p. 96.

11"Gorky," Mord Comion to the Theatre, p. 329-
12Rowe, pp. 186-187.

   
  
  
  
      
    
   

has and techniques in
Karen’s Profession (1
mm somewhat
2st, tiat'i‘alism contin
thetum or the cent‘ ,.
Les Amie/s (1902) ”a
a 9
fl, created a senset
me year,

the Moscow

'w ,. .
r... we production of

83

views and techniques in his treatment of prostitution in 1433;
Warren's Progession- (1898) .9

Although somewhat lessened in importance as a stylistic move-
mmt, Naturalism continued into the twentieth century. Shortly after
the turn of the century, the French playwright, Eugene Brieux wrote
Les hvarie’s (1902), "a study of venereal disease which, as Damaged
9203;, created a sensation in England and America."10 Within the
same year, the Moscow Art Theatre scored one of its greatest triumphs
with the production of Maxim Gorky's now famous naturalistic drama of
life in the Moscow underworld, The Lower Dgpths.ll Naturalism also
appeared in such plays as Elmer Rice's §_§_r_e_et Scene, Eugene O'Neill's
The Iceman Cometh and Long Dhy's Journgy into Night, John Osborne's
The Entertainer, and Tennessee Williams' Cat on a Hot Tin hang.12

Principles 0; Naturalism
There is divided critical opinion as to whether Naturalism can

be considered as a distinct dramatic style apart from Realism. It
is true that certain similarities are apparent in the principles of
both styles. Naturalism and Realism are very similar in that they
are based on objectivity in observation and presentation” They are
somewhat similar in their concern with the factors of heredity and
mvironment , although Naturalism tends toward extremes in its in-

sistence on these factors in determining human action and character.

 

9118121611, p. 1590

imprim," Olgord Gown to the Theatre, p. 96-

11"Gorlq," Mord Cogpghion to the Theatre, p. 329-
12Rowe, pp. 186-187.

Katie there is little 1
difference between Nat:
degree of selectivity 1
deterministic philoscp?
diffs-emcee meat the
to Eat "Pareto iron Re

“mush Naturali
in“ and 5m” inte
hail! basfid upon
m Reaganlh

3 pl":
Acccr
verse is aided “tire;
Wifirse, and hmce film
“W“ and ““ditioned
he;

by
ted doctrines of pc
Brita 31.10],le Strett _
e "' at "
m hm being in
933th 1a“

”the 3m

fibrk Out .

than“ 0: t

 

 

84
While there is little in the above principles that reveals a marked
difference between Naturalism and Realism, the styles do differ in the
degree of selectivity employed in depicting the actual world and in the
deterministic philosophy which is the basis of Naturalism. Such
differmces warrant the consideration of Naturalism as a style related
to but separate from Realism.

Although Naturalism and Realism share a common historical back-
ground and similar intellectual influences}3 Naturalism is rather
rigidly based upon a philosophy of determinism which "sets it apart
from Realism."u' According to this philosophy, "every fact in the uni-
verse is guided entirely by law" and "all the facts in the physical
universe, and hmce also in human history, are absolutely dependent
upon and conditioned by their causes."15 These doctrines, along with
related doctrines of positivism, led to a naturalist theory that
"drama should systenatically portray the true processes of the indi-
vidual human being in relation with his envirormment, wherein cause-to-
effect laws work out inexorably, quite aside from conventional morality

6
or the sentiments of the spectator."1 In Naturalism

 

“nSee Chapter IV,, "Realism," p. 61..

‘U'Vernon L. Parrington, The Be inn' 3 0 Critical Realism in
America (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World, Inc. , 1958), p. 321...
15James K. Feibleman, "Determinism," The Dictiopm of

Philosophy, ed. Dagobert D. Runes (New York: Philosophical Library,
1910-2 , p. 780

16Paul L. Soper, "Backgrounds of Naturalism, " W
01 Speech, XXXIII, No. 1 (February, 191.7), 52.

“the individual wa
victil of the inex:
neat, for aim was 1
to natural pmcesse

The detemihi
mm: of heredity
”Walk! and Heel.
“tributes gm his I
3‘11“. but Naturu
Q behavior is d at e
Im‘nm (Italics mi
mam” "Ian as .

the chain of
that a“,

ph 61103; 3]

° ° ' behm
Ed mullet;

”3P9 I

 

85

”the individual was to be exhibited as the product, puppet, and
victim of the inexorable forces of heredity, instinct, and environ-
ment, for man was to be regarded as a wholly natural object subject
to natural processes."17

The detsrninistic view of the relation between man and the
factors of heredity and environment marks a difference between
Naturalism and Realism, a difference in degree. Man's inherited
attributes and his surroundings are a part of the principles of
Realism, but Naturalism places a "greater emphasis on the ideal that
3;; behavior is determined by the forces of heredity and environ-
melt."18 (Italics mine.) In dealing with these forces, Naturalism
accentuates "man as an animal, a creature material, a. more link in
the chain of phenomena."19 Naturalistic playwrights tend to imply
that "men . . . behave as they must; that is, their hereditary traits
and instincts shape and determine their character and Requeltly over-
power their reason or moral scruples."20

In the principles of Naturalism, as in those of Realism there
is an insistence on objectivity in observation and presentation.
Zola had called for direct observation, exact anatomy, and the de-
piction of "what is" in works of literature.21 The dramatist was to

 

17man”, 20m “M E03 0 s e s ’ p. 670
lemockett, p. 275.

19Frank w. Chandler, meets o; Modpgh org (New York: The
Miller: Co., 1929). p. 35.

2C)Gessner, Trgm o: phe ghost”; Ibsen E Minor, p. 3.

“mail. Zola, "Naturalism on the Stage," trans. Sammiel Draper,
Pla ts P , ed. Toby Cole (New York: Hill and Wang,

llgps s

be com “Jedi“
his own "ideas or cu

I a: waiting 503'
the stage. W55
described wither.
neat to deterrzifl
according to the
their awn disses
until the plaénrr
amaze: of man, ‘
ductlcn more or;
dared to risk on

It should be noted t?
an ideal. In practi:
tmly objective, due
‘0 a concern for that

Unl‘. n -
Jie Jails:

v .
.Ia:' ‘7‘.
J“was-a3! is mre ex

“#3:". eSpeciau », -

e~

 

86
be coldly objective in observing and recording; he was never to allow
his own "ideas or outlook to intrude."22 Zola wrote,

I am waiting for someone to put a man of flesh and bones on
the stage, taken from reality, scientifically analyzed, and
described without one lie . . . . I am waiting for environ-
ment to determine the characters and the characters to act
according to the logic of facts combined with the logic of
their own diSpositions. . . . I am waiting, finally . . .
until the playwrights return to the study of nature, to the
anatonw of man, to the painting of life in an exact repro-
duction more original and poggrful than anyone has so far
dared to risk on the boards.

It should be noted that the objectivity of Naturalism is a theory,

an ideal. In practice, many naturalistic playwrights failed to be
truly objective, due either to their social or personal prejudices or
to a concern for dramatic form.

. Unlike Realism which anploys selectivity to suggest reality,
Naturalism is more exact and accurate in its imitation of observed
reality, sepecially in the details of environment. Zola wrote that
the dramatist must make use of environment as novelists do.

. . . a novelist no longer looks on man as an intellectual
abstraction . . . 3 he is a thinking animal, who forms
part of nature, and who is subject to the multiple influences
of the soil in which he grows and where he lives. That
is why a climate, a country, a horizon, are often decisively
important. The novelist no longer separates his character
from the air he breathes; . . . ; he simply makes a note
of the material conditions in which he finds his characters
at every hour, and in which the facts are produced, in
order to be absolutely thorough, and so that his inquiry
may belong to the world's comprehensive view and reproduce
reality in its entirety.24

Zola acknowledged that it was not only possible to "produce the

reality of environment on the stage," but that it was a necessity

 

22’Brockett, p. 275.
232cm, "Naturalism on the Stage," p. 6. 24mm, pp. 10-11.

”imposed on the the
is a result of Zola
”the stage setting ‘
in any previous mov
We
inc concern 1‘.
+ :1: , . .
“a“ 15" 0f it is c
the "slice of life.‘
to r ., ..
aatcallsm and a.
lealisa.
w. .
due "SlicG Cf
tion to ~
the theatric

areSSfi this idea

87
"imposed on the theatre as an essential condition of its existence."25
As a result of Zola's views and the practice of other playwrights,
"the stage setting was given greater importance under naturalism than
in any previous movement."26

The concern for environment and the "minute and cumulative de-
tailing" of it is directly related to the naturalistic principle of
the "slice 01' life."27 This principle is widely recognized as peculiar
to Naturalism and aids in distinguishing the naturalistic style from
Realism.

The "slice of life" concept deve10ped as a part of the Opposi-
tion to the theatrical conventions of the "well-made" play. Zola
expressed this idea as a delving "into the living drama of the two-
fold life of the character and its environment, bereft of every
nursery tale, historical trapping, and the usual conventional stupidi-
ties."28 He felt that for the dramatist "there should no longer be
any school, no more formulas, no standards of any sort; there is only
life itself . . . ."29

The dramatists who followed the views of Zola wrote plays which
negated "theatricality and skillful dramatury" and attempted "to give
the impression that what happened On stage was actuality unorganized,

without a beginning, a middle, or an end."30 The aim was to transfer

 

ZSIbge, p. 110 ZéBI'Oertt, p0 2760
273.01“, p. 1860

I I \
28Emile Zola, "Preface to Therese Raquin," Empean Theories o:
the Drama, ed. Barrett H. Clark (2nd rem; New York: Crown Publishers,

Inc., 191.7), p. 1.01.
29mm. BOHatlen, p. 160.

a sweat of life a:
toning it by artis1
smetural elenents
£121, 831 dEIC‘JGTJ
a true picture of L

'33 to begin appear.

sally Arbitrary.)-

 

88
a segment of life as accurately as possible to the stage without dis-
torting it by artistic selection and arrangement. The customary
structural elements of dramaturgy such as complication, discovery,
climax, and denouement were regarded as hami‘ul to the presentation of
a true picture of life. In Naturalism, the point at which the story

was to begin appeared to be selected at random and its and seemed

equally arbitrary.31

Characteristics 0; Naturalism

General Characteristics

The dramas produced under the influence of naturalistic theory
exhibit five comonly shared general characteristics. They are:

l) portrayal of life in the lower strata of society, 2) frankness in
the presentation of sordid or unpleasant aspects of life, 3) an aura
of pessimism, I.) an emphasis on the elanent of character, and 5) a
"slice of life" manner in dramaturg.

Naturalism commonly draws its content from the lower classes in
society. There is little basis for this selection in the principles
of Naturalism, yet in practice there is "a marked tendency toward se-
lection of the lower levels of society and lower human types as subject
matter."32 Naturalism seeks to depict reality, but the reality it
depicts is "primarily that of the lower middle and working classes."33
In turning "the drama to scales of humble and low life, " Naturalism
utilizes "scales and characters from city tenements and the underworld,

from industrial environment, from peasant life and folk life, from

 

Ble‘OCkett, p0 2760 32R0we, p. 1870 33Rh0d88, p. 2450

mama and business
gealisu but they are
Naturalism exhi
and depressing events
m not necessarily i
istic drama is 0ft!!-
quent‘q epics-seized}:
license abound in Kat
”sausaticnalistic ex;
Seder, the misery c
ti“ Pxple, or else .
'77“ naturalist b ‘
rear:

with only the ugh l"

Hatmimfs de'

 

 

89

3“ Such characters can also be found in

commerce and business."
Realism but they are much more predominant in Naturalism.

Naturalism exhibits a frankness in presenting sordid, unpleasant,
and depressing events in its drama. Again this is evident in practice
and not necessarily in theory. The life that is depicted in natural-
35

istic drama is often ugly and crude. Man's animfl nature is fre—

quently emphasized.36

Scenes of degradation, disease, and sexual
license abound in Naturalism.37 The naturalist often resorts to
"sensationalistic eXperienceg" he is likely "to dwell upon crime, vice,
squalor, the misery of the fourth estate, primitive instincts in primi-
tive people, or else morbid passions in people of the higher class."38
"The naturalist breaks sharply from the realist in his preoccupation
with only the ugly and squalid aspects of character and action."39
Naturalism's deterministic view of human character and action
and its presentation of unpleasant details of life in the lower strata
of society cause much of naturalistic drama to appear pessimistic in
tone and quality. Pessimism, in a general sense, is concerned with
gloominess, deepondency, magnification of sorrow and evil, and contempt
for the world as it is. Such concern has led pessimists to suggest

compensations or to offer relnedies.l’o In the drama of Naturalism, a

 

34Hermer, Seldon, and Sellman, p. 75.
35Marriott, p. 72. 36Hefi‘ner, Seldon, and Sellman, p. 71..
3768381101., Form and Idea 0 e e e , pe 680

39

380M”, p. 330 Hatlm, p. 1580

“oxm F. Leidecker, "Pessimism," The Dictio o Philoso ,
ed. Dagobert D. Runes (New York: PhiIOSOphical Library, 191.25,
p. 2300

salm- pattern of th:

Naturalism dis;
pessmim apparent in
Sazu-alistic dramatis

of life in order to s
[:aturalisfl dis:
the feelings to a
mist. specifica
in our social 3::-
it, to the and th
ins 0: a new 331—4

. a

of nature . M

Accordingly, Natural:

iii“ in that "the:

than “M “1° 800d fc:

Lu“ Realm. r.

 

 

90
similar pattern of thought is apparent.

Naturalism diaplays "a bias toward pessimism.“ However, the
pessimism apparent in naturalistic drama is not without purpose.
Naturalistic dramatists frequently portray the dark and gloom side
of life in order to Spur society toward reform of conditions.

[Naturalisfl disdains nothing, however ugly, that can stir

the feelings to an appreciation of human conditions as they

exist. Specifically, naturalism recognizes the unnatural

in our social structure and does not hesitate to anphasize

it, to the end that dissatisfaction may incite to the build-

ing of a new structure more closely in accord with the laws

of nature.
Accordingly, Naturalism often uses its pessimistic view to attain
positive ends and in this manner is allied with some aspects of
Realism. Yet the dramatists of Naturalism differ from those of
Realism in that "their insistence is upon the evil which exists rather
than upon the good for which they long."l‘3

Like Realism, Naturalism anphasizes the element of character.M
The "slice of life" principle with its aversion to customary drama-
turgical practices in plotting makes character more important. The
primacy of character can be seen in Zola's comments on his play,
Therese Quin. He wrote that the action of the drama consisted of
the "inner struggles of the characters" and depended upon a "logic
of sensation and sentiment."1‘5 Gorky, in his preface to M39,

indicated a similar view when he stated that characters "must be

 

“Parrington, p. 32).. uChandler, p. 31..
BM.

umickinson, pp. 126-27.

“Zola, "Preface to The/rese Raquin," p. 1.01.

drive; by their CWT)
sodas — tragic or :
pemitted to act in
interests, and pass:
In Naturalism
play appear to be a
c: the principles of
l: "plotless plays"
waged and often :1
Kain-313m differs 1‘

the actual wrld

, 5‘3.

amine:- Ere ‘L‘I Fee

In
Production,

‘3» n
we -
1 fC‘lX'thumln CC'
v. ‘
uux

7.7 that, the c

P‘E“m .
EN 18m 8 ‘
92K
3 to 1

3" a“die

L
“aha

t
“C8 to belie
real life}9

 

 

91

driven by their own inner impulses, create the incidents and epi-
sodes - tragic or comic -- and direct the course of the play, being
jpermitted to act in harmony with their own contradictory natures,
interests, and passions."46

In.Naturalism.it is characteristic to have the action of the
play appear to be a "slice of life." This is a logical consequence
of the principles of’Naturalism. Naturalists incline toward seeming-
ly "plotless plays" which appear to be "reproductions of the un-
arranged and often uneventful course of dailyexistence."47 In this,
JNaturalism.differs from.Realism.which, while projecting an illusion of
the actual world, selects and arranges the events of ordinary life in
a.manner more in keeping with established traditions of dramatic form.

In production, Naturalism.is similar to Realism in following
the "fourthdwall" convention but "adheres strictly to the peep-show
theory that the characters observed on the stage are non-theatrical."48

Naturalism seeks to reduce theatrical convention to a.minimum.and lead

the audience to believe that what they see on stage is a segment of

real life.49

Form.Elements

Plot

The element of plot in.Naturalism is similar in many ways to

that of’Realis:m..5O It takes its content almost exclusively from.the

 

héhatlen, p. 161. h7Gassner, The Theatre in Our Time, p. 78.
“geesener, Producin the Pla , p. 62.

throckett, p. 276.

503” Chapter Iv, "Realism," pp. 73.. '.

f1

contezporary some; i‘.
tions as the aside, t‘:
of attack and the use
Eatiraliszn. Structure
that it “tenis to rat:
in TeSPeCt for the un:

Although the p

l

*_l

in many rqs, there a;

in dist" "ds'n '

e
a. "‘~ we
‘5 nuts I,

structure and 2) sub‘

0: hm‘l life. $‘R

cra‘acteristics of Na

some clarification.

 

92
contemporary scene; it eliminates such obvious theatrical conven-
51

tions as the aside, the monologue, and set Speeches. The late point

of attack and the use of retrospective eiqiosition are also used in
Naturalism. Structural compactness is observable in Naturalism in
that it "tends to return to the economics of classical construction
in respect for the unities."52

Although the plot element in Naturalism and Realism is similar
in many ways, there are two factors of plot in Naturalism which aid
in distinguishing it from Realism. They are l) a "slice of life"
structure and 2) subject matter which treats the less edifying aSpects
of human life. Both factors have been mentioned under the general
characteristics of Naturalism, but their relation to plot requires.
some clarification.

Naturalism insists that the "slice of life" should be "the

53

formal principle of drama." It "seeks to diapense with the technical

expedients both of romanticism and of the well-made play: soliloquies,

"54

asides, confidante, raisonneurs. As a result, traditional tech-

niques of dramaturgy are minimized to the point that it is sometimes

55 The "slice of life"

6
principle "favors an arrangement of facts after the pattern of life."5

impossible to be aware of them as technique.

Although Zola wanted playwrights to paint life in "exact repro-

duction,"57 the fact that drama is an art form requiring selection,

 

51Chandler, p. 33. szDickinson, p. 126. ”Rowe, p. 186.
SADickinson, p. 1.26. ‘

55Millett and Bentley, p. 11.8. 56Dickinson, p. 126.
57Zola, "Naturalism on the Stage, " p. 6.

scheme. rat? 39‘“;
tions as the aside, ‘

of attack and the us«

that it "tens to re‘.

in reSpect for the '1'

Although the p2
11‘. my was, there a

'= ‘. §:n—~\. ‘ ' '
15 deseugnsmng 1‘.

Structure and 2) subj
°r mm life- Both

characteristics of Na

some clarification.

I“"‘t'il‘alism ins:

fen. .
. nil prlnClple 01‘ Q

 

 

92
contanporary scene; it eliminates such obvious theatrical conven—
51

tions as the aside, the monologue, and set speeches. The late point
of attack and the use of retrOSpective exposition are also used in
Naturalism. Structural compactness is observable in Naturalism in
that it "tends to return to the economics of classical construction
in respect for the unities."52

Although the plot element in Naturalism and Realism is similar
in many ways, there are two factors of plot in Naturalism which aid
in distinguishing it from Realism. They are l) a "slice of life"
structure and 2) subject matter which treats the less edifying aSpects
of human life. Both factors have been mentioned under the general
characteristics of Naturalism, but their relation to plot requires,
some clarification.

Naturalism insists that the "slice of life" should be "the
mmflpfimmhofummJBIt%%btofiwwmwfihwemmMml
expedients both of romanticism and of the well-made play: soliloquies,
asides, confidante, raisonneurs."54 As a result, traditional tech-
niques of dramaturgy are minimized to the point that it is sometimes

55

impossible to be aware of them as technique. The "slice of life"

6
principle "favors an arrangenent of facts after the pattern of life."5
Although Zola wanted playwrights to paint life in "exact repro-

ducti.on,"57 the fact that drama is an art form requiring selection,

 

51Chand1er, p. 33. 52Dickinson, p. 126. 53Rowe, p. 186.
5ADickinson, p. 126. -

55M111ett and Bentley, p. 1h8. SéDickinson, p. 126.
57Zola, "Naturalism on the Stage, " p. 6.

 

arrangflfient, 3:
£111.58 Nature
had to develop
Naturalis
to make their (i.
replaced cozplit
literary and ma:
Meade. e.e.,
$537 @Tasizaj
mafiazard ccnve.
that of life."6 5'

52:“: e

93
arranganent, and heightening made such a demand impossible to ful-
£111.58 Naturalism, in denying the existing techniques of plotting,
had to develOp some techniques and conventions of its own.

Naturalists, in keeping with the "slice of life" theory, attempted
to make their dramas appear plotless, without apparent form. They
replaced complicated plots with simple ones.59 They discarded "the
literary and narrative qualities of the production, style, symmetrical
dialogue, etc., in favor of the observed surface qualities of life."60
They emphasized minute details of environment.61 They presented
”haphazard conversations -- a dialogue terse, broken, rambling, as
that of life."62 "Potentially dramatic scenes were underplayed,
suggested or even avoided altogether."63 In short, the naturalists
could not escape the need for structure in plays so they were careful
to disguise the mechanism of plotting in order to make their dramas
appear to be a "slice of life" from the actual world.

Sprdid, depressing, unsavory subject matter is commonly found in
Naturalism as an element of plot. This trait is so marked as to be a
general characteristic of the style. It was noted in the early history
of the style in the productions of the Theatre-Libre which were labeled

 

58Brockett, p. 276.

59Rhodes, p. 2%. "Singile" is used in the sense that the over-
all story is easily summarized. In the attempt to imitate the often
rambling actions of everyday life, the naturalist may present a
rather complicated ordering of events.

61
60Dickinson, pp. 126-127. Rowe, p. 186.

6QChandler, p. 33.

63Hatlen, p. 160.

‘~L'1'v'
msse, a term 101.515,
the! as "'a sort c1“
peonle who never had .
injustice, like a fig
portrays: the sea;
“51303 - far tc

of what they saw
dramatists usual;
Sordidness, stupi
forces in the my
Naturalistic ;;
1333 fifty-me in thfiir

”L.
"Mac
\ter

Some aspects 0;

 

 

9h

rosse, a term roughly translated as "crass," but more accurately de-
fined as "'a sort of vicious ingenuousness, the state of soul of
peOple who never had any moral sense and who live in impurity and
injustice, like a fish in water.'"6l" Antoine and his playwrights

portrayed the seam side of existence in exaggerated

fashion -- far too often with a mere cynical acceptance

of what they saw or thought they saw. . . .:Antoine's

dramatists usually began with the premise that

sordidness, stupidity and hypocrisy are the dominant

forces in the world. 5

Naturalistic plays after the time of the Theatre—Libra were

less extreme in their treatmmt of the sordid and unpleasant, but
they continued to depict "life in its crudeness and ugliness, its
formlessness and colorlessness."66 The details of naturalistic plays

were unsavory as the author's intentions and the law allowed.67

Character

Some aSpects of character have already been discussed under the
general characteristics of Naturalism: portrayal of human beings from
the lower levels of society, the primacy of character over other
elements, and the influence of character on plot. Consequently, there
is little need to discuss them further here. Yet naturalistic charac-
ters can be identified by some additional attributes. They are
l) complei: in nature, 2) heavily influenced by environment, 3) tend to
passive victims of forces within and around them, and 1.) members of

lower society. Occasionally, a social group may be treated as a

 

6l‘Gorelik, p. 133. Gorelik is quoting the French critic
F1101}.

“This... pp- Bit-135. “Marriott, p. 72.
67Gassner, Producin the Pl , pp. 62-63.

”collective" prota,
The persons c

cosplex in their p2

dJ-aaatist attempts
“mire Of plot, I

an unobtrusive
revealing the:
Mti‘t'aiions fr‘
Pmtagenist dc,

@031 i“ n CCRSI

iqutra '

‘ . .“
U‘Caas ’

 

95
"collective" protagonist.

The persons depicted in the drama of Naturalism aregenerally
complex in their physical and psychological make-up. The naturalistic
dramatist attempts to create plausible individuals.68 As in his
handling of plot, he employs

an unobtrusive technique in the delineation of characters,

revealing them cumulatively bit by bit and showing complex

motivations frequently at odds with one another. The

protagonist does not move in a straight line toward his

goal from conscious intent but is bedeviled by doubts, 69

frustrations, torn by inner conflicts, ridden by passions.
Strindberg described the persons in his play, Miss Julie, as "charac-
terless" since character to him signified "a man fixed and finished."70
He wrote, "I do not believe, therefore, in simple stage characters;
and the summary judgments of authors -- this man is stupid, that one
brutal, this Jealous, that sting, and so forth - should be
challaiged by the Naturalists who know the richness of the soul com-
plex and realize that vice has a reverse side very much like
virtue."7l He indicated the complexity of the characters in M_i_s_s_
£11_i_e_ whal he stated that they were "conglomerations of past and
present stages of civilization, bits from books and papers, scraps of
humanity, rags and tatters of fine clothing, patched together as is
the human soul."72

In Naturalism, character deve10pment is almost completely de-

pendent upon environment. Zola, in an essay on the novel, wrote,

 

69

68Rhodes, p. 21.4. Hatlen, p. 160.

70August Strindberg, "Preface to Miss Julie," Six Plays of
Strindber , trans. Elizabeth Sprigg (New York: Doubleday and Co.,

1955 r P0 61»-
nIbido 72%., p0 650

"de consider that
he is completed by
and heme we shall

About looking fc

. 7 .
1383-"3 The me.

should make sounds

seat of Characters

m.

a' .18 mt'lralj

of character in 5‘

e' , ’
cml’lfi‘ ice,7~* w:

Which ‘e ..
the: “:1.th

O? :

L‘" ~ .
‘13 m Spite of a
Has the chil‘acter

o peI‘SOn Of "8‘ ‘0
H. r

this: e
' halt, at t}

96

"We consider that man cannot be separated from his surroundings, that
he is completed by his clothes, his house, his city, and his country,
and hence we shall not note a single phenomenon of his brain or heart
without looking for the causes of the consequences in his surround-
ings."7-3 The previous discussion under the principles of Naturalism
should make abundantly clear the role of environment in the develOp-
ment of characters in Naturalism.

The naturalistic emphasis on environment affected the element
of character in several ways. Individuals were regarded as victims of
circumstancefll’ "helpless and futile victims of impulses and powers
which they cannot control."75 'The desire to demonstrate the effects
of environment led naturalists to select characters of three types,
this in spite of a theoretical objection to character types. One type
was the character of "marked physique and small intellectual activity,"

76 "Characters of excited, neurotic

a person of "strong animal drives."
temperament, at the mercy of moods, driven by forces that they do not
stop to analyze" comprised a second type.77 Sometimes the behavior of
this character type was "aggravated by a physical defect."78 A third
type, "a strong character whose will was broken," appeared occasion-

ally.79 In order for the naturalist to show the "debilitating effects

of unfavorable environment" he chose "characters who were twisted,

 

73E/hnile Zola, "The Novel," The Eigerimental Novel and Other

Ess , trans. Belle M. Sherman (New York: The Cassell Publishing Co.,
1893 g p. 2320

'W'Hatlen, p. 160. 75Millett and Bentley, p. 11.9.
76Parrington, p. 324. 77Ibid., pp. 324-25.

78Ibid., p. 325. 79Ibid.

 

 

lever J
to den:
mtura]
any 161
19""815
and rat

sate ti:

97
‘wayward, and grotesque."80 Finally, the preoccupation with environ—
ment often caused man to' be depicted in his animal nature.81

In Naturalism, the characteristic selection of humans from.the
lower levels of society is in part a result of the naturalist's desire
to demonstrate environmental cause and effect. It is feasible that
naturalists could show the influence of heredity and environment on
any level of society, but the characterization of members of higher
levels would necessitate including qualities of education, culture,
and rationality. These qualities would then tend to obscure or compli-
cats the expression of environmental cause and effect. It appears
simpler to choose members of a level of society closer to nature to
clearly indicate the effects of heredity and environment.

Some naturalistic plays have a "collective rather than an in-
dividual hero."82 In such plays, "no matter how vividly the indi-
viduals of the group may be distinguished from one another, they are
most important to the meaning of these plays as members of the group."83
Individual characters tend to lose stature when a group is viewed as

84 'The "collective" or group protagonist, while often

the protagonist.
associated with Naturalism, is more of a curiosity, however, than a

general trait of character in naturalistic playwriting.

Language
"What I want to hear on the stage," said Zola, "is the language

as it is spoken every day."85 Basically, naturalistic dialogue

 

80Hatlen, p. 160. 81Heffner, Seldon, and.Sellman, p. 7h.

82(33831'161', Form and Idea 0 e e e , p. 350 SBIbide, p. 360

 

ample. 85Zola, "Naturalism on the Stage," p. 12.

 

 

nhibits a I

ah would :
that of Si;
0 o I 1
its re;
the mcv

kept .
sets to:

Angus"

cam degafi.

' ° ° Clare:
ail: a, 5;;

98
exhibits a more phonographic technique than the realistic technique.

Zola would rather see more "elasticity, and greater naturalness" than

that of simple Realism.86 By that he meant that

. . . if we cannot produce on the stage a conversation with

its repetitions, its length, and its useless words, at least

the movement and the tone of the conversation could be

kept . . . . the best style on the stage is that which best

sets forth the spoken conversation . . . .87

August Strindberg, again in his preface to Miss Julie, advo-

cated departing from traditional "well-made" dialogue "by not making
. . . characters catechists who ask stupid questions in order to
elicit a smart reply."88 In addition his comment mirrors Zola's by
asking for "real-life" talk in plays.

I have avoided the symmetrical, mathematical construction of

French dialogue, and let people's minds work irregularly, as

they do in real life where, during a conversation, no topic

is drained to the dregs, and one's mind finds in another a

chance cog to engage in. So, too, the dialogue wanders,

gathering in the opening scenes material which is later picked

up, worked over, repeated, expognded and developed like the
theme in a musical composition. 9

Naturalistic dramatists seem to have adopted the suggestions
and examples of Zola and Strindberg, because a formal principle of
Naturalism is "the renouncement of any poetic anbellishment and the
minute reproduction of everyday Speech, down to its slightest inflec-
tion.”0 The dialogue of Naturalism reads like a "seemingly literal

rendering of ordinary speech, with its circumlocutions, pauses,

8631.4:

871%.

88Strindberg, "Preface to Miss Julie," p. 68.
89_I_b_i£l_., p. 69.

90H. F. Garten, Modern German Drama (New York: Grove Press,
1962). p. 29.

g

[a] uncozp‘.

assets and in:

There are
saunter are d
355 2) oar. is a
Beth theses are
is or Hath-a;

Ilatralis
and ms Sum-g:
bars which he ,3

in Mill-align;

99
[and] uncompleted thoughts."9l It frequently includes "slang, local

accents and idioms, jargon, folk Speech and dialects.92

Theme

 

There are two dominant themes in Naturalism: 1) human action and
character are determined and controlled by environment and heredity,
and 2) man is a victim of other men, his society, and his own instincts.
Both themes are closely related and both stan directly from the princi-
ples of Naturalism.

Naturalistic dramas suggest that man is a product of his birth
and his surroundings. Further, he is subject to determiniStic, natural
laws which he cannot control. As a result, a frequent idea projected
in naturalistic dramas is that man is an animal, "a product of a callous
nature."93

A strict adherence to the demonstration of the effect of heredity
and environment on personality results in a view of man as an impotent
victim of uncontrolled forces. The naturalist chooses to portray man

94

as "the individual defeated by the world." This theme has two forms:
"1) Life is a trap, 2) Life is mean."95 Such themes may be related to
environment or "imperious desires - but the outcome is usually hOpe-
less sorrow - sometimes stolid resignation, sometimes fierce protest,

but with no other and than annihilation."96 The naturalist, like

k

91Heffner, Seldon, and Sellman, pp. 75-76.
92%. 93Hatlen, p. 158.
9l‘Parrington, p. 321+.

”an. 962.12.

100
playwrights in many periods throughout the history of drama, sees man
as a victim of fate.
But the Fate of the naturalists is no arbitrary destiny; it
is rather the inevitable reaction upon the individual of
his race, his heredity, his environment. These influences
are so powerful that he lacks the will to struggle against
them. His will, indeed, is but a. resultant of such forces
. . . . . If he acts, it is but to obey some impulsion of
lust, avarice, hatred. Vice and crime are the themes of
the naturalist, morbid longgngs, distraught minds, sordid
evils of the social systen.

The themes projected in Naturalism have caused the style to be
labeled as pessimistic. While it is true that crime, vice, animal
instincts, sexual passion, and other sordid subjects appear in
Naturalism, some critics have attempted to defend its pessimistic
view. In a historical context, Naturalism is seen as a "reSponse
to the social democratic movement of the times."98 In order to change
conditions in society, the naturalists took a first step by focussing
"attention on the rottenness of society."99 They argued that life
"must be faced in its grimmest and most horrible aSpects; only so can
it ever be improved."100

5w: Criteria for Identg' ication
of the Dramatic Style of Naturalism

Principles of Naturalism
Naturalism is based on a philOSOphy of scientific determinism

which views the world as subject to natural laws that dictate all

97Frank Chandler, The Contanmrg Drama of fiance (Boston:
Little, Bram, and COO, 1921 , p. 520

98Chandler, Aspects of Modern Drama, p. 31,.

99Hatlen, p0 1620

looChandler, The Contmrm Drama of fiance, p. 52.

 

 

cause and at.
action and c1
mimnzmt.
ml to be oh.
the acted m

details or 1:

Served detail

 

lOl
cause and effect. Man in this context is regarded as an object whose
action and character are subject to the natural laws of heredity and
environment. The naturalist attempts to adOpt the methods of science
and to be objective in the observing and presenting of'material from
‘the actual world. This objectivity leads him to a concern for the
details of life. He insists that the presentation of carefully ob-

served details must be presented as a "slice of life" itself.

Characteristics of Naturalism

General Characteristics

In Naturalism, life in the lower levels of society is portrayed.
The sordid, unpleasant, bestial aspects of life are frankly treated.
.A general pessimistic attitude is evident. The element of character
is paramount. A "slice of life" quality is particularly character-

istic.

Eorm.Elements
Plot

Content is taken from contemporary life. Theatrical and drama-
turgical conventions are minimized. The main feature of naturalistic
plots is the "slice of life" technique in which the dramatic action is
presented as a close approximation of observed reality. Plots are
simple, but filled with many details of ordinary life. Theatrical
climaxes and "big scenes" are avoided or underplayed. The plot may
appear to have no beginning and no end. Content is frequently depress-

ing, sordid, and "crass."

‘O

A“ A‘

35.3%.}:
“A“

Add

as!" nq-vn'h

.. pg.
and seeks
cf cl'arae‘.
tar as
entrees
strong a;
mitei, t

502:3: to

102

Character

Naturalistic characters are often complex;mixtures of physical
and psychological factors. The naturalist avoids types, theoretically,
and seeks to present developing or dynamic individuals. Attributes
of character stem from heredity and environment. Characters often
appear as victims of their physical, psychological, and social cir-
cumstances. They tend to be of three kinds: l)"physical" peeple of
strong animal drives and little intellectual activity; 2) neurotic,
excited, temperamental people who are driven by forces they do not
bother to analyze and whose behavior is often complicated by some
physical defect; and 3) People of strong character whose will has been
broken. Occasionally, a collective or group protagonist appears in

naturalistic drama.

Language
The dialogue of Naturalism is phonographic in technique. It
contains repetitions, circumlocutions, and pauses, to achieve a speech

like that of the actual world. Slang, jargon, idioms, dialects, and

folk Speech are common.

Theme

Naturalism projects the theme that human character is determined
by heredity and environment. Man is regarded as a victim of a world
he cannot control. Iife is seen as mean or as a trap. Man seems doomed
to defeat and annihilation. Themes have a strong suggestion of

pessimism.

CHAPTER VI
SYMBOLISM

Historical Background

Just as the romantic movement of the early nineteenth century
‘was a reaction against the formal Classicism of the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries, and the realistic movement of the second half
of the nineteenth century was a reaction against Romanticism, so too
in the last decade of the nineteenth century the symbolists reacted
against the theatre of Realism. As a variant form.of Romanticism,l
Symbolism.began as a poetic movement, strongly influenced by the
philosOphical idealism.of Bergson; the poetry of Baudelaire, Rimbaud,
and.Verlaine; the painting style of the post-impressionists; and the
music of Wagner.2

Symbolism arose first in the literature of France when the

 

1John Gassner points out that while the spirit of symbolist
drama is certainly romantic, the two styles exhibit significant
differences. "Th6 romantic drama is licit, whereas the symbolist
drama is suggestive. The former has the clear outlines of a well-
defined action, whereas the latter has an elusive, penumbral
content. Romantic drama is insistent -- . . . -- even when mys-
terious; symbolist drama is ambiguous - . . . -- even when its
content is simple." As for the treatment of environment, "the
* romanticist glamorizes the environment or uses it for effects of
horror, but, unlike the symbolist, he does not abstract it into a
symbol of the soul of the play or the state of mind of a character."

(low and Idea 0 o o o , p. 128).
2Gassner, Treasggy of the Theatre: Ibsen to Miller, p. 259.

 

103

10h

so-called "neo-Romantic" poets reacted against the "cold, formal
poetry of Parnassians like Leconte de Lisle, and declared themselves
'symbolists'."3 Specifically, it was in 1886 that the French poet
Jean More/as, in an article in Fi aro, proposed that the term
"symbolism" be applied to a particular literary tendency which up to
that time had been generally labeled "decadence."h

In drama in the 1880's, the established realistic and natural-
istic schools of playwrighting were challenged by the new group of
symbolist writers. Led in Spirit by Maurice Maeterlinck, who wrote
under the influence of the poets Mallarme’ and Verlaine, Symbolism be-
came the "fashionable mode of expression in the 1890's."5 It was
during, and immediately following, the 1890's that Maeterlinck wrote
his most impressive symbolist dramas -- The Intruder (1890), Th_e_
_B_1_i_._n_d (1891), his most successful ml]. length play, Pellefas and
Me’lisande (1893), The Interior (1895), and The Blue Bird (1908).

Although Masterlinck was recognized as the leading dramatist of
the Symbolist movement, other major playwrights were involved in the
creation of symbolist drama. Ibsen's later plays such as The Master
w (1892). W (1894), and W (1899).
turned toward Symbolism.6 Even the German playwright, Gerhart

Hauptmann, departed from the ranks of the realist-naturalist writers

 

3John Gassner, Masters 0 the Drama, (3d ed. 3 New York: Dover
Publications, Inc., 1951;), p. 1.12.

“Paul Scholfield, "The Age of Symbolism," Livin A e, Vol. 350,
N0. 4-433 (July, 1936): M0-

5638811615 Form and Idea 0 o o o , p. 980

6Gassner, Masters of the Drama, pp. 380-83.

 

.d “K i.

‘

e

6‘ H \v. {1‘

 

105

long enough to contribute his partially symbolic play, Hannele (1893),
and his wholly symbolic play, The Sunken Bell (1896), to the drama of
Symbolism.7

The immediate effects of the develOpment of Symbolism in drama
were two-fold. In theatre it led to a series of innovations in stage
production, particularly in stage settings.8 ‘In drama, it partially
loosened the hold of Realism on dramatists and brought the poet back
into the field of playwrighting.9 Maeterlinck, Hoflnannsthal, Claudel,
Andreyev, Synge, Yeats, and even O'Neill at some time turned from the
observation of ordinary life toward the freer use Of imagination in

Symbolism.

mg of §Imboli§m

The principles which underlie Symbolism as a dramatic style are
derived from two related sources, Maurice Maeterlinck's essays on
drama and the symbolist movement in French poetry led by Stephane/
Mallarme’. Since Maeterlinck's concepts of drama were greatly influ-
enced by the French poets whor established the basic tenets of Symbolism
in literature, it is necessary to outline the general principles of
Symbolism in poetry before attempting to treat the particular theories

advanced by Maeterlinck. Such an approach is not meant to imply,

 

71bido, pp. A59'600

8As John Gassner states, "The best and lasting effect of symbol-
ism, and not only on the nonrealistic but on the realistic theatre of
all gradations, came from the efforts of scene designers and stage
directors." (Treas_1_1_ry of the Theatre: Ibsen to Miller, p. 259).
Although the scenic and stage practices of such figures as Appia,
Craig, and Robert Edmund Jones are important, the discussion of them
is beyond the scope of this study.

9&831181', Form and Idea 0 o o o , p. 98.

106

however, that one source is more important than the other. The general
philOSOphy of the symbolists gained whatever importance it had in drama
principally through the plays and essays of Maeterlinck. 0n the other
hand, Maeterlinck's concepts of drama were not original with him, but
were personal interpretations of basic symbolist theory.

The symbolist movement in poetry embodied a search for truth, an
ultimme, absolute truth. Mallarme/ and the other disciples of Symbol-
ism denied that such truth could be found by observing the immediately

10 Such

perceivable world or resorting to rational thought processes.
methods were alien to their concept of the nature ofi‘reality. They
held that "truth is to be graSped only by intuition."ll

The symbolists' insistence on an intuitive knowledge of reality
was based on their world-view. They believed that the observable world
was not true reality, but a reflection of an ideal, invisible Absolute.12
According to Mallarmel's aesthetic theory, the world is divided into a
material systan which is representative or symbolic of a Spiritual
system that is ideological, permanent, abstract, and "inaccessible to
the continual flux of matter.”13

To Mallarme’ and other symbolist writers, "external phenomena

. . . [were] symbols of a higher system of ideas."ll" The "higher

 

lOBrockett, p. 287.

llIbid.

lZCalvin S. Brown, et. al., The Reader's Co anion to World
Literature (New York: New American Library, 19535, p. A32.

13Hayse Cooperman, The Aesthetics of Stephane’Mallarme’ (New
York: The Koffern Press, 1933), p. 18.

1“May Daniels, The bench Theatre of the Unsggken (Edinburgh:
University Press, 1953 , p. 23.

 

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system of ideas" has been variously termed as spiritual, inner
reality, universal, eternal, soul, essence, and absolute. Regard-
less of what it had been called, to the symbolists it was the source
of all true knowledge of man and the world.

The symbolism wanted to eocpress the truth of spiritual things,
"the 'soul' of that which can be apprehended only by the soul -- the
finer sense of things unseen, the deeper meanings of things evi-
dent."15 They could not depend on observation of the material world
which, to them, was transient and imperfect. Instead, they sought
"to reveal the mystery of inner life and the Spiritual harmony be-
tween visible and invisible reality" through expression of "analogies
and correSpgndanceS which the poet alone can graSp.":L6 In other
words, "The symbolists insisted that things themselves have a soul
and that we must endeavour to grasp the inner correSpondences which
exist between ourselves and the world."17

The symbolists believed that the knowledge of the relationships
between the eternal and transient worlds could only be expressed by
symbols.18 They felt that the artist's intuition of the absolute
"should be conveyed by suggestions rather than by description or

analysis."19 As a. consequence,

 

lSArthur Symons, Dramatis Personae (Indianapolis, Indiana: The
Bobbs-Merrill Co. , 1923), p. 99.

16Block and Shedd, p. 157.

17Pierre de Bacourt and J. W. Cunliffe, Egench Literature
Digging the Last Half-Century (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1927),
p. 2560

18
Ibid .

19Deniels, p. 24.

 

"all

 

 

108

Symbolism had the power of suggesting; it did not state any
realities, subjective or objective . . . ; it was founded
upon exaggerated memories, registered and expressed by the
artist, who did not portray them, but implied than. 0
this wise, the symbols had a universal aspect, . . . .

The symbolist writer was not as interested in communicating his
thoughts directly to others as he was in giving them suggestions
‘which would "induce them to think and dream for themselves."21 As
Mallarme’ said in his _E_3_n_gu$te sur l'e/volution l_._i_.£tteraire,
To name an object means to suppress three parts of the
enjoyment which consists in gradually guessing its meaning.
To suggest it, that is its dreamlike function. The perfect
unfolding of the mystery constitutes the symbol.
In the Symbolist movement the reliance on suggestion (symbols) to
communicate the truth of external reality was based to a great extent
on Mallarme's ideas about poetic language. Wallace Fowlie explained
the concepts in this manner:
The theory of the suggestiveness of words comes from a belief
that a primitive language, half-forgotten, half-living, exists
in each man. It is a language possessing extraordinary affini-
ties with music and dreams. Poetry, in the putting to use of
this exceptional language, is the establishment of relation-
ships between things in the world and the sensitivity of the
poet. This is a form of esoterism, a way toward a spiritual

knowing of the universe when tag symbol will be found to be
ever real and ever suggestive.

The belief that the artist can only suggest the nature of the
absolute realm led the symbolists to anphasize the "importance of the

sound of the verse and the need for fastidious craftsmanship in creating

 

20Cooperman, pp. 10-11.

21Bacourt and Cunliffe, p. 266.

22‘M. Joubert, "Mysticism in French Literature," Contmrm
Review, Vol. 151, No. 1 (January, 1937), 98.

23Wallace Fowlie, Mallarme/ (Chicago: The University of Chicago
Press, 1953), p. 264.

 

 

 

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109

the effects of music through words."21+ Mallarme/believed that "since
music was the art that could express everything through suggestion,
since it was the beyond of words and visions, it was the aim of poetry
to reach the realm of music."25 In their attempts to produce "effects
like those of music," the symbolists tended to view their use of
symbols as having "an abstract value like musical notes and chords."26
The use of symbols rather than direct description supposedly enabled
the symbolists to achieve the indefiniteness of music which, because
it communicates no direct idea, has the power to suggest different
meanings to different listeners. This is in keeping with Mallarme”s
wish merely to suggest or allude and leave the reader to create the
meanings of the suggestions or allusions for himself.27

One principle of Symbolism that had a direct bearing on drama
was the idea that the theatre should be a unification of all the arts.
"The notion that external reality in its multitudinous and varied forms
is but a manifestation of interrelated primordial ideas . . . fled-7 to
the conception of a fusion of all arts, themselves different aSpects of
these higher ideas."28 This principle, although expressed by Mallarmec
was originally advanced by the German composer, Richard Wagner, who
viewed the "drama as a grandiose celebration of mythic and ritualistic

values."29 He "dreamed that poetry and music, . . . , would be united

 

2“Calvin S. Brown, p. 1.32. 25Cooperman, p. 103.

2W Wilson, _A_x__el's Castle (New York: Charles Scribner's
SOUS, 1935), p. 21.

27Cooperman, p. 15.
28Daniels, p. 23.
29Block and Shedd, p. 6.

110
in the art of the future, the drama."30

The drama was to be created by the Spontaneous blending of
the art-forces. The task of the dramas was to depict real
actions, render them intelligible to the general public by
a supreme emotional motivation; this emotional understanding
couldBEest be attained through a perfected union of the
arts.

Wagner's relation to Symbolist thought was clearly evident in that he
believed

the drama was to reveal the outer aspect of an inner meaning,
persuade the witness to concentrate and follow by the creation
of a suited and impressive atmosphere, inspire him with great
religious (social religious) faith. The feeling of awe, aroused
by the lofty and mysterious atmoSphere, was to fill the audience
with an unlimited appreciation for the miraculous wait celled
art. . . . the drama was to bethe aid of all expression, an
inner 3 significance and an outward spectacle condmed and uni-
tied.

Hallame/ imitated Wagner's ideas but did not share his lofty

view of theatre which Mallarme’ saw as "the poetry of the masses.”33

Theatre was for the average audience and poetry for "the rarer minds."3h

The drama, as Mallarme/ saw it, aroused the imagination of

the audience by appealing to all the senses at once, by
appealing to them directly (not abstractly as did his own
poetry); at the same tims the drama never depended upon the
audience to complete or to supplement the presented materials.
Like the symbolism of the Catholic church, like the symbolism
of all ages, the drama was to a en dreams and visions in
the soul of the witness . . . .

Up to this point only the principles of Symbolism which; have
application to the drama have been enumerated. Remaining ideas of

Symbolism are excluded because they are relevant to the arts of poetry

 

30Cooperman, p. 89.
31Ibid., p. 90.
32329.» p- 95. 33Ibid., p. 105.

“leis." p. 98. Ssmduwpp- 98-99.

 

'r,‘

S

in:

 

 

111
and music in particular. However, some further principles of Symbol-
ism more relevant to drama are found in the writings of the Belgian
playwright, Maurice Maeterlinck.
His essay, "The Tragic in Daily Life," suggests that a play
should delve beneath concrete reality and deal with man's inner life
and the universe. He wrote, in reference to Sophocles' Philoctetes,

that

the chief interest of the tragedy does not lie in the
struggle we witness between cunning and loyalty, between
love of country, rancor, and headstrong pride. There is
more beyond: for it is man's loftier existence that is
laid bare to us. The post adds to ordinary life something,
I know not what, which is the poet's secret: and there
comes to us a sudden revelation of life in its stupendous
gandeur, in its submissiveness to the unknown powers in
its endless affinities, in its awe-inspiring mystery}6

In another essay he expressed a similar view when he stated that the
dramatic poet

must bring down his own ideas of the unknown into the world
of living men, into the everyday world. He must Show us
how, under what form and conditions, according to what laws,
to what end, the superior powers act upon our destinies, the
unintelligible influences, the infinite princ§ples of which
he as poet is convinced the universe is full.

As part of his theory of drama, Maeterlinck advanced the idea of

38

a "static" drama. Although he later repudiated the concept, it had

some relevance to the works of a number of literary figures, including

 

36Maurice Maeterlinck, "The Tragic in Daily Life," Pla ° hts
on Playgigptipg, ed. Toby Cole (New York: Hill and Wang, 1961;, p. 32.

37Maurice Maeterlinck, "Preface to the Plays," European Theories
of the Drama, p. 415.

331:. 191.3 Maeterlinck wrote to Barrett H. Clark: "You must not
attach too great importance to the expression Static; it was an inven—
tion, a theory of my youth, worth what most literary theories are ~-

that is, almost nothing." (European Theories of the Drama, p. All).

 

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111
and music in particular. However, some further principles of Symbol-
ism more relevant to drama are found in the writings of the Belgian
playwright, Maurice Maeterlinck.
His essay, "The Tragic in Daily Life," suggests that a play
should delve beneath concrete reality and deal with man's inner life
and the universe. He wrote, in reference to Sophocles' Philoctetes,

that

the chief interest of the tragedy does not lie in the
struggle we witness between cunning and loyalty, between
love of country, rancor, and headstrong pride. There is
more beyond: for it is man's loftier existence that is
laid bare to us. The post adds to ordinary life something,
I know not what, which is the poet's secret: and there
comes to us a sudden revelation of life in its stupendous
grandeur, in its submissiveness to the unknown powers in
its endless affinities, in its awe-inspiring mysteryj6

In another essay he expressed a similar view when he stated that the
dramatic poet

must bring down his own ideas of the unknown into the world
of living men, into the everyday world. He must Show us
how, under what form and conditions, according to what laws,
to what end, the superior powers act upon our destinies, the
unintelligible influences, the infinite princ§ples of which
he as poet is convinced the universe is full.

As part of his theory of drama, Maeterlinck advanced the idea of

38

a "static" drama. Although he later repudiated the concept, it had

some relevance to the works of a number of literary figures, including

 

36Maurice Maeterlinck, "The Tragic in Daily Life," P hts
mm, ed. Toby Cole (New York: Hill and Wang, 1961 , p. 32.

37Maurice Maeterlinck, "Preface to the Plays," European Theories
of the Drama, p. M5-

38In 1913 Maeterlinck wrote to Barrett H. Clark: "You must not
attach too great importance to the expression Static; it was an inven-
tion, a theory of my youth, worth what most literary theories are --

that is, almost nothing." (European Theories of the Drama, p. All).

 

:

a1

H

U...

 

112

John Millington Synge, James Joyce, and Leonid Andreyev.39 Maeter-
linck believed that the tragic elements in everyday life were more real
than those of great adventure. In this he did not differ greatly from
the realists and naturalists. But what made Maeterlinck's view unique
was his addition of the idea that ”normally tragedy was interior and
almost completely without external moven1ent."l‘O Maeterlinck wrote
that for him an old man sitting in an armchair but sensing the world
around him, "motionless as he is, does yet live in reality a deeper,
more human, and more universal life than the lover who strangles his
mistress, the captain who conquers in battle, or 'the husband who
avenges his honor.'"‘!+1 Maeterlinck pointed out that something akin to
"static" drama seemed to exist in the Greek classical plays which de-
picted a life that was almost motionless,

In most cases, indeed, you will find that psychological

action . . . even has been suppressed, or at least vastly

diminished, . . . , with the result that the interest centers

solely and entirely in the individual, face to face with the

universe. . . . ; he is at rest and we‘have time to observe

him. It is no longer a violent, exceptional moment of life

that passes before our eyes -- it is life itself. Thousands

and thousands of laws there are, mightier and more venerable

tha‘ those of passion; but these laws are silent, and dis-

creet, and slow-moving; and hence it is only in the twilight

that they can be seen and heard, in the meditation that

comes to us at the tranquil moments of lifeJi"2
Although Maeterlinck was seldom direct in his statenents about "static"
drama, it appears that he envisioned a drama all but devoid of plwsical

and psychological action which would turn the Spectators' minds to

 

39Gassner, Treasm of the Theatre; Ibsen to Miller, p. 266.

wGassner, Masters of the Drama, p. 1.13.
“Maeterlinck, "The Tragic in Daily Life," p. 31.

ulbide , p. 320

 

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113

the contemplation of the infinite and universal -- "the atmOSphere of
the soul.""3

Maeterlinck found that the beauty and greatness of tragedies lay
not in action, nor in dialogue that supported or explained the action,
but in a seemingly superfluous dialogue which is addressed to the soul.
He observed that
"it is just those words that are Spoken by the side of the rigid,
apparent truth, that constitute the meterious beauty of the most
beautiful tragedies, inasmuch as these are words that conform to a
deeper truth, and one that lies incomparably nearer to the invisible
soul . . . ."Me
Maeterlinck attended this idea to include the use of silence as an im-
portant part of the language of drama. He felt that events were deter-
mined by "words one cannot hear," that in elements of silence souls
whispered a "secret word" to one another.“ It was this dialogue which
should be echoed in drama. To Maeterlinck, speech was inadequate to
convey real and inmost thoughts; only silence could transmit than from
soul to soul.“ Through the use of silence and Spoken words which
mainly suggest and imply, Maeterlinck sought "to evoke the invisible,
the intangible, the subconscious, and the unintelligible.""7

 

”Rm. , pe 3&0
“Ibfle , p e 33 e
“ibis. . pp. 33-34-

M’Janee Huneker, IconocLas s A Boo 0 Dr s (New York:
Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1922 , p. 371..

h7StM' p. 63"».

 

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Characteristics of Symbolism

General Characteristics

The plays which critics incline to list under the heading of
Symbolism are diverse in nature and type. Even Maeterlinck, the
major representative dramatist of Symbolism, exhibited changes in his
approach to creating symbolist plays. Yet, in Spite of many indi-
vidual differences, the majority of symbolist dramas can be identified
by certain general tendencies which they share in common with each
other. These attributes are: 1) an extensive employment of symbols
for coxmmmication of thoughts and feelings, and 2) evocation of mood,
atmOSphere, and feelings.

As for the primary characteristic of Symbolism, it is obvious
from the very title of "Symbolism" that such a style is involved in
the use of symbols. But, since the word "symbol" is subject to a wide
and often confusing number of definitions, it is necessary to discover
what particular meaning the term has in symbolist dram.

"A symbol in its most direct definition, is something that stands
for something else, a thing that stands for more than itself."l‘8 This
simple definition is applicable to the three uses of symbols in drama.
These uses may be identified briefly as l) the fixed symbol (for
symbols whose meaning is generally identifiable even in the world out-
side. drama), 2) the contextual symbol (for symbols whose meaning is
determined by the context in which they appear), and 3) the indefinite
symbol (for symbols whose meaning is involved with inner Spiritual

reality) e

 

hBSheldon Cheney, Stage Decoration (New York: The John Day Co.,
1928), p. 510

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1.15

Fixed symbols found in drama usually have the same meanings as
they do in ordinary life. For example, the Cross is the symbol of
Christianity and "Old Glory" is the symbol of the United Startesfi9
Such symbols are readily accepted and cause little confusion in mean-
ing because the relationship between the symbol and what it stands for
has been established through tradition and convention. The fixed
symbol could be employed in any style of drama, even Naturalism, be-
cause it has the same meaning whether it appears in life or art. This
does not mean that such a symbol means exactly the same thing to every
individual. Any use of symbol is subject to ambiquity, but the fixed
symbol is apt'to be less ambiguous than the other types.

The contextual symbol has no fixed meaning outside the drama in
which it appears. The relationship between the symbol and that which
it represents is established in a particular play for purposes of that
play alone. An example of the contextual symbol is found in Ibsen's
Rosmersholm where white horses symbolize death. In the world outside
the play, white horses have no generally recognized association with
death, but Ibsen, early in the play, states the white horses appear at
Rosmersholm when a death is about to occur. In this way an ordinary
object becomes a symbol within the context of a drama. Although there
may be some ambiquity in the use of contextual symbols, generally
their meaning is definite and complete within the play in which they
appear.

The indefinite symbol is used to suggest the relationship be-

tween the concrete world and an absolute, intangible reality. "The

 

49Wilson, p. 20.

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116

external, visible part of the symbol.must be a concrete picture, taken
so straight from.the real world that its clear and ordinary meaning is
comprehensible even to those who would not search in it for any depth;
but beyond that concrete picture there must be open boundless horizons
of the hidden, infinite, eternal, immutable and incomprehensible
essence of things."50 The indefinite symbol has no meaning that is
fixed by tradition or convention. Like the contextual symbol it is
selected by the dramatist for purposes of a particular play. It differs
from the contextual symbol in that its meaning is not complete within
the play. Its meaning is completed in the relationship to some in-
tangible world beyond the play and beyond ordinary life. The indefinite
symbol tends to be very ambiguous and encourages the individual auditor
to "read his own philOSOphy or his own moral into the play."51

An example of the indefinite symbol appears in the water motif of
imaeterlinck's Pelléas and Mélisande. water is presented in several
ways. Lovers meet by pools of water. Pelléas is killed near a foun-
tain. The castle stands over a bottomless pit filled with water.
women try to wash away stains on the castle steps with water. Thus
water carries connotations of love, death vastness, and futility. Yet
these are only personal interpretations. The fact is that "it is im-
possible to assign a definite meaning to each of these motifs or
symbols."52 They do not guide the auditor to a meaning but suggest

several.meanings.

 

503. c. de Soissons, "Maeterlinck as a Reformer," Living Age,
Vol. 221,, No. 3159 (January 21, 1905), 11.1.

51Juliette Knapp, "Symbolic Drama of Today, ,. Poet Lore, Vol. 32
(June, 1921), 232.

SZBrockett, p. 290.

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117

The indefinite symbol is the one most often employed in
symbolist drama. A play may be identified as belonging to the drama-
tic style of Symbolism."when the method of using concrete things to
suggest Spiritual or otherwise intangible values is made the primary
objective of the dramatic presentation."53 The use of the indefinite
symbol does not necessarily rule out the possibility of employing both
fixed and contextual symbols along with the indefinite variety. The
main point is that the indefinite symbol is predominant. The appear-
ance of this particular symbol in significant number is a character-
istic of Symbolism.

Secondly, Symbolism in drama seeks to evoke feelings and moods
rather than present concrete facts.5h It is logical, in view of the
principles of Symbolism, that the symbolist dramatists strive for the
expression of moods through the use of Symbols rather than presenting
direct, concrete occurrences.55 In symbolist drama "the scenes do
not hang together at all--there is no sequence of action, only of

"56 In plays

moods; or rather the same mood persists throughout.
such as Maeterlinck's Pelléas and Mélisande, mood is as important
as action in determining the play's structure."57 His drama, Egg

Princess Maleine,is marked by "intensifications of mood through such

atmoSpheric effects as the incessant pounding at the door or the

 

53Hartley and Ladu, p. 10.

54Blook and Shedd, p. 157.

55Ga.ssner, Masters of_the Drama, p. L12.
56Huneker, p. 373.

57Brockett, p. 291.

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118
raging of a violent storm."58 In general, symbolist plays gain their
effects "not in what is said and done in them alone, but also in what

is suggested and felt, although unexpressed and unseen.59

Although
critics have pointed out many faults in the drama of Symbolism, "it

gave a new importance to the creation of atmosphere and mood."
Form.Elements

‘Elgt

Due to the playwright's desire to suggest the intangible or
infinite, the plots of symbolist dramas have two levels of comprehen-
sion, the narrative and the symbolic. The symbolic meaning is
supposedly the most important; therefore the narrative level of the
play is usually a vehicle of the symbolic. Although these two levels
are related, symbolist plays are written ”with the two planes of mean—
ing kept steadily in mind and with no confusion of the planes."61
The narrative level of the plot in many cases is similar in nature to
that found in other styles. It may be romantic or even realistic, for
"fantasies such as Maeterlinck's Bluebird, Sutton Vane's Outward
.ggggg, and Sir James Barrie's Dear Brutus and Nagy Rose present them—

selves to us as 'real' stories."62

 

5831ock and Shedd, p. 157.

59s. A. Rhodes, The Contmor§fl £2;th Theatre (New York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc. , 191,2 , p. 5.

60Block and Shedd, p. 6

6114111ett and Bentley, p. 164.

62Gassner, Form and Idea . . . . , p. 102.

One critj
plots as an "al

Not only is
. . . . The
story, it i
of the plot
while the j:
is not a"; .
subtle so t.
heel-twin,
than the do
the case if,

action on the s‘.
0m“ the conflj
the H0‘93<EC‘.ive c
P7 :- «T. ..
Jonas. :3 1;:3
Wages against r4
a Q

or human motives
tte

I “fireplace
Practice, n

110;,-

f0"93‘”°‘md. Whi

c]

 

 

119
One critic described the two planes of meaning in symbolist
plots as an "aloofness" of the story from its fable.

Not only is the story complete, it is satisfying as well

. . . . The underlying fable enhances and lights up the
story, it is true, but it is usually more independent

of the plot than the fable of old allegory was. Hence,
while the problem or truth presented by means of symbolism
is not any less significant or important, it is much more
subtle so that the fable usually becomes part of the
background, as it were, and elucidates the action rather
than the action elucidatigg the fable as was more often
the case in old allegory.

Symbolist drama, then, has two planes of action: "the visible
action on the stage evokes the invisible action behind the scenes."64
Often the conflict in a play is carried out in terms of symbols, while
the "objective causes of conflict are pushed into the background."65
Playwrights like Maeterlinck substituted "the tragic conflict man
‘wages against his apparently antagonistic, secret doom” for the "clash
of human motives in love, honor, duty, land? greed which constituted
the commonplace fare of the realistic drama."66 As a result of such
practice, "no great importance should be attached to the story in the
foreground, which is a kind of Charade permitting us to guess at a
greater meaning."67

Although the two planes of action are the most striking charac-

teristic of plot in Symbolism, a number of secondary traits have been

 

63Knapp, p. 232.

6“Stuart, p. 631.

65Gorelik, p. 201.

66Rhodes, The Contempggggygzrench Theateg, p. 59.
67Gorelik, p. 202.

noted. There is
"The Syzbclist :33
when his protege:
which he is face“

time and place c:

tales and lezerd:
a: e poured mien
Settings aid the
Y ' Q , .

[the “nmhsts 1

QVimfmen

to: i‘

 

 

 

120
noted. There is a tendency to substitute recognition for action.
"The:Symbolist playwright is inclined to finish the play at the moment
when his protagonist recognizes more or less fully the issues with

68 In a play such as Pelléas and Mélisénde, the

'which he is faced."

time and place of the action are indefinite and the action appears

illogical since "events do not occur in terms of cause and effect."69
In subject matter Symbolism tends to make us of "fairy-

tales and legends of long ago, and distant civilizations into which

n70

are poured modern conflicts of the soul and the senses. Medieval

settings and themes are common.71 Unlike the realists and naturalists,
"the Symbolists chose their subject matter from the past and avoided
any attempt to deal with social problems or to recreate the physical

environment of its characters."72

Character

The element of character in Symbolism is affected by the two
levels of plot and the playwright's desire to suggest the intangible
or allude to a higher reality of the Spirit. 0n the narrative level,
characters are simple, almost types. Often a character becomes a
symbol of some force or factor Operating on the supposed higher plane
of existence.73 As a result, the character's behavior on the narra-

tive level is dictated by what it is he is meant to symbolize, rather

 

68%” p. 227. 6c)Brockett, p. 289.

70Franz Rapp, "Germany," Afflistory of Modern Drama, pp. 81-82.
7'J'Nicoll, werld Drama, p. 621.

723rookett, p. 233.

73Gassner, Producin the Pla , p. on.

than by dress:
I; seen to be
serve to demo:
my be describ.
Charactel
PP ' - . .
.ceLr actnrat 1c
stamens us; 1
forces stronger
301’. the texture
realm of the 5:
35740011321 Subs:

n‘ L
aDSoract types

C .l‘ .
1“ death
the near"

nng of t
action mu Chara

5"?
tlae. It is :2?

 

 

121

than by dramatic necessity or causal motivation. Characters frequent-
ly seem to be "unreal abstractions" of humanity whose being and action
serve to demonstrate a relationship with a system of ideas.74 They
may be described briefly as improbable persons.

Characters are not finely or definitely drawn, details are slight.
Their motivations are equally indefinite and difficult to understand by
standards usually applied to characters in drama. They are driven by
forces stronger than themselves, forces of an invisible world. "It is
not the texture of daily living which is important . . . , but the
realm.of the Spirit which lies beyond the physical facts of existence."75
Symbolism substitutes "disembodied ideas" for a picture of life and

6

"abstract types" for living men and women.7

Langgage
In Symbolism."the whole message of the dramatist is conveyed in

the meaning of the words."77 Since Symbolism.in the drama subordinates
action and character, language is the most important element in the
style. It is through the medium of language that symbolist playwrights
seek to suggest the mysteries of life. In the broad sense of the word,
the dialogue is "poetic," dealing as it does with symbols. Verse is
not a mandatory requirement for symbolist drama, although.Maeterlinck
and others did write a number of plays in verse. At any rate, language

in Symbolism does not attempt to imitate the patterns of everyday

 

71"Daniels, p. 1.2.
753NCkett, p0 2920

76Chandler, Aegects of Modern Drama, p. 100.

77Daniels, p. 1.1.

speech but see}
substitutes 5;;
The part'
illustrated in
the langlag
repetitive:-
Bdt this re
"ate-rest in

In The Intruder
N

and nuance.”l79

+' . v
“195. the words

. \m
meaul‘n‘g.nw Th,
Pregnant .. ”8::
drms Such as I

I

more haunting 8"

D .
w‘

d

 

122
speech but seeks a heightened and condensed metaphorical language. It
substitutes suggestion for description.
The particular attributes of language in Symbolism are best

illustrated in the dramas of Maeterlinck. In Eglleasgnd Melisande

the language . . . is extremely simple. Its simplicity and

repetitiveness suggest a beginner's textbook in reading.

But this repetitiveness helps to emphasize the recurring

motifs, and the simplicity igadesigned to prevent too much

interest in surface reality.
In The Intruder, mood is created by "carefully contrived repetition
and nuance."79 Generally, his plays have poetic, imaginative quali-
ties; the words Spoken in them "sound mysterious and pregnant with
meaning.”80 They are marked by the use of pauses which are also
pregnant -- "empty, forbidding vestibules to woful edifices."81 In
dramas such as The Intruder, Maeterlinck achieves an air of mystery
"by means of half-uttered thoughts, haunting repetitions, and still
more haunting silences."82 Characters in Maeterlinck's dramas "never
pronounce complicated, philOSOphical dialogues or monologues; their
sentences are short, simple, abrupt, expressing that which they feel
and not that which they would think, if they were to ponder over their

impressions."83

 

78Brockett, p. 292.

79Blook and Shedd, p. 157.

80Rhodes, The Contemporary French Theater, p. 62.
81Hnneker, p. 373-

82Gassner, Treggury of the Thegtre: Ibsen to Miller, p. 266.

83Soissons, p. 143.

 

he irratio
the cosmos,
of the scci
ideas as 13'
the course .
greatest va;
f131:1. ethi.
WSticism a]

153 is Vie”,

123
mass
Symbolist themes encompass the Spiritual, the aesthetic, and
the irrational. They are "depersonalized, set in the larger stage of
the cosmos," and are not concerned with "the ordinary clashes of will
of the social drama."8h Themes deal with "such universal but vague
ideas as love, life, and death."85 They treat those things "which, in
the course of eXperience, human beings have tended to attach the
greatest values" such as "patriotism, religion, love, and in a vaguer
field, ethics and morality."86 Problems of popular philOSOphy and
mysticism.appear frequently in symbolic drama.87 Essentially, Symbol—
ism is viewed as "a cult of the mysterious and mystical" since its
ideas reflect a belief that "we live in a mysterious, 'poetic' uni-
verse rather than a concrete world of facts."88
The concept of Fate, while not unique in Symbolism, appears as

a theme. Symbolists attempted to represent "the strife between
creatures of the flesh, on one side, and the dramatis personae of
Fate, on the other."89 Fate, in symbolist drama, is a mysterious, in-
tangible power before which men are powerless.

. . . in the presence of destiny all creatures are alike, the

strong and the weak, the innocent and the guilty; all, like

puppets, are equally helpless. Their actions and words on the

stage are the Shadows and echoes, faint cries, brief exclama-

tions, silent but eloquent pauses, that betray the intense con-

flicts they wage beyond the reach of mortal eyes and ears . . . .90

 

8hDiokinson, p. 172. 853rockett, p. 293.
SéMillett and Bentley, pp. 164-65. 87Knapp, p. 233.

880assner,.fig§m_§nd Idea . . . . , pp. 101-105.
89Rhodes, The Contempgrary French Theatgg, p. 5.

9°Ibid., p. 61.

d 8';

as‘

his

 

12h
The operation of Fate in symbolic dramas such as those of Maeterlinck
is, in a way, as deterministic as it is in Naturalism. "Characters
are at the mercy of forces just as destructive and far more mysterious
than those of heredity and environment."91 The fate of man in the
world of Maeterlinck's plays is more frightening because his world is

"unknowable and beyond human control."9'2

Summary: Criteria for the Identification

of_the Dramatic StJle of Symbolism

Principles of Symbolism

The ideas assumed as a basis for Symbolism in the drama derived
from the general movement of Symbolism which drew its inepiration
from the writings of Stephane Mallarme/ and Richard Wagner. In particu-
lar, Maurice Maeterlinck postulated thoughts aimed directly at a
development of symbolist drama.

The symbolists sought to project their intuitions of a spiritual
world through suggestion and symbol. They denied the observable world
as being the realm of truth; it was merely the extension of an invisi-
ble world of absolute and universal truth. Due to the nature of this
abstract world, it could not be known directly; it could only be
suggested. The language best suited to suggest the universal world
was that which most closely imitated music which, because it states
nothing directly, has the power to suggest different meanings to

different listeners. Language came closest to music when it employed

 

9lBrockett, p. 290.

921bid., pp. 290-91.

 

In

’11

(f

[1

125
symbols. The poet, through the use of symbols, could reveal the corres-
pondences which exist between the concrete and abstract worlds. The
suggestive power of words was, in turn, based upon a theory of primitive
language which, although half-forgotten and half-living, still existed
among men. Symbolist poets attempted to make use of this language,
‘which was closely connected with music and dreams, to establish re-
lationships between the concrete and absolute worlds.

From.Richard wagner, the symbolists borrowed the idea that drama
was to be the amalgamation of all the arts. Theatre was to appeal to
all the senses at once and evoke dreams and visions in the mind of the
Spectator. It was to suggest ideas and leave the individual auditor
to develop his own meanings.

Maeterlinck contributed the idea of a "static" drama in which
physical and psychological action were drastically curtailed in order
to reveal the inner realities of life that arise in periods of contem-
plation. He also advanced the idea of a "dialogue of silence," a
communication between souls which was not dependent upon direct state-
ment. This concept involved the employment of silence, pauses, and
symbolic utterance. Through such means as "static" drama and indirect
speech, plays were to evoke the "real" or Spiritual world which lies

beyond everyday existence in the observable world.
Characteristics of Symbolism

General Characteristics
Symbolism.sxhibits an extensive employment of symbols for the
communication of thoughts and feelings. The particular type of symbol

found in symbolist drama is indefinite rather than having a fixed

126

traditional meaning or a meaning arising from.the context in which
it is employed. The symbolist symbol is involved with an inner
Spiritual reality. Such symbols have the aim of approaching the
indefiniteness of music. They communicate nothing directly and there-
fore may suggest a variety of interpretations to members of an
audience. The meaning of the indefinite symbol lies beyond the play,
beyond ordinary life, in an intangible and spiritual world. Although
the indefinite symbol is most characteristic of Symbolism, it does
not rule out the appearance of fixed and contextual symbols in
symbolist drama.

Symbolism characteristically evokes moods and feelings rather
than dealing with concrete events or actions. Symbolist dramas de-

pend more on what is suggested and felt than on what is said and

done.
Form.ElementS

Plot

Symbolist plots have two levels of comprehension, narrative and
symbolic. The narrative level may appear to be similar in nature to
other styles of playwriting but it is the vehicle for a symbolic level
of comprehension. The visible action of the narrative level evokes
an invisible action behind the scenes. Conflicts are relegated to the
symbolic level and their objective causes are not always apparent on
the narrative level. Although the narrative level of plot may provide
a complete and satisfying story, it functions mainly to suggest a

greater meaning on the symbolic level.

127
Symbolic drama plots often substitute recognition for action.
Events often do not occur in terms of cause and effect; they appear
to be illogical in sequence. The time and place of the action are
frequently indefinite. The content of'Symbolism.seldom deals with
contemporary social problems or environment. For this it substitutes

subject matter from.the past, even fairy-tales and legends.

Character

Characters in Symbolism.are usually uncomplex in their attri-
butes and tend to be types rather than unique beings. They frequently
are employed symbolically and thus appear as abstractions of humanity.
What they stand for is more important than what they are.

Details of characterization are slight. Motivation is not
logical in the sense usually assumed in drama. Characters are driven
by forces of an invisible world rather than by their own needs and

feelings. They are improbable persons.

Language

Language is the most important element in symbolic drama.
Dialogue is not meant to be realistic but poetic in nature. Verse is
not a necessary requisite, although several symbolic plays were written
in verse.

The language of Symbolism.substitutes suggestion for description.
Playwrights, such as Maeterlinck, employ simple dialogue with repeti-
tions, recurring motifs, and long pauses. It is mysterious, moody, and
punctuated with silence. Thoughts are half-uttered. Sentences are
short, often abrupt. Complicated dialogues and monologues are avoided.

Dialogue expresses feeling rather than thought.

can:
re:
:1
d
more

but

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5“!

9.3]

128
Theme

Themes in Symbolism.are universal but vague. They are not
concerned with social or individual experiences. Love, life, death,
religion, and patriotism.are common, as are problems of popular
philOSOphy and mysticism. Infrequently, themes related to ethics and
morality are included. None of these themes are unique to Symbolism,
but their particular treatment is. Themes are expressed in a broad
and vague manner which is difficult to state directly.

Over-all, there seems to be the theme of a.mysterious universe
in which man wages a futile battle against intangible forces of Fate.
Themes go beyond the ordinary world and hint at a cosmological con-
flict between mortal man and his secret, Spiritual destiny. Strive

as he may, man is helpless before the forces of the universe.

 

 

‘5.
1

’1'

)
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0

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oi.
~

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V“
‘9:

rev.

1“ a“

CHAPTER VII

EKPRESSIONISM

Expressionism.in drama formed a part of a general movement in
the arts in the first quarter of the twentieth century. Most of the
important work in Expressionism.came from.German authors, although
writers in other nations made some significant contributions.

Expressionism, as a movement in drama, literature and painting,
arose in Germany during the first quarter of the twentieth century.
While primarily a German aesthetic development, it appeared in the
arts of other nations as well. In Germany, this development at its
high point covered roughly the period from.l910 to 1925 and "coincided
'with the two main events of that period, the First world war and the
revolution which followed in its wake."1 As a result, Expressionism
"has often been described as a reflection in the Sphere of art and
literature of the social and Spiritual upheaval wrought by these
events."2 The ferment and turmoil of this period and these events
produced a revolutionary reaction not merely in art but also in the

realms of the ethical, social, and even the political.3 The cultural

 

lGarten, p. 102.
2Ibid.

3Walter Sokel, ed., Anthology of German Expressionist Drama
(Garden City, NewPYork: Doubleday and Co., 1963), p. x.

129

chacs

naziv

aria:

03 3'1 r.- r+ n m n: It!

 

 

130

chaos of German life did much to influence the theory and practice of
native artists.

Although it is convenient to refer to Expressionism as a move-
ment in literature, in the pure sense of the word it was not. It
didn't "represent a clear-cut, unified reaction or progression;" it

was "composed of protestants who . . . [hadj in common only the

finder of their protest."h

Expressionism was not a program guiding individual authors
as they wrote their works. It was a term applied by critics,
editors, anthologists, and historians dealing with a group
of authors. The term was used after the fact. Most of

the authors usually called Expressionists felt that

they were expressing themselves in new ways, they grOped for
new terms to define their feeling. However, ghey rarely
applied the term Expressionist to themselves.

The first recorded use of the word "Expressionism" came from the
French painter, Julien-Auguste Herve: as a description of an exhibi-
tion of his works at the Salon des Independants in Paris in 1901.6 In
Germany, after 1911, the term became more firmly established in written
criticism.7

In literature, the expressionists in general were "deeply in-

fluenced by Dostoevski, Nietzsche, Walt Whitman, and Rimbaud,"8 as

Well as "the philosophy of Bergson."9 Equally influential was the

¥

"Isaac Goldberg, The Drama of Transition (Cincinnati: Stewart
Kidd Co., 1922), p. 269.

5801(81, AnthOlogz o o o o , pp. Xi-Xiio
6Richard Samuel and R. Hinton Thomas, Expressionism in German

Lifes Literature and the Theatre (Cambridge: W. Heffer and Sons, Ltd.,
1939 , p. 10.

7mrten, p. 1040 8501(81, AnthOIOH o o o o , p. x.

9Calvin S. Brown, p. 158.

CCZCE

r: .1 R» at T4 "I "I p

vI- w a .CU. .L \.J...C.U~

is: e

d

.
I
. a.

I

P:ay a

 

131

concept of the subconscious as advanced by Freud and Jung.

But even before Freud and Jung, the intellectual atmoSphere
in the wake of Romanticism, and German philOSOphy from
Schelling to Schopenhauer and Nietzsche, had given intima-
tions of the concept of the subconscious. Even those
Expressionists who were not conversant with the actual
'works of Freud and Jung could not help but be familiar
‘with the climate of thought that his given rise to
psychoanalysis in the first place.

Dramatists in particular were influenced by Buchner, Wedekind, and

especially, Strindberg.

In the years immediately preceding Wbrld war I, Strindberg
was the most frequently performed playwright on the German
and Austrian stage. The young playwrights who were to
Shape Expressionist drama devoured his works and received
inspiration from.his experimental ”dream plays" -- 1g
Damascus (1898-1904), A Dream Play (1902), and The Ghost
Sonata (1907).11

Guided by such literary and non-literary influences, Expression-

ism emerged as a dramatic style in a series of provocative, although

not always coherent, plays. However, these plays did not entirely dis-

play a unity of purpose and practice. Expressionism before World war I

bore the stamp of extreme subjectivity, indeed of anarchy.
The lone and isolated individual strove to give expression
to the full life he craved. The expressionist plays written
before l9lh'were mainly personal dramas, depicting the
struggle of a man to break away from.his everyday environ-
ment in order to live his life to the full.

This phase of Expressionism was its "Mystic" form which was "content

to express its views of man and its states of feeling."13 About 1914

expressionist drama developed an "Activist" trend "with distinct social

 

 

and revolutionary tendencies."lh
lQEEEQ°t p. xiv. llSokel, Anthology . . . . , p. x.
12carton, p. 106. 13Brockett, p. 298.

l"carton, p. 107.

Exzrl

“NV".

V“. \H

the 1

~~€r

56ccr

““
fi.‘

D

0:: m
\

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a

H:

132

Expressionist Activism, which "sought to transform man and society
through a program of action," proved to be of "principal importance in
the theatre."15 Although Activism.became the dominant phase of Ex—
pressionism, it did not completely replace the Mystic form. "Between
these two poles, expressionist drama vacillated, now accentuating the
lone individual in his quest for self-fulfillment, now the problems of
social transformation."16 Dramatists associated with Mystic Expression-
ism were Oskar Kokoschka (1886-), Ernst Barlach (1870-1938), Franz
Werfel (1890-l9h5), Reinhard Johannes Sorge (1892-1916), Paul Kornfeld
(1889-l9h2), and walter Hasenclever (1890-1940).l7 Activism.in
Expressionism was connected with such dramatists as Carl Hauptmann
(1858-1921), Stefan Zweig (1881-1942). Karl Kraus (1874-1936), Fritz
von Unruh (1885—), Ernst Toller (1893-1939), and Georg Kaiser (1878-
191.5).18 The Mystic and Activist schools were not mutually exclusive;
a number of playwrights wrote in both forms.

Although Expressionism.as a major movement declined rapidly
after 1925, it managed to transcend national and time boundaries to

19

become an integral part of’modern literature. "Expressionist
principles inform O'Neill's The Great God Brown; Thornton Wilder's
Our Town, and The Skin of OuggTeeth; . . . Elmer Rice's The Adding

Machine; and a number of works by Sean O'Casey, Tennessee Williams,

 

15Brockett, p. 298. l6Garten, p. 108.
l71bid., pp. 108-20.

181hid., pp. 121—47.

l9Walter Sokel, The writer in Extremis: Expressionism in
Twentieth-Century Literature (Stanford, California: Stanford Univer-
Sity Press, 1959, p. 1.

 

133
. . ~ 20 .
Samuel Beckett, Friedrich Durrenmatt, and others.” Certain aSpects
of Expressionism.also appear in the Epic theatre style.21 Even as re-
nowned a play as Arthur Miller's Death of a Salesman contains Scenes

. . 22
that "are more or less expressionistic in treatment."

Principles of Expressionism

 

In a sense, Expressionism.was related to Romanticism and Symbol-
ism. It emphasized intuition and subjectivity and denied that
observable reality is "true" reality. Like the romantic movement, the
expressionist movement "rebelled against prOpriety and 'common sense,‘
against authority and convention in art and life."23 The dramatists
of Expressionism

rejected the tradition of the "wellemade play," and the canons

of plausibility an "good taste" in art. They Openly defied

the ideal of objective recording of everyday life, on which

"realistic" theatre since Scribe and Ibsen had been based.24
Expressionism was also linked with Romanticism "by its emphasis on
the individual consciousness."25 "Expressionist plays projected the
author's romantic self-pity and isolation in the modern world, as well
as their equally romantic self-glorification, their dreams of changing
the world into a place in which they would feel at home."26

AS for Symbolism, Expressionism.shared a few of its ideas and

techniques, but turned against its "disdainful aloofness from

 

20Ibid.

ZISokel, Anthology . . . . , p. xxi.

22Gassner, Form and Idea . . . . , p. 13.
ZBSokel, Anthology . . . . , p. ix. Zélpid.
25Rowe, p. 210.

26Sokel, Anthology . . . . , p. xxiii.

 

Cato...

”him“:

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the 5;;

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.0333

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134

contemporary urban reality."27 Expressionist thought echoed symbolist
thought in believing that ”reality is not the outer world," but the
"the inner world of thought and vision."28 Expressionists denied the
"momentary semblances of naturalism" as being truly real. They were
more interested in the essence of things than in their images.29 Like
the symbolists, the expressionists viewed the natural world as "the
foundation of the spiritual."30 They postulated two levels of exist-
ence. "The one . . . [was] that of apparent reality which . . .
[:was;7 inadequate and unsatisfying; the other . . . [fwasg7 the ideal
world in which the true reality of the future will be fulfilled."31

Expressionist, symbolist, and romantic theories were also similar
in their view that knowledge of ultimate reality was to be gained

32

intuitively rather than rationally. But, from.this point in theory,

the expressionists departed from.symbolist and romantic concepts to
establish principles which governed the particular attributes of
Expressionsim as a dramatic style. These principles were formulated
almost exclusively by German artists but had application to subsequent
developments in the expressionist drama of other nations.

The expressionists believed the world was all one, that is, ”all
things are one thing."33 "Soul and body, material and immaterial, sub—

ject and object, these are anti-poles for the concept of reality but

 

271bid., p. ix.

28Jethro Bithell, Mbdern German Literature 1§80-12§Q (London:
Methuen and Co., Ltd., 1959), p. 360.

1
29Ibid. 30Samuel and Thomas, p. 59. 3 Ibid.

32Carl Enoch William.Leonard Dahlstrom. Strindberg's Dramatic
Expressionism.(New'York: Benjamin Blom, 1965;, pp. 50-51.

331bid., p. 53.

a:

hit

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is

He.

 

135

are not endowed with separate existence; they are antithesa from
which reality may be wrested."3" In order that reality may be graSped
an instrument is required to unify the anti-poles or antitheses. The
ego is the unifying instrument

that moulds oneness of the countless items poured into it.

The ego is the predominate element in the universe; it is

indeed, the very heart of the world's reality. For the artist,

the ego is a magic crystal in which the absolute is in constant

play. . . . . It is this ego, . . . , that actually gathers

reality in its ultimate character.
As a result, the expressionist seeks intuitive knowledge of reality
by turning "everlastingly unto his 'Self,' turns his gaze within the
ego."36 Man cannot comprehend reality or gain meaning from chaos by
logic, Science, or formulae. "The quick of reality can only be
gathered or apprehended intuitively by virtue of the integration of
manifold experience; . . . , by the flow of ego and world in the
supersubjective individual."37 In effect, expressionist theory tends
toward solipsism in that it sees the universe as a manifestation of
the ego.38 "Only if all is a manifestation of ego, . . . , can this
same ego intuitively comprehend the all, and the essential reality that
lies behind its material face.”39

This tendency toward solipsism.was but one aSpect of a highly

personal vision of reality. In addition,

the Expressionists assumed that Nature is anthrOpomorphic

(that is, they ascribe human characteristics to nature)

and they portrayed it in such a way as to suggest human
feelings, ideas, or perceptions. Thus, the Expressionist

 

3h1bid. 351§id-. pp- A9-50.

37Ibid., p. 51.

36Ibid., p. 50.
38Ibid. 39Ibid.

136

was not concerned with reproducing external appearances,
but rather sought to interpret all objects, actions, and
experiences in strictly human terms. The dramatist ex-
pressed his vision of happenings, £8 matter how personal
and subjective that view might be.

Perhaps the most widely recognized factor in the principles of
Expressionism.was its concern with the subconscious. The belief that
genuine reality is inner reality led expressionists to investigate
and portray the private, personal world in which man's "secret and
sometimes unconscious desires, aSpirations, conflicts, frustrations,
[Ehd7 hallucinations" dwell.hl Under the influence of the psycho-
logical theories of Freud, Jung, and others, expressionists made
"efforts to deal with psychological reality, the subconscious, the
man beneath the skin."42

It is this strange and confusing, subjective reality that

the expressionist wished to explore. . . . . The expression-
ist strives to project the essential qualities of objects,
experiences, and peOple from.the inside out. He is not con-
cerned at all with c0pying what meets the eye. Accurate
representations of shape, Size, and appearance hold no interestl+3
for him. He wishes to plumb the depths where man really lives.

In principle, Expressionism.aSpired to achieve more subjectiv-
ism in drama by emulating the effects of music. The expressionists
‘were similar to the symbolists in viewing music as free from.concrete
reality.

Music transmutes objective experience into subjective experience
so thoroughly that in the objectification of the latter the
original experience is wholly lost from.consciousness. It
formulates no scientific theories, it gives in orchestrations

no social creeds, it pronounces nzhreligious doctrines and indeed
offers no philosophical concepts.

 

hoBrockett, p. 298. thatlen, p. 169. thbid., p. 167.

ABIbido , p. 1690

""Dahlstrom, pp. 56-57.

The e

the a]

n,

Yea:

137
The expressionists felt and declared that "there must be a means in
the arts for expressing reality as music does."h5 In their approach
to drama the expressionists were somewhat analogous to the musical
composer. They desired to communicate the feelings awakened in their
inner beings without being compelled to imitate empirical reality;
they wanted "to present the essential qualities of an experience
through imaginary and fanciful analogues to indicate the texture and
quality of life within."[+6
Expressionism.bore a marked relation to religion. The movement

was not allied with any particular creed or institution, but with
"the spirit of all religions."h7 This aSpect of eXpreSsionist theory
was another instance of the unification of anti-poles. "It is not a
desire to escape to God, to flee the world, but a yearning to realize
God, to find oneself in God, and God in self."l+8 While expressionists
cried out for God, "for a Spiritual concept of life," they rejected
"the erase materialism of the institutionalized forms of religion.“+9
They wanted "Spiritual values unhampered by heavy theology and con-
vention."5O

The result is that expressionism develOps something of a

passion for the Orient, the mother of religions, and for

mythologies, the foster-children of religions. Distance

from institutions, whether time or Spatial distance, makes

possible an emphasis on spiritual values. This concept of

religion is necessarily closely qualified by mysticism, for a

confessionless religionsiecomes more and more mute as it be-
comes less explicative.

 

ASEQiQ-a P- 57. héHatlen, p. 169.

hBIbid o , p. 58.

471Dahlstr'o'm, p. 57-
491nm. 501bid.

511bid. , pp. 57-58.

L..-

138
The search for God, for Spiritual values, was typical of both Mystic
and Activist Expressionism; however, the Mystic expressionists were
"particularly concerned with the problems of'Man and God" and "more
interested in the liberation of the soul than in the reform of
society."52 In its totality, Expressionism was "essentially a
spiritual movement aiming at the moral regeneration of man, and un—
related to any Specific social programme."53
Finally, Expressionism.was concerned with human values, the worth

of man. Expressionists felt that there was a need for "a spiritual
brotherhood amongmen."51+

For expressionism, there is no problem of the individual and

the group to be solved mechanically and captioned Anarchism,

Republicanism, Democracy, Socialism, Communism, or any other-

ism. Again expressionism would point out that the individual

on the one hand and the group on the other are anti-poles;

the heart of reality lies somewhere between the two. This

heart of reality lies in the Spiritual brotherhood of man, and

can only be attained by a reévaluation of the meaning of human.

Expressionism points to essential human gglues rather than to

the product of man’s hands or intellect.
The Activist branch of Expressionism.was most influenced by a concern
for human values. It wished to "transform society so that man's
greatness might be fully realized."56 To these expressionists "man
was no longer a product of his environment, driven by forces beyond
his control, but he was himself a driving agent, capable of transforming

the world according to his vision."57

 

t

SzSamuel and Thomas, p. 14.

53Garten, p. 107. ShDahlstrSm, p. 58.
5522223. pp- 58-59.

563rockett, p. 298.

57Garten, pp. 104-105.

139

Characteristics of Expressionism

General Characteristics
In Spite of the fact that some commentators believe Expression-
ism is not a distinct style "distinguished by the employment of any

"58 a rather diverse number of plays may be identi-

single technique,
fied as belonging to an expressionist style by virtue of four common
characteriStics. These characteristics are 1) presentation of psycho-
logical states or "inner reality;" 2) employment of a dreamrlike
musical structure; 3) distortion, extremism, or exaggeration in the
elements of the play; and A) the use of symbols. It is possible that
all plays that might come under the heading of Expressionism.may not
include all four of these characteristics; nevertheless, they may con—
form.to a majority of these features. This qualification is necessary
in view of the sc0pe of EXpreSSionism, encompassing as it does various
periods, nations, and purposes. As has been noted, even the German
Expressionist movement was divided into Mystic and Activist camps.

First of all, Expressionism was guided by modern psychological
and psychoanalytic theories. Since the expressionists were frequently
concerned with the inner life of the mind and spirit, "they availed
themselves of the discoveries and the language of the newer psycholo-
gists, and particularly the psychoanalysts and psychiatrists who had
appeared since the turn of the century."59 Expressionists attempted
to suggest "the individual consciousness, . . . the inner conflicts
and states for which there was no external equivalent in action or

speech and which could not be represented directly on the stage."60

 

58Martley and Ladu, p. 215. sgBrown, p. 510. 60Rowe, p. 205.

..._

 

 

In

I!

140
It was their manner of giving "concrete form in the theatre to all

that was purelysubjective."61

They wanted to look within their characters, treat them

subjectively, tap their streams of consciousness if need be,

penetrate their innermost beings, and lay bare their dreams,

their inhibitions, and the hidden workings of their minds--

reactions and mental states which could not be included in

the external observation of the camera. In short,6they

sought the eye of the.X-ray instead of the camera. 2
Serious and renowned playwrights of the stature of Strindberg and
O'Neill turned to Expressionism because they felt that

poetic feeling alone was ineffectual and that realism.cou1d

project neither inner experiences nor the external world

as it presented itself to the troubled Spirit . . . . They

regarded the inner self not as a fairly orderly organism

that moved more or less clearly toward well-defined, attain-

able ends such as winning a girl or getting on in business,

but as a highly unstable compound of promptings and

confusions. 3

All in all, it is quite characteristic that Expressionist plays
attempt to represent the inner, psychological aspects of man. Plays
from.earlier dramatic periods exhibit this feature to a limited ex-
tent. For instance, Macbeth saw a "dagger of the mind” and a Banquo
invisible to the guests at his table. Modern Expressionism.differs
from such earlier plays in that it turns most, if not all, of a play
into a projection of inner, psychological reality.
A second characteristic of expressionist drama is the employ-

ment of a dreamrlike structure. Probably the most famous statement

of the intent of this type of structure was written by August

 

6lipid.
62
Brown, p. 509.

63Gassner, Treasury ofgthe Theatre: Ibsen to Miller, p. 261.

VL-

F‘-

1A1
Strindberg in an introduction to his drama, The Dream Play.

In this dream.p1ay, . . . , the Author has sought to
reproduce the disconnected but apparently logical form of
a dream. Anything can happen; everything is possible and
probable. Time and Space do not exist; on a slight
groundwork of reality, imagination Spins and weaves new
patterns made up of memories, experiences, unfettered
fancies, absurdities and improvisations.

The characters are Split, double and multiply; they
evaporate, crystallise, scatter and converge. But a
single consciousness holds sway over them all-—that of the
dreamer. For him there are no secrets, no incongruities,
no scruples and no law. 2e neither condemns nor acquits,
bUt only relateS, o o o o A

While Strindberg did not guide all of the development of Expression-
ism, his idea of the dreamelike structure remains as a major charac-
teristic of Expressionist drama.

The dreamslike structure of Expressionism.is closely related

65

to the desire to depict the inner reality of the human mind. In

expressionist drama

The characters are made dream-like shadows, figures that
are not even types, unhuman but still not supernatural.
In practice we are given, paradoxically, embodiments of
unbodied visions of delight or of nightmare . . . .

Very often these figures are mutes, mere hallucinations,
delirious figments of the fevered brain of the dreamer 66
(either the author or the central figure of the drama).

Like the characters, the setting and action of the plot take on the

appearance of a dream.

. . . since the external world was presented as the world
formed by the dreamer or the perceiver, it fragmented itself,

 

6“August Strindberg, "Author's Note to The Dream Pla ," Six
Plays by Strindberg, trans. Elizabeth Sprigge (Garden City, New York:

Doubleday Anchor Books, 1955): p. 193.

65William.Angus,"Expressionism.in the Theatre," Quarterly
Journal of S eech, XIX, No. A (November, 1933), A83.

66Ibid.

1&2

too; it appeared dislocated, turned out of Shape, and
exaggerated by the character's state of mind . . . .
Making a fluid subjective private world out of an ob-
jective one ordered by conventional perceptions, play—
wrights even abolished the conventions of time and place
by which we usually live in society . . . . Past and
present mingled freely in expressionist p1ays:.Memory in—
truded itself into the present Signation and not only
dominated but altered it, . . . . 7

These quotes should serve to indicate the dreamrlike quality of Ex-
pressionism. It Should be pointed out, however, that "dreamslike"
is more of a convenient term.than an exact description. Unlike the
French.Surrealists, "the expressionists rarely reproduced actual
dreams. Rather, the structure of many of their plays resembled, in
some reSpects, the pattern of the human mind in dream.and reverie."68

In its crude aSpects, Expressionism is dramatized daydreams

and fantasy. In its subtler and more interesting examples,

Expressionism.parallels the concealing symbolism.and

subliminal suggestiveness of night dreams . . . . In them

projection and embodiment of psychic forces take the place

of imitation of external facts; association of ideas supplants

constructiog of plot based on logical connection of cause

and effect. 9

The appearance of the dreamrlike structure in Expressionism has

led some critics to say that the style has "a rather formless dramatic

"70 Such an observation is questionable. It is true that the

pattern.
expressionists often depart radically from conventional or traditional
dramatic patterns, but they do have a form of their own. The

expressionist, "like the dreamer, concentrates entirely on the purpose

of expressing an inner world and refuses to let conformity to external

 

67Gassner, The Theatre in Our Times, pp. 200—201.
68501481, AIIthOlom o o o o , p0 Xiv.
églbido, pp. Xiii-Xiv.

70mgu8, p. [‘82.

143
reality divert him.from his purpose."71 Conventional dramatic struc-
ture is rejected by the expressionist "Since he wishes to center his
attention on the essential actions no matter when or where they
occurred without being obliged to produce the gradual development of
exposition and the close—knit articulation of antecedent and conse-
quent relationships."72
In place of the conventional dramatic form, the expressionist

substitutes "a new structural pattern, closer to music than drama-—
the presentation and variation of theme."73 The materials of
Expressionism "are to be employed as a composer employs his notes;
merging them into the unity of an immediate appeal."7h For example,

the first impression given by Sorge's The Beggar, . . . is

one of bewildering formlessness. The play flies in the

face of the plot-centered tradition of drama with which we

are familiar. Yet a closer examination of the play reveals

the opposite of formlessness-—careful craftsmanship and

richly woven texture . . . . The intricate arrangement of

themes closely corresponds to the composition of a symphony

rather than a drama in the traditional sense.
In Expressionism, "the abandonment of a logical, unified plot does not
mean the abandonment of theatrical form."76 It is characteristic for
expressionist plays to use "an episodic structure of dramatic

'Stations’without causal sequence to one another but constituting a

succession of events or stages in the progress of the protagonist

 

71Sokel, The writer in Extremis . . . . , p. 38.
72Hatlen, p. 170.

73Sokel, Anthology . . . . , pp. xiii-xiv.
7“Goldberg, p. 276.

75Sokel, Anthology . . . . , pp. xv-xvi.

76Ibid.

 

88536

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Av,“

H H.

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1AA
77

In addition, an

78

from.an initiating action to the resolution.”
expressionist play may have a "subconscious logic" of its own.
Expressionism, as its third characteristic, presents "processes

of exaggeration, condensation, and distortion."79 In order to make
his "expression more emphatic, the Expressionist, exactly like the
dreaming mind, distorts features of reality by exaggeration.”80
Distortion and exaggeration are a result of the expressionist's
attempt "to give the palpable essence of things, their qualities
sharply intensified, not their appearance in reality."81 "The world,
aS seen in many expressionist plays, is distorted because it is
sensed subjectively, or because it is refracted by the author's criti-
cism of society."82

Plots are disjointed and confusing, or cease to be recog-

nizable as such. Dialogue suddenly changes from prose to

hymnic poetry and rhapsodic monologue, completely interrupt-

ing the act'on. Lyrical passages alternate with Obscenities

and curses.
In some expressionist plays, "distortion and deformations of visual

and auditory images are resorted to in order to Show reality as seen

through a disordered mind.”8a

 

77Rowe, pp. 205-206.

78Gassner, Treasury of the Theatre: Ibsen to Miller, p. 262.
79M .

8oSokel, The writer in Extremis . . . . , p. 39.

81Bithell, p. 360.

82Gassner, Producing the Play, p. 65.

8380kel, AnthOlogx o o o o , p0 Xiiio

8"*Alan Reynolds Thompson, The Anatomy of Drama (Los Angeles:
University of California Press, 19A6), p. 3A3.

a:

 

1&5
A fourth characteristic of Expressionism is the use of symbols.
Instead of attempting to represent real life, expressionists "work

through a medium of visible symbols, using types instead of characters,

'-

8) "Fantasy and extrava-

and preferring the abstract to the concrete."
gant symbolism" suggest "some abstract theme or subjective struggle in
the mind of the character or author."86 In brief, "the projection of
abstract ideas and psychic situations into symbolic images and happen-
ings is one of the most basic features of Expressionist drama."87

In some reSpects the use of symbols in Expressionism.does not
differ from the use of symbols in Symbolism. In both styles symbols
are used to communicate ideas and feelings that are incompatible with
direct communication. AS in Symbolism, all three levels of symbols
(fixed, contextual, and indefinite) may appear in Expressionism.88

Although Similar in some respects, the symbolism of Expression-
ism.has its particular traits. It is noted for the "vehemence of its
symbols."39 Gorelik even terms it "hysterical symbolism" and notes
that it was "often drawn from Freudian psychoanalysis."9O Other sources
of expressionist symbolism.appear to be "the whole mixed tradition of

allegorical representation including the political cartoon and the

comic strip."91 Symbols in Expressionism are often.more visual than

 

85Marriott, p. 57.

86Thompson, p. 90.

87Sokel, Anthology . . . . , p. xviii.
88See Chapter VI, "Symbolism," pp. Ila-1.17.
89Gorelik, p. 2&8.

90Ibid., p. 252. 91Krutch, p- 239-

.1

bk

'al

146

lingual.

Dynamic utilization of setting and stage ( . . . ) eXpresses

many things formerly expressed by language, or not expressed

at all . . . . An immediate appeal is made to the audience's

sense rather than its conceptual thought.92
In Expressionism "the background of the action is usually symbolic of
of the states of mind of the characters ( . . . ) and often the entire
action itself is one elaborate symbol."93 As opposed to the "tran-
quilly beautiful symbols of Symbolism, the symbols of Expressionism
are "explosive."91+ All in all, the use of symbols in Expressionism
goes "beyond ordinary symbolism."95

While it is true that the expressionists employed symbolism, it

is not enough in itself to represent anything new or revealing in
their plays.96 The use of symbols remains as a major characteristic
of Expressionism but does not serve by itself to identify dramas as

expressionist. It is only in conjunction with other traits that this

characteristic is significant.

Form Elements

Plot
Since the expressionist must somehow embody an inner, subjective

truth, he must seek a means adequate for expressing his personal

 

92Sokel, Anthology . . . . , p. xviii.

93S. Marion Tucker, ed., Modern Continental Plays (New York:
Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1929), p. 471.

9[‘Gorelik, p. 2.46 .
95Gassner, The Theatre in Our Times, p. 201.

961bid.

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147
vision. He is not bound to an attempt to create the illusion of
empirical reality; therefore, he may use any technique he can devise
in order to produce his subjective vision. While this is true in
theory, expressionist practice reveals the use of identifiable tech-
niques that have become associated with Expressionism as a dramatic
style.

The attempt to present a personal, inner view of reality leads
the expressionist to replace the familiar conflict of independently
motivated characters with a form.of plotting in which no genuine con-
flict arises. "With few exceptions Expressionist drama conforms to an
'epic' or narrative approach, rather than a strictly dramatic pattern."97
The plot element in Expressionism is based on a "showing and telling of
themes," a structure that "can be traced to the Christian miracle and
Passion plays."

Another result of Expressionismls subjectivity and its conse-
quent absence of conflict is "the pageant or pilgrimage-type structure
of many full—length Expressionist plays" in which "a loosely connected
'life-story,‘ a series of 'stations,’ pictures, and Situations takes

the place of a well-knit plot."99 Such plays "Show a character's

 

97Sokel, Anthology . . . . , p. xx.

98Ibid. The "epic" form of plotting is Similar to that in Epic
theatre which is not surprising since Epic theatre was influenced by
Expressionism. As Walter Sokel points out,"both Expressionism and
Brecht's Epic Theater emphasized theater as 'show’ or demonstration
rather than as drama with emphasis on action and suspense. The
difference was that most Expressionists (although by no means all)
sought to appeal to the emotions, while Brecht's Epic Theater tried
to appeal to the critical intellect of its audienceu"(Anthology . . . .,
p. xxi.

99Ibid.

148
progress, or, more usually, deterioration, through a series of events

100 The use of the "life-story" plot

at many times and many places."
is typical of the expressionist's practice of employing "metaphor,
fable, parable, and allegory" in dramatizing the inner life ofman."lOl
The pageant structure allows the expressionist to present his story
at the moments of most interest. He concentrates "on a series of
events--pivota1, revelatory moments which . . . [are7 free of clap-
trap and innocent of padding, moments which . . . [march7 bravely into
the essence of the event, which . . . [determine7 character or . . .
[registeg7 growth or retrogression, crucial moments of crises rather
than half hours of preparation."102
The "epic" or narrative approach to plotting with its pageant
or pilgrimage-type structure, although Simple in design, is often com-
plicated by other factors in Expressionist plays. The result is the
dreamslike quality noted under the preceding section on general charac-
teristics. "The action is usually presented in brief scenes, which
are connected only by the fact that all present successive emotional
reactions or phases of . . . [597 idea."103 The episodic action "may
move on several different planes at once."l01+
Expressionist plays seldom conform to "normal" concepts of time
or place; the action seems to take place in a void where "Specific

.105

time and Space . . . are either warped or ignored or discarded.‘

 

looBernard Grebanier, Playwrighting (New York: Thomas Y.
Crowell Co., 1961), p. 329.
lOlMarriott, pp. 226-27. 102Brown, p. 509.

lOBTucker, p, 471, thHartley and Ladu, p. 10.

lo5Angus, p. 483.

149

There are some exceptions to this tendency toward unspecified time
and place, especially in historical Expressionist drama where "date
and scene of the action" are indicated "comparatively closely," but
"nearly all other plays diSpense with such details."106

Often in plots of expressionist dramas, the "world of reality
and the unreal world are found Side by Side; sometimes they alter-
nate."107 Depending on the "varying phases of its dominant idea or
the successive moods of its characters," an expressionist play may
move from.reality into dream, "finite into infinite, consciousness
into subconsciousness."l0-8 Frequently, the alternation of planes of
consciousness, the shifting from reality to fantasy, is used to
represent the supposedly "anarchic state of the world."109

Scenes in expressionist drama "do not always follow in logical
order to tell the story in the accepted manner" of conventional
dramaturgy.110 Although the expressionist "frequently retains the
division into acts and scenes," such a "division does not usually

nlll

correSpond to the actual distribution of the subjectematter. He'

prefers "a rapid sequence of short scenes which have a sort of

112
cinematographic effect on the mind."

Experience is shattered into its elements and reformed to
suit the playwright's purpose. . . . . Climaxes and crises
appear without preparation, exposition is simplified to

 

1065amuel and Thomas, p. to. lo7Ihid., p. 41.
108Tucker, p. 471.
109Gassner, Masters of the Drama, p. 485.

llOWright, p- 90. 111Samuel and Thomas, p. 40-

llZIMarriott, pp. 229-30.

150

direct communication or neglected altogether. . . . .

The action is caused by the effect desired, rather than

the necessary or pigbable consequences of an integrated

series of events.
Even when the expressionist writes a play with a recognizable plot
pattern, "the motives that activate the characters are often inade-
quate or unexplained and their actions are in consequence startling,
unexpected, and violent."l:u+

No matter how confused or chaotic the dream—like structure may

appear, the expressionist attempts to achieve a cumulative emotional
effect by piling scene on scene. His "method of working, then, is
not a clear and orderly arrangement of the parts in an organic or
consecutive fashion, but rather a jumble of fragments which suggest,

1
rather than describe, the experiences of the play." 15

Chargcter
The most striking and easily identifiable attribute of the

characters in Expressionism.in their personified, abstract names.
Most often they are "characters without personal names, representing
types, classes or ideas."116 At times expressionists revert "to the
technique of the moralities by personifying abstractions in order to
express their own revolutionary attitudes."117 Persons are named
according to sex, occupations, and family relationships or after

numbers and letters. Characters labeled "the Poet," "The Man In

 

113Hatlen, p. 171. ll“Thompson, p. 343. ll5Hat1en, p. 171.

116Rowe, p. 205.

117Thompson, p. 342.

151
Gray," and even "X," "Y," and "Z" are presented on stage.118 Often
times characters are anonymous.119 Through the use of abstract names,
the characters lose their personal identity and become representative
of forces larger than themselves. Such names also emphasize the
impersonality of a "machine" society.

Expressionist characters are also described by critics as being
unreal, types not individuals, depersonalized, "automate, live
puppets, or pure creations of the imagination."120 They do not often
conform to the standards of behavior connected with conventional
human beings in observable reality. "Some strange detail, some dis-
tortion or implausible exaggeration, a grotesque twist, an intentional
incongruity, appearances at empirically impossible times and places,
again and again destroy our illusion that we might face three-
dimensional persons of flesh and blood."121

Due to the subjective nature of Expressionism, the persons por-
trayed are usually projections from.the mind of the author or from
the mind of his major characters. In some plays the characters, their
actions, and their motivations are parts of the author's subjective
view. Their identity and actions are determined by his feelings.

”The author portrays himself and projects all other characters out of
his ego as reflections of this dramatic presentation of self."122 In

other expressionist plays, the thoughts of major characters are por-

trayed, "or the audience is given a distorted view of the action as

 

118Gorelik, p. 252. llgMarriott, p. 228.

120Hartley and Ladu, p. 10.
lZlSokel, The Writer in Extremis . . . . , P° 37°

122Dahlstréi’m, p. 65.

152
seen through the eyes of the protagonist."123 In plays of this
second type, "the subjective feelings of the important characters
are given full play to express themselves in the action of the
play."124 In both types of plays, the characters may appear to be
unmotivated in the sense of character motivation found in traditional
forms of drama. However, they are motivated by the inner thoughts of
either the author or his major characters. The expressionist sus-
pends the normative laws of causality and motivation so that only one

single, subjective purpose rules.125 The motivation is similar to

that appearing in dreams: "Wish becomes act, emotion becomes event."126

For instance, characters may change identity or "acquire abnormal

attributes indicative of the protagonists state of mind or the author's

12
attitude toward society." 7

In the type of Expressionism in which the moods and thoughts of
the protagonist determine the action of the play, "the characters with
whom he contends may be but projections of his own personality."128

The protagonist in Expressionist plays usually serves as
an existential example, a paragon, very much like Christ
in the Passion plays. The other "characters" are not so
much characters as functions in his mission or martyrdom.
They represent his opportunities, obstacles, parallels,
variations, and counterpoints. Genuine antagonists do
not exist. There are antagonistic characters, usually

 

12BWright, p. 90-
12l-pGrebanier, p. 328-
125Sokel, The Writer in Extremis . . . . , p. 38-

126Ibid.

127Gassner, The Theatre in Our Time, pp. 200-201.

128Nellie Burget Miller, The Living Drama (New York: The
Century Co., 1924), p. 276.

aro,..-

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152
seen through the eyes of the protagonist."123 In plays of this
second type, "the subjective feelings of the important characters
are given full play to express themselves in the action of the
play."12" In both types of plays, the characters may appear to be
unmotivated in the sense of character motivation found in traditional
forms of drama. However, they are motivated by the inner thoughts of
either the author or his major characters. The expressionist sus-

pends the normative laws of causality and motivation so that only one

125

single, subjective purpose rules. The motivation is Similar to

that appearing in dreams: ”Wish becomes act, emotion becomes event."126

For instance, characters may change identity or "acquire abnormal

attributes indicative of the protagonists state of mind or the author's

127

attitude toward society."
In the type of Expressionism.in which the.moods and thoughts of

the protagonist determine the action of the play, "the characters with

whom he contends may be but projections of his own personality."128

The protagonist in Expressionist plays usually serves as
an existential example, a paragon, very much like Christ
in the Passion plays. The other "characters" are not so
much characters as functions in his mission or martyrdom.
They represent his opportunities, obstacles, parallels,
variations, and counterpoints. Genuine antagonists do
not exist. There are antagonistic characters, usually

 

123Wright, p. 90.

thGrebanier, p. 328.

125Soke1, The Writer in Extremis . . . . , p. 38.
126lbid.

127Gassner, The Theatre in Our Time, pp. ZOO-201.

128Nellie Burget Miller, The Living Drama (New York: The
Century Co., 1924), p. 276.

 

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152
seen through the eyes of the protagonist."123 In plays of this
second type, "the subjective feelings of the important characters
are given full play tO express themselves in the action Of the
play."12" In both types of plays, the characters may appear to be
unmotivated in the sense of character motivation found in traditional
forms Of drama. However, they are motivated by the inner thoughts Of
either the author or his major characters. The expressionist sus-

pends the normative laws of causality and motivation so that only one

125

single, subjective purpose rules. The motivation is Similar to

that appearing in dreams: "Wish becomes act, emotion becomes event."126

For instance, characters may change identity or "acquire abnormal

attributes indicative Of the protagonists state of mind or the author's

127

attitude toward society."
In the type of Expressionism in which the.moods and thoughts of

the protagonist determine the action Of the play, "the characters with

whom he contends may be but projections of his own personality."128

The protagonist in Expressionist plays usually serves as
an existential example, a paragon, very much like Christ
in the Passion plays. The other "characters" are not so
much characters as functions in his mission or martyrdom.
They represent his Opportunities, Obstacles, parallels,
variations, and counterpoints. Genuine antagonists do
not exist. There are antagonistic characters, usually

 

123Wright, p. 90.

l2ltGrebanier, p. 328.

1255oke1, The Writer in Extremis . . . . , p. 38.
126%.

127Gassner, The Theatre in Our Time, pp. ZOO-201.

128Nellie Burget Miller, The Living Drama (New York: The
Century Co., 1924), p. 276.

153

philistines, materialists, Often scientists or engineers,

moralists and sentimentalists. However, these antagonistic

characters do not act as independent personalities motivated

by aims Of their Own, but as foils to the protagonist.12

Expressionists attempt to bring a universality to their characr

ters in order that their conditions might parallel that of mankind.
An instance Of this is the Cashier in Kaiser's From.Morn to Midnight
who "represents mankind in its search to escape the stultifying
results of modern life."130 Ideally, the expressionists wish the
drama "to become the expression Of all Spiritual powers and the

dramatis personae . . . [fiot7 mere characters but super-realistic,

ecstatic figures, the intensified expression Of human nature."131

Language

The expressionists, in their attempt to render the inner
reality Of the mind, diSplayed a number of diverse techniques in
regard to the element of language. Some techniques were adOpted from
earlier dramatic periods, some'were borrowed from other literary
forms, and some were developed by the practitioners of Expressionism.

In expressionism, language is a function Of eXpression and not
a means Of characterization; therefore, the expressionist, unlike the
realist and naturalist, doesn't attempt to imitate the Speech of

32

everyday life.1 Rather, the expressionist favors a language which

is "austere and Sparing, . . . shorn Of all poetical adornments,"

 

129SOkel, Anthology . . . . , pp. xxexxi.

130Brockett, p. 305.

1.31th Rapp, "Germany” A History 0J1: Modern Drama, p. 101+.

l32$okel, The writer in Extpgmis. . . . , p. 40.

 

L—el

154
which rises occasionally "to impassioned outbursts, always with the
sole intent of conveying the author's message.”133
Expressionists revived traditional devices such as the aside

and the monologue in their effort to project the inner mind Of the
author or his protagonist.

Interior or stream-Of consciousness monologue, which differs

from.the Old soliloquy in its psychological realism, became

one of the most frequently used methods Of externalization,

Often dominating a play. In the expressionist monologue the

playwright undertook to suggest the nature of stream of

consciousness as a flow Of images rather than formulated

thought an? zhe flashing of words instead Of full sentence

structure. 3
Soliloquies and asides, frequently Of considerable length, were used
as a means of directly communicating to an audience "the inner exper-
iences, the intimate secrets, the psychoanalytic free expression of
affects and ideas."135

Dialogue in Expressionism.ran the gamut from "long-winded

rhetorical harangues" in monologue form to a "telegraphic style of

"136 It is this "telegraphic" dialogue that is most Often

exclamation.
cited by critics as being particularly associated with Expressionism.
It was the end result Of the expressionists' endeavor to forge their
own language.
In the process, grammar and syntax were ruthlessly overthrown,
articles eliminated, sentences clipped, new words created. In
some extreme instances, the dialogue was reduced to bare exclama-
tion, thf gestatic cry was the ultimate mark of expressionist
diction. 3 ‘

In Expressionism "the Single emotional word replaced the involved

 

133Garten, p.) 131. l3ltliowe, p. 205.
135Angus,, p. 433. 136Thompson, p. 343.
137Garten, p. 105.

155
conceptual sentence as the basic unit Of . . . language. Repetition,
variation, modulating echo, and contrapuntal clash Of single words

138 The use Of "tele-

are essential parts Of EXpressionist dialogue."
graphic" dialogue gave "an impression of unreality or half-
reality."139

Stream-Of- consciousness monologues, "telegraphic" dialogue,
and the use Of symbols (noted under general characteristics) are the
most striking features Of language in Expressionism. However, there
are some secondary traits that should be mentioned. Pantomime appears
frequently as a type Of visual language to aid in expressing the in-
expressible.”+0 Lyric verse is sometimes found in less violent scenes
Of plays.141 In many instances, verse and prose are employed

alternately.lh2

Like Symbolism, Expressionism.makes use of silence
and pauses to a greater extent than in conventional drama. "The
deliberate use of the pause as a significant means of eXpression

( . . . ) reveals most clearly the kinship between Expressionist drama
and music. Dots and dashesjlfin the script47 are the equivalents of
"143

Lastly, mass choruses which chant and
144

pauses in musical scores.

pantomime in "mechanical unison" may appear.

Theme
Any treatment Of the themes of Expressionism.must consider that

the style included Mystic and Activist forms. A quality Of

 

1335oke1, Anthology . . . . , p. xviii.
139Gassner, Producing the Play, p. 65.
lhOAngus, p. 484. lhlIbid. l“Bithell, p. 388.

lLBSOkel, “131101ng 0 0 0 0 9 Po XiXo lMMgus! p' 1+8!“

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subjectivism infuses both branches, although they have different
Specific characteristics. These express themselves most Obviously in
the expressionist's thematic concerns, resulting in essentially two
thematic areas.
Mystical Expressionism as practiced by the German playwrights

Of the early twentieth century was "first and foremost engaged in
searching for the essential reality in our universe."lh5 This mOve-
ment in a large sense was "a search for God, an attempt to deify the
human self.”ll+6 It "sought wide themes, heaven, hell, cosmos, humanity,
and in revealing a world gave a new conception to the facts Of indi-
vidual life."lh7 The plays written under the influence of'Mystic
Expressionism.abounded with Messianic allusions.

The artist and his hero . . . [fiere7 seen as prophets crying in

the wilderness, bringing the glad message Of "rise up and be

human” to an unreSponsive multitude. The multitude . . . [waé7

usually nothing less than the world Of humanity. Cosmic

Significance . . . 1§a§7 the order Of the day. 48
All in all, there was a religious character to the Expressionist drama
Of the Mystics which tended toward the metaphysical or mythological.149

While both forms Of Expressionism.reject empirical reality and

embrace a subjective, egocentric world, the Activists incline more

toward actually dealing with the empirical world than dO the Mystics.

Thematically, the Activists approach man and the Objective world in

twO‘ways.

 

lhéAngus, p. 485.

MSDahlstrO'm, pp. 80-81.
l1’7Dickinson, pp. 268—69.

lheBamber Gascoigne, Twentieth Century Drama (London: Hutchinson
and Co., 1962). p- 21-

l1’9Dahlstr6m, p. 78.

157

First, much of the drama concentrates upon the negative aSpects
Of the present. It attempts to Show how current ideals have
distorted man's Spirit and have made him.a machine through
false values. Second, a smaller proportion Of the drama looks
forward to the transformation of society and to a time when
harmony between man's environment and his Spirit can be
achieved. Expressionist [Activist7 drama, then, usually aims
at making the audience aware Of the present's shortcomings, g5
suggests a program for accomplishing a more perfect future.l

Activist Expressionism "proclaims an idea, that Of the New Man and
of a New Humanity, which is to be no longer subjected to the limita~
tions Of State and nation, society and traditional laws, and which is
to be transformed into a community of IOve, goodness, and peace."
Expressionism Of the Activist type Often'deals with modern

152

social problems. Although "the intellectual content of expression-

ism is not especially striking," its themes do treat "wellaworn ideas
Of protest against materialism, mechanization, and militarism.”153
It presents such social themes as the conflict between the Old and
new generations (often projected as conflict between father and son),
man's relation to the proletariat, and man's relation to the community

154 Above all, the themes Of Expressionism emphasize human

as a whole.
values: "Love, Spiritual brotherhood, the elemental virtues and
motives in conflict with the conventions and impositions of 'civilized

cultures.'"155

 

lsoBrockett, pp. 298—99.

151Samuel and Thomas, p. 60.

152wright, p. 90.

153Hatlen, p. 174.

l545amnel and Thomas, pp. 63, 64, and 110.

155Angus, p. 486.

 

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158
Summary;_Criteria for the Identification of

the Dramatic Style Of Expressionism

Principles

Expressionism, in denying that empirical reality is ultimate
reality, parallels a number Of concepts Of Romanticism and Symbolism.

For the expressionist, the knowledge Of ultimate reality is
intuitively gained by a process in which the ego, the self, gathers
and unifies antithetical elements which have no separate existence
of their own. Thus the ego, in effect, creates ultimate reality.

The world becomes an extension Of the subjective vision Of the in-
dividual. As a consequence, the expressionist assumes that nature is
anthropomorphic and ascribes human characteristics to it.

The influence Of the concept Of the subconscious guides the
expressionist tO investigate the inner mind of’man, the level beneath
the rational and conscious. He deals with psychological reality, the
private, personal world Of man.

Expressionists seek to emulate the effects Of music, since
music releases feelings supposedly without reference to empirical
reality.

Expressionism embodies a rather mystic religious attitude in
seeking to realize God. It wants Spiritual values free Of dogma and
ritual.

Expressionism.is concerned with the worth Of man, and seeks a
Spiritual brotherhood of humanity. In the Activist phase of
Expressionism, there is a wish to transform society in order that man

may realize his greatness. In Expressionism, man is not the product

.‘37‘ av-

159
Of his environment; he is considered to have the power to change the

‘world according to his visions.
Characteristics of Expressionism

General Characteristics
Expressionism tries tO suggest inner conflicts that cannot be
presented directly on stage. It projects the purely subjective in
concrete form. The subconscious world of man is not presented in
any orderly fashion but is Often confused and unstable.
Expressionism.characteristically employs a dreamelike structure.
Action is Often fragmented, dislocated, and illogical when compared
to the standards prevailing in empirical reality. Projection and
embodiment Of psychic forces take the place of imitation of external
facts; the association Of ideas or moods supplants construction of
plot based on logical connection of cause and effect.' The episode
dream-like structure is closer to a musical form of theme and varia-
tion than to conventional dramatic patterns.
The elements Of an expressionist play Often appear distorted
and exaggerated. Things do not appear as they do in empirical reality
because their qualities are intensified or changed according to the
subjective attitude of the author or his major characters.
Expressionism exhibits a characteristic employment Of symbols
Of differing types (fixed, contextual, and indefinite) which are noted
for their vehemence and hysterical quality. They are Often projected

visually through action and setting.

“h .—

we.

‘1

160

Form Elements

Plot

Expressionism conforms to an "epic" or narrative approach to
plotting. Plots are based on the showing and telling of themes.
Conflict in the sense of Opposed, independently motivated, characters
seldom.arises. Many full-length expressionist plays exhibit a
pageant or pilgrimage-like structure treating the life-story Of a
protagonist and showing his progress in a series Of events at many
times and many places. Exposition; and preparation are minimal or
ignored completely. The concentration is on crucial events, crises,
and climaxes.

The "epic" approach to plotting is Often complicated by rapid
shifts in time, space, and planes of consciousness which give the
story a dream-like quality. Action may appear to take place in a
void -- times and places are usually unspecified except in histori-
cal expressionist dramas. Plots seem to be a jumble of fragments

which suggest, rather than describe, the experience of the play.

Character

Expressionist characters are frequently identified by personi-
fied, abstract names based on their family relationships, sex,
occupation, appearance, or function in the play. They are described
as being types, depersonalized, puppet-like, and purely imaginative.
They are generally unlike conventional beings from.empirical reality;
some aspect Of their character calls attention tO the fact that they
are not flesh-and-blood entities.

Characters are usually projections of the subjective mind of

:u

161
the author or of his major characters and act according to states or
Shifts in his subjective mind. For this reason, they may appear to
be unmotivated in the conventional dramatic sense.

The protagonist in many expressionist plays may contend with
other characters who are projections of his own personality, which
represent variations and counterpoints of himself or Opportunities
and Obstacles in his life. Antagonistic characters appear as foils

to the character Of the protagonist.

Language

Expressionist language is Spare, unadorned, and does not attempt
to imitate the Speech of everyday life.

Expressionism utilizes the aside and the monologue to project
the character's thought directly to the audience. The monologue
which attempts to reveal the stream Of consciousness Of the character
is Often lengthy. It contains a flow of images and a flashing Of
words, rather than full sentence structure and rationally formulated
thought.

Expressionism.makes striking use of a "telegraphic" style in
dialogue. Emotions and thoughts are expressed in uncomplete sentences
or by single words.

Pantomime may be considered as a part of Expressionist language,
aiding visual communication. Lyric poetry may be found in less
violent scenes. Prose and poetry may be used alternately. Pauses
appear more frequently than in conventional drama. Mass choruses,

chanting and pantomiming in unison may appear.

162
Theme

The themes of EXpressionism.are divided according to its Mystic
and Activist phases. Mystic expressionists are concerned with a
search for God, a deification Of the human self. They encompass
themes Of heaven, hell, humanity, and the cosmos. Cosmic signifi-
cance is the order Of the day. PrOphet-like, the artist cries out
to mankind to rise and be human.

Activist Expressionism maintains many of the religious themes
of the Mystics but deals with empirical reality in themes which treat
the negative aspects Of the present or call for a transformation of
society in order that man may realize his potential. Activist themes
deal with the dehumanizing Of man by modern society which has made
him.into a machine. They protest against materialism, mechanization,
and militarism. They present conflicts between Old and new generations.
Man's relation to the proletariat and the community as a whole are

also common themes.

‘CHAPTER VIII

FORMALISM, FUTURISM, AND SURREALISM

The manner Of presenting the three dramatic styles in this
chapter differs from that employed in the previous five chapters.
This difference stems from a lack of sources upon which to base a
fUIl treatment Of these styles in terms of the method for describ-
ing styles presented in Chapter II. An attempt is made to present

at least the principles and characteristics Of these dramatic styles.

Formalism

Formalism.as a dramatic style is only discussed in any detail
by John Gassner in his Form and Idea in the Modern Theatre. Although
the term appears rarely in the commentaries Of other authors, the
style Gassner describes is not just his invention. Allardyce Nicoll
in World Drama does not actually use the term "Formalism," but he
does treat the same plays and authors that Gassner includes in his
discussion of Formalism. In fact Nicoll appears to make a plea for
what Gassner calls Formalism in the conclusion of WOrld Drama.

If there is hope for a revival of dramatic power in our time,
that hope is to be found mainly in the fact that in some quar-
ters at least . . . formalized intensity is being welcomed. . . .
when we Observe what considerable steps in advalce have been
taken by the poetic play, when we see how the ancient themes are
being given new meanings in modern works, and, particularly, when
we note how French dramatists are striving passionately to create
a new foundation for tragedy, . . . , we may well be justified in

wondering whether a fresh glory is not near at hand . . . . when

163

164

‘we consider what important suggestions for the future have been
variously exhibited by Murder in the Cathedral, Electre and
Eugydice we may perhaps be justified in letting our imaginations
move forward with pleasant anticipation into the realm of the
theatre to come. In certain circles, at least, a renewed interest
in fOfm -- the be-all and end-all Of dramatic art -- is being
born.

In view Of the comments of such recognized authors as Gassner and
Nicoll, it is reasonable to include a discussion of various experiments
in dramatic style under the heading of Formalism. Gassner is the
exclusive source here since Nicoll's comments are tOO closely tied to

criticism of individual plays to be useful in a general discussion.

Principles of Formalism
John Gassner writes that "If the word [gormalism7 has any seman-
tic value at all, it is that Of signifying conSpicuously formal play
structure and artificially devised -- hence 'formal' -- characteriza-
tion, action, and Speech."2 The concept of Formalism stems from
principles which are associated with Copeau and Yeats.

They had noble aims, these and other dreamers Of stylized, more
or less ritualistic art: The Spirit Of man would be liberated
by the very process of setting bounds -- the bounds Of art --
to the limitation of an action and the imitation of conversa-
tion. Man would be magnified to the degree that action was
purified Of all but symbolic content, that characterization was
refined into typicality, that Speech was subjected to the
jewelled yoke Of formal utterance. Life on the stage would
recover its antique grandeur to the degree that action was made
ritualifitic, characterization sculptural, and language cere-
monial.

 

lNicoll, world Drama, p. 942.

2Gassner, Form and Idea . . . . , p. 166.

3Ibid., p. 165.

165
Characteristics of Formalism

The concern for obvious form, the deliberate artificial treat-
ment of character and language, and the search fer a more or less
ritualistic drama are the characteristics which tie together an other-
wise diverse group Of plays which include some of the works Of William
Butler Yeats, T. 5. Eliot, and Jean Giraudoux.’+ Formalism.in its
diversity has not developed a style as much as it has employed stylis-
tic devices such as the use Of masks, choruses, "asides" or solilo-
quies, and narrators.

Gassner says that "it was inevitable that . . . formalist
experiments should have . . . favored the use Of masks as in the classic

5

and primitive rituals." The mask aids in depersonalizing characters

and can, in general, "distance, elevate, and dignify dramatic exper-
ience, freeing it from.the temporality and flux of realistic theatre."6

The use Of choruses in Formalism is borrowed from.the historic
classical style. This device is noted in Eliot's plays, Murder in the
Cathedral and Familpreunion, Giraudoux's Electra, and O'Casey's
Within the Gates. Gassner Observes, "A single individual, Speaking
alone or with other characters, may also perform the function of the
classic chorus in a more or less informal manner."7

Similarly, the use Of the "aside" or soliloquy in Formalism is

borrowed from historic dramatic styles. In Formalism.the "aside" or

soliloquy is employed in an Obvious and direct manner without any

 

“Ibid., pp. 167-71.

5m" P‘ 167'

6Ibid., pp. 167-68. 7Ibid., p. 171.

.tU

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166
attempt to psychologically or realistically "motivate" it. It is
used to "startle and stimulate the audience by violating illusion.”8
The narrator is used in a variety of ways as a formalistic device.
Gassner points out that in Cocteau's The Infernal Machine, "the narra-
tor is a disembodied voice," and in Tennessee Williams' The Glass
Menagerie, the boy, Tom, is both a narrator and a major character in

the play.9

Summary Of Formalism

Formalism.as a dramatic style is an attempt to produce a drama
with more or less ritualistic qualities in order to recapture the
magnificence of historic classic styles. As such it is concerned with
the projection Of the formal structure Of drama. It seeks an abstrac-
tion Of character and language in order to heighten and dignify drama~
tic experience. It is deliberately presentational in its Obvious use
of conventions such as masks, choruses, soliloquies, and narrators.

In its concern for form, its search for modern ritual art, and
its use of historic conventions, Formalism.can be said to come nearest
Of all modern dramatic styles to historical Classicism. Gassner offers
a provocative and stimulating argument to the effect that Realism has
the essential character and qualities of Classicism.10 It is not the
purpose here to attempt to refute his argument, but tO point out that
the more Obvious conventions and patterns Of the classic style fit the

principles and practices Of Formalism. Indeed, since formalistic

 

81bid., p. 172.
91bid., pp. 172-73.

10192.4.” pp. 79-97.

8.. ‘3’

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167
experiments are Often patent imitations of classic style, the result
could not be otherwise. According to Gassner, ”In classical art the
work stands in some fundamental relation to its age."11 He claims
this is true of Realism. Formalism, on the other hand, in its imita-

tive capacity, stands in relation tO another and acient age.

Futurism

In its beginning years (1909-1915), Futurism was championed by
the poet F. T. Marenetti, the director Enrico Prampolini, and others.12
It led to little of importance in playwrighting. In the theatre,
however, it "tended to lead in three directions: first, towards the
substitution of 'mechanical' form in place of the current types Of
scenery; secondly, towards the subordination of the playwright to the
director; and thirdly towards an emphasis in action upon physical

l3

movement.”

Principles of Futurism
Futurism.aims to "express the marvelously dynamic nature Of the
machine."14 Its "idea Of theatre" is epitomized in "speed, power,
and force."15 In the Futurist Manifesto of 1909, the movement's
advocates wrote, "We feel the need Of delivering ourselves from.cld

sensibilities, in order to create definitely the new plastic art Of

 

llzgido , p. 89. O
12Gassner, Form and Idea . . . . , p. 95.

l
3Nicoll, WOrld Drama, pp. 726-27.
ll‘Gassner, Form and Idea . . . . , p. 109.

lSIhid., p. 111.

 

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168
the machine.”16 In yet another declaration of principles, the Mani-

festo del Teatro Sintetico Futurista, Marinetti, Settimelli, and Corra

17

called for a reformation Of the theatre and drama. They called for

the exploitation of the straight line and the "synthetic" which is de—
fined as the "ideal abstraction of typical forms.”18

From the ideas expressed in the manifestoes, the futurists
develOped two major concepts: "the idea or sense of Space based on
appreciation of flat planes, and the idea or Sense of function, where-
in all romantic ornament was stripped away until only the essential
remained."19 Allardyce Nicoll elaborates on these concepts by stating,

Futurism is a destructive force in that it rejects the "beauty"
Of the past and endeavors to overthrow completely that romantic
cult Of loveliness which, in its eyes, is nothing but futile
escapism. At the same time, it attempts to be constructive by
clamoring for a new art from.which these romantic delicacies
have been banished, an art which will reflect the mechanical
civilization surrounding us. In place of the rounded line SO
characteristic of romantic artistry Marinetti boldly demands the
straight line of girders and factories; in place Of the hunting
charms Of the poetic he asks for a blatant, staccato form of
expression that, if need be, ' substitute mere sounds for the
richer tones Of the human voice. 0

From these concepts it is apparent that Futurism.is not only Opposed

to the romantic, but also to the realistic and naturalistic.21

Characteristics Of Futurism

The principles and concepts of Futurism resulted in the

 

16Ibid., p. 95.

l7Rosa Trilla Clough, Futurism (New York: Philosophical Library,
Inc., 1961), p. 144.

l8Nicoll,‘World Drama, pp. 795-96.

20Ibid., pp. 726—27.

19Ibid., p. 796.

21Ibid., p. 796.

(f)

169
"synthetic" play which Rosa Clough describes as
a brief performance in which entire acts were reduced to a few
sentences, and scenes to a handful Of words. Only critical
turning points were enacted and definitive statements uttered.
NO sentiments, no psychological develOpment, no atmosphere,
no suggestiveness. Common sense was banished, or ratheS replaced
by nonme. Stupidity, as such, was heralded as humor. 2
In this "synthetic" drama traditional rules of dramaturgy and pro-
duction were to be replaced by ”dynamic improvisation." "Thus a
Futurist play, a 'Synthesis' of many acts and scenes, did not require
months Of preparation; it was improvised and presented in a few

23

minutes.”

Summary of Futurism

Futurism as an overall movement was most important in painting.
Its greatest influence in the dramatic arts was in theatrical scenery
and production.2A It had some importance in drama because of its
influence on Expressionism.25 Futurism can be summed up briefly as
a style concerned with machines and the mechanical which attempted to
emphasize function by removing all but the essentials Of dramatic
action and thereby stressed the ideal abstraction Of typical dramatic

forms. AS such it is anti-realistic.

Surrealism
Surrealism as a general movement in the arts exhibits a
Spiritualistic trend and is based on representing dreams interpreted
according to Freud's theories. This movement

maintains that there exists, and seeks access to, a "real",
world that lies behind the artificial world of ordinary

 

22Clough, p. 55. 23Ibid., p. 144. 2thid., pp. 147-50.

25Nicoll, world Drama, p. 796.

170
Objects given in normal awareness. [It7'argues that what is
found on the conscious level is an arbitrary construct of mind,
determined by habit and custom, and that the function of art is
tO recover and report the world as originally experienced and
felt. [IE7 seeks to disintegrate the clear logical life of
intellect, SO as to search for its materials on the subconscious
level, and discover there the true and primitive meanings thag
things have for us prior to the forms that we impose on them.2
Surrealism has proven to be a provocative and controversial
movement but has failed to produce "any drama Of merit" and is only
important in playwrighting and production as-a forerunner of other
movements or as an influence on other styles.27 Except for Alfred
Jarry's Ubu roi, Guillaume Appollinaire's Les Mamelles de TireSiaS
(The Breasts of Tirésias), and a number of plays by Jean Cocteau,
Federico Garcia Lorca, and the Franco-Belgian playwright, Fernand

Crommelynck, Surrealism.has not been a widely imitated dramatic style.28

Principles of Surrealism

The Surrealist Manifesto, penned in 1924 by Andre Breton, defined
the movement as "pure psychic automatism.by which it is intended to
express, verbally, in writing or by any other means, the real process
of thought."29 This "process of thought” and the unconscious mind are
the keys to the surrealistic aesthetic. They attempted "to capture
from consciousness the fugitive fantasies and images that issue from
the unconscious without premeditation, recognizable origin or

. O .
connection."3 Some surrealistS'were SO extreme as

 

26Iredell Jenkins, "Surrealism," Dictionary Of Philosophy ed.,
Dagobert D. Runes (NGW’YOFK: PhilOSOphical Library, 1942), p. 307.

27Brockett, p. 343. 28.Nicoll,‘World Drama, pp. 773-76.
29As quoted by Gorelik in New Theatres for Old, p. 255.

30Rowe, p. 212.

171
to plead that "art" should consist merely in (a) automatic
writing or (b) the faithful recording of dreams; but the
cleverer among the adherents of the movement . . . , allowed
themselves to admit an element Of the ordering imagination,
without, however, abandoning their belief in the fundamental
importance . . . , of the subconscious.

To the surrealist, the best way to create art is "automatically"
in much the same way that automatic writing is produced by Spiritual-
ists.32 For this reason, surrealists shunned any deliberate pro-
cedure in art and sought their idea of "real" creativity in the
subjective, the unpremeditated, and the inSpired.33 They found the
materials for artistic creation ”in the poems and paintings Of children
and the insane, the scrawls 'dOOdles' [Eig7'which nervous people
execute upon telephone pads, the antics of asylum inmates, the dreams
of psychOpaths and the vain and fugitive images which lurk in the

34

dark corners Of the normal mind.”

Characteristics of Surrealism
Surrealist drama Shares with the general movement the principle
Of seeking truth "by freeing the mind from rational control and
activating the subconscious mind through a dreamlike state."35 This
principle leads the surrealist dramatist to reject familiar reality,
logic, rationality, coherence, and order. Instead he resorts to
"inconsistencies, tricks, enigmas, startling justapositions, sophisti—

"36

cated anachronisms . . . , and, above all, fantasies. For example,

 

31Nicoll, World Drama, p. 774. 32Gorelik, p. 255. 33Ibid.
34Ibid.

35Brockett, p. 343.

36

Gassner, Form and Idea . . . . , p. 110.

172

in Jean Cocteau’s ngheus, Eurydice receives letters delivered by a
37

mailman and Orpheus passes to the realm.of.Death through a mirror.
The following are further examples Of surrealistic practices in

drama and theatre. In 1936 a Danish production of Kjeld Abell's

musicomedy, The Melody was Lost, featured surrealistic devices.

A bouquet, bridal gown and silk hat drift across the stage.
Mendelssohn's ”Wedding March" floats raucously out to the
audience, a stereoptikon from the rear of the stage repeatedly
flashes pictures of second-rate honeymoon resorts while a
toilworn waiter drags a dinner table in and out. "I am
Aurora," explains a chambermaid with the wings of an angel,
who dusts off the morning sun just as the alarm clock rings
and the cuggain goes up on the Larson’s little two-room
apartment.

I

Also in 1936 the V. and W. Theatre in Prague produced a surrealistic
musicomedy titled Heaven and Earth. Gorelik describes its setting:

Ionic pillars ornament the classic facade, which is enlivened
with strings Of dried corncobs, a beehive and a bundle of rags;
the columns, about to fall to pieces, are tied together with
wire and twine. The interior consists of a Single crumbling
wall from.which the wallpaper is peeling Off in shreds; it has
a hole in the middle for the tin flue of a coal stove. When
Jupiter is annoyed, rain, bricks and plaster Spatter down in
front of the setting.39

Lastly, there is the example of Salvador Dali's ballet, Bacchanalo.

 

Although it is Obviously not a drama, it does illustrate Surrealism
on stage. Bacchanale, labeled a "paranoiac performance" by its
creator,

centered rather casually around the mad King Ludwig II of Bavaria,
wagner's patron, . . . . The ballet took place before a backdrop
on which was painted a huge swan made of cracked plaster with a
classical pediment on its neck. Ludwig, chased by Death in the
fOrm of an umbrella, fell dead surrounded by a ring of umbrellas.

 

37Ibid.

38Gorelik, p. 259.

39Ibid.

173
In the interim there were dances by fauns with bushes as well
as horns growing out Of their heads. Prima ballerina was a
dreamlike albino Venus in white tightsfiO

From.these examples, it is evident that Surrealism in theatre
is anti-realistic, illogical, irrational, and perhaps incoherent.
Yet these very qualities are quite in keeping with the principles Of
Surrealism which postulate an avoidance Of Observed reality and
rational process in creativity.

Surrealism.in.drama is "Often classified as a weird form of
expressionism.”hl It is evident that Surrealism's reliance on dream
technique and its concern with the subconscious appear in the style
Of Expressionism. However, to the expressionist these are merely
certain techniques employed in order to project his ideas to the

Spectator. In Surrealism these techniques appear to be ends in them-

selves.

Summary Of Surrealism

Surrealism is based on a guiding principle that the function of
the subconscious mind is the true process Of thought, and that "reality"
lies in the projection of the intuitions of the subconscious. Its
general characteristics are seen as dreamlike action, irrationality,
extreme subjectivity, and fantasy. The nature Of the surrealistic
principle and the limited number of plays written in this style make
it impossible to describe its treatment Of form elements in drama.
However, the style does employ such devices as inconsistency, enigmas,

deliberate anachronisms, and surprising juxtapositions.

 

401bid., pp. 255-56.

therbért Philippi, Stagecraft and Scene Design (Boston: Houghton
Mifflin Co., 1953), p. 173.

CHAPTER IX
THE BROADWAY THEATRICAL SEASON OF 1919-1920

This is the first of four chapters devoted to presenting stylis—
tic analyses Of "successful” serious dramas by American playwrights.
The first section Of each chapter deals with the selection of the
particular plays from a Broadway season which meet the standards of
pOpular and critical success stated in the introduction to this study.
In the second Section of each chapter the selected plays are analyzed
and compared to the criteria for dramatic styles established in Chapters
III through VIII. The last section of each chapter summarizes the re-

sults Of the analytic process and states any relevant Observations.

Play Selection

The seasonal summary portion of the Burns Mantle edition Of Th2
Best Plgys of 1919-1920 lists one hundred and forty-two plays which
Opened on Broadway in that theatrical season.l Ninety-three Of these
plays are eliminated from further consideration in this study because
they are comedies or musical comedies. Another group of thirteen plays
is eliminated because they are translations or adaptations of foreign
dramas. Four revivals of plays from.past seasons or dramatic periods

are also eliminated. Lastly, a group Of twenty—five serious plays

 

lBurns Mantle ed., The Best Plays of 1919-1920 (New York: Dodd,
Mead, and Co., 1920), pp. 335-455:

174

175
written originally for production on Broadway do not fit the standards
of selection on the grounds that they ran less than one hundred per-
formances and did not receive favorable reviews from.the critics at the
time of their Opening nor any recognition Of value from later antholo-
gists or scholars.

Ten plays meet the standards of selection Operative in this
study. Nine of them ran over the one hundred performance mark which
indicates pOpular success. An Elmer Rice play, For the Defense, which
only ran seventy—seven performances, is also included as a "successful"
play on the basis of favorable reviews at the time of its Opening on
Broadway. The plays which are analyzed in the next section are as
follows:

At 9:45 by Owen Davis

Beyond the Horizon by Eugene O’Neill

Déglgssée by ZOe Akins

The Famous Mrs. Fair by James Forbes

For the Defense by Elmer Rice

The Sign on the Door by Channing Pollock

The Son-Daughter by George Scarborough and David Belasco
The Storm by Langdon McCormick and George Broadhurst

A Voice in the Dark by Ralph E. Dyar and Willard Mack

The Acguittal by Rita Weiman2

 

2This play is listed out Of alphabetical order because the
script for it cannot be located and it is necessary to treat it some-
what differently from the other plays in the chapter.

176
Stylistic Analyses of Plays
The organizational method used to analyze plays for their
stylistic aSpectS is consistent throughOut this and the three follow—
ing chapters. It follows a pattern somewhat similar to the one used
in describing the major styles in Chapters 111 through VIII. The first
section of each analysis contains a brief resumefof the play under the
heading of "story”. This is followed by the analysis proper which is
divided into two parts. The first part considers the overall effects
Of the play, its general characteristics. This portion of the analysis
makes use Of the general characteristics outlined for styles in earlier
chapters to determine what style the individual play may be associated
‘with. The last portion of the analysis considers the form elements of
individual plays -- plot, character, language and theme. These form
elements are compared to the various criteria for the form elements of
styles as derived in previous chapters. From the comparison of general
characteristics and form elements of an individual play with those
formulated for major and minor styles, the style Of the play is des-
cribed. When there is some discrepancy between general characteristics
and form elements, more value is placed on the general characteristics

for determining the style of the play.

At 2:45 by Owen Davis
.2193
Howard Clayton, son Of Judge Clayton, is Shot under mysterious
circumstances at 9:45 in the evening. While he lies near death,

Captain Dixon Of the police sets about to apprehend the person who

shot him. Among the suspencts are Jim Everett, a demobilized Army hero

177
who had had an argument with Howard; Ruth Jordan, an ex-fianceg of
the wounded man; Tom.Daly, a chauffeur who had not been repaid for a
loan made to Howard; and Doane, a butler who had been badly treated by
the younger Clayton. All suspects have good motives and poor alibis,
but it turns out that Mary, the daughter of the butler, shot Howard
because he had changed his mind about marrying her. The play ends
as Judge Clayton says, "Captain Dixon, if my son dies, I am going to
make it my business to take care of this girl; if he lives, he'll

do it himself."3

General Characteristics

At : exhibits two characteristics associated with Realism.

It is "involved with imitating the contemporary, immediate world Of
man and society." For example, characters smoke, dance, and drive
cars. One major character is an ex-captain from.WOrld war I. The
settings Of the play are Judge Clayton's library, a hotel waiting
room, and a bedroom.

The play Observes a ”fourthewall convention." The characters
never acknowledge the presence of an audience.

At 9:g§ also exhibits three characteristics associated with
Romanticism. It has a "tendency away from actuality" which is
accentuated by the imitation Of a culture which is remote from common
experience, "elements of excitement and sensation," and a general sense
Of improbability.

The cultural world Of the upper class is depicted. Judge Clayton

employs a maid, a butler, and a chauffeur. The glamorous aSpects of

 

3Owen Davis, At 2:45 (New York: Samuel French, 1928), p. 86.

178
this world such as hotel dances, evening clothes, and elegant sur-
roundings are treated almost exclusively.

The elements Of excitement and sensation include the breaking
down of a door, the discovery Of a wounded man, three confessions to
the same crime, and the sudden exposure Of the true criminal at the
very last moment Of the play.

The general sense of improbability is enhanced by the culture de-
picted and the elements of excitement. It is also aided by the "con-
venient” appearances Of the characters when the plot requires them.
Character relations are also improbable. Howard Clayton is such a
reprehensible personality it is difficult to believe that two attrac—
tive young ladies consider marrying him.

As in Romanticism, the play emphasizes emotionality rather than
logic or common sense. Two characters love each other so much that
they each confess to the crime to protect the other. The girl who
actually did the shooting cannot Offer a valid reason for doing so.

She was overcome by hurt and rage when Howard said he wouldn't marry
her. Judge Clayton Offers to protect and care for her, even though She
has almost killed his only son.

The play is romantic in dealing with ”unusual, even bizarre situa-
tions." Howard is found wounded inside a closet of a locked room. Yet
the gun found in a wastebasket Of that room is p93 the gun used to shoot
him. The triple false confessions are also an indication Of the

bizarre in the play.

179

Form Elements

Plot

The plot Of At 2:55 contains traits associated with Realism.
It diSplays a "structural compactness,” a "late point Of attack," and
the "use Of contemporary story material." Action, though Often
complicated, is unified. The unity of place is only slightly broken
by a scene in a hotel waiting room. The unity of time is strictly
Observed. From the late point Of attack -- the discovery of Howard --
to the end Of the play takes only two hours. The play's setting is
roughly 1920, which is the time of the original production Of the
play.

The plot element in At 2:55 includes two traits of Romanticism.
The action unfolds in a "series Of thrills presented in a melodrama—
tic manner." The solving of the mystery, the shifting Of suSpicion
from one character to another, and the deus ex machine conclusion
indicate this trait. The plot content "provides for excitement, sus-
pense, imagination, and glamour. The sensational Situations and the

elegant surroundings Of the upper class reveal this aspect Of the play.

Character

The persons portrayed in the play have attributes of character
associated with Romanticism. They are not wholly unrealistic, but are
"improbable persons." Jim Everett is a war hero, but his actions do
not indicate as much. His stature lies more in the adulation of the
other characters and the repetition of the fact that he was decorated
in the war than in anything he does. Howard Clayton comes from a

reSpected wealthy family and yet is reprehensible and callous. NO

180
explanation for his behavior is Offered.

Characters tend to be "types." Captain Dixon, the largest role
in the play, is never described as anything more than ”of the New York
police."4 He is efficient and direct in his investigation; he seems
to have no other life than that of a detective. A similar lack Of
dimensionality is apparent in the rest of the characters. They are not

highly individualized persons.

Language
The dialogue Of At 2:55 contains traits which are associated with

Realism. It is written in prose, and is natural to the characters and
their positions. Most of the characters express themselves in accept—
able, correct English. The chauffeur is less ”proper" with his

moderate use Of Slang and occasional lapses Of grammar. There is also
a maid who is characterized by her Irish accent and a humorous employ-

ment of Irish idioms.

Theme

The themes Of At 2:55 correspond to those Of Romanticism. Ideas
and problems Of the contemporary society are avoided. The world sur-
rounding the actions Of the drama is almost completely ignored.

In addition, love is a central concern. This is shown in the
characters Of Jim Everett and Ruth Jordan and their willingness to
make sacrifices for each other. It is also the motive for the shooting
Of Howard Clayton.

Finally, the play projects the idea of moral justice. The inno-

cent are freed Of suSpicion and the guilty are punished. Howard is

 

4119.19. P‘ 10°

181
shot as a result of his poor treatment of an innocent girl. She in

turn must be tried for the shooting.

Style Of Play

At 2:45 exhibits two characteristics of Realism and three of
Romanticism. The elements of plot and language correSpond to those
Of Realism, while the elements of character and theme are related to
Romanticism. The play appears to be basically romantic with traits Of
Realism. Such a combination suggests that the style Of the play

correSponds to the dramatic style Of ”secondhand” Romanticism.

Beygnd the Horizon by Eugene O'Neill

Stogy

James Mayo owns a farm.in New England which he hOpeS to pass on
to his two sons, Andrew and Robert. But Robert, after having attended
college briefly, decides to leave the farm and go to sea with his uncle,
Captain Scott. His plans are changed when Ruth Atkins, a girl who has
known Andrew and Robert since childhood, reveals that She loves him
rather than his brother. When Ruth and Robert announce their engage-
ment, Andrew, who had thought that Ruth might marry him someday, is
hurt and decides tO join Captain Scott on his ship for a three-year
voyage. His father curses him for leaving the farm and tells him not
to come back.

Three years later, James Mayo is dead, Ruth and Robert have a
Child, and the farm has begun to fail because Robert's bookish and
poetic personality cannot cope with the demands Of farming. Andrew

returns from his voyage and Ruth, who no longer loves Robert, believes

182

that he will set the farm right and perhaps take her away from Robert.
Ruth reveals to Robert her true feelings. But life away from the farm
has changed Andrew into a quite materialistic person bent on making
money. He no longer loves Ruth and has no desire tO stay on the farm.
He departs, leaving Robert with the knowledge that Ruth no longer loves
him.

Five years later, Robert's mother and daughter are dead, the farm
is nearly in ruins, and Robert himself is dying. Andrew returns with
a doctor, but nothing can be done to save Robert. He dies on a hillside
after making Andrew promise to look after Ruth. Andrew does so for
Robert's sake, but a chance for a reconciliation between Ruth and

5

Andrew appears remote as the play ends.

General Characteristics

Beyond the Horiggg exhibits four general characteristics
associated with Realism. The play imitates "the contemporary, immedi-
ate world Of man and society.” It demonstrates a relationship between
the characters and their environment. The form element of character is
emphasized. A fourth—wall convention is Observed at all times in the
play.

The contemporary, immediate world imitated in the play is that Of
a twentieth century New England farm. The persons depicted are indi-
viduals from.the lower middle class, who perform such commonplace

tasks as running the farm, preparing meals, and keeping accounts.

 

5Eugene O'Neill, Beyond the Horizon (New York: Boni and
Liveright, 1920). Reprinted in Representative American Play§, ed.
Arthur Hobson Quinn (3d. ed. revised, New York: The Century Co., 1925),

pp. 973—1013.

183

The relationship between environment and character is apparent
in the lives of the three main characters. Andrew's personality is
altered as a result of his experiences away from the farm. He changes
from.a good natured young farmer into a somewhat cynical and material-
istic wheat Speculator. Robert dies because his poetic and thoughtful
nature is incompatible with the practical demands Of a farm environ-
ment. Ruth's change from a beautiful young girl full Of love into a
prematurely aged woman incapable Of love is due to the impoverished
life she leads with Robert. Changes in character also lead to changes
in the setting. The sitting room of the Mayo house reflects the de-
cline of life on the farm as it is altered from a place Of comfort and
order in the first act to one Of decay and dissolution in the final
act.6

The major center Of interest in the play rests in the element of
character. The events of the play are arranged to appear the results

Of conflicts within and among Robert, Andrew, and Ruth. The plot’s

main function is to reveal the lives Of these people.

Form Elements

Plot

The plot Of Beyond the Horizon contains traits associated with
Realism. The ordering Of events can be considered "structurally com-
pact" even though a unity Of time is not Observed -- eight years
separate the first and third acts. There is a unity of action which

centers on the relationships among Robert, Andrew, and Ruth. There

 

6Ihid., pp. 973 and 1001.

184
is a unity of place, the Mayo farm. Although the scenes are separ-
ated in time, individually they feature a late point of attack and a
use Of retrOSpective exposition to reveal the occurrence of events
prior to the Opening of the scene. This is how knowledge of the
deaths of James Mayo, Mrs. Mayo, and Robert’s daughter, Iary, are
made known.

The play is also realistic in that "Obvious theatrical plotting"
is avoided. Events appear to have a cause and effect relation.
Andrew’s return to the farm is carefully foreshadowed through the use
Of letters and conversation. Robert's death is not unexpected;
indeed, it seems inevitable. The use Of contemporary story material
in the play is also consistent with the traits of realistic plots.
This material includes such references to the immediate world as grain
Speculation, the use Of automobiles, and the economic situation in

Argentina.

Character

The persons portrayed in Beyond the Horizon exhibit traits of
character which are associated with Realism. The characters in the
play are ”drawn from.the middle class." They are ”portrayed as
credible, probable people,” who are ”close to the norm in behavior
and outlook." They are "relatively complex in their physical and
psychological make-up.” Their ”psychological conflicts are important”
in this play. "They are influenced by heredity and environment.”

The characters appear as credible persons who belong in the
middle class New England farm environment. They react believably to

events in their lives. Andrew, disappointed when Ruth decides to

185
marry Robert, leaves the farm to avoid further hurt. Ruth as a
young girl is drawn to the poetic and dreamy nature Of Robert, but
grows to hate him when he cannot cope with the more practical aSpectS
of farm life. Robert attempts to blame his failures on bad luck and
seeks to lose himself in reading rather than face his problems.

Robert is the best example of the physical and psychological
complexity apparent in the characters Of the play. He is handsome,
but has a weakness about his mouth and chin.7 His delicate health in
childhood has caused him to avoid many physical pursuits and to turn
tO books and poetry. His personality is affected by a conflict bee
tween his dreams Of traveling ”beyond the horizon" and his love of
Ruth. When he becomes aware that Ruth no longer loves him, he with-
draws more and more into himself and seeks escape in reading.

The psychological conflicts of the characters are the most im-
portant element in the play. Ruth wants romance and comfort. These
desires are frustrated by Robert's inability to run the farm prOperly.
Because he cannot give her comfort, She loses her love for him. Since
Robert has given up his dreams of travel for her love, he too is
frustrated by the loss of both love and dream. This creates a Situa-
tion in which Robert and Ruth unwillingly torment each other. It is
the presentation of this conflict which produces interest in the play.

The influence of environment on character has already been
mentioned under general characteristics. There is also some indication
of the influence Of heredity in the character Of Robert. He tends

to be more like his mother and has inherited her Slightness of physical

 

71bid., p. 973.

186
form and her refinement of movement and expression. ”Whatever Of

resemblance Robert has to his parents may be traced to her.“8

Language

The dialogue of Beyond the Horizon correSponds to that of
Realism. It is written in prose. It appears to be natural to the
characters and their positions. Discussion and argument are an
integral part Of the play.

The prose employed in the dialogue appears natural to people
living in a New England farm community. Except for Robert's Speech,
the dialogue gives the illusion of normal conversation. Robert
expresses himself a bit more poetically and learnedly than do the
other characters. This appears as a result of his brief expOSure to
college and his preference for reading. Captain Scott, an uncle Of
Robert and Andrew, expresses himself in a manner in keeping with his
occupation as a seaman.

Discussion and argument appear in the first act when Robert talks
to Andrew and Ruth about the beauty of far Off places. They also
appear throughout the play in conversations between Robert and Ruth

9

about his failures.

Theme

The themes of Beyond the Horizon are associated with those of
Realism. They deal with the psychological problems, and family re-

lationships, and individual human problems.

 

8
Ibid., p. 979.

llhig-. pp. 976-78. 993-95.

187

The theme of man's psychological problems should be apparent
from the discussion Of character. Equally important is the conflict
between man's reSponsibility to himself and his reSponsibility to
his family. Neither Robert nor Andrew remain true to their own de-
sires. Robert is destroyed because he chooses tO be more reSponsible
to his family than to his dreams Of travel. The problem of family re-
lationships is embodied in the marriage Of Robert and Ruth. Finally,
the play demonstrates a concern for individual human problems. It
is the frustration in the lives Of Ruth and Robert which guide the

play; it is their particular problems which are of greatest interest.

Style of Play
Beyond the Horizon exhibits four characteristics Of Realism.
All of its form elements correSpond to the same style. It is clear

that the style Of the play is related to the dramatic style Of

Realism.
/ I . .. .
Declassee by Zoe Akins
Story

The marriage of Lady Helen Haden to Sir Bruce Haden is ended when
love letters between Lady Helen and Edward Thayer are given to Sir
Bruce by Thayer, who is ”getting even" for having to apologize for
cheating at bridge. Lady Helen, who has always lived "recklessly"
and doesn't know the value Of money is drOpped from high society as
a result Of her divorce. At the end Of two years she is nearly penni-
less, when her friends take pity on her and re-establish her in the

”respectable" world. A millionaire, Rudolph Solomon, wants to marry

188
her, but she refuses. Solomon learns that Edward Thayer is the man
for whom Lady Helen sacrificed her first marriage. He tries to unite
Lady Helen and Thayer at a party in his home, but the two do not meet
until after Lady Helen has been mortally hurt in a traffic accident.
As she is dying, Thayer confesses his love for her and asks her to be

hiswife.lo

General Characteristics

Declasséb exhibits four characteristics associated with Romanti—
cism. There is a "tendency away from actuality;" that is, the events
presented in the play are remote from the common experience Of every—
day life. Emotion and illogicality figure in the play to a marked
degree. There is a desire on the part Of the protagonist to rebel
against the social and moral code of her peers. Finally, there is a
suggestion of the strange and mysterious in the life of Lady Helen.

Remoteness from common experience is suggested by the social back-
ground Of the play, international high society. Hardly a major charac-
ter appears who is not titled, rich, or talented. Two English lords
(one a diplomat), one Italian Count, and a Jewish millionaire are in-
cluded in the cast. In addition, there is a professional dancer who
doubles as a Gypsy fortune teller, a personal maid who is an accomplished
Opera Singer, and a team of three acrobats. The descriptions Of the
characters and their elevated positions in society should serve tO indi-
cate the improbability of this play. There is a definite tendency away

from actuality.

 

loZO'e Akin, Declassée (New York: Boni and Liveright, 1923).

189

The characters are guided more by emotion than by reason or
common sense. Lady Helen forces Thayer to apologize for cheating at
bridge, even though he has threatened to give some letters to her
husband that will reveal her love affair with Thayer. When she is on
the verge Of poverty, she gives valuable jewels away without consider-
ing their worth. Rudolph Solomon loves Lady Helen so much that he
seeks to reunite her with Thayer in order to make her happy. The
characters seem to be more motivated to make grand gestures than to
take reasonable actions.

Lady Helen rebels against the moral code of her society. She
desires to be free from the social strictures Of her world and carries
on a love affair with Edward Thayer, even though she knows such action
will result in divorce and social ostracimn.

There is a suggestion of the strange and mysterious in the life
of Lady Helen. She is descended from ancestors who led extravagant
lives and came to violent ends. Her travelling companion, a Gypsy
fortune teller, reads some secret doom in the lines of her hand. This
doom manifests itself in the form of a taxi which runs Lady Helen
down.

The play also exhibits two characteristics associated with
Realism: the fourth-wall convention and the imitation of the con-
temporary, immediate world Of man and society. The contemporary world
is suggested by the presence of such details as travel by ocean liner,

tea in an exclusive New York hotel, women smoking, and playing cards.

190

Form Elements

Plot

The plot Of Declassee contains traits associated with Realism.
There is a “structural compactness” evident in each Of the three acts.
Each is marked by a late point of attack and employs retrOSpective
exposition to explain events prior to the action depicted. The unity
of time is ignored -- the play covers a period of two years. The
unity Of place is not maintained either, as the action Shifts from
London to New York.

The plot Of Déblassee also exhibits traits associated with
Romanticism. The ordering of events is Obvious and makes a great use
Of coincidence. Mr. Solomon just happens to meet Edward Thayer in
New York and invites him to the same party attended by Lady Helen. It
is also coincidental that Thayer tells Solomon of his bridge cheating
episode.

Romanticism sometimes employs overheard conversations to advance
the action Of the plot. Such a device is used in the Opening of Act II
to relate what has happened to Lady Helen in the two years since her
divorce.11

"Plot content in Romanticism usually provides for excitement,
suSpense, imagination, and glamour." All Of these are supplied in
Déblasséb. There is excitement in the confrontation over cheating at
bridge. There is the suspense Of whether Thayer will reveal his affair
with Lady Helen. SuSpense is also aroused in the last scene over

whether Lady Helen and the reformed Edward Thayer will be reunited.

 

11Ibid., p. 65.

fl

191
There is imagination and glamour in the depiction of the frivolity

and elegance of life in high society.

Character

The persons portrayed in Déblassée have traits which are
associated with the characters of Romanticism. They are “improbable
persons.” Lady Helen is "a victim of an emotional state connected
with love." She is also a "relatively complex” person. Edward
Thayer bears a remote resemblance to the ”romantic criminal.”

The improbability of the characters is illustrated by the fact
that they belong to a class of nobility that can expect the King and
Queen of England to attend charity bazaars. Lady Helen is the
daughter of an earl, and can trace her ancestry through several
hundred years of English history. Lady Helen's husband is an ex-
butcher who has been knighted for his contributions to the economy of
England.

Lady Helen's life is dominated by her illicit love for Edward
Thayer, a love “like a child from that NeveraNever Land, where nothing
is quite real."l2 She is divorced by her husband and turns down a
marriage to a millionaire because of this love.

Lady Helen reveals a relatively complex personality. She is
kind and loving to those who are equally affectionate. She has a
strong sense of justice and fair play. This is demonstrated by her
action in forcing Edward Thayer to apologize for cheating, even though
he threatens to ruin her marriage. Yet she carries on an adulterous

love affair. She doesn't know the value of money or objects and is

 

lzIbid., p. 83.

192
extremely extravagant. In dying she is noble and brave. She requests
champagne and a cigarette and bids the orchestra to continue playing
Mozart because "Mozart’s so gay.”13
Edward Thayer has some resemblance to the “romantic criminal"
type found in Romanticism. True, his crimes are only those of cheating
at bridge and betraying the woman with whom he is having an affair, but

he is haunted by them. They cause him to leave England and go to South

Africa where he becomes rich through hard work in the diamond mines.

Language
The language in Déblassee corresponds to that of Romanticism. The
dialogue is written in an ornate prose style. It does not attempt to
capture the language of ordinary Speech. Characters express themselves
in an idealized fashion as if they had ”a poet's gift for language.”
The author, in her own way, tries to make eXpression beautiful and
elevated. Here is a typical example:
SIR EMMETT: I should be seeing ghosts -— ghosts of the mad
Varicko racing their phantom.horses down the winds of eternity;
swift riders with their plumes streaming and their armour
flashing, their phantom hounds leaping before them, a great
race -- warriors, courtiers, Sportsmen, riding into oblivion . . .
and Helen, the last of their line, following, -- a ghostlfif
tomorrow. The Varicks should have made a better ending.
Theme
/
The themes of Déblassee are associated with those of Romanticism.

There is an avoidance of any meaningful social question. Instead the

author presents a story which deals with the pity of unfulfilled love.

 

lBIbid., pp. 98—99. ll‘Ibid., p. 37.

193
It also shows the ennobling power of love as Thayer is transformed
by his love for Helen. Helen's life shows a mild rebellion against
social and moral codes. She lives according to her dreams and the

memory of a lost love.

Style of Play

Déblassée exhibits four characteristics of Romanticism.and two
of Realism. The plot is primarily romantic, but contains some traits
of Realism. The form elements of character, language, and theme are
related to Romanticism, Specifically ”historical“ Romanticism. The
combination of romantic and realistic aSpects suggests that the style
of the play correSponds to "secondhand” Romanticism. Some note,
however, should be made of the presence of traits associated with

”historical” Romanticism.

The Famous Hrs. Fair by James Forbes

Stogy

Mrs. Fair, who has served as a major in the ambulance corps and
has been decorated with the Croix de Guerra, returns to her family at
the end of werld War I. Her lecturing and appearances as a celebrity

cause her to neglect her family. A series of incidents in which she

almost loses her husband to another woman and her daughter to a crooked

lecture manager make her aware that her first reSponsibility is to her

family. She decides to return to her role as housewife, with her

15

husband's promise to allow her to engage in part-time welfare work.

 

15James Forbes, The Famous Mrs. Fair (New York: Samuel French,
1920).

1%
General Characteristics

The Famous Mrs. Fair exhibits four characteristics of Realism.
It imitates "the contemporary, immediate world of man and society."
The element of character is emphasized, as is the relation between
environment and character. Finally, a fourth-wall convention is ob-
served throughout the play.

The play, written in 1920, imitates life in the United States
shortly after World War I. Mrs. Fair, the protagonist, experiences
difficulty adjusting to life at home after serving in the ambulance
corps in France. She has become aware of what women can do to help
improve society. Her experiences reflect some of the problems in the
develOping independence of women which occurred in the earlier years
of this century. Her home on Long Island and her family and friends
are also illustrative of the then contemporary world.

Character is emphasized in the drama. Mrs. Fair's concern for
aiding society and her feelings of reSponsibility to her family produce
a conflict which becomes the center of interest in the play. Her
husband, Jeffery, also suffers from.a conflict between being loyal to
his wife and enduring her neglect of him and his children. These
conflicts determine the action of the play.

The influence of environment on character is apparent in the fact
that wealth and education enable the characters to be free of the basic
needs of life, thus allowing them to become involved with the problems
of society. Environmental factors are also involved in the near break-
up of the Fair family. In the end of the play, the need for a home

environment wins out over the concern for broader social involvement.

195

Form Elements

Plot

The plot of The Famous Mrs. Fair contains traits associated with
Realism. The “structural compactness” of realistic plots is evident
within each scene, but the overall pattern of the play violates the
unities of time and place. The action of the play covers the months
between May and October. The unity of place is maintained until the
last act, when the setting shifts from the Fair home on Long Island to
the Fair apartment in a New York hotel. However, all individual scenes
except those of Act III are marked by late points of attack and the
use of retrospective exposition. Act III has a continuing action
which requires little exposition. The unity of action is observed,
although it is complicated by two relevant subplots. One subplot
centers on the engagement and marriage of Mrs. Fair's son and the
other is concerned with Mrs. Fair's daughter and her involvement with
an unprincipled lecture manager.

The plot of the play contains one trait associated with Romanti-
cism. The third act ”appears as a series of thrills presented in a
rapid melodramatic manner.” Mrs. Fair's daughter is tricked into an
elopement with the lecture manager, the Fairs call the police, and
the police catch the fleeing couple. The daughter is returned and re-
united with the family. None of this action is actually presented,
but is reported by Mrs. Fair's son. Nevertheless, it is a piece of

obvious theatrical plotting which is more common in Romanticism.

196
Character

The persons portrayed in the play have attributes of characters
associated with Realism. They are credible, probably peOple who are
close to the norm in behavior and outlook. Mrs. Fair is a complex
personality. As mentioned earlier, Mrs. Fair's psychological conflicts
are important aspects of the drama. As discussed under general char-
acteristics, the characters are influenced by environment.

The characters appear to be normal people patterned on common
expectations of behavior. Mrs. Fair becomes too caught up in public
service to realize what family problems she causes. Her husband is
tempted into adultery by her neglect. Their son marries a girl from
a lower class, but they do not object when they determine her love is
genuine and not motivated by their wealth. The daughter is a normal
young girl who is almost led astray by lack of close parental atten-
tion. Little these characters do or say, except in the third act, is
not plausible, normal, even typical.

Mrs. Fair might be described as a ”well-rounded” character. She
is dedicated to her work and yet does not lack a sense of humor. She
diSplays some anger and becomes stubborn about her family’s attempts
to dissuade her from going on a lecture tour. She is remorseful when
she realizes the consequences of her actions. She is hurt, but fer-

gives her husband for his adulterous affair.

Language
The language in The Famous Mrs. Fair correSponds to that of
Realism. The dialogue is written in prose and is natural to the char-

acters and their positions. Discussion and argument are integral parts

197
of the dialogue.

Characters are generally identifiable by their speech. The
younger characters use slang expressions to a minor extent.16 Mrs.
Fair and her friends who served in France employ a few expressions
indicative of their experiences in service.

Although it appears as a natural part of the dialogue, there is
extensive discussion and argument about the place of women in the
modern world. Mr. and Mrs. Fair carry on a long conversation about
this tOpic early in the third act. There is also some discussion and
argument between Mr. Fair and his son about marriage to people of other

classes.

Theme

The themes of the play correSpond to those of Realism. The play
is basically concerned with family and social relations and duties.
Specifically, the play projects the idea that women can and should
serve society, but not at the cost of their roles as wives and mothers.

The theme is ”reSponsibility."

Style of Play

The Famous Mrs. Fair exhibits four characteristics of Realism.
Its form elements all correSpond to the same style. Although the plot
shows some tendency toward Romanticism in its obvious plotting of the
third act, this factor is not important enough to alter the overall

style of the play which is related to the dramatic style of Realism.

 

16Ibid., p. 22.

198

For the Defense by Elmer Rice

 

Stogy

The evil Doctor Kasimir, psycho-hypnotist, is murdered while
Anne woodstock and Selma Thorns are present in the room. Anne is the
prime suspect and is brought to trial. She is prosecuted by a young
district attorney, Christopher Armstrong, who is in love with her,
but believes her to be guilty. Anne is proven innocent through means
of a ”flash-back” scene which shows the actual events of the day of
the murder. The play ends with Christopher and Anne reunited and

I7

planning their marriage.

General Characteristics

For the Defense exhibits two characteristics associated with
Realism. It imitates the contemporary immediate world of man and
society and it observes a fourth—wall convention.

The contemporary world is suggested in the settings of the
drama, two modern apartments and a judge's office. In addition, the
investigative methods of the police are related in some detail. The
dress and general appearance of the characters, except for Dr.
Kasimir, are not out of the ordinary.

The play also exhibits two characteristics associated with
Romanticism. There is a "tendency away from actuality." The strange
and mysterious are present in the drama.

The tendency away from actuality is not found in the cultural

background, but in the implausible action and the improbable

 

l7Elmer Rice, "For the Defense," unpublished play; U. S. Copy—
right Office; washington, No. D53151 (November 22, 1919).

199
characters. The play concentrates more on providing excitement and
mystery than on depicting characters from the observable world.

The tendency away from actuality is emphasized by the appearance
of the strange and mysterious in the play. Dr. Kasimir is an evil
blackmailer who wears a jeweled turban. In addition, he has the power
of hypnotism, a factor which figures prominently in the play. While
hypnosis has come to be rather commonplace, in the historical context
of the 1920's it must have been considered a strange and mysterious
power to the average person. The fact that evil is associated with

Dr. Kasimir's strange powers is also a trait of Romanticism.
Form Elements

Plot

The plot of For the Defense contains traits associated with
Romanticism. The play is "loose in its treatment of the traditional
unities of action, time, and place.” ”The unfolding of the action
appears as a series of thrills.” The plot content provides for ex-
citement and suSpense.

As for the looseness of plotting, the point of attack is early -—
before Kasimir is killed -- and the eXposition is carried on in terms
of action rather than narrative exposition. The unity of action is
observed, although it is complicated by the use of a ”flash—back” de-
vice which shows the actual conditions surrounding the death of
Kasimir. The unity of time is broken; the play covers the time
necessary to depict the murder and bring the suSpect to trial. The
action shifts in place at various times from Kasimir’s apartment to

Anne's apartment to Judge Gray's office. The ”flash-back” scene in

ZOO
Act III interrupts the continuity of action in Judge Gray’s office.
While such a device is not in itself an indication of a romantic plot,
it does allow for free use of elapsed time and shifts in place which
are attributes of Romanticism.

The plot is arranged to unfold in an exciting and suSpenseful
manner. The murder, Anne's arrest, Christopher's assignment as Anne's
prosecutor, the ”flash~back” that reveals the actual murderer, and the
rapid ending of the play demonstrate some of the thrills in the drama.

The plot content is intended to be exciting in itself. A
beautiful woman supposedly kills an evil, blaclonailing hypnotist and

is tried for the murder by the man she loves.

Character

The persons portrayed in the play have attributes of character
associated with Romanticism. They tend to be melodramatic types
rather than probable peOple. Dr. Kasimir is an obvious villain. He
is not characterized as much by his actions as he is by his appear—
ance -- swarthy complexion, penetrating eyes, and jeweled turban.
Christopher Armstrong is the ”strong arm“ of the law, a hero who will
prosecute a criminal even if she happens to be the girl he loves.
Anne Woodstock, like other virtuous heroines in Romanticism, is a
rather colorless personality. The characters do not strike one as
being real people. They seem to be motivated by no other force than

the necessity to make the plot function prOperly.

 

laIbid., Act. III.

201
Language
The language of For the Defense correSponds to that of Realism.
The dialogue is written in a functional prose manner. It is unadorned
and appears to imitate the Speech of everyday life, at least super-
ficially. Dr. Kasimir Speaks with an accent which is not identifiable

with any particular linguistic group.

Theme

The theme of For the Defense correSpondS to the theme of moral
justice found in ”secondhand“ Romanticism. Anne, who is innocent, is
accused of the crime but is exonerated and reunited with Christopher.
Dr. Kasimir meets a violent end as a result of his evil schemes. In

Short, the good are rewarded and the guilty punished.

Style of Play

For the Defense exhibits two characteristics of Realism and two
of Romanticism. The element of language is related to Realism, but
the other three elements correspond to Romanticism. The realistic
traits found in the play do not alter the basic romantic inclination
of the play. The combination of romantic and realistic attributes
indicates that the style of the play is associated with the dramatic

style of ”secondhand" Romanticism.

The Sign on the Door by Channing Pollock

Stogy
An innocent young secretary, Anne Hunniwell, dines with her

employer's son, Frank Devereaux, at a restaurant which is raided by

the police. A flash-photo is taken of them when they are arrested.

202
Five years later, it is disclosed that Anne and Frank jumped
bail after being arrested. Anne is now the wife of ”Lafe“ Reagan, a
widower with a daughter of eighteen named Helen. Frank again appears,

this time in pursuit of Helen. In order to protect the girl, Anne

L.

goes to Frank‘s room to plead with him to leave the girl alone.

 

Shortly after She arrives, her husband appears to see Frank about his
involvement with a friend's wife. Anne hides in the room, her presence
unknown to her husband. The men argue, scuffle over a gun, and Frank
is killed. ”Lafe” puts the gun in Frank's hand, unknowingly locks his
wife in the room, and puts a “do not disturb” Sign on the door. Anne
is arrested when the police arrive and becomes the chief suSpect for a
murder charge. She is exonerated, however, and is forgiven by her

husband.19

General Characteristics

The Sign on the Door exhibits two characteristics associated with
Realism. It imitates ”the contemporary, immediate world of man and
society.” It observes a fourth-wall convention throughout.

The imitation of the contemporary world is evident in such details
as the food which is served in the restaurant that is the background
for the prologue of the play. Flash photographs are taken of people in
a police raid. The settings are described with an attention to detail
that indicates an attempt to depict a realistic environment for the

action.20

 

19Charming Pollock, The Sign on the Door (New York: Samuel
French, 1924).

201bid., p. 5.

203

The play also exhibits three characteristics associated with
Romanticism. A ”tendency away from actuality" is evident. The char-
acters appear to be guided by emotion rather than logical thought or
common sense. A crucial scene depicts a bizarre situation.

In spite of many realistic details, the play contains elements
which indicate a tendency away from actuality. Excitement and sus-
pense provide the main center of interest. The police raid which ends
the prologue, the reappearance of Devereaux after a period of five
years has elapsed, the struggle in which Devereaux is killed, the dis-
covery of Anne in the dead man's room, and her unexpected delivery
from suSpicion are experiences too far removed from those of common-
place individuals to be plausible.

Logic plays a very Small role in the play. The characters act
and react to immediate emotional stimuli and seldom, if ever, temper
such action and reaction with thought. If Anne ever told her husband
or anyone else about the innocence of her connection with Frank
Devereaux, little of the ensuing involvement in a major crime would
have happened. She also diSplays a certain lack of thought in going
to Devereaux's room. There is also the question of why ”Lafe” Reagan
didn't call the police after accidentally killing Devereaux.

An unusual, bizarre situation climaxes the action in the play.
Anne is locked in the dead man's room. She knows the true circum-
stance of Devereaux's death but cannot tell anyone for fear of impli-

cating ”Lafe.”

 

Form Elements

Plot

The plot of The Sign on the Door contains traits associated
with Romanticism. It is loose in construction. The unity of action
is maintained, but there are several shifts in time and place. The
prologue, which is indicative of romantic plots, takes place five
years before the main action of the play. The setting of the play
changes from a New York restaurant to a home in New Rochelle and back
to a hotel room in New York.

The play tends to be romantic in plot in that the point of
attack is early, which allows the story to unfold in terms of action
rather than narrative exposition. The use of overheard conversation
to advance the plot, a trait identified with Romanticism, appears in
the hotel room scene, where Anne listens to the argument between
Devereaux and ”Lafe.”

As in Romanticism, the plot content of The Sign on the Door
provides excitement and sensational situations. This trait should

be obvious from the discussion under general characteristics.

Character

The persons portrayed in The Sign on the Door have attributes
of characters associated with Romanticism. While not wholly unreal-
istic, they tend to be dramatic types. They are rather challowly
drawn and generally reveal only one aSpect of a pattern of behavior.
Anne Hunniwell first appears as a young girl unacquainted with the.
ways of city life. Her relations with Devereaux reveal her naive

approach to the world. Her very name suggests sweetness and goodness,

205
”Hunni” (honey) for sweetness and ”well” for good. Devereaux is a
lecherous villain, but the cause of his behavior is never really ex-
plained. He seems to exist to menace the ”good” people in the play.

All in all, the characters appear to be improbable persons.

Language

The language of the play correSpondS to that of Realism. The
dialogue is written in prose and appears to be natural to the charac-
ters and their positions. Speech does not serve to distinguish
character except in the case of the Irish policeman, Officer

McLaughlin.

Theme

The theme of The Sign on the Door correSponds to that of
Romanticism. The play demonstrates the idea of moral justice, where
the good come to no harm and the bad are punished. Anne, in spite of
hiding an incident from her past, is an innocent and good person who
is exonerated and forgiven; Frank is an evil lecher and is killed as

a result of his misdeeds.

Style of_Play

The Sign on the Door exhibits two characteristics of Realism
and three of Romanticism. The element of language is realistic, but
the other three form elements are romantic. This mixture of romantic
and realistic traits indicates that the style of the play is related

to the dramatic style of “secondhand” Romanticism.

206

The Son-Daughter by George Scarborough and David Belasco

 

feign;

Dong Tong, a reSpected Chinese merchant in New York, must raise
a large sum of money to pay for his share of the support of a
revolutionary party in China. In order to get the money, he reluct-
antly has to resort to selling his daughter, Lien Wha, to the Chinese
merchant who will bid the most for her. Lien Wha is in love with Tom
Lee, who is disguised as a coolie type of laborer in order to hide his
true identity which is that of the son of the revolutionary leader in
China. Lien Wha consents to her father’s plan and is auctioned off
to be the bride of an evil merchant who has to pay a very large sum
for her since Tom forces the bidding upward. On her wedding night,
Lien Wha kills her husband and then flees to China with Tom.' At the
end of the play, which is set two years later in China, Tom and Lien

2
Hha have a son and the revolution is won under Tom's leadership.

General Characteristics

The Son-Dgughter exhibits five of the characteristics associated
with Romanticism. The three most obvious ones are "a tendency away
from actuality,” an emphasis on "emotionality and subjectivity," and
the depiction of picturesque local color. The characteristics of
”the search for freedom” and the goodness of uncivilized man also
appear to a minor extent.

The tendency away from actuality in the play is furthered by the

culture depicted in the drama and the presence of exciting and

 

21George Scarborough and David Belasco, “The Son-Daughter,”
unpublished play; U. S. OOpyright office, Washington, No. 052753
(October 2, 1919).

207
sensational elements. First, the culture presented in the play is
that of the modern day Chinese residents of New York City. This
culture is remote from the experiences of ordinary individuals. All
characters are Chinese who follow their particular customs and Speak
their own version of English. Chinese ritual, ceremonies, and
pageants appear frequently. Second, the exciting and sensational
events in the drama reveal an inclination toward “escape” drama. For
example, in the last scene of Act III, Tom Lee disguises himself and
tries to rescue Lien Wha from her villainous husband on her wedding
night. Tom fights with the husband and is apparently killed. Lien
Wha then kills her unwanted groom by strangling him with her long
queue of hair after which Tom.revives and escapes with her.

The play places a strong emphasis on emotional appeal. Tom and
Lien Wha fall in love at first sight. Pity and sentiment are supposed
to be aroused by Lien Hha's conflict between daughterly duty to her
father which forces her to marry a man She hates, and her love for
Tom. The parting of Lien Wha and her father is particularly tearful
and emotional.22 Emotions of fear and horror are meant to be aroused
by the Sea Crab and his henchmen, thugs hired by Lien Wha’s husband, as
they menace and pursue Lien Wha and Tom.

A search for freedom through rebellion against established
political order, which is characteristic of Romanticism, appears in the
play but is secondary in its influence on the action. Although some of
the earlier parts of the play are related to a revolutionary struggle

in China, it is not until Act IV that the reasons for the revolution

 

Zglbido. pp- 45-47.

208
and the reports of its progress figure in the plot. There is also a
Slight suggestion of rebellion against social and moral codes involved
in the love of Tom and Lien Nha. They lament over the cruelty of a
traditional Chinese way of life which forces Lien Wha to marry a man
She hates in order to aid her father. In Spite of their protests,
they do not actually break the code of their society.

The play diSplays a characteristic of Romanticism in its de-
piction of local color and the picturesque. Many supposedly Chinese
customs and celebrations are included in the action of the drama. The
marriage of Lien Wha, an elaborate ritua1.which is described in detail,
is accompanied by fireworks, noise, and vivid color. The authors pro-
vide interest by presenting striking details of a culture which is not
generally seen by the average audience member. At times the action of
the drama appears to halt in order to concentrate on bits of local
color.

The play touches briefly on the romantic idea that the less a
man is influenced by civilization, the better man he is. Lien Wha first
falls in love with Tom Lee when he is disguised as a coolie. His
simplicity and taciturnity have more appeal to her than does the wealth
and status of her father's fellow merchants.

The Son—Daughter exhibits one characteristic associated with
Realism. The play imitates the contemporary, immediate world of man
and society. Several of the Chinese characters wear modern Western
clothing. Some references are made to.actua1 locations in New York.

Mention is made of automobiles and steamships.

209

Form Elements

Plot

The plot of The Son-Daughter contains traits associated with
Romanticism. There is a “looseness” in the treatment of the tradi-
tional unities. The play has a chronological structure. Direct address
is used to advance the plot. The plot content ”provides for excite-
ment, suSpense, imagination, and glamor.”

The plot is loose in its construction. There is a unity of
action but it is complicated by the use of subplots. The main plot
centers on the lives of Tom Lee and Lien Nha, but her father’s diffi-
culties, the schemes of the Sea Crab, and the revolution in China are
woven into and sometimes interrupt the primary action. The unity of
time is broken by a two year passage of time between Acts III and IV.
The unity of place is all but ignored, as the action first shifts to
various locales in New York and then jumps to China.

The play has a multi-scened, chronological structure which
features an early point of attack. There is little narrative exposi-
tion. The play begins with the disclosure of the financial problems
of Lien Wha's father, and procedes to present the major events whidilead
up to the successful conclusion of the revolution two years later. This
chronological structure enables the story to unfold as ”a series of
thrills in a rapid melodramatic manner."

In Act IV, direct address to the audiences is employed to advance
the plot. A character identified as “The Orator” steps before the
curtain and explains that the story of the revolution in China must be

telesc0ped in order to save time. He then relates the events of the

210
war and the experiences of Tom.Lee and Lien Nha in the two years since
Act III. This device is common in ”historical“ Romanticism.
The plot content provides thrills and excitement. The play is
filled with fights, attempted murders, killings, narrow escapes,

emotional love scenes, and colorful pageantry.

Character

The persons portrayed in The Son-Daughter have attributes of

 

character associated with Romanticism. They tend to be dramatic types
rather than probable persons. Emotion plays a large role in their
actions.

In Spite of their outwardly Chinese appearance, the characters are
readily identifiable as a cast of a melodrama. Tom Lee is the hero —-
strong, intelligent, and likeable. Lien Nha is the heroine—- lovely,
innocent, and dutiful. Her husband is the first villain -- greedy,
lustful, and cunning. He employs the Sea Crab, a merciless and thorough-
ly evil criminal. The remainder of the persons in the play also appear
as types rather than rounded characters.

The characters are guided by emotions which are not discernibly
motivated. Tom Lee and Lien Wha fall in love at first sight, yet the
nature of their mutual attraction is not explained. It seems to arise
from the requirements of the plot rather than from anything in them as
individuals. Similarl , the avarice and lust of the husband are ill-
concealed and unmotivated. He is given attributes of character which
do not develOp within him. All in all, characterization is superficial
at best. If the people portrayed are Chinese, they are the Chinese of

imagination and not of observation.

211

Language

The dialogue of The Son-Daughter correSponds to both Romanti—
cism and Realism. In a brief note on the play the authors state that
they have attempted to preverve the flavor of Chinese idioms without
resorting to “pidgin—English.”23 In doing so they have created a
dialogue with attributes of “historical“ Romanticism. Prose is used
in the dialogue, but it is an ornate and overblown prose full of
metaphor and simile. It attempts to be poetic, although the effort
is seldom successful. While most of the dialogue is of this "poetici
variety, a more realistic prose is employed in scenes of violence or
exposition.

Some songs are present as part of the language of the play. In
addition, physical action often replaces the need for dialogue.

Several important scenes are eXplained in stage directions and carried

out in action unaccompanied by dialogue.

Theme

The themes of The Son-Daughter correspond to those of Romanti-
cism. The ideas present in the play include the minor ones of
rebellion against tyranny and the goodness of unsophisticated men.
Major themes include the power of deep love and the desire to live
according to one's dreams. Overall, there is the theme of moral jus—
tice; the good prOSper and the evil perish. None of the themes
apparent in the play have any connection with problems of contemporary

society and environment.

 

231bid., p. 1.

212

Style of Plgy

 

The Son—Daughter exhibits five characteristics of Romanticism

 

and one of Realism. The form elements of plot, character, and theme
all correspond to Romanticism. The element of language contains traits
of both Romanticism.and Realism. The presence of realistic traits in
a basically romantic play indicates that the style of ”secondhand”
Romanticism. Some note should be made of the tendencies toward

"historical" Romanticism in the drama.

The Storm by Langdon.McCormick and George Broadhurst

Stogy

Manette Fachard and her father, Jacques, live in an isolated
section of the French Canadian woods. Her father dies and she is be-
friended by two men, Burr Hinton and David Stewart. All three become
trapped in Burr's cabin by a snow storm which lasts all winter. Both
men fall in love with her but she refuses to.make a choice between
them. When Spring comes, Nanette has to decide which man will go to
Calgary for supplies and which will stay with her. She refuses to
choose, but David, through trickery, makes it appear that she has
chosen him.to remain. However, a forest fire surrounds them before
Burr can leave. They are saved from death by an Indian, Maniteekwa.
Manette reveals her love for Burr, and David leaves them to be to-

21.

gether in the north woods.

 

2“Langdon McCormick and George Broadhurst, "The Storm,"
unpublished play; U.S. COpyright Office, Washington, No. D5213?
(July 5, 1919).

213
General Characteristics

The Stonn exhibits three characteristics of Romanticism. It
has a "tendency away from actuality,” an emphasis on emotional appeal,
and a ”concern with nature and man unSpoiled by civilization.”

The tendency away from actuality is apparent in the remote
setting of the play, the Canadian woods. The characters are iso—
lated from the immediate world of society. Although the time of the
play is the contemporary one of 1920, there is little in the play that
relates it to any Specific time.

The play appears to emphasize sentiment and emotions connected
with rather idealized love. The emotions displayed by the characters
are not unrestrained or ”soul-shattering.” On the contrary, they are
gentle and unbelievably sentimental. There is pity for a young girl
whose father dies and leaves her an orphan in the wilderness. There
is the anguish of deciding which of two handsome men to marry. Love
is presented as an imaginative young girl might view it.

The setting in the Canadian woods, Hanette's decision to marry
Burr, and the rescue by the Indian illustrate the involvement of the
play with nature and uncivilized man. The forest environment is
idealized in its presentation. Nanette and her father early in the
play carry on a significant conversation about the beauty of living in
the forest. The author‘s description of the setting indicates that
the forest is an idyllic background for the action.25 There is also
the suggestion that nature mirrors the emotions of the characters. At

the end of Act I when Nanette, grieving for her father, is comforted

 

25Ibid., p. 1.

21A
and taken in for protection by Burr and Dave, a feeling of content-
ment and peace is established. At this point, a light glows through
the cabin window and a gentle snow begins to fall. The forest fire in
the final act Similarly reflects the conflict between Dave and Burr.
Human passions flare up and so do the trees of the forest. The good-
ness of man uncorrupted by civilization is projected in Burr and
Maniteekwa. Manette chooses Burr over the educated and cultured David
because of his simplicity and goodness which stem from his closeness

to nature. ianiteekwa is almost a stereotype of the "noble savage."
Form Elements

Plot

The Storm contains traits associated with plots in Realism. The
story is rather simple and maintains a strict unity of action. The
unity of place is observed in that all scenes take place in or near
Burr Winton's cabin. However, the unity of time is broken; the action
covers a period of two months. Even though the unity of time iS not
observed, the individual acts of the play appear to have the structural
compactness found in Realism.

The play also contains traits in its plot which are associated with
Romanticism. The point of attact -- the arrival of Nanette and her
father in the forest -- is early, and does away with the need for ex—
tensive narrative exposition. The result is a chronological structure
which presents events as they occur rather than reconstructing them.

The romantic plot content of excitement and suspense is not
apparent in the play until the final act. A forest fire, brave attempts

by Burr and David to protect Manette, and the dramatic rescue by

215
Maniteekwa more than make up for any thrills lacking in the earlier

acts of the play.

Character

The persons portrayed in The Storm have attributes of characters
associated with Romanticism. While not wholly unrealistic, they are
improbable persons. Nanette, an orphan in the wilderness, is too good
and understanding to be plausible. David Stewart is characterized by
his fashionable clothing and his English accent. He resorts to
trickery to win Manette which is not consistent with his general per-
sonality. He is all the more improbable as a character when Nanette
chooses to marry Burr. His graciousness and failure to protest when
losing a girl he deeply loved is just not believable. Burr tends to
be a type character —- a rough-appearing prOSpector with a good nature

and a heart of gold.

Language

The dialogue of The Storm correSponds to that of Realism. It is

 

written in a rather unornate prose and is natural to the characters
and their positions. Dialogue aids in distinguishing the characters.
Manette and her father Speak with French Canadian accents, David with

an English accent, and Maniteekwa with some Indian version of English.

Theme

The themes of the play correSpond to those of Romanticism. Most
of the major ideas are rather time—worn thoughts about love. Ianette
says that God works in strange ways to make peOple see and adds that

"love can start a storm in the heart."26 Overall, the play imparts

 

2§§§§§.,jp. 101.

216
the concept of nostalgia, an escape to an idyllic world of nature
where one can live in happiness. The fact that the only wrong act in
the play is performed by a cultured Englishman indicates that civili-
zation is corruptive. The completely good persons in the play are

all close to nature.

Style of Play

The Storm exhibits three characteristics of Romanticism. The

 

form elements of plot and language are related to those of Realism,
while the elements of character and theme correspond to Romanticism.
The combination of realistic traits in a basically romantic play indi-
cates that the style of the play is related to the dramatic style of
“secondhand” Romanticism. Some suggestion of ”historical" Romanti-

cism is also present in the drama.

A Voice in the Dark by Ralph E. Dyar and Willard Mack

Stogy

A young woman, Blanche Warren, is accused of murdering Hugh
Sainsbury, a rather worthless young man. This accusation is based on
the eye—witness account of Mrs. Lydiard, a deaf old lady, who saw
Blanche bending over the murdered man with a revolver in her hand.
However, Mrs. Lydiard heard nothing of a quarrel that preceded the
killing. (Mrs. Lydiard's version of the crime is acted out in panto-
mime.) Blanche denies being guilty and tells her version of the
crime. (Again acted out, but with dialogue). A third version of the
events of the murder is related by a blind newSpaper seller who has

heard another young woman confess that she committed the crime. (His

217
description is acted out in darkness, with dialogue only.) In a
following scene, the blind man recognizes the other young woman’s
voice and.she confesses to the murder, thus freeing Blanche of sus—
picion.2
General Characteristics

A Voice in the Dark exhibits two characteristics associated with
Realism. The fourth-wall convention is observed throughout the play.
There is also an imitation of the ”contemporary, immediate world of
man and society.”

The contemporary world is suggested by the period of the play
and its setting. The play takes place in 1920, the year of the pro-
duction of the play, in the New England town of Briarcliff. The towns-
people Speak with an accent native to that area. A train depot scene
includes the background noise appropriate to such a location. These
and other details project an illusion of everyday reality.

The play also exhibits two characteristics associated with
Romanticism. They are ”a tendency away from actuality,” and the pre-
sence of unusual or bizarre situations.

The tendency away from actuality is fostered by elements of
excitement and sensation in the play. The primary interest of the
play rests in the solving of the mystery of Who Shot Hugh Sainsbury.
His murder, the three different versions of it, and the surprising

solution of the crime are too far removed from common eXperience to be

plausible.

 

27Richard E. Dyar and Willard Hack, ”A Voice in the Dark,"
unpublished play, U.S. Copyright Office, Washington, No. D52281
(JUly 25, 1919)-

218
The presence of the unusual and bizarre in the play is indicated
by the fact that a deaf woman and a blind man are used to relate the
events of the murder. It is also unusual that the blind man happens to
be in the right place at the right time to hear a woman confess to the
murder. While the events in the play are not impossible, they are

highly improbable.

Form Elements

Plot

The plot of A Voice in the Dark contains traits associated with
Romanticism. The play is “loose" in its construction. It makes free
use of elapsed time and has frequent shifts in place. A rather simple
story is complicated by the use of three “flash-back” scenes, each of
which relate a different version of the murder. Little retrOSpective
exposition is present because the material usually related through
exposition is acted out in the “flash—back” scenes.

Other attributes of Romanticism present in the plot are the use
of overheard conversations to advance the action, and the employment
of a prologue. The blind man overhears the confession to the crime,
for example. The prologue to the play presents the enactment of the
murder. Finally, the plot content of the play is romantic in that it

presents excitement and suSpense.

Character
The persons portrayed in the play have attributes of character
associated with Romanticism. They tend to be dramatic types. There

is nothing in Blanche warren's character to distinguish her from any

219
other woman her age beyond the fact she is attractive. Mrs. Lydiard
and Miss Meredith are old ladies who appear in the play. They can be
identified by the fact that Mrs. Lydiard is deaf and Miss Meredith is
not.28 Except for his blindness, there is little attempt at charac—
terizing the newSpaper seller. The reason that the characters appear
to be dramatic types is that they do not seem to change or develOp as
a result of the experiences depicted in the play. There is no further

interest in them after the plot has been untangled.

Language

The dialogue of the play correSponds to that of Realism. It is
written in prose and attempts to imitate the speech of everyday life.
Mild swearing and repetition of phrases add a realistic effect. A few

characters have New England accents.

Theme

The themes of the play correspond to those of Romanticism. The
play projects the idea of moral justice; Blanche Warren is freed from
suspicion and the real murderer is apprehended. An obvious theme of
the play is that things are not what they seem. This particular theme
is not associated with any dramatic style. There is no theme in the

play which deals with contemporary human or social problems.

fityle of Play

A Voice in the Dark exhibits two characteristics of Realism and
two of Romanticism, The form element of language is realistic, but the
other elements all correspond to Romanticism. The inclusion of real-

istic traits in a primarily romantic play indicates that the style of

28mg" 1». 19-

 

220
the play is related to the dramatic style of “secondhand” Romanti—

cism.

The Acquittal by Rita Weiman

Story

Since no published or manuscript version of this play has been
discovered, this brief description from The Best Plays of lQlQelQZO
must serve as the story of the play.

Kenneth Winthrop has been acquitted of the murder of his
aged benefactor, a philanthrOpist with a kind heart and a lot
of money. Joe Conway is a San Francisco reporter detailed on
the case, and one who is not satisfied with the verdict. Be-
cause the dead man was his friend, Joe purposes to follow up
the acquittal of Winthrop. Secreting himself in the WinthrOp
house he skillfully and patiently pieces together such bits of
evidence as he is able to collect and finally extracts a con-
fession from Winthrop that he did, in fact, commit the murder.
Rather than face facts, WinthrOp commits suicide and Mrs.
WinthrOp, his young widow who has some time since lost all
affection for her husband, promises that after a decent interval,
she will listen to the proposal of the young reporter, in whom
she has acquired a sympathetic interest during the course of
the trial and the events that followed.

General CharaCteristics

In view of the fact that the actual play cannot be examined, any
analysis must be based on assumptions made from the available records
of the play. A review of the play by Alexander Woolcott does not con-
tain much information of value except for the observation that the
actors helped to improve the basically melodramatic form of the play

30

'with "everyday" types of stage business. From this it is assumed

¥

29Mant1e, Best Plays of Lyle—1920, p. 411.

30New'York Times, January 6, 1920, p. 18.

221
that the play itself did not strike Mr. Woolcott as being particularly
realistic.

From the story outline in The Best Plays of l919—l920 it is
assumed that the play fits the style of ”secondhand" Romanticism. It
appears to depend on mystery and excitement as elements of interest.
The setting of a rich philanthrOpist's home suggests a remoteness from
common experience. The events seem to fit the romantic requirement of
excitement and sensation. The neWSpaper reporter ”secrets” himself in
the Winthrop house, and forces a confession from the guilty party who
then commits suicide. The reporter thus wins the hand of the killer's
widow. This last event also suggests the love element so often found
in Romanticism. Although the telescoping of the action necessary in
giving a brief description of the play may distort the actuality of

the complete play, this drama seems rather implausible.

Form Elements

Evidently the plot structure of the play helped convey a feeling
of reality. There are only two settings mentioned and the action only
covers one day.31 From this it is concluded that the play had a
structural compactness associated with Realism.

There is nothing in the story outline to indicate anything
definite about character or language. The theme of moral justice, how-

ever, is evident in Winthrop's suicide and the reporter's winning of

the widow.

 

312mm, Best Plays of 1913-1920. p- #10-

222
Style of Play
From what little evidence is available, it appears that The
Acguittal probably is related to ”secondhand" Romanticism. Mr.
Woolcott's review did not indicate that the play differed greatly
from similar mystery plays on Broadway at that time.32 Since most
of them conform to the romantic pattern, there is little reason to

assume that The Acquittal does not. In view of the manner resorted to

 

in determining the style of this play, its place in the pattern of
trends in style on Broadway cannot be equated with those plays which

are given a full examination.

Summary of the 1919e1920 Season33

Eight out of the ten plays selected for purposes of this study
from the "successful," serious American plays of the l9l9-l920
Broadway season were written in a style correSponding to Romanticism.
These plays were “3:45, A Voice in the Dark, The Stag, De’clssse’e,
The Son-Daughter, The Sign on the Door, For the Defense, and, probably,

The Acquittal. Two of the ten plays were written in a style associated

 

with Realism. These plays were Beyond the Horiggn and The Famous Mrs.
223;. There was no evidence or any other dramatic styles in the
selected plays.

Although Romanticism was the dominant style for the season, varia-

tions in the style itself were evident. Three plays-~Déclassee, The

 

32New York Times, January 6, 1920, p. 18.

33Although a number of plays in this and following chapters exhi-
bit characteristics and form elements of more than one dramatic style,
they are summarized according to their major stylistic inclination. The
matter of combinations of elements from different dramatic styles is
treated in the concluding chapter of this study.

223

Son-Daughter, and The Storm——tended to reveal one or more aSpects of

 

”historical” Romanticism. Of the three, The Son-Daughter exhibited
the strongest inclination toward the ”historical" variant of Romanti-
cism. The remainder of the plays included some aSpects of Realism but
maintained their basic romantic style. At 9:45, For the Defense, The
Sign on the Door, A Voice in the Dark, and, probably, The Acquittal
showed a tendency toward Realism in the element of language and in
the surface details of character and setting. In every romantic play
the implausibility of action and the shallowness of character were the
prime bases for identifying the plays with the style of ”secondhand”
Romanticism. With the sole exception of one scene in The Son—Daughter,
the fourth-wall convention was observed in all dramas in the season.
The plays exhibiting a realistic style, Beyond the Horizon and
The Famous Mrs. Fair, adhered quite closely to the criteria for identi-
fying Realism. The latter play contained some obvious plotting in its
final act, but this was not sufficient enough to affect its basic re-

1ation to Realism.

CHAPTERX

THE W TEATRICLL SEASON OP 1922-1923

Pla: Selgtig
One hundred and sevuty full-length plays opened on Broadway in

the theatrical season of 1922-1923 .1 Out of this total, ninety-five
plays were comedies, msical comedies, or revues. As such they are
not a concern of this study nor are the twenty-five adaptations or

translations of foreign dramas which appeared in this season. Ten re-
vivals of dramas from earlier seasons or dramatic periods were pre-
sented. The reminder of the plays in this season were serious dramas
writtm by American or foreign authors and intmded for original pro-
duction on Broadway. However, out of a total of forty of these plays,
thirty ran less than one hundred performances ani did not receive
favorable reviews at the tine of their opmings, nor any significant
critical recognition since that tine.

Thus tn plays fit the standards of selection established for
this study. Eight of then ran over one hmdred performances, although
two of these plays, M and mm were held over into the
next season where they passed the ark of one hundred performances.

SQ Up was also given further recognition as a successful play by

13am Hantle ed., as Best Plan o; leg-12.23 (New tort: Dodd,
Mead, and COe, 1923 , ppe 1132-5 e

221;

 

225

was included in Arthur Baboon 0mm WW-

Tho other two plays. WNW. realm
than one hundred performances but received favorable reviews at the

tine of their opuings. In addition, both have been anthologised.
he plays which are analysed in the next section of this chapter

are as follows:

new by m Rice

Th3 £201 by Charming Pollock

M by Own Davis

M 17! 31M! Rico

W by rho-u ran—Ion

M by John Bolton and Clues Randolph

W by John Howard Lawson
m by Lula Vollner

gym West by Lincoln Osborn
W by Kate Hclaurin

3 see?

mem0

m
Hr. Zero, a slight and balding niddle-eged bookkeeper, has beu
working for the sane business for nutty-tive years. His wife nags
hintoeshhis Qloyer torereise. Uhmhedoeesoheisinfoned
thetheistoberwlecedbyanaddingnachine. Inerege, hekille
his .ployer. He is tried and executed for the erine. After a series
or lire-arter-deeth experimces, Kr. Zero ends In: operating an adding

226
machine, supposedly in heavm. He is told that he and his kind have
been and always will be the slaves of society. His soul is reincar-
nated and he is returned to life on earth deluded by the hope that his

new life will be different from his previous one.2

W
W exhibits four characteristics associated with

Expressionism. The play attupts to present the inner thoughts of its
characters directly to the audience. It has a dream-like quality and
distorts elasents from upirioal reality. In addition, it makes use
of symbols to project moods and ideas.

Although there are others, the best example of the direct projec-
tion of subjective thought occurs in the Opening of the second scene in
which Mr. Zero and Daisy Diana Dorothea Devore are working together on
bookkeeping. Although they speak alternately, they are not engaged in
ordinary conversation. He muses about observing a young women through
the window of her apartmmt, his unhappy marriage, and the possibility
of mrdering his wife. Daisy contemplates suicide and ramsbers a
company picnic she attended with hr. Zero.3 Neither character is made
aware of the other's thoughts, yet the andimice is aware of both.

The plu duonstrates a dream-like quality in its sevn scenes
. which shift from an almost realistic world to the realm of the dead,
and, finally, to a supposed heaven. The dream-like quality is aided

by a distortion of elmsuts in the play. Hr. Zero's bedroom is

231mer Rice, ”The Adding Hechine," W ed.
Harlan Betcher (New Tork: Harcourt, Brace, and Co., 191.9 .

3mg” pp. 35-38.

227
"papersd with sheets of foolscap covered with colums of figures.“
The mechanical aspect of society is shown in the identical dress of
Mr. Zero's neighbors. Hr. Zero's rage when he is fired is projected
visually and aurally through the use of revolving acmery, flashing
red lights, loud mic, and deafaing noise. The paper tqne of the
adding machine which Hr. Zero operates in heaven fills the room. ”It
covers the floor and the furniture, it climbs the walls and chokes
the doorways."5 The dream-like quality verges on nightnare in the
endofthe fifthscenewhenaheadsndarnenergefmnagraveand
hurl a skull.

Sy-bols appear in Whip; to project the meaning of
the play. The main symbol, of com-so, is the adding machine“ itself
which stands for the mechanization of society. The sound of the
Inchine in the background is also used synbolically fro: tine to
time. Identically dressed characters symbolize the conformity of a
neclnnistic society. The aformentioned scene of Mr. Zero's rage is
an instance of symbolisation through distortion. Hr. Zero 's name
itself is a symbol; he is "nothing" in the world, the lowest of

creatures.
o ts

Plot
The plot of the play contains traits associated with Messian-

isn. The action is carried on in seven episodes which correspond to

 

“Ibis” pe 32s
5.134;" p. 58.

228
crucial events in the ”life story" of Mr. Zero. His journey frat
life to death and back to life is the center of interest. Expression-
isn is also evidmt in the shifts of tine, place, and planes of
consciousness in the play. Tine is almost completely unspecified.
Places are largely unidentified except for Mr. Zero 's bedroom, his
place of work, and the idyllic setting of the Elysian Fields. A
shift in planes of consciousness is illustrated in some two whm: the
subconscious thoughts of Mr. Zero and Daisy are interrupted by the
conscious work of adding figures.

The plot also contains traits of Expressionism in that it
largely inores exposition and preparation. Nothing is told or sham
of Mr. Zero's trial except his speech to the jury and their verdict.
His execution takes place between scenes and he appears next in a
graveyard. These charges in tins and place have a logic of their on
which fits the purpose of the ply, but they also add a dreamlike

quality to the play.

Character

The persons portrayed in the play have attributes of character
associated with hressionisn. The most obvious connection is in
the use of abstract or symbolic nanes for the characters. Host are
named after the numbers sero through six. Hr. Zero's .ployer is
simply called ”The Boss." A nan Hr. Zero meets in the graveyard some
is naned Shrdlu which has sonething to do with his occupation, proof-
reading. Host of these characters are no more than cardboard figures;
they have little complexity or individuality.

Hr. Zero is physically every ordinary type of person and is

229
neant to represent mankind. Like the other characters, he is pri-

marily a projection of the author's mind. Unlike sone expressionist
drains, W does not present other characters who
represent aspects of the personality of the protagonist. Hr. Rice
uses Hr. Zero to show how nan is'affected by machines. He shows how
man has become enslaved and insmsitive to beauty in modern society.
In the Elysian Fields, Hr. Zero cannot hear the msic because he does
not understand love and beauty.

1mm

The dialogue of 93W! corresponds to that of
Expressionism Monologues are Qloyed teemnicate the character's

thought directly to the audimlce. Hrs. Zero 's length diatribe at
herhusbandinthefirst scueisagoodmmpleofthistrait, asis
Hr. Zero's address to the jury which constitutes .11 of the fourth
semis.6 Both are constructed as a flow of images rather than as
rationally for-alated thought.

The "telegraphic" speech associated with Expressionism appears
most obviously in the third scene. Er. Zero, his wife, and his
neighbors carry on a conversation in short, abrupt smatmloes which
contain trite expressions and inconsequential family gossip.7 A brief
line of dialogue spoken by the Boss just before llr. Zero kills his: is
the most ”telegraphic" speech in the play. "I'm sorry -- no other
alternative - greatly regret -- old uployee -- efficiuzcy -

 

6Ibg., pp. 32.31., 1.3.1.6.
7M0: PP° “‘52.

230

eccnoew -- business - business -— BJSIIIBS -- ."8

Thus

The themes of W correspond to those of Activist
hpressionism. The play "treats the negative aspects of the present.”
It protests against a society which treats nu as a machine. These
than are evident in the title and the mitire context of the dram.
Hr. Zero is deprived of love and beauty. His fate is to be born and
reborn as a slave to society. He returns to life only to operate a
"super-luper-adding machine" with the toe of his right foot.9

3 e o P

fie mg Machine exhibits four characteristics of Expressionism.
In addition, all of its fora slants correspond to those of the sac
style. In vial of this mlysis, it is clear that the style of the
play is related to the dramatic style of Expressionism.

M by Channing Pollock

am
The "fool" in the play is Dan Gilchrist, a relatively weelth

youngnanwho isthe assistant rectorofachurch. Hedecidesto

att-pt to live as Christ night live in moda'n tines. He is fired

from his position for preaching that the church should take an active

part in the problus of modern society. He loses his fiance’s, Clare

Jewett, because he insists on giving his money to the poor. She marries

BEEN PO 3?-

9Ib1-de, pe 62e

 

231

Jerry Goodkiud for the security his wealth can provide. Jerry's
father, George Goodkind, hires Gilchrist as a mediator in union dis-
putes. He is dismissed frost this position whm he suhaits costly,
gmaerous plans for arbitration, plans that provide for a humanitarian
treat-art of the workers.

Gilchrist then founds "Overcoat Hall,” a mission in New Iork, as
a neans of rehabilitating the poor and deprived. Clare visits hin
there and tells hinhowmiserable hermarriageto Jerryhas become.
She offers to leave Jerry and marry Dan but he refuses an! tells her
she nust do her duty to help Jerry, now an alcoholic. Dan's efforts
to aid the poor are misinterpreted by others. A nob att-pts to beat
him because they think his work in helping the wife of an alcoholic
husband is a cover for a prostitution racket. George Goodkind tells
the nob that Dan is insane because he thinks he is the son of God.
The mob jeers and asks for a sign frm God to prove Dan's "worthi-
ness." The sigl appears in the form of a miraculous cure of a
crippled sirlo

In the end, Dan continues with his mission work. He has earned
the trust and respect of the poor. Clare finds her happiness in
ministering to Jerry who is dying of alcoholism. George Goodkind

realises that Gilchrist is not a "fool” and a failure.lo

a1 t s
The [031 exhibits four characteristics associated with Realisn.
A fourth-wall convmtion is observed throughout the play. It is
concerned with "imitating the contuporary, i-ediate' world of man and

 

100mm; Pollock, M (New Iork: Brentano's, 1922).

232
society." There is an aphasia on the elmt of character and on
the relation betwem character and environnmzt.

The cont-porary, inediate world is suggested in the first act
by the conversation of fuels church nubers which nentions such
nodern dances as the "fox—trot" and the "shiny."11 The womm: are
decorating a Christmas tree with electric ligats. In both the first
and second acts there are discussions of contuporary problus in-
volving labor and nnagaent. One person in the play works at Macy's
dwtnaxt store. These and other details give a sense of incdiacy
to the drama.

Thereissnelphasisoncharacterintheplay. ItisDan
Gilchrist 's spiritual mission which guides the plot and provides the
interest of the play. His effect on Clare and George Goodkind and
the conflicts he causes in their life are also important to the action.
Minor characters are drawn with some care.

The play treats the concept of mironnent and its effect on
character. Dan Gilchrist's concept of a Christ-like life revolves
around the idea of changing the environmt of the poor. His plans
for settling a coalsining strike include shorter work hours to provide
time for education and healthier family conditions . The success of
Gilchrist's attapts to improve no by improving their surrouflings
is duonstrated through the character of Unanski. This illiterate,
Polish coalniner learns to express himself properly in English, gains
a better job, and continues to educate hiuelf as a result of leaving
the mines and being exposed to better social and working conditions.

 

Huge, Pe 19e

233

The 2921 also exhibits one characteristic associated with
Homticiu, the appearance of the strange or unusual. Two "miracles"
are presmted in the action of the play.

First, when the wonm: are decorating the Christms tree in the
church, they cannot make the star of Bethlehma light up. Later, Dan
is alone with a poor nan and they talk about the possibility of a
modern man leading a life like that of Christ. There is a strong
iaplication that the poor nan is Jesus. As he speaks, the star of
Bethlehen on the tree begins to shine. The poor man vanishes.

The second miracle occurs when the mob that attacks Dan asks
hinto showthuasignthat he is a son of God. A crippled girls
drops her crutches and runs over to protect Dan. Later, this "miracle"
is explained away: the girl suffered from "hysterical paraplegia”
which was cured by the shock of seeing Dan attacked. However, the
explanation is not given until the act 53.3.! the "miracle" occurs.

W

Plot

The plot of The m; contains traits associated with Romanti-
cism. The plot is ”loose" in its construction. Although the unity of
action is maintained, it is complicated in its presmtation.
Gilchrist becomes involved in the nrriage of Clare and Jerry, the
union problem of George Goodkind, the education of Unnski, the
snrital problus of a nob leader, and the care of Mary Margaret, a
crippled girl. The unity of place is not observed: the settings of
theplayshiftfronachurchto Goodkind's honeto "0vercoatHall"to
Gilchrist's room. The unity of tine is broken: the plq begins on

23k ‘
Christmas Eve of 1918 and ads on the sane date in 1920.

A chronological structm‘e with an early point of attack often
found in Romanticism is evidetnt in M. The play opens just be-
fore Gilchrist nkes his decision to follow Christ's ways and the:
traces the consequences of this decision for a period of two years.

Character

The persons portrayed in the play have attributes of character
associated with Realism They are credible, prebable people who are
rather complex in personality.

Dan Gilchrist is characterised as a probable person}2 va1
though he is presented as a religious figure, he does not lack lumen
qualities. He is a reform but does not look like a stereotype of
one. He is thirty-three years old, athletic, charming, and good-
humred.13 Iet he displays nore than one side of his character in
the play. He is sonstines troubled by the failure of his efforts to
aid humanity. He rmounces Clare's offer to leave Jerry for him but
the rmmnciation is difficult and troubles him.

Other characters are presented as probable persons. Clare
Jewett loves Dan, but cannot face the hardships his way of life in-
cludes. She att-pts to evade the misery of her marriage with Jerry,
but finally reconciles herself to Jerry's drinking problea. She

 

1211;. names "Gilchrist" and "Goodkind" are obviously symbolic
and have a relation to the themes of the play. Howsver, the presmce
of only the two names doesn't warrant identifying an slant of
Symbolism in the play. Whereas Symbolism tmds toward vagueness of
leaning, these obvious symbolic names make the neaning of the play
clearer. The names are too minor a factor in the totality of the
play to be important in its stylistic idmtification.

HIDE. ’ pe “a

235
appears to lake believable reactions to difficulties not unknown in
everyday life. George Goodkind also shows a complexity of character
in his attitudes toward Gilchrist. He is positive that Dan is a fool
and yet likes his. He evu visits Dan from tine to time, out of con-
cernforhia. Goodkindwishestohelppeople, butnotifithm'tshin

inenyuay.

Language
The dialogue in M corresponds to that of Realism. It is

written in press and appears to be natural to the characters and
their positions. Healthy an! poor people are distinguished by patterns
of speech. Unanski, in particular, is individualised through dialogue.
His development is shown by a chmge in his use of the English
language. In his first appearance in the play, he spews iu broken
English. By the end of the play his usage is narkedly improved.
Another trait of Realism in language is the appearance of dis-
cussion and arguaat in the play. In sons reflects, the entire play
may be viewed as a social ear-on. Gilchrist and Goodkind debate about
the proper way to treat workers. They aruze the merits of Gilchrist's
approach to life. Clare and Dan discuss responsibility in marriage.“

Thule

The theses in M correspond to those of Realism. The a:-
tire play projects a "'hu-anitarim' concern for contuporary nan and
society." Gilchrist att-pts to guide ac: toward a better life
through love and understanding. The ideas of duty and responsibility

 

1mg. , pp. 106-108, 172-73, 112-45.

236
in personal, family, am social realm are presented again and again.
Gilchrist is responsible to himself. He asks Clare to carry out her
duties to Jerry. He tries to make Goodkind bear some responsibility
to society in his treatment of ooalniners.

S e o P

M exhibits four characteristics of Realism, and one of
Romanticism The fan element of plot corresponds to Ro-nticism. The
form eluents of character, language, and thus correwond to Realism
while the play displays a mixture of realistic and rustic traits, it
cannot be related to "secondhand" Romanticism because the realistic
eleamts of character and thus are very important to the play. In
vies of this condition, the style of the play may be considered to be
related to the dramatic style of Realism. However, special note met
be take: of the romantic aspects of the play.

M by 0m Davis

m
Ubu Grandma Jordan, a relatively wealthy New England farm
mman, dies, her fan and money are willed to Jane Crosby, a second
cousin, instead of to one of the mediate family m-bers. Unknown to
the rest of the family, the inheritance is meant actually for Ba:
Jordan, the youngest son. Ben is the "black sheep" of the family and
is hiding to escape prosecution for allegedly burning'ta barn of some
mm he had had a fight with. Ba: appears Just after (h'endma Jordan's
death and is arrested. Jane Crosby arranges for Ba: to be placed
under her supervision until his trial. I She takes over the farm and

237
family, refuses to share her inherited wealth with the Jordan, and
forces BC: to work on the farm. Hard work and discipline alter Ra's
way of life. He grows to love Jane and she finally reveals to him
that the farm and his mother’s wealth were intended to be his. Follow-
ing the provisions in the will, she had held the inheritance until he
daonstrated responsibility and decent behavior. Jane arranges to
have Ben's trial cancelled by paying for the burned barn. Jane and

Ba are planning to be married as the play aids.”

C ics

Icebound exhibits four characteristics associated with Realism.
The fourth-wall convmtion is observed throughout the plq. There
is an imitation of "the contemporary, inediate world of man and
society. " Character and the "concept of environmmt in relation to
character" are uphasised.

The play contains many suggestions of the contuporary world.
The setting is a farm in Veasie, Heine, in 1922, the year the play was
produced. The characters speak with New England accmts. Details of
farm life are presented or alluded to. Ella, an unmarried sister of
the Jordan family uses a sewing machine to h- towels. In the swond
act, Ben rushes from.the house to tend a sick horse. Jane orders
clothing, from a nil order business.

The slant of character is uphasised in the play. The play
enters on the question of whether or not Jane can reform Bu. Her
efforts to teach him responsibility and his unevm advance toward that
and guide the action of the play. Secondary interest is provided by

 

150mm Davis, Icebom (Boston: Little, m, and Co., 1923).

238
the conflicts between Jane and the rest of the Jordan family.
Bwironmmt and its relation to character are integral parts of

the drama. The settings reflect the traits of the people who live
in tha. The Jordan sitting roan "is as dull and as drab as the lives
of those who have lived within its walls."16 Character and environ-
ment are directly referred to by Bm,iwhen he says,

That's what nature's done for us Jordans, - brought us into

the world half froze before we was born. Brought us into the

world mean, and , so's we could live the hard, mean life

we have to live.

To bin the Jordan family character and the land are both "icebound."18
0 outs

Plot

The plot of Icebound contains traits associated with Realist.
It exhibits a "structural compactness, " and the action is uncompli-
cated and unified. in events presented have a bearing on the rela-
tion between Jane and Ben. The unity of place is observed: all scenes
occur on the Jordan Homestead. Since the action covers the time from
October, 1922, to March, 1923, the unity of tine is not naintained.
However, each of the three acts uploys retrospective exposition which
is carefully worked into the rising action. In this manner, the will
provisions which figure so prominmtly in the play are presented with-
out surprise or melodrmatic effect. Plot content from the contenpor-
ary world is also apparent in the play.

 

1?

16111113., pa 3e IbIIEOp Po 650

e, pa 66a

 

239
Character
The persons portrayed in Icebound have attributes of character

associated with Realism. They are credible, probable people close to
the norm in outlook and behavior, with relatively complex personali-
ties. Ls observed under general characteristics, they are influmced
by environmut.

The credible, probable quality of the persons depicted is evi-
dmt in Ben's character. In the beginning of the play, he is surly
and defiant. He does not willingly take over work on the farm. The
threat of prison, however, motivates him to obey Jane. is he becomes
accustomed to Jane's presmce, he displays math in his recollections
of France during the war. His developing friunship with her begins
to erase the hostile aspects of his behavior. let he appears nest
human in that his progress is not direct. He reverts to older patterns
of behavior when‘he is frustrated or troubled. He is sensitive to the
opinions that others have of him. ,

Ben and others show a caplexity in personality. Jane is quiet
yet aggressive and firm. The other labors of the Jordan family
quarrel and make fun of each other, but manage to maintain a unity as
a family. They are basically serious people who are not above in-
dulgingindryhunor. Theyappeartobenaturalpersons fromamiddle

class background.

language
The dialogue in M corresponds to that of Realism. It is
written in a prose which appears to be natural to the. characters and

their positions. All the characters have New England scouts but the

210
author attupts to show distinctions between two grades of rural
middle class people in his dialogue.19 The slant of discussion in
the dialogue which is associated with Realism appears in sense be-

tween Jane and Ben.”

Thus

The those of Icebogg correspond to those of Realisn. They
revolve around personal and family responsibility. The central action
of the play is concerned with the rehabilitation of Bax. Jane seeks to
make bin take pride in himself and realises his individual worth. His
love for her and his change in attitude reflect the theme of human
responsibility. Ba: has proven his worth by planning to bring happi-

ness to others.

St 0 P

Icebog exhibits four characteristics of Realism. Its form
elements all correspond to those of Realism. It is clear from this
analysis that the style of the play is related to the dre-atic style of

Realism.
It is flgLawbyElmerRice
Story

Two good friexds, Gordon Travers and Andra: Woodmff, are both
in love with Ruth Cunings. She marries Gordon, then Andrew, believing
he was tricked by his friend, plots revenge. He locates a down-end-out
depe addict, Sniffer, who looks exactly like him. He tattoos an

 

19Me' pe he whine, ppe 66-69, Ill-13.

21.1

identifying birthmark on Sniffer's arm and then kills him with a
pistol. Andrew calls Gordon and the police. Andrew's timing works,
and the police discover Gordon in Andrew's apartment with the dead
body. Gordon is tried for the murder of Andrew, and smtmced to life
in Sing Sing prison.

Ruth doesn't believe Gordon is guilty and attelpts to prove his
innocence. Eight years later, Andrew reappears disguised as an
Englishmwithabeard. Rutharrangesaplot ofherownbywhich

Andrew is identified and thus allows Gordon to be freed from prison.21

92m CMeristics
It i; the g! exhibits two characteristics associated with

Realism. The play observes a fourth-wall convention and imitates ”the
cont-Iporary world of man and society."

The conteaporary world is suggested by such details as a bridge
game in the prologue to the play. Gordon is out to Sing Sing prison,
an actual place. The time of the play roughly corresponds to the
date of its original production in 1922.

The play also exhibits two characteristics associated with
Romanticism. There is a tendency away from actuality which is
fostered by the inclusion of strange and unusual evuts.

The tendmicy away from actuality is apparcrt in the improbability
of the story itself. It depends too much on coincidence, mistaken
identities, and disguises. Andrew, a no of culture who is welcome at
enclusive clubs, mums“ amanfromthelowestlevel of life

 

2131-» Rice, "It is the Law," unpublished play, U.S. Copyright
Office, Washington, No. 1360231. (March 13, 1922).

21.2
inleonrk who looks cough like Andrewto be his twin. Andrew's
disguiseasanhglishsenisnot detectedbynenwhohavelmownhin
all of his life. While none or these events are absolutely impossible,
they are incredible.

A part of the tmdency away from actuality is. the inclusion of
thestrangeorunusual. Andrewcanstophispulseandappeartobe
dead. He can become mentally unbalanced by the sight or fire tongs.
He verges on insanity throughout the play. This psychological de-
formity, coupled with Andrew's villainy, is particularly indicative of
a trait in Romanticism.

W
Plot
The plot of It 2 2e g! contains traits associated with

Romanticism. It is "loose" in construction and sakes free use or
shiits in place and lapses in tine. The unity or action is coupli-
cated by the use of a "flash-back" technique. A prologue, a device
often appearing in romantic plays, presents a mrder in the Gotham
Club. The first act is set nine years earlier and begins to relate
the events that led up to the action of the prologue. In essmce,
the play is presmted in reverse order. The epilogue resumes the
action at the point where the nurder had Just occurred in the pro;
logue.

The unities of time and place are largely ignored. The events
of the play cover a time span of nine years, and occur in four differ-
ent locales, including the warden’s office in Sing Sing prison.

The plot contmt of thrills and sensation associated with plot

21.3
in Romanticism is evident in this play. Harder, disguise, and mis-

taken idmtities are important to the action of the dram.

Character

The persons portrayed in the play have attributes of character
associated with Romanticism. They are improbable peeple who tend to
be dramatic types.

Gordon Travers and Ruth Cue-sings are eruplary of the shallow-
ness of character in the play. He is handsome and well-bred; she is
attractive and relatively wealthy. Neither appears to change in be-
havior or attitude as a result of the uperimces they undergo in the
play. Even eight years in prison do not have an effect on Gordon.

The improbability of Andra: Woodruff as a person is evident in
his strange powers of pulse control. He is made all the more is-
probable by his phobia about fire tongs. There is some att-pt to
motivate this quirk in his personality. It stem from a childhood ex-
perience in which his father beat his mother with fire tongs.

Although this trait may be viewed as an indication of the in—
fluence of enviromut, it is used in the play to create sensation
rather than to reveal the role of enviromsnt in forming character.
It is a superficial treatment of the relation between character and
miroment. It is significant that only this one trait of his twisted
personality is environmentally motivated .

Sniffer also indicates a tmdency toward dramatic types. His
character attributes consist of "sniffing" narcotics, wearing old
clothes, and talking in a gruff voice. He is a criminal type, not a
criminal personality.

21:1»

language

The dialogue of It is the Law corresponds to that of Realism.
It is writtm in prose and is natural to the characters and thair
positions. Except for the criminal Jargon of Sniffer and the English
accmt Woodmff affects in his disguise, the language does not serve
to distinguish the characters from one another. The eluent of dis-
cussion found in Realism appears in the play, but is gated-ally unim-
portant to the action. Gordon and the warden of Sing Sing talk
briefly of how prisoners are the victins of social injustice, but the
idea is never brought into the play at any other point.22

Thus

The themes of It is the Law correspond to those of Ralanticin.
Andrew's villainy involves the romantic themes of love: and Jealousy.
Emotions connected with love figure in this story. Andrew's villain
involves Ruth's rejection of his love, and the Jealousy which results.
Ruth's loyalty to the imprisoned Gordon illustrates the ennobling
power of love. In addition, the thus of moral Justice is present.
Gordon and Ruth, the innocent victims of an evil mind, are restored
to happiness at the aid of the play. Their tormmtor is punished for
his transgressions.

Style of Play
It 2 the Q contains two characteristics of Realism and two of

Romanticism. The language of the play is siailar to that of Realism,
but the other three font elaents correspond to Rounticism. This

 

ZZREO, p. 1.20

21.5
relationship of characteristics and elements indicates that It is the

g3 corresponds to the style of "secondhand" Rmticisn.
The Last timing by Thomas F. Fallon

am

Five years before the beginning of the play, Hoodford, a
theatre-mag», is murdered under mysterious circumstances during a
production of a play titled The 8%. ‘ The theatre in which the
murder occurred is believed to be haunted by Hoodibrd's ghost and has
been closed ever since his death.

As the play begins, Arthur HacHugh, an actor-turned-dstective,
has gathered together most of the cast of The Sge and is going to
produce the play in order to help solve the watery of Hoodford's
mrder. The rehearsals of the play are plagued by se-ingly super-
natural evuzts, and one person is murdered. Th; Snarg is performed,
hottever, and the murderer revealed. By the end of the play all the
supernatural events have been explained as tricks and devices con-

trived by the murderer.23

Go 0 t tics

W exhibits one characteristic associated with
Realism. It imitates "the oontuporary, inediate world of man and
society." The play is set in "modern tines" in a Broadway theatre.
Details of play production are. presented. Electricians roan the stage.
Scenery is movedabout by "grips". Actors run through scenes for the

 

23Thoms 3. much, "The Last warning," as, Samel Franch,
New Iork.

24.6
director. Few details or the world beyond the stage are physically
evident, but they are alluded to by the characters.

W also exhibits two characteristics associated
with Romanticism. There is "a tendmcy away from actuality." In
addition, the strange and unusual appear in the action or the play.

The tendency w from actuality is upper-mt in the preposter-
ous story or the play. Although conditions of play rehearsal are
presmted in detail, the world of theatre is roots from the cos-on
experimce of average people. This world is rendered evu lore un-
likely by the suggestion that the theatre is haunted. Equally un-
likely is the use of a play performance to capture a criminal.
Disguises, secret panels, and false identities also suggest a tendency
away from actuality.

Strange, unusual, even supernatural events appear in the action
of theplay. These evurts have a rational explanation which is re-
vealed in the document of the play, but at the tine of their
occurrence the audience is led to believe they appear without hunn
manipulation. The ghostly laughter of the dead theatre-manager is
heard. A strange vapor seeps in under a door to his office. Free
glow in the dark. A very large spider is dropped anong the cast on
stage. i sandbag crashes to the floor, nearly killing one or the

actors .

The plot of W contains traits associated with
Realism There is a "structural compactness" to the structure or the

247
play. A basic unity of action is complicated by the, play within a

play. However, all events relate to the solution of the watery. The
unity or time is partially observed: the action covers no more than
two days. The unity of place is maintained although“ the action shifts
between the stage and an office of the theatre. Retrospective exposi-
tion is worked into the rising action of the play. By this means the
evmts surrounding Woodrord's murder five years ago are related. How-
ever, some necessary exposition is left out in order to allow for sur-
prises at the and of the play.

The plot also contains some traits associated with Romanticism.
The action unfolds as a "series or thrills in a rapid melodramatic
manner." The first act ads with ghostly laughter as a strange vapor
drifts in under the door. Sudden revelations of false idmtity shift
suspicion from one character to another, lights black out, and strange
eyes glow. A murder occurs. These events supply a content of salsa-

tion and excitanent which is arts: associated with Romanticism.

Character

The persons portrayed in The Last WM have attributes or
character associated with Romanticism. They are improbable people
who tad to be dramatic types.

Host of the characters appearing in the play have sons connection
with the theatre. They seem to be stereotypes otcthe acting world.
Richard Quail is a director who throws tantrums and browbeats actors.
Dolly Lymkm, the leading lady, is attractive, affected, and prone to
over-enotionality. There is a "dumb" chorus girl who is actually
HacHugh's wife in disguise. HacHugh is a leading man type - handsome,

2&8
athletic, and intelligent. He is also an actor-turned-detective,

yet the change doesn't seen to have affected his personality since he
"plays" at being a detective. The villain's assistant is a Cockney
electrician. His accmt is the only significant means of singling
him out non others in the play. The characters' motivations in
general seen to be the duands of the action. Little they do or say
disturbs the flow of exciting events.

Language

The dialogue of the play corresponds to that of Realism. It is
written in prose. It appears to be natural to the characters and
their positions. However, except for the electrician's Cockney
accent, speech does not serve in individualizing characters. Ele-
nmts of discussion and argument only appear in the play to advance
the plot. There is no treatment of a nomingful or thoughtful idea.
The language of the "play within a play" differs slightly from the
dialogue of the rest of the drama. This is not unrealistic, however,

since The Sac is a period costume play.

Thane

The themes of W correspond to those of Romanticism.
There is no treatment of ideas-ifron the contqorary society. The
only obvious themes are concerned with moral Justice. However, the
play concentrates more on the pmisknent of evil than it does on

the rewarding of good. As trite as they are, the play projects the
ideas that evil cannot thrive and crime does not pay.

21.9
S so?

The Last wmg contains two characteristics of Romanticism
and one of Realist. The plot contains traits of both Realist and
Romanticism The eluent of language is related to Realism. Thane
and character are related to Romanticism. The predominant style of
the play appears to be Romanticism. Inclusion of elaarts of Realism
indicates that the play most closely corresponds to "secondhand"
Romanticism.

Rain by John Colton and Clashes Randolph

Star;
A number of travelers are detained teaporarily on the island of

Page Page in the South Seas. One of the travelers is Sadie Thompson,
a prostitute. Her efforts to relieve the boredom brought on by the
rain offend a missionary, Reverend Alfred Davidson. He interrupts a
raucous party in her room and throws her phonograph on the floor. He
is thrown out of the room by some Marines. Davidson's humiliation
about this leads him to take action against Sadie. He forces the
governor of the island to order Sadie to return to the United States
where she will be imprisoned for an incident she was involved in. The
conflict between Davidson and Sadie grows until Sadie can no longer
fight back. Davidson then attempts to change Sadie's life through
religious salvation. He succeeds in making her repeat and to agree
to return to America to accept her punishmmt. However, his religious
seal is overcome by his sexual desires. He seduces Sadie and the
guilt of this action drives him to comit suicide. At the end of the
play Sadie is to go to Australia and begin a new life with a Marine

250

sergeant .

Gm C acteristics

.1393; exhibits two characteristics associated with Realism. A
fourth-wall convmtion is observed throughout the play and the elment
of character is mphasized.

Character unphasis is apparent in that the action of the play
revolves around the conflict between Sadie Thompson an! Revermd
Davidson. She wants to be allowed to find happiness in any way she
can. He is driven to seek her salvation and reformation. The opposi-
tion of these characters provides the interest in the drama.

The play also exhibits three characteristics associated with
Romanticism. There is "a tendency away from actuality." Emotion-
ality and subjectivity are important elements in the play. A search
for individual freedom from the strictures of moral and social codes
is presumed.

The tendency away from actuality is."fostered by the rmoteness
of the setting. Although the contemporary, inediate world is sug-
gested, it is far renoved from the exotic island of Page Page.

The conflict between Sadie and the Reverend Davidson is pri-
marily emotional and subjective. Sadie appears to live for the
moment. Her tuporary change in character is brought about by a com-
bination of fear and the motional fervor of Davidson's preaching.

He frightens her and preys on that fear to awaken guilt in her. Her
tenporary conversion is not one of rational choice but of emotional

 

2“John Colton and Classics Randolph, Rain (New Iork: Liveright,
Inc., 1923).

. . .. ..
3pm....” $5

 

 

251
disturbance. The religious zeal of Davidson is «notional rather than
logical. His God is one of fear and not of love. His seduction of
Sadie is an unthinking notional action; he succumbs to instinct.

A search for individual freedom frelfrom the limits of estab-
lished codes is manifested in Sadie's desire to lead her life as she
sees fit. She resists Davidson's efforts to change her life; she
tells him to leave her alone. When he preaches against the evil of
her life she says,

You take care of your own evil, and I'll take care of
nine . . . . Iknowwhat youwant! Iouwant another scalp to
hand to the Lord. Well, you don't get mine, . . . .25

She wants to go her own way and not ask any favors.26
orm ants

Plot

The plot of _R_a;_ia_; contains traits associated with Realism. It
displays a "structural compactness" marked by a careful uploynent of
retrospective exposition worked into the rising action of the drama.

The plot's structural compactness results from a fairly strict
observance of the traditional unities. The unity of action is simple
and only slightly complicated by a subplot in which Sergeant O'Hara
plus to take Sadie to Australia to be his wife. The unity of place
is observed in that all scenes take place in the living room of Joe
Bern's hotels-store. The unity of time is imared. The action covers

a period of six duo.

 

25kg" p. 1270
26331., p. 1.17.

252
Retrospective exposition is woven into the rising action. For
example, Davidson's abhorrence of sex is amtioned by Hrs. Davidson
near the end of the play Just before he oo-its suicide over his se-
duction of Sadie. Davidson's past success in religious conversion is
revealed bit by bit, parallel with actions which are aimed at reforming
Sadie. The story of Sadie's life is revealed through brief sections of

exposition.

Character

The persons portrayed in m have attributes associated with the
characters of Romanticism. They are improbable people. In addition,
Sadie may be identified with the romantic criminal of "historical”
Romanticism. A final attribute, the strong influence of notion on
the action of the characters, has already been mentioned under general
characteristics.

While not wholly unrealistic, the two major characters are im-
probable persons. Sadie is a manifestation of the romantic idea of
freedom. Although she is portrayed as a prostitute who smokes , drinks,
and swears, her basic qualitits are the positive hmn ones of friend-
liness, vitality, understanding, and ninth. She wants to live as she
pleases and does not wish to interfere with awone else's right to do
the same. She represents the instinctive and non-rational aspects of
human life, a hedonism aimed at seeking personal happiness and love
unfettered by any luvs or standards. This romantic idea of needom
unbodied in the character of a prostitute is too nearly ironic to be
plausible. Reverend Davidson is also an improbable person because of
his relation to the same idea of freedom. He is too obviously the

252
Retrospective exposition is woven into the rising action. For
example, Davidson's abhorrence of sex is mentioned by Mrs. Davidson
near the end of the play Just before he commits suicide over his se-
duction of Sadie. Davidson's past success in religious conversion is
revealed bit by bit, parallel with actions which are aimed at reforming
Sadie. The story of Sadie's life is revealed throng: brief sections of

waition e

Character

The persons portrayed in M have attributes associated with the
characters of Romanticism. They are improbable people. In addition,
Sadie may be identified with the romantic criminal of "historical”
Romanticism. A final attribute, the strong influence of motion on
the action of the characters, has already been mentioned under general
characteristics.

Hhile not wholly unrealistic, the two major characters are im-
probable persons. Sadie is a manifestation of the romantic idea of
needom. Although she is portrayed as a prostitute Idle smokes, drinks,
and swears, her basic qualitits are the positive human ones of friend-
liness, vitality, understanding, and warmth. She wants to live as she
pleases and does not wish to interfere with anyone else's right to do
the same. She represents the instinctive and non-rational aspects of
human life, a hedonism aimed at seeking personal happiness and love
unfettered by any laws or standards. This romantic idea of from
unbodied in the character of a prostitute is too nearly ironic to be
plausible. Reverend Davidson is also an improbable person because of
his relation to the same idea of freedom. He is too obviously the

253
representative of social and moral codes. He seeks to curtail free-
dom, to make humans conform to his idea of religious morality. As a
foil to Sadie, he is outwardly good. He has no vices; he preaches
God's love and forgiveness. His religious zeal msks ambition, pride,
and lust. In the end, he is destroyed because he denies the instinc-
tive and non-rational side of his being.

The character of Sadie has some relation to the romantic criminal
type found in "historical" Romanticism. She is trying to escape
punishment for a minor criminal offense omitted in California. She
claims to be unjustly accused. The crime is characteristic of
Romanticism in that its exact nature is never sta.ted.27

Language

The dialogue of _;Ra_i_n_ corresponds to that of Realism. It is
written in prose and appears to be natural to the characters and their
positions. Sadie is individualised by her use of slang expressions,
some of the: rather coarse. The Marines in the play ncpress theaselves
in a similar manner. Reverend Davidson, Doctor HcPhail, and their
wives speak in a manner which is appropriate to their educational back-
grounds. The elasmt of discussion associated with Realism appears in
a scene in which Sadie and Davidson argue about morality and salva-

tion.28

Thane
The than of Rain correspond to those associated with Romanti-

cism. They avoid involvmt in contuporary probluns of society. As

 

27.1.53» pp- 173-75. 2393;" pp. 175-78.

25h
discussed under the form eluent of character, the concept of free-

dom from established moral and social codes is apparent in the play

as a major thene. The romantic theme of the corruptive nature of
civilization is touched upon in a conversation between Dr. McPhail

and Davidson when Davidson explains how he teaches the natives the con-
cept of sin.29 This theme is also mew: suggested by-the fact that
the only really untroubled person in the plq is Hrs. Born, a native

of Pago Pago .

Style of the PE:
Raj—n exhibits two characteristics of Realism and three of

Romanticism. The eluents of plot and language correspond to Real-
ism, while Romanticism is evident in character and thus. Although
characteristics and eluents are fairly well divided between the two
styles, the play tends to be basically romantic because of the im==
portance of character and theme to the total play. The presence of
realistic elments in a play which is basically romantic, indicates
that the style of the play corresponds to the dramatic style of
"secondhani" Romanticism.

Roger Elmer by John Howard Lawson

Eran

Roger Bloomer, an average American young man from a middle class
family in Iowa, ponders greatfiquestions of life aroused by his reading
and study. He gives up a college education and a chance to enter his

 

29Ibge, ppe 107.108e

255
father's business to go to New Iork to find out what life is about.
New York offers him no help in solving his problems. He almost starves
before meeting Louise, a girl from his home town who aids him. Roger
still despairs and tries to kill. himself but is unsuccessful. Louise
steals acme money to help Roger, but he makes her return it. She is
caught while taking the money back and conits suicide. Roger is
heldasawitnessand Jailed. Hhileinhiscell, hehasanightmare
in which his various desires, experiences, and fears are presented.
His father frees ms from Jail and the play eases.30

gar; Cflcteristics
Roger Bloomer exhibits four characteristics associated with

Expressionism. It tries to "suggest inner conflicts that cannot be
presented directly on stage." It “uploys a dream-like structure."
Elmaents of the play are "distorted and exaggerated." Symbols are
used.

The play suggests the inner conflicts of Roger Bloomer as he
approaches manhood. He dislikes the materialism of his father. He
is troubled by the idea of sex. He despairs to the point of att-pted
suicide. These conflicts are presmted in the entire context of the
play but are particularly obvious in a number of interior monologues
spokn by Roger and in the nightmare sequence near the mid of the
plus. '

A dream-like structure .is apparut in the play. This is not only
true of the nightmare scene, but also of the rest of the play. There

 

30John Howard Lawson, Rogg Bloomg (New York: Thomas Seltzer,
Inc. , 1923).

256
are approximately eight scenes in the first act alone. By changes of
lighting and the drawing of curtains the scenes follow each other in
rapid order with no appreciable break between them. The rapidity and
number of changing scenes is not as important as the fact that each
some presents only enough material to give an impression of how Roger
views the world around him.

The dream—like structure is accompanied by distortion and ex-
aggeration of elements in the play. This distortion and snaggeration
is not constant. It appears now and then as in the case of the college
examiner . .

He is a little grey man in flowing black collegiate robes lined
with purple; a fantastic figure; on his owl-like head a mortar
board. He sits on a throne-like cha . On the wall behind him
an enormous up of the United States.
The nightmare scene near the end of the last act is almost capletely
exaggerated and distorted.32

Symbols are used in the play as reflections of Roger's varying
states of mind. A fat landlady represents a repulsive aspect of sea.
A ragged man symbolises death.33 And again, the nightmare scene is

filled with symbols of Roger's inner feelings and frustrations.

W
Plot
The plot of W contains traits associated with E:-

pressionism. It is episodic; the play contains at least twenty scenes.

 

311mg" p. 57.
321mm, pp. 195-225.
33Ib1_d,., pp. 89-90, 121..

257
"Conflict in the sense of opposed, independently motivated characters
seldom arises." Roger Bloomer carries what conflict there is in the
play within hinself. He has some minor arguments with a home town
acquaintance, but this is an unimportant example of conflict. The
play ”exhibits a pageant or pilgrimage-like structure treating the
life-story of a protagonist and showing his progress in a series of
events at many tines and in many places." This trait of kpressicnisn
is obvious in the story of Roger Bloomer as he is driven from Iowa by
a quest for a solution to; life's meaning and finds love, death, sex,
and frustration in New York. The plot also shows a tendmcy to inore
preparation and mosition in order to deal with crucial events. The
first act illustrates this tendency in the rapid, panoramic view of
life in Iowa and Roger's sudden decision to go to New Iork. In one
acme Roger mentions going to college and in the next he is taking
entrance ms. No explnnation is offered of what happmed between
3k

the two scenes.

Character

The persons portrayed in W have attributes of charac-
ter associated with Expressionism. Many of the minor characters in
the play do not have ordinary names but are merely identified by their
occupation. They are named Street Walker, Drug Clerk, Detective,
Judge, etc. Most of thu appear too briefly in the action to exhibit
more than the most obvious of character traits. The Street walker is
described as “very thin, queer bedraggled hat perched on bright per-
oxide hair, big feverish eyes in an old face, carrying a little black

 

”ll-inn pp- 45-57.

258
bee-"35

The major characters are not meant to be much more than sug-
gestions of actual people. The author specifies that Roger moo-ter
m be played by an actor of sturdy virile appearance, giving in-
pression of average American boy. ”36 Louise is more of a symbol than
a character. The same is true of Roger's father and mother.

Eugene Poppin, an acquaintance of Roger's, is an example of a
type of character found in Expressionism. He is a foil for Roger.
He may be viewed as a projection of Roger's personality. He is a
material and social success and handles women very well. Many of
these things Roger would like to do, but cannot.

Language

The dialogue of the play corresponds to that of Expressionism.
Although some passages or scenes approach Realism in their language,
the dialogue does not generally att-pt to imitate the speech of
everyday life. It is spare am unadorned except for monologue which
contain a prose poetry marked by images and metaphors. These mono-
logues are eacpressionistic in their use of flowing images and flashing
words rather than logical thought or complete smtences. For sample,
this passage from a monologue by Roger:

Myself, against all these generations, I mocking, asking . . .
red with fever tossing in the night . . . alone till the dawn
bringslaughter . . . . Imslf, fightingmybody, denying
wbody . . . amanismade outof fleshandpassion! All
right. . . . Come on, you damned ghosts, come on, you laughing
shadows, ya; strong and alone, and somehow . . . I'll beat
you yet.

 

35113161., Pe Me 36R1de, pe do
”an. an 56-57.

259
The "telegraphic" style of dialogue which is associated with
the language of Expressionism is apparent in such scenes as the one
between Roger's father and Mr. Poppins in which short, trite sentences

are used to discuss the problms of sending sons to college.38

Theme

The thmass of Rogg 3100ng correspond to those of Expression-
ism. Roger's quest for the meaning of life is ruiniscmt of Mystic
Expressionism. However, the play also projects a dissatisfaction
with the present society. Roger doesn't like the materialism and
mechanization of his world. He finds that New Iork is like Iowa,
that both do not meet the needs of youth. His rebellion against the
older generation represented by his father is also a reflection of an
idea in Activist Expressionism.

St 0 P

From the above analysis, it is clear that W exhibits
all the general characteristics of Expressionism. Its form eluents,
too, correspond to those of Expressionism, In brief, the style of the
play corresponds to the dramatic style of Expressionism.

Sun Up by Lula Vollmer

Stag
Widow Cagle lives in a mountain cabin in North Carolina with

her son Bufe. Her husband was killed some years before by revenue
agents and now her son must serve in France in World War 1. She has

 

33mm, pp. 22-26.

260
no concept of the world beyond the mountains and believes the war is
like the Civil War of her youth. France, to her, is just over the
hills. She protests Bufe's going away because there will be no one
to carry on the feud to revenge the death of her? husband. Rufe tells
her that feuds are wrong, a lesson he learned at a mission school.
She is not convinced, but resigns herself to Rufe's departure. Before
he leaves, he marries Emilie who moves into the Cagle cabin. Rufe is
killed in France. The day the letter arrives announcing his death, a
stranger appears at the cabin. He is a deserter from the Am trying
to get back to his mother. at! Widow Cagle learns her son is dead,
she takes pity on the stranger and decides to protect him from the
Law. She is informed by the sheriff that the stranger is the son of
the man who killed her husband. As she raises a rifle to kill the
stranger, she hears her dead son whisper toher that love and not hate
will make the world better. She doesn't kill the stranger. Instead,
she helps him elude the law officers surrounding the cabin and to

make his escape.39

Gmgal Characteristics
53g Up exhibits four characteristics associated with Realism.

It observes a fourth-wall convention throughout the action. There is
an imitation of "the contuporary, imediate world of man and society."
Both the element of character and the relation between environment and
character are anphasized.

 

39m; Vollmer, "Sun Up", Rmesentative gerigg pigs, ed.
Arthur Hobson Quinn (3d. ed. revised; New York: The Century Co.,

1925) .

(J

{a

261

In m the contuporary world which is imitated is that of
the mountains of North Carolina. Details presented in the play suggest
everyday life on a farm. Widow Cagle sweeps the floor with a brush
broom. Rufe carries a hoe and places it inside the door. Someone
leaves a gate Open and the calf gets in with the cow. Cooking utensils
hang by the fireplace. Such details are only a few of the many which
give a sense of reality to the action and setting of the play.

The elaaent of character is important in m. The action of
the play is aimed at demonstrating the change in Widow Cagle from a
bitter woman seeking revenge in a feud to a compassionate being who
helps the son of her worst enuy. The action and interaction of char-
acter guides the developaent of the plot. Rufe's influence on his
mother determines her decision to spare the stranger.

The relation between environment and character is apparent in
the play. Rufe is strong because of the physical danands of farm
life. The frail, wiry body and wrinkled face of Widow Cagle reflect
her attmts to wrest a living from the land. Her insistence on con-
tinuing the food reveals the values of her society. Rufe's objection
to the feud stuns from his exposure to religious teaching in the
mission school.

The play also exhibits one characteristic associated with .
Romanticism. A strange, supernatural event occurs near the end of
the play. As Widow Cagle prepares to kill the stranger, she hears a
whisper from her dead son, which stops her. None of the other two
characters on stage hear the whisper. They only exchange looks which

1.0

indicate she is mad. The event is apparently supernatural, yet the

 

wlbid., p. 101.2.

262
message whispered to Widow Cagle is a variation of the ideas Rufe
talked to her about before he left for the war. It could be considered
to be a momentary psychological state rather than a truly supernatural

OOWQCO e

zorm Elements

Plot

The plot of §_u_n_§l_p contains traits associated with Realism. Each
of the three acts of the play displays a "structural compactness." The
action is simple and unified. The unity of place is observed in that
all sense take place in the Cagle cabin. The'unity of time is not
maintained; the play covers a period of eight months. Retrospective
exposition is employed in each act and is integrated into the rising
action of the play. In the first act it is used to reveal the circum-
stances of the death of Widow. Cagle's husband and in the third act it
is the means of disclosing Rufe's death in France. "Theatrical
plotting" is avoided; the evmts appear to have a cause and effect re-
lationship. Even the sudden appearance of the stranger is carefully

worked into the plot .

Character

The persons portrayed in the play have attributes of character
associated with Realism. They are numbers of a low class of society.
They are credible, probable people. Two other traits, their im-
portance in the play and the relation of character to environment,
have already been discussed under general characteristics.

263

The social status of the characters is that of the rural lower
class. Their ignorance, lack of sOphistication, and industriousness
are consistent with their level of society.

Widow Cagle is a. credible character because different aspects of
her personality are revealed. She is shrewd in financial matters.

She is "a very positive character, but the tenderness in her nature
shows in spite of her efforts to conceal it."l'l She can be bitter
and angry about the manory of her husband's death. Her credibility
of character is enhanced by the fact that she changes her attitude
about revenge as the result of her experimces, the loss of a son and
his teachings.

Jim Weeks, a relatively minor character, is also a credible
person. He is a deputy sheriff, who prefers to be called "sheriff".
He is a fat, older man who compensates for his appearance by trying to
convince others he is better educated than they. "But now: and then

he forgets, and falls back to the mountain mode of speech."‘l*"z

Language
The dialogue of Sun Up corresponds to that of Realism. It is

written in prose and appears to be natural to the characters and their
positions. It is marked by an imitation of speech patterns and
dialects from the mountains of North Carolina. There are few circum-
loeations of expression; that is, the manner of expression is rather
direct and not repetitive or rambling. Here is an examle:

 

“Did. , pe 10200
urbid.

261..

Bud heared right ones. The sheriff wuz to see me t'other day.

'Pears like a city man has bought the land next to ourn, and

gzéstgfefizgeogz fifiefigspile his view. But I ain't sellin'
Thane

The themes of M correspond to those of Realism. The play

demonstrates a concern for individual human problms as evidenced by
its concentration on the life of Widow Cagle. The idea of responsibil-
ity to family and society is shown in Rufe's willingness to go to war
to discharge his duty as a citizen. When he leaves other mubers of
his wife's family aid Widow Cagle. In its totality, the play has a
humanitarian theme which projects the idea that hate must be replaced
by love if the world is to be "set right." Widow Cagle's refusal to
kill because of her hate for the stranger's family is one step toward
the realisation of this ideal. The mall hatred in North Carolina is
related to the great hatred involved in the war which claims Rufe's

life.

Style of Play
Sun Up exhibits four characteristics of Realism and one of

Romanticism. Its form elunents are all related to the style of
Realism. Since the one romantic characteristic could be justified as
a psychological state, it should not be counted too heavily in the
idntification of the play’s style. From the analysis it is apparent
that the style of the play is related to the dramatic style of Realism.

 

“31mm, p. 1021.

265
Uptown West by Lincoln Osborn

£2.02:

Sakamoto, a native Japanese man who has been educated in
America, remains there to marry Mildred, an American girl. Sakamoto
and Mildred have difficulties in their marriage due to differences
in their cultural backgrounds, but Sakamoto does everything possible
to make the marriage a success. Shortly after the birth of their
son, Mildred is convinced by her sister Florence that her marriage to
Sakamoto won't work out. Florence arranges a meeting betwem Mildred
and Allan Reed, a former frimd of Mildred's. Mildred tells Sakamoto
that she no longer loves him, but loves Allan instead. Then Sakamoto's
son is killed when Mildred leaves him with a neighbor while she goes
out with Allan. Sakamoto, grief—stricken, decides to put an end to .
Mildred and himself. In his darkmed apartment, he mistakes Florence
for Mildred and strangles her. He then takes his own life.“

Gem C c eris ics

Uptown West exhibits four characteristics associated with Real-
ism. It observes a fourth-wall convention throughout the action of
the play. There is an imitation of "the contesporary, inediate world
of man and society. " The elenent of character and the relation between
mironment and character are uphasized.

Modern man and modern society are imitated in the play. The
"uptown west. of the title refers to a part of New York, upper
Manhattan. The Sakamoto family lives in an apartment house. Their

 

“Lincoln Osborn, "Uptown West ," LS, Samel French, New York.

266
son is killed when his bugg is struck by a car. There are refer-
enc es to motion pictures.

The characters are the most inmortant element in the play. It
is their conflicts which provide the interest of the drama. Sakamoto
is torn between two cultures. His Japanese frieMs want him to follow
their traditional ways, but his love for Mildred separates him from
the. Yet he cannot completely understand Mildred's desire for a
more exciting life. Mildred, too, suffers from a conflict between
loving Sakamoto and being accepted by her friends. She can't stand
the serenity of life with Sakamoto. She wants the glamor of life she
believes Florence enjoys. It is the conflict within the characters
rather than the conflict between them which guides the action of the
drama.

The relation between environment and character is the factor
which produces the conflicts of the characters. Sakamoto, although
exposed to American life, cannot escape from the conditioning of his
early years. Mildred is affected in much the same way. She marries
Sakamoto, feeling that love will overcome any obstacles between them.
Her environmental influence proves too strong and she seeks the
company of her own culture. Misunderstanding and tragedy are the
result of the influence of environment on characters in this play.

{om Elments .
Plot
The plot of Up” West contains traits associated with Realism.

The play displays a "structural cmctness" in each of its three

267
acts. The unity of time is broken, but the unities of action and
place are maintained. The drama covers a period of eight months. Its
action is unified in that all events are directly related to the
marital difficulties of the Sakamoto family. All three acts take
place in the Sakamoto apartment.

"Obvious theatrical plotting is avoided." The murder and sui-
cide at the end of the play are carefully prepared for and are not
sudden surprises for sensational effect. Retrospective exposition
is used extensively and is often woven into the rising action of the

play-

Character

The persons portrayed in Upppg West have the attributes of
character associated with Realism. They are drawn from the middle
class. They are credible, probable people. Two other traits, the
importance of the characters to the drama and the emphasis on the re-
lation between character and environment, have already DOC! mentioned
under general characteristics.

The middle-class background of the major characters is estab—
lished by their residence, an apartment, and the occupation of
Sakamoto, a business man. The credibility of the characters is estab-
lished by the presence of varying attributes they display. Sakamoto
is not a stereotype of the Japanese. He .erges as a probable human
being. He is intelligent, quiet, and reserved. His love for Mildred
is seldom declared aloud but shown by his care and devotion. Sakamoto
is most believable in the pride he displays over his son. He even
appears a bit silly in his attentions to him. His acts of murder and

268

suicide, although a result of despair and anger, are undertaken calmly
and with resignation. He is an altogether sympathetic character.
Mildred is equally credible. She is a basically good person who made
a wrong decision. Her romantic ideas about love are changed by the
realities and demands of marriage. She feels remorse in betraying
Sakamoto and deep guilt over her neglect which caused her son's death.
She may be a bit inmature, but she is not immoral or heartless. Both
Sakamoto and Mildred are believable in that they are changed by the

experiences they encounter.

Language
The dialogue of Uptown West resembles that of Realism. It is

written in prose and appears natural to the characters and their
occupations. Some attanpt at imitating the everyday patterns of
speech are apparent in repetitive and incomplete sentences. The
characters are individualized by their upression. Florence uses
more slang than Mildred. Salmmoto and his Japanese friend display a
difference in their accents: Saksmoto's is less obvious. The element
of discussion sometimes associated with Realism exists in the play

in conversations between Sakamoto and his friend. They talk about the
problqn of marriage between people of differing cultural backgrounds.

Thus

The themes of Uptgg West resemble those of Realism. They deal
with individual human probluns, namely those of marriage between
different races. These ideas are treated sympathetically. Over all,
there appears to be a thane of human understanding. In the play, a
lack of human understanding leads to destruction. The play does not

269
imply that cultures cannot merge, but that in present society, it is
difficult.

Style of Pig
Uptown West exhibits four characteristics associated with Real-

ism. All of its form elements, too, correspond to those of Realism.
In view of this analysis, it is apparent that the style of the play
is related to the dramatic style of Realism.

Whispering Wires by Kate McLaurin

man
A hard-driving millionaire, Montgomery Stockbridge, receives a
letter informing him that he will be murdered and that a grave has
already been dug for him. He calls in a squad of private detectives
to protect him. He the: receives a whiSpered telephone message,
telling him he will be killed at midnight. In spite of all precau-
tions, he is shot at midnight while talking on the telephone. There
are several suspects for the meterious crime - his butler, his
private secretary, a young man who wishes to marry his daughter, and
a man he ruined financially. While the detectives try to solve the
crime, another phone call informs Doris, Stockbridge's daughter, that
she will die in the same manner as her father. She is saved from
death when the telephone repairman is discovered to be responsible
for her father's death. The telephone has a small pistol concealed
in it which can be triggered by shouting into a phone on the other

end of the line.“

 

“Kate McLaurin, W (Boston: Walter H. Baker Co.,
1934)-

270
Gweral Characteristics

Whis Wires exhibits two characteristics associated with
Realism. A fourth-wall convention is observed throughout the action
of the play. There is an imitation of "the contemporary, immediate
world of man and society."

Details of the contmnporary world appear in the play which is
set in a time identical with the opening of the play in 1922. Mont-
gomery Stockbridge invests in plans to build a flying boat. New
York's Central Park and Grand Central Station are alluded to.“ The
dependence of the entire story on the technical aspects of the tele-
phone indicate the contenporary nature of the world imitated.

The play also exhibits two characteristics of Romanticism.
There is a "tendency away from actuality'fi and a strong suggestion of
the strange and unusual.

The tendmcy away from actuality is a result of the elanents of
excitement and sensation in the drama, all of which are rmnote from
the common experiences of ordinary men. Woodbridge learns that a
grave awaits him. He receives whispered telephone messages threaten-
ing death. He is shot in a locked and guarded room. Strange men
prowl the halls of the Woodbridge mansion. Lights suddenly black out
and when they come on again a note is discovered pinned to the door
with a knife.“7 Although these events are explained at the conclusion
of the play, their imediate effect is one of the strange and unusual.

 

“has, ppe 11.1, 11.30
”laid” p. 99.

271
flog Elements

Plot

The plot of Whisperi_ng Wires contains traits associated with
Realism. It displays a "structural compactness." The traditional
uniti. are strictly observed. The action is complicated but unified.
All events are related to the commission and solution of the murder.
All three acts take place in the library of the Stockbridge mansion.
The events of the action occur in a period of twenty-four hours.
Retrospective «position is enployed extensively to explain the back-
grounds of the characters and their relation to the deceased. Such
exposition is woven into the rising action of the drama, although
some facts are not revealed until after the climax of the play.

The plot also contains one trait associated with Romanticism.
The plot content is one of excitment, suspense, and smsation. This
should be obvious from the story and the discussion under gmeral

characteristics.

Character

The persons portrayed in Whispering Wires have attributes
associated with Romanticism. They are improbable persons who tmd
to be dramatic types. Montgomery Stockbridge is depicted as a heart-
less tycoon. He delights in the financial ruin of others. He trusts
no one. He is overbearing, abrupt, and rude. There is not one
appeding trait in his entire personality. The only motions he
shows are fear when he is threatened, and anger at a young man who
wants to marry his daughter. The private detective, Drew, is not
evm described plwsically. Nothing is revealed about him but his

272
ability to conduct an investigation. He has an assistant, Jackson,
who cracks jokes and pinches the French maid, Jeanette. Barry McGill
is an Englishman from a bankrupt family. He is only differentiated
from the rest of the characters by, his accent. In brief, the charac-
ters appear to be a means of revealing an exciting plot. They do not

scan to be credible, probable persons.

Language

The dialogue of Whispering Wires corresponds to that of Realism.
It is written in prose and appears natural to the characters and their
positions. Although the dialogue has the general sound of everyday
speech, it does not serve to distinguish characters from one another
except in the obvious accents of McGill and Jeanette.

Thane

The theme of Whispering Wires corresponds to one of Romanticism.
There is no concern in the play with problems of contaporary society.
The only apparent thus is that of moral Justice. The man who
arranged for Woodbridge's murder did so because he believed that
Woodbridge cheated him in a business transaction. He is arrested at
the end of the play. McGill is need of suspicion and is engaged to
Doris. The evil are punished and the good are rewarded.

Style of Play
Whispering Wires exhibits two characteristics associated with

Realism and two associated with Romanticism. The form elanmt of
plot has both realistic and romantic traits. The form element of
language is related to Realism. The form elements of character and

273
theme are related to Romanticimn. While characteristics and form
elements are almost evenly divided between Realism and Romanticism,
the play is too improbable to be truly realistic. The presence of
realistic elements in a basically romantic drama indicates that the
style of the play is related to the dramatic style of "secondhand"
Romanticism.

SW of the 1222-1223 Season

Analyses of the ten selected "successful," serious plays from
the Broadway theatrical season of 1922-1923 revealed that in regard

to style four plays (The £001, Icebound, M, and Uptog West)
were written in a style related to Realism, four plays (Hp—182m
W333, The Last Wang g, Q, and It is the Law) were written in a
style related to Romanticism, and two plays (The Addi_1_1g Machine and
Roger Bloomer) were written in a style related to Expressionism. No
other dramatic styles were represented in the selected plays of this
season.

Characteristics and form elements associated with Romanticism
are evident in two of the four realistic plays. The zoo; by Channing
Pollock includes the appearance of the strange or unusual and exhibits
a romantic structure in its plot. Lula Vollmer's S_u_r_1_Qp also enploys
an incident of the strange or unusual.

0n the other hand, characteristics associated with Realism are
evident in all of the romantic plays. All four demonstrate an adher-
ence to the fourth-wall convention. They also are alike in their
attmnpt to imitate contemporary man and society. The elenent of

language in each of the four plays corresponds to Realism. They are

27h
mainly romantic in their characteristics and in the form elments of
character and theme. The combination of realistic and romantic ele-
ments reveals a correspondence between these four plays and the
dramatic style of "secondhand" Romanticism.

The two plays related to Expressionism correspond to all the
characteristics and form elanmts of that style. Both contain themes
related to Activist Expressionism, but Roger Bloomer by John Howard
Lawson also included a thmne associated with Mystic Expressionism.

CHAPTERXI

TEE BROADWAY THEATRICAL SEASON 0F 1925-1926

Play Selection
Two hundred and thirty-nine full-length plays Opened on Broad-

way in the theatrical season of 1925-1926.1 Out of this total, one
hundred and fourteen were comedies, msical comedies, or revues. As
such they are not a concern of this study, nor are the forty—one
adaptations or translations of foreign dramas which appeared in this
season. Sixteen revivals of drama from earlier seasons or drastic
periods also were presented. The remainder of the plays in this
season were serious dramas written by American or foreign authors and
intended for original production on Broadway. However, out of a total
of sixty-eight of these plays, fifty-six ran less than one hundred
performances and did not receive favorable reviews at the time of
their Openings, nor any significant critical recognition since that
time.

Thus, twelve plays fit the standards of selection Operative in
this study. Eight of them ran over one hundred performances during

the season. Three of them, The kids of the Q, .Kpngp, and M
Turtle, ran over fifty performances and received favorable reviews at

lBurns Mantle, ed. 'r e Best P o l 2 - 26 (New York:
Dodd, Mead and Co., 19265, pp. 1.1' 5:310.

275

 

276
the time of their original productions. One play, gcg San McCfler,
ran only twenty-nine performances, but is included as a "successful"
play on the basis of its recognition as a representative American play
in an anthology edited by Montrose J. Moses.2
The plays which are analysed in the next section of this chapter

are as follows :

The Bride of the Lab by William Hurlbut
Craig's Wife by George Kelly
The Eng by Channing Pollock

The Great Gatsg by Owen Davis
The Great God Brown by Eugene O'Neill

The Green Hat by Michael Arlen

{(91532 by Chester DeVonde and Kilboum Gordon
Lucg SE HeCarver by Sidney Howard

Lulu Belle by Edward Sheldon and Charles MacArthur
The Mud Turtle by Elliot Lester

SMai Gesture by John Colton
Twelve Miles Out by William A. McGuire

St listic es 0 P s
The Bride of the Lab by William Hurlbut

Stog
In a small town in the midwestern United States, Ina Batman leads

an uneventful life troubled only by her husband's developing alcoholism.

2Montrose J. Moses, ed. , R resentative American Dr 3 (revised
ed. ; Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1941;, pp. 673-720.

 

277
One Sunday afternoon the local minister brings Reverend Albaugh, a
traveling evangelist, to her home to ask permission to use some land
owned by her husband for the erection of a tent to house revival meet-
ings. The Bowmans not only give their permission, but also invite the
Reverend Albaugh to be a guest in their home during his stay in town.
Ins and her daughter, Verna, attend the revival meetings. Albaugh's
preaching develops an almost hysterical religious feeling in Ina, a
feeling related to her physical attraction to him. The confusion of
religious and semal feelings leads her to plead with him to take her
with him on his revival tour. He refuses because she is married.
She breaks down in a state of lusteria, and "allows" Albaugh to seduce
her. Her mental unbalance leads her to kill her husband with poison
so that she will be free to follow Albaugh. She no more than finishes
committing the crime when a woman arrives at her house and announces
that she is Albaugh's wife. When Albaugh is confronted by the woman,
he admits that he is married. The shock of this betrayal and the dis-
covery of her act Of murder cause Ina's final mental decline. While
she is being taken away by the sheriff, she wears a veil, carries an
imaginary bouquet, and announces that her imaginary "groom" is Jesus.
Ina becomes the Bride of the Lamb.3

General Characteristics
The Bride of the w exhibits four characteristics associated
with Realism. It observes a fourth-lull convention throughout the

action of the play. ‘ There is an imitation of "the contuporary,

 

3w111m Hurlbut, The Bride 0; the Lamb (New York: Boni and
Liveright, 1926).

278
imediate world of run and society." The element of character and
the relation betwem character and environment are emphasized.

The contemporary world is suggested by the inclusion of details
from everyday life in an American home. In Act I, Ina dusts the
furniture, chides her husband for not going to church, gosspis with
neighbors who drop in, listens to accounts of current motion pictures
showing in town, and prepares the Sunday dinner}

The element of character is emphasized in the play. The plot
is devoted to revealing the mental destruction of Ina Batman. Its
events are selected to show the stages of her developnmt from a
rather ordinary woman into a demented religious fanatic. Her inner
conflicts providethe center of interest in the drama.

The relationship between character and environment is apparent
in the play. Ina is initially attracted to Reverend Albaugh because
he represents an excitement that is lacking in the stultifying en-
vironment of her life with Roy, her alcoholic husband. The wish to
escape from this aistmce is established in a scene in which Ina
daydreams aloud to her daughter.5 It is also reflected in the atten-
tion Ina pays to a neighbor who tells about the plots of adventurous
motion pictures she has seen.6 Ina's mental collapse may be inter-
preted as a result of the inability to reconcile her sensual passion
with the religious mores of her background. The influence of environ-
ment is also apparent in the character of Albaugh. His success in
evangelism, his superficial charm, and his commanding voice stem from
his years as a carnival and vaudeville performer. His morality, too,

 

thide, ppe 5‘28e SIbige, ppe 112-1+3. 611$” ppe 25.28e

279
is evidently based on this earlier environment.

Eorm Elemmts

Plot

The plot of The Bride of the Lamb contains traits associated
with Realism. It displays a "structural compactness" in each of its
three acts. It does not Observe the unity of time, however, since
the action of the play covers a period of one week. The simple action
of the plot is unified. The unity or place is strictly observed in
that all three acts are set in the living room of the Ball-an home.

The use of contemporary story material and retrospective en:-
position also indicate a realistic plot. The exposition is woven in-
to the rising action and reveals not only the happenings between
acts, but discloses details from the rather distant past of the
characters. Generally, the play avoids obvious plotting. The only
exception is the sudden appearance of Albaugh's supposedly dead wife.
However, her explanation Of her surprising arrival is logically and
carefully explained. It is a plausible action.

Character

The persons portrayed in The Bride of the Lamb have attributes
of character associated with Realism. They are drawn from the middle
class. They are credible, probable people who are complex in their
traits of personality. Two other traits, the importance of the char-
acters to the action of the play and the relation Of environment and
character, have already been mentioned under general characteristics.

The plausibility of the characters is illustrated in the person

280
of Ina Bowman. When she first appears in the play, she seems to be
an ordinary housewife. She cleans, cooks, and is concerned over her
daughter's social behavior. She relieves the dull routine of her
life with daydreams and an interest in romantic motion pictures.
Another side of her personality is revealed in her developing interest
in the Reverend Albaugh. Her long-repressed sensual nature becomes
apparent. Yet she hides this instinct from herself by sublimating it
into religious ecstasy. Finally, a finances in her character is
shown in the desire to go with Albaugh in spite Of any obstacles.
Ina Bowman appears credible in her initial traits of commonness, but
through her actions reveals a complexity of personality.

Language

The dialogue of The Bride of go Lamb corresponds to that of
Realism. It is written in prose and appears natural to the charac-
ters and their positions. Colloquial expressions and use of grammar
effectively suggest middle western American speech. Minor distinc-
tions between characters are conveyed through dialogue. Ina's
husband, Roy, reveals the influence of his college education in his
espression which is more grammatically correct than that of the other
characters. Reverend Albaugh employs nary quotes from the Bible in
his speech, but usually speaks in a convincing imitation of everyday

language.

Thale

The theses of The Bride of the Lamb correspond to those of
Realism. There is a sympathetic concern for the problens of indi-
viduals. Ina Bowman's need for a fuller life and her betrayal in

281
attenpting to achieve it indicate this concern. The play also pro-

Jects an involvement in the idea of social reSponsibility. The con-
version to faith by over-emotional means is shown to be destructive.
The play does not attack religion, but it does demonstrate a concern
for the effects of faith untempered by rationality. The subject Of
sex and its influence on individuals is a major theme and indicates a

relation to the themes of Realism.

Style of Play
The Bride of the lamb exhibits four characteristics associated

with Realism. All of its form elenalts correspond to those of the
same style. It is apparent that the style of the play is related to
the dramatic style of Realism.

Orgig’ 's Wg’ e by George Kelly

Stog
Harriet Craig's marriage to Walter Craig is not founded on any

deep love for the man. Her memories of a childhood spent with a step-
mother have driven her to seek security and to make her house the
center of her life. All of her actions are selfish and are aimed at
preserving her social reputation and the permanence of her home.

While she is absent visiting her sister, Walter becomes innocently
and only incidentally involved in a scandalous murder. For her own
sake, she secretly attenpts to hide his connection with the crime in
order to keep his name out of the newspapers, thus avoiding aw damage
to her reputation. Walter's discovery of her action also reveals to
him that it is his house and the security he offers that Harriet wants

and not him. He arranges to give her the house and leaves her

282
forever. As the play ends, she is deserted by everyone and left alone
7

in her house.

Gener C cteristics

Cragg‘ 's Wife exhibits four characteristics associated with
Realism. A fourth-wall convention is Observed throughout the play.
There is an imitation of "the contanporary, immediate world of man
and society." The elanent of character is enphasized and the rela-
tionship between character and enviromnent is apparent.

The contenporary world is suggested by the inclusion of such
details as telephones and newspapers, both of which figure in the
action of the drama. Harriet wants to keep Walter's name out of the
newspapers. Her phone call to a residence 'in which a murder took
place is traced by the police. In addition, the appearance or nation
of cigarettes, automobiles, and plain-clothes detectives indicates
that the background of the play is the imediate one of the twentieth
century.

The emphasis on the element of character in the play is carried
to the point that the drama appears to be a character study of Harriet
Craig. There is little in the play that does not relate to her or
her selfish concern for security. The very title of the play indi-
cates the importance of Harriet Craig's personality.

The relationship between character and environment is daon-
strated in two ways. First, Harriet's desire to control home and
husband arises from her experiences before adulthood. In a discussion

 

) 7George Kelly, Cragg’ '5 Wife (Boston: Little, Brown, and Co.,
1926 .

283
with Walter she clearly states the influence of these experiences
and adds, "I saw what happened to nw own mother, and I made up nw
mind it 'ud never happen to me."8 Second, Harriet's character deter-
mines the environment of her home. The house itself "reflects the

excellent taste and fanatical orderliness of its mistress."9

Eorm Elements

Plot

The plot of Craig's Wife contains traits associated with Real-
ism. A "structural compactness" is apparent. The play conforms
strictly to the unities of action, time, and place. The action is
only slightly complicated by Walter's involvement in the investiga-
tion of a crime and romance between Harriet's niece and a young
professor. Unity of action is maintained, however. The investiga-
tion of the crime is used to reveal Harriet's true character to
Walter. Her interference in the niece's rmance is a means to
demonstrate the depth of Harriet's feelings about security. The
unity of time is observed; "the entire action of the play transpires
between five-thirty in the evening and nine o'clock the following
morning."lo The unity of place is maintained in that all three acts
are set in the living room of Walter Craig's house.

The "structural compactness" is aided by an extensive use of
retrospective exposition which accompanies the rising action of the

play. It is in this manner that the reasons for Harriet's behavior

 

8.113%" Do 1230 91bide, pe 1e
mum.

283A

are revealed. The revelation of her childhood environmmt appears
in the climax of the play, the point when Walter decides to leave
Harriet. For a moment, her past and future are revealed side by side.

As in Realism, obvious plotting is avoided. The details of
Walter's incidental involvenent in a murder are explained early in
the play and are not used for purposes of surprise or suspense.
Careful preparation and cause-and-effect logic are evident in the

plOt 0

Character

The persons portrayed in Craig’s Wifie have attributes of char-
acter associated with Realism. They are credible, probable people
who are relatively complex in personality. Two other traits, the
importance of the characters to the play and the relationship between
character and environment, have already been discussed under general
characteristics.

The fact that Harriet Craig is unlikable and in some ways
frightening does not detract from her credibility as a character.
Although the author does not offer a description of her pkgsical
appearance, he provides several incidents which reveal different as-
pects of her personality. That she is efficient, orderly, and denand-
ing is established by the manner in which she handles her servants and
the household accounts. Her apparent love for her husband is shown
by her concern over his relation to a murder. She appears to be kind
in her conversations with her niece. An argument with Walter's aunt
reveals mental agility and firmness in Harriet's character. These

various traits are all related to one motive, the securing of Harriet's

28!»
future. This consistmcy of motivation and its varying results give
Harriet Craig the appearance of credibility as a character.

Walter Craig is also a probable person who is close to the norm
in outlook and behavior. He reacts plausibly in attenpting to dis—
associate his name from a murder scandal. It is also plausible that
fear of arousing unnecessary suspicion leads him to go to the police
and explain his connection with the crime. He reveals a dimension-
ality of character in his love for Harriet. His refinement and out-
ward calm prevent him from making overt gestures of his love. Rather
he shows his love in following Harriet's desires. Iet he refuses to
be "one of those wife-ridden sheep that's afraid to buy a necktie for
fear his wife might not approve of it."n When he is finally aware
that Harriet plans to turn him into such a "sheep," his hidden roman—
tic beliefs in individuality and love lead him to separate from her.
His pleasant exterior hides a fimess and sensitivity Harriet is
unaware of. He, like Harriet, is a complex and strongly motivated

personality.

Language

The dialogue of Craig° 's Wite corresponds to that of Realism.
It is written in prose and appears natural to the characters and
their positions. Through the use of language, a difference in social
level of characters is established. The two female servants are more
colloquial in their speech than are the rest of the more educated
maubers of the Craig household. The element of discussion which is

 

llIbide , pe 121e

285
associated with Realism permeates the entire play. The place of
women in modern society is the subject of one conversation betwem
Harriet and her niece.12 Walter and Harriet discuss the need for

truth and honesty in marriage in a scale near the end of play.13

Theme

The themes of Craig's Wife correspond to those of Realism.
They demonstrate a concern for individual human problems, namely, a
woman's search for security. There is also the these of family
responsibility, the necessity of trusting one another in marriage.
These two themes may also be considered as a reflection of a broader
social problan inherent in the changing role of women in society.
The playwright indicates that Harriet's solution to the problen of

security may be symptomatic of an attitude in many women.“

Style of Play
Craig '3 Wife exhibits four characteristics associated with

Realism. Its form elements all correspond to those of the same
style. It is clear from this analysis that the style of the play is

related to the dramtic style of Realism.

The Ene_n§[ by Charming Pollock

Stag
The play is set in Professor Arndt's flat in Vienna and covers

a period of time coinciding with World War I. The action begins on

June 28, 1911., and concludes in June of 1919. In general, the play

 

129m” pp. 16-19. 13Ibid., pp. 167-70. l4mm” pp. 125-26.

286
deals with the effects of war and hate on human character.

Act I shows family life in the Arndt apartment just before the
outbreak of the war. Professor Arndt teaches at a university. His
daughter, Pauli, is loved by two men. One, Carl Behrend, is attempt-
ing to become established as a playwright; the other, Bruce Gordon,
is a graduate student from England. Carl is reluctant to prOpose to
Pauli because his future as a playwright is uncertain. Although
Bruce loves Pauli himself, he encourages Carl to propose. Carl does
so and Pauli accepts. This happy event is interrupted by the news
of the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand in Serbia, which marks the
beginning of World War I.

In Act II, three months later, Carl and Pauli are married and
living in the Arndt apartment. The effects of the war are already
being felt in the family. The professor is in trouble with the
university because of his pacifist views. Carl's father, August
Behrmd, is beginning to make large profits from his farm. He argues
with the professor about the war. Bruce Gordon, who has not yet left
Austria, drops infor a visit but is insulted and sent away because
he is an Englishman and the English have entered the war. Carl has
been drafted into the army as an officer and leaves for the frontas
the act ends.

In Act III, which takes place in March of 1917, the Arndt
apartment is again the setting. The professor has been dismissed
from his position. The family is suffering from poverty. The baby
son of Pauli and Carl is ill. Inflation has made the professor's
savings useless. August Behrend comes to see his grandson and again

argues with the professor about the morality of the war which is

287
.making August a rather rich man. A soldier bursts in and announces
Carl's death in battle. Pauli's grief is doubled when her baby dies,
too.

In Act IV it is June of 1919. The war is over and the Arndt
family is beginning to recover financially and emotionally. Bruce
Gordon returns and offers his sympathies to Pauli and prOposes to her.
She refuses in order to remain true to her love for the deceased Carl.
Once again, August Behrend pays a visit and the debate with Professor
Arndt is resumed. Bruce and Pauli discuss the Joys of peace, but in

the background children are beating drums and playing at war.15

General Characteristics

The Enggy exhibits four characteristics associated with Realism.
A fourthawall convention is observed throughout the action of the
play. There is an imitation of "the contanporary, imediate world of
man and society." The element of character and the relationship be-
tween environment and character are emphasized.

Although The En , produced in 1925, depicts the period of
Werld war I, it can be considered an imitation of the contemporary
world. Many of the actual dates and events of the war are mentioned
in the story. The experiences of the characters are common in any
real war environment. Objects used or mentioned in the play suggest
the modern world. A few examples are typewriters, electric lights,
newspapers, and automobiles.

The element of character is emphasized. The playwright employs

 

15Channing Pollock, The Eng (New York: Brentano's, 1925).

288
his characters to denonstrate his theme of war and hatred. He draws
them as plausible peOple who suffer fr0m the effects of aggression.
He also shows that the attitudes which lead to war are present in
individuals. It is the characters' reactions to events beyond their
control which provides interest in the drama.

An interrelationship between character and environment is
established in the play. The general war environment results in
changes in the actions of characters. Carl turns from the arts to
battle. August Behrend becomes a selfish materialist. Poverty
tempers the idealism of Professor Arndt. The immediate environment
of the Arndt apartment reflects the changes in the characters' lives.
Tasteful art objects and small items of luxury apparent in the first
act disappear from the setting as poverty makes it necessary to sell

them.16

.Esmsifilssssis

Plot

The plot of The Eng contains traits associated with Romanti—
cism. The play is loose in its treatment of the traditional unities.
Although the unity of place is preserved -- all scenes take place in
the Arndt apartment -- the unity of time is broken by the depiction of
events which cover five years. The action of the play is unified in
that all events have a bearing on the war and its effects on the
characters. This unity of action is eactrenely complicated, however.
The relation between Carl, Pauli, and Bruce, and the continuing

 

léIbid., p. 1.

289
conflict between August Behrend and Professor Arndt are almost equal
in interest. Subplots complicate the action further. A loan made
by Professor Arndt to a former servant is used to reveal the problm
of inflation in Austria. The problen of a neighbor whose career as
a newspaperman is affected by fluctuating attitudes toward the war
also comprises a part of the action.

The play has an early point of attack and follows a chronological
structure. The story unfolds in action, and narrative exposition is
usually anployed early in scales to disclose the happenings between
acts.

Unlike many plots in Romanticism, the plot of The Eng does
not appear as "a series of thrills presmted in a rapid melodramatic
manner." However, some thrills and melodrama are apparent inthe
mdings of the first three acts. Act I ends with the news of the
assassination that triggers off the war. Act II made with Carl's
departure for the front. Act III ends with the disclosure of the
deaths of both Carl and his son. Such incidents as these are not
prevalent enough in the action to justify calling than "a series of
thrills ," yet they are too obviously plotted to be convincing as

realistic action.

Character

The persons portrayed in The Eng have attributes of character
associated with Realism. They are drawn from the middle class. They
are credible, probable people who display a complexity of personality.
Two other traits, the importance of character to the drama and the
relation between character and environment, have already been

290
discussed under general characteristics.

The characters appear to be credible, probable people. Pro-
fessor Arndt has unpopular pacifist views. ,His idealism.is apparent,
but he only espouses thoughts. He does not take action. His intelli-
gence and objectivity in discussion appear to be natural to him.and
his profession. However, he can lose his objectivity rapidly when he
is involved personally in.matters. He is shown as a family'man'who
enjoys his pipe and takes pride in his grandson. August Behrend is
not a particularly admirable man, but he is credible in his views and
actions. He is a rather common man who takes advantage of the war to
make money. He is not troubled about the morality of his actions.

To himself, he is a good man who is helping his struggling country.
He cannot understand why the Professor refuses the offer of a loan
because the money offered is gained from the selling of wheat to the
army.

The complex nature of two characters should be apparent from
the discussion immediately above. In addition, Carl Behrend demon-
strates a complexity offpersonality in his character. His interest in
writing almost prevents him from marrying Pauli because he feels he
will not be able to provide an adequate living for her. Although.he
is idealistic about his writing, he is realistic about what such a
career means. When he writes a pacifist drama, the idealism he dis-
plays in the play does not carry over into his efforts to get the
play accepted and produced. He is willing to change the ending to
please a producer. The fear of war and death nearly reduce him to
hysteria and cowardice, but he goes into the war anyway. The account

of his death indicates he was a brave officer. His last actual

291
appearance in the play shows that his humanitarian, pacifist

idealism has been supplanted by nationalism and militant patriotism.

Language
The dialogue in The Eng correSponds to that of Realism. It

is written in prose and appears to be natural to the characters and
their positions. Professor Arndt is appropriately the most eloquent
speaker in the play. August Behrend is prone to express himself at
times in trite phrases or slogans. The characters in general speak a.
language which appears to imitate ordinary speech. The element of
discussion associated with language in Realism is obviously appaer
in the play. There is a continuing debate throughout the play be-
tween Professor Arndt and August Behrend over the subject of war.

The same ideas are brought up in discussions between other characters.
In many ways, the play is a dramatized discussion of the folly of war
and the need for love among mankind.

Theme

The themes of The Eng correspond to those of Realism. They
display a 'hmanitarian concern" for contanporary man and society.
The subjects of war and hate are presented again and again as evi-
dence of this concern. The moral blindness of unreasoned patriotism
is dealt with. The question of profit from human disaster is present.
The title indicates the major thane of the play, the enemy is hatred.

Overall, the element of thane is emphasized in The Eng.

Style of Pg:
The Eng exhibits four characteristics of Realism. The

 

 

 

 

292
elemmt of plot corresponds to Romanticism, but the other three form
elements are related to Realism. Although the traits of Romanticism
apparent in the plot call attention to the manipulation of action,
they do not outweigh the general characteristics of the play nor the
importance of the element of theme. While special note must be taken
of the influence of Romanticism in the play, it appears that the style
of The Eng is related to the dramatic style of Realism.

The (heat Betsy by Owen Davis

Story
While he is a soldier stationed in Louisville, Kentucky, in

1917, Jay Gatsby meets and falls in love with Daisy Fay. They have
anaffair and she promises to marry him when he returns from the war.
During his absence, Daisy is compelled to marry the wealthy Tom
Buchanan. Upon Gatsby's return, he discovers he has lost Daisy to a
rich man and sets about to win her back. He becomes a bootlegger in
order to attain the wealth necessary to make him socially equal to
Daisy. He does become wealthy, but Daisy will not divorce her
husband. Instead she offers to become Jay's mistress. He refuses,
and before any further attempts can be made to make Daisy marry him,
Jay is killed by a chauffeur who mistakenly believes Jay is having an

affair with his wife}7

Generg Characteristics
The Great Gatsg exhibits four characteristics associated with

Realism. A fourth-wall convention is observed throughout the action

 

l7Owen Davis, "The (heat Gatsby,"MS, New York: Samuel French, n.d.

293
of the play. There is an imitation of "the contanporary, immediate
world of man and society." The element of character and the relation
between character and environment are emphasized.

The contemporary, immediate nature of the world imitated in the
drama is established by the time of the play and by their actions.
Except for the prologue to the play, the events of the play occur in
1925, just one year before its production on Broadway. Actual geo-
graphical locations like Louisville, Kentucky, and Long Island, New
York, are the settings of the play. The fact that Jay Gatsby is a
bootlegger establishes the play as contemporaneous with the Prohibi-
tion era.

The element of character provides the major interest in the
play. Jay Gatsby's attempt to realize the dreams of his youth by
being a member of high society is one part of’ this interest, as is
the nature of the love affair between Daisy and Jay and the conflicts
it arouses. It is the motivation of the characters and their con-
flicts with each other which guide and determine the action of the
plot.

The concept of environmental influence on character is damn-
strated in the play in the characters of Daisy and Jay. Gatsby's
drive to live among the rich and privileged is prompted by his life
as a boy. He was not entirely a deprived youth, but he was made
aware that some people lived a much better life. Daisy is also in-
fluenced by the level of culture from which she comes. Although she
loves Jay, she cannot give up her social position with Tom and bear
the Opinions others would have of her if she married a social-

climbing bootlegger. The influmce of her social environmwt will

29h
not allow her to do anything that is not outwardly acceptable. Her
offer to become Jay's mistress is consistent with the mores of her
Special world.

The Great Gatsgy also exhibits characteristics associated with
Romanticism, There is "a tendency away from.actuality in the play"
and a rebellion against the strictures of a social code.

i The tendency away from.actuality is fostered by’a remoteness
in culture from.ordinary human experience. Except for the prologue,
the play deals with life in a wealthy social climate. Although this
world is depicted credibly through the use of realistic details, it
does not seem.to be a real world. Except for Daisy and Gatsby, the
characters are rather shallow; They wear evening clothes to elegant
parties and say clever things. They represent an idealized world
that one would like to attain but seldom.does.

Jay Gatsby's turn to bootlegging in order to gain the wealth
to attract Daisy is an example of a rebellion against the society
depicted in the play. His attempts to get her tordivorce her
husband and.marry him.is another aspect of this rebellion. The fact
that Gatsby is unsuccessful does not affect the presence of this
romantic characteristic in the play. His fight against the social
code which keeps him from Daisy is the important factor.

EormuElements

Plot
The plot of The Great Gutsy: contains traits associated with
Romanticism. It is "loose" in its overall structure. The action of

the play is simple and unified. However, the unity of'place is

295
ignored as the play shifts from Kentucky to a cottage and the
library of Gatsby's home on long Island. In addition, the unity of
time is broken by an eight year time lapse between the prologue and
Act I, a time lapse of a week between Act I and Act II, and a ten-
day time lapse between Act II and Act III.

As in Romanticism, the plot displays an early point of attack
and follows a chronological structure. Narrative exposition is
presmt in the plot, but functions mainly to reveal the events that
transpire between acts. The use of the prologue is particularly

indicative of Romanticism in the plot.

Character

The persons portrayed in The (beat gtspy have attributes of
character associated with Romanticism. Aside from Gatsby and Daisy,
the characters tend to be two-dimensional and shallow. While they
are not stock dramatic types, they are also not entirely believable
people.

Gatsby and Daisy are reminiscent of the complex characters
found in "historical" Romanticism. "They are recognizable human
types but are removed from ordinary human experience." Gatsby most
resanbles the "outcast from society." He suffers from a wrong done
to him in his past, the marriage of Daisy to another man. He is in
revolt against the society which wronged him. He displays states of
ennui and melancholy, because his attainment of wealth has not brought
him happiness or the woman he loves. Daisy appears to be a romantic
figure because she is the victim of an emotional state connected with
love. Her willingness to enter into adultery with Gatsby also suggests

296
a relation to romantic female characters.
Finally, she displays a prediliction toward self-pity, a

fondness for telling of her mental sufferings.

Language

The dialogue of The Great Gatsz correSponds to that of Real-
ism. It is written in prose and appears natural to the characters
and their positions. It attempts to imitate the speech of everyday
life. Some use of slang associated with the Prohibition era is
evident. However, the dialogue does not greatly aid in individual-
izing characters. The element of discussion sometimes associated

with Realism is not present to any marked degree.

Thane

The themes of The Great Gatsm primarily correSpond to those of
Romanticism. There is a theme of nostalgia in Jay Gatsby's desire
to live according to his dream of being an equal in Daisy's social
world. This is coupled with the theme of rebellion against the code
of that social world. Above all, the play relates a love story in
which characters suffer from an unrequited love, a love denied by
the world around tha.

The themes of the play secondarily correspond to those of
Realism. There is a projection of the shallowness of wealthy society.
The drama also deals with the rather trite idea that money does not
buy happiness. Gatsby's wealth cannot compensate for his life without

Daisy.

297

Style of Play

The Great Gatsby exhibits four characteristics of Realism and
two. cf Romanticism. The form element of language corresponds to
Realism, but the form elemmts of plot and character are related to
Romanticism. The thence of the play. are primarily romantic but
there is some evidence of a relation to themes of Realism. In spite
of the fact that four characteristics of Realism have been identified,
the play appears to be basically romantic. Although the element of
character is emphasized, as it is in Realism, the characters are
primarih romantic. The influence of environment, another realistic
trait, serves to add to the complexity of romantic characterization.
The presence of realistic elenents in a basically romantic drama
leads to the conclusion that the style of the play is related to the

dramatic style of "secondhand" Romanticism.

The Great God Brown by Eugeie O'Neill

item
Dion Anthemr is an artistic person who is divided betweai pagan

and spiritual impulses. He hides his inner toments behind a mocking
and defiant outward personality. A young girl, Margaret, falls in
love with the outer personality and chooses to marry Dion in prefer-
ence to another lifelong friend, William A. Bram. After seven years
of marriage, Dion is the father of three sons, but is unhappy because
he has failed as an artist. His frustrations lead to dissipation.
Margaret arranges for Dion to work for Brown, who is now an architect.
Dion makes Brown's business even more successful, but he continues to

be inwardly tormented and declines in health. Brown still desires

 

 

$0.4m...

298
Margaret and when Dion dies in his home, Brown hides the body and
assmnes the identity of Dion. He then attempts to live the life of
two people. The strain of this dual role begins to destroy Brown,
for he too begins to suffer the torments that afflicted Dion. To
Margaret, he appears to be Dion. To the men in his office, he appears
to be Brown. He plans to finish the plans for one more building and
then arrange matters so that his identity as Brown will be destroyed.
He will sign his business over to the identity of Dion and eradicate
his identity as Brown by making it appear that Brown dies abroad. He
will then be only Dion and can carry on his life with Margaret. The
plan is only partially carried out when the complications of it and
Brown's dual identity create a situation in which it seems that Dion
has killed Brown. He is pursued by the police and killed in his home.
Margaret lives on with three grown sons and remains true to the

muories of Dion.18

Genera Characteristics
The Great God Brown exhibits four characteristics associated with

Expressionism. It projects subjective inner conflicts of personality
in a concrete form. It has a dream-like quality. Elements of the
play are sometimes distorted and exaggerated. Symbols are uployed
in the play.

The projection of thoughts and feelings frolthe inner mind is
obvious in this play. Through the use of masks, many of the characters
present two sides of their personalities. The mask represents the

outward aspects of the character, the person seen as others see him.

 

laEugene O'Neill, The Great God Brown, The fountain The Moon
of the Caribees and Other Plgs ZBoni and Liveright, 19265.

 

#1

299

When the mask is not worn, the character expresses his subjective
thoughts. For example, in the prologue Dion wears a mask eith "the
expression of a mocking, reckless, defiant, gajly scoffing and sensual
young Pan" which covers his own face, a face described as "dark,
spiritual, poetic, passionately supersensitive, helplessly unprotected
in its childlike, religious faith."l9 With the mask on he taunts his
parents and makes light of their plans for his college education.
When he is alone, he ranoves the mask and then expresses his inward
torment:

Why am I afraid of love, I who love love; Why am I afraid, I

who am not afraid; Why must I pretend to scorn in order to

pity? Why must I hide myself in self-contempt in order to

understand? Whgomust I be so ashamed of‘my strength, so proud

of nw weakness?

While the play has a confused but recognizable story, it exhibits
a dream-like quality in presenting it. The twelve scenes of the play
are set in six different locations and cover a period of over eighteen
years. This episodic structure is not dream-like in itself; however,
the frequent shifts in place and time, together with other elements in
the play do suggest a dream rather than reality.

One of the other elements in the play which furthers the dream-
like quality is the use of distortion and exaggeration. The mask con-
vention is one example of this element in the play. Another is the
description of the backgrounds of the scenes. No matter what the
location of the scene, the furniture arrangement is the same and

suggest a “court-room effect."2'l Distortion and exaggeration are also

 

. 20
19Me, pa ll... Ibge, Fe 200
albide, Fe 260

300

apparent in the action of the play. In the first scene of Act IV,
Brown changes back and ferth from.his own identity to that of Dion
several times in rapid succession.22

Symbols are used extensively in the play. The characters them,
selves are symbolic. Dion Anthony represents pagan and Christian
attitudes in conflict. Dion stands for Dionysus and Anthony for Saint
Anthony. The name William.A. Brown.indicates the average and common
nature of the character. Cybel, a prostitute on the empirical level
of the play, is named after a nature goddess. She represents earthi-
ness and sensuality. She is even called ”Mother Earth" at one point
in the play.23 Objects and sounds also are present as symbols.
Cybel's parlor contains a cheap alarm clock and an automatic piano
which plays the same sentimental medley of "'Mother - Mammy”

24

tunes. They represent the ideas of time and birth or motherhood.

Form.Elements

Plot
The plot of The Great God Brown contains traits associated with
Expressionism. It employs an episodic, narrative approach and follows
the life-story of a protagonist. It also deals with the revelation
and repetition of themes. Another trait, the frequent shifting of
place and time, has already been mentioned under general characteristics.
The twelve scenes of the play indicate the epic nature of its

plot. The point of attack is early and follows the experiences and

 

22Ibide, ppe m-we ZBIbide' Po 50
2l"Ibid., p. 39.

 

301

conflicts of Dion Anthony. True, there are two protagonists in the
play, Dion and Brown. This use of a double protagonist points out
the thematic concern of the play in that when Brown takes over the
identity of Dion, he too is troubled by the same conflicts of the
creative personality. Although Dion dies pmsically, his spiritual
aspects are important to the play until the very end, when Margaret
places a "timeless kiss" on the mask which represents Dion."25

The plot resenbles those of Expressionism in its tendency to
ignore preparation and exposition. It deals with the crucial events

in the lives of Dion and Brown. It concentrates on moments of: crisis

and climax.

Character .

The persons portrayed in The Great God Brown have attributes of
character associated with Expressionism. They tend toward abstract
personification. They are not conventionally motivated, and appear as
a projection of the subjective mind of the author. To some degree,
characters in the drama represent counterpoints to or variations of
the protagonist.

The abstract or personified nature of the characters is sug-
gested in their symbolic names. Such names suggest a number of mean-
ings and serve to emphasize the fact that the characters are not
imitations of real people from the empirical world, at least not in
terms of their outer aspects of personality. The names tend generally
to identify the function of the character in relation to the ideas of
the play. The lives of Dion Anthorq and William A. Brown are not as

 

ZBIbide, pe 98o

v‘.‘

 

302

important as the ideas their actions represent or suggest. They are
not independently motivated in the traditional, conventional sense of
the word. O'Neill's view of the creative personality guides the move-
ment of the characters.

Although the play is not clear in all of its efforts to relate
Dion and Brown, it does suggest that rather than being separate char-
acters, they are manifestations of one character or at least are most
meaningful when viewed as complanentary aspects of mankind. Brown
represents traits lacking in Dion which would make him an effective
being. On the other hand, Dion's traits are equally lacking in Brown.
Cybel seems to be a projection of both personalities, since both turn
to her for different reasons. Of course, each of the three characters
have an independent identity. Yet the ambiguous nature of character
symbolization does not exclude the possibility that the three charac-
ters are somehow manifestations of one character. No matter how this
possibility is viewed, it does serve to enphasize the presence of

expressionistic traits in the characters.

Language

The dialogue in The (heat God Brag corresponds to that of
Expressionism. Generally, it does not attanpt to imitate the speech
of everyday life. Interior monologues are employed to reveal the sub-
jective states of characters.

Imitation of everyday speech is not completely excluded from the
play, but the most striking thing about the dialogue is the use of the
interior monologue. Such monologues appear frequently in the play.

In addition, short asides are delivered by the characters. These asides

303

are not directed to the audience, but appear to be short expressions
of subjective thought not meant to be heard by the other characters
on stage. As for the monologues thenselves, they are reminiscent of
Expressionism in their use of imagery and stream-of-consciousness
quality. One brief example from Dion's thoughts on his mother's
death may serve to indicate the nature of these monologues.

The last time I looked, her purity had forgotten me, she was

stainless and imperishable, and I knew my sobs were ugly and

meaningless to her virginity; so I shrank away, back into life,

with naked nerves jumping like fleas, and in due course of

nature another girl called me her boy in the moon and married

me and became three mothers in one pegzon, while I got paint
on w paws in an endeavor to see God!

Theme
The themes of The (beat God Brown correspond to those of

Expressionism. Although the play demonstrates several themes, the
main thene is related to the Mystic phase of Expressionism. Overall,
the play projects a spiritual quest for meaning. Dion and Brown (when
he takes on Dion's identity) both seek God. The conflict of the pagan
and the Spiritual permeates the play, but in the end the spiritual
predominates. When Dion dies, his face is that of a martyred saint.
In his death Brown finds God. His last words are

I know! I have found Him! I hear Him speak! "Blessed are they

that weep, for they shall la !" Only he that has wept can

laugh! The laughter of Heaven sows earth with a rain of tears,

and out of Earth's transfigured birth-pain the laughter of Man

returns to bless and play again in innumerable dancing gales of
flame upon the knees of God! 7

 

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304
Style of Play
The Cheat God Brown exhibits four characteristics of Expression-
ism. All of its form elanents correSpond to those of the same style.
It is clear that the style of the play is related to the dramatic style
of Expressionism.

The (keen Hat by Michael Arlen

Stag
Iris March's family is regarded as a bad lot by the rest of the

circle of upper English society. For this reason, Sir Maurice
Harpenden arranges to break up a romance between his son, Napier, and
Iris. Iris still loves Napier, but in l9l3 she marries Boy Fenwick,
a close friend of her brother, Gerald. On her wedding night, Boy
Fenwick dies in a fall from the window of their hotel room in France.
Iris will reveal none of the circumstances of his death other than
that he died "for purity." The scandal of Boy's death and Iris' re-
luctance to talk about it further cloud her already questionable
reputation.

Ten years later in London, Iris calls on Napier in an effort to
find her brother. Their conversation rekindles their youthful love.
She admits that she has had many lovers in the ten years since Boy's
death, but she has never lost her love for Napier. Napier is
touched and although he is engaged to be mrried to Venice Pollen, he
decides to marry Iris instead. After a night of love, Iris and
Napier are confronted by Hilary Townshend who berates them for be-
traying Venice who loves Napier deeply. Iris, because she has been

hurt by love, will not hurt Venice. She departs and leaves Napier to

 

 

 

305
marry as he had planned.

Nine months later, in a French convent, Iris is near death from
the effects of bearing Napier's stillborn child. In delirium she
calls for him. He arrives with his wife, Venice, and the sight of
him restores Iris' will to live. She sands him.away without telling
him.ahe has had his child.

Four months later at the Harpenden estate in England, Sir
Maurice learns that Napier and Iris plan to run off to South America
together. When Iris arrives he tries to prevent them from.leaving.
He brings up the subject of Boy Fenwick's mysterious death. Iris
tries to stop him.fromrdiscussing it, but it is revealed that Boy
leaped from the window when she displayed shock upon learning that he
had contracted venereal disease shortly before their marriage. The
reason she lied about his dying for purity was that she was afraid
the truth would affect her brother who worshipped Boy. Rather than
being relieved that the truth is known at last, Iris despairs that
the one decent act in her life has been revealed. Napier rebels
against his father and leaves to take Iris away in her car for the
boat to South America. He returns within:minutes, because Iris has
lied to him.about Venice's expecting a child. The return of‘Napier
to his wife is Iris' final act of decency. As a house guest watches
from.the veranda, he describes the crash of Iris' car into a tree, a

crash too avoidable to be an accident.28

General Characteristics

The Green Hat exhibits two characteristics associated with

 

28Michael Arlen, "The Green Hat," The Best Plays of 1225-1226,
ed., 3.11718 Mantle, pp. 1.21-590

 

 

 

..- _.._

306
Realism. A fourthawall convention is observed throughout the action
of the play, and the element of character is emphasized.
Although, as will be shown, the characters are those of
Romanticism, they are the center of interest in the play. The turns

of fortune in the love of Iris and Napier and their reactions tO'flhen

constitute the action of the drama. Iris in particular is the focus
of attention.

‘ The play also exhibits three characteristics associated with
Romanticism. There is "a tendency away from actuality" in the drama.
Emotion and subjectivity are apparent in its characters. It deals
with a rebellion against the strictures of a social and moral code.

The tendency away from actuality is seen in the play's depic-
tion of culture remote from.common experience. The English and
Continental social sets are portrayed. They live in expensive
hotels, travel widely, and possess estates. Only the surface and
glamor of this culture is revealed in the characters and their
actions. Although the improbability of the characters is a.matter
for another discussion, it aids in.promoting the tendency away from.
actuality.

Emotion and subjectivity guide the actions of the characters.
Emotions of love and passion guide Iris throughout the play; Her
numerous affairs are an attempt to forget the love she has for
Napier. Napier's "seduction" of Iris after he is engaged to Venice
is a non-rational act. In addition to the emotion displayed by the
characters, the play appears to be aimed at provoking more pity and

sentiment than the subject matter warrants.

307
Iris displays a romantic rebellion against the laws of society,
and views them as "cruel, bullying, phantoms."29 Although she
suffers for it, she lives as she pleases, with her many lovers. As
she angrily tells Sir Maurice Harpenden,
You talk to me of our England, of us. . . . . - I deepise
our England! I despise us! We are shame with patrician

faces and pgssant minds. You want to bully me with your
traditions.

Form Elements

Plot

The plot of The Green Hat contains traits associated with
Romanticism. It is "loose" in its construction. The action is uni-
fied and relatively uncomplicated. The unity of time is largely
ignored since the events of the play cover a period of over eleven
years. The unity of place is also ignored as the action shifts to
lo cations in France and England.

The point of attack is early and the action is revealed in a
chronological sequence. Narrative exposition is used to fill in the
details of events between acts. Except for the disclosure of the
details of Boy Fenwick's death, the wcposition is not interwoven with
the rising action. Expositional material tends to be located near

the beginning of acts.

Character
The persons portrayed in The Green Hat have attributes

associated with the characters of Romanticism. The characters tend

 

29Ibid., p. 137.
Bolbide, pa 154w

308
to be improbable people guided by emotion rather than reason. They
are "victims of motional states connected with love." Traits of
the typical romantic character, "the outcast of society, " are dis-
cernible in the person of Iris.

The improbability of the characters is first apparent in the
names of some of then which seem to be chosen for their uncommon
nature, as, for example, Napier, Maurice, Hilary, Venice, and Conrad.
In addition, the characters are improbable because of a lack of depth
in their depiction. They are not exactly stock types, but then they
are not wholly realistic. Sir Maurice is too one-sided as a
supporter of the traditions of his class. He claims to have broke:
up Napier's youthful romance with Iris out of affection and regard
for him. Yet this affection and regard are not revealed in the action
of the drama. Napier does not seen to display those attributes which
Iris sees in him. That is, whatever appeal he has exists for Iris
alone.

Iris is a character who suffers as a result. of her love for
Napier. This love drives her into adultery and unhappiness.
Eventually the inability to have the man she loves leads her to sui-
cide. All of these feelings and actions indicate a trait of Romanti-
cism in character. In addition, she is raniniscent of the "outcast
of society" found in "historical" Romanticism. A msterious event in
her past, the suicide of her husband, affects her life. It causes
her to rebel against the society which wrongly accused her. Consistent

with this romantic type, Iris is prone to self-pity and ennui.

 

 

309
Language
The dialogue of The Green Hat correSponds to that of Romanti-

cism. For the most part, it is written in an ornate prose that does
not imitate the speech of everyday life. It is idealized speech for
the most part. There are many passages which appear to approach the
dialogue of Realism, but overall the characters Speak as if they had
a poet's gift for language. This quality is apparent in such pass-
ages as the following:

Iris, it's as though you came from an undiscovered country,

where the stars stream over a sky wider than ours, where the

men are strange and strong, where the women wear their souls

like masks on their faces, and their souls know not the truth

nor lying, not honor nor dishonor -- not good nor evil . . . .31
Theme

The themes of The Green Hat correSpond to those of Romanticism.

They do not deal with any contemporary social problem. They are
primarily concerned with love. Its destructive power is seen in the
life and death of Iris. Its ennobling power is seen in the sacri-
fices Iris makes to ensure the happiness of Napier. In addition, the
play involves an idea of rebellion against established order. Even
the theme of the sins of the father being visited on his offSpring is
suggested by the family reputation of the Marches which leads Sir

Maurice to Oppose the first romance of Napier and Iris.

Style of Play
The Green Hat exhibits two characteristics of Realism and three

of Romanticism. All of its form elenents correspond to Romanticism,

although there is some indication of Realism in part of the dialogue.

 

3111031., p. 137.

310
The presence of realistic elemmts in this basically romantic drama
indicates that the style of the play is related to the dramatic style

of "secondhand" Romanticism.

Kongo by Chester DeVonde and Kilbourn Gordon

Stogy
About twenty years before the actions depicted in the play,

Kregg stole the affection of Flint's wife. In a fight between Kregg
and Flint over this incident, Flint was crippled permantently by a
kick in the Spine.

As the play Opens, "Deadleg" Flint is in a renote part of the
Belgian Congo. He has carved out a small empire there in which he
controls the natives and the few whites of the area. His desire to
take revenge on Kregg leads him to use Kregg's daughter, Annie, as
bait to lure Kregg into his domain. When Kregg is trapped, Flint
drives him to suicide through slow mental and physical torture. He
plans to subject Annie to the same fate when it is revealed that she
is his daughter and not Kregg's. He then arranges for her to escape
to civilization through the jungle with Kirk, a young doctor with

whom she has fallen in love.32

General Characteristics
Kongg exhibits one characteristic associated with Realism. A

fourth-wall convention is observed throughout the action of the play.

 

BZChelter DeVonde and Kilbourn Gordon, "Congo," unpublished
play U.S. Copyright Office, Washington, No. D73651 (December 12,
19255. The play was produced under the title of "Kongo," but the
cepyright manuscript bears the title of "Congo".

 

. {I’llllll ‘ [I] (I

 

 

 

 

311

Egg also exhibits three characteristics associated with
Romanticism. There is a "tendency away from actuality" in the play.
It depends a great deal on enotionality. Strange and unusual events
appear in the action.

The tendency away from actuality is seen partly in the rather
indefinite setting in time of the play. Its actions appear to take
place in the twentieth century. Mention of ocean travel, modern
medicine, and the use of modern firearms indicate the contemporary
world. However, there is no close imitation of inmediate man and
society. The renoteness in place also fosters a tendency away from
actuality. The play takes place in an isolated region of the Belgian
Congo. The rather preposterous story of the play also suggests a
tendency away from actuality.

The play depends on anotion to a great extent, both in its
characters and in its general appeal. Flint's mania for revenge,
the mental and physical sufferings of Kregg, and the love of Annie
and Kirk all include freely expressed emotion. It is evident that
the play is aimed at arousing emotions of fear and sentiment in its
audience.

Although there is a rational explanation for than, strange and
unusual events occur in the play. Flint controls the whites by con-
trolling the natives through apparent "black magic". He has
arranged wires, secret panels, and other devices to produce apparent-
ly supernatural effects. The thrills which arise from these effects

provide much of the interest in the play.

312

Form.Elements

Plot

The plot ofIfigggg contains traits associated with Romanticimn.
It is "loose" in its treatment of the traditional unities. The unity
of place is observed in that all scenes take place in Flint's store
in the jungle of the Belgian Congo. The action is unified but compli-
cated by subplots. Annie's romance with Kirk is connected.wdth the
main action of Flint's revenge on Kregg, but assumes some importance
of its own. While not related enough to each other to be considered
a subplot, a number of incidents involving the natives and Flint
interrupt the direct flow of action. The unity of time is largeLy
ignored. A period of one month elapses in the play.

This manner of handling the unities results in a chronological
structure in plotting. Narrative exposition is not entirely excluded,
but is reserved for relating events which happen between acts.

Annie's true relation to Flint is not gradually revealed in the rising
action of the plot, but is reserved as a surprise for the end of the
play. This incidence is only one example of'the tendency of the play
to unfold as a "series of thrills." The plot is most romantic in

that its content is one of suSpense and excitement.

Character

The persons portrayed in Egggg have attributes of character
associated wdth Romanticism, While not wholly unrealistic, they are
improbable peeple. Most of them.tend to be dramatic types.

Flint, eSpecially, is an improbable person. He displays a

romantic trait of character in that his evil personality and his

 

 

 

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313

physical deformity are related. There is also the romantic quality of
the grotesque about him. Kregg is also an improbable person. He
breaks too easily and suffers too loudly from Flint's mental and phy-
sical torture. He performs the function of being a victim rather
than exhibiting independently motivated actions of a character.

Anne, Kirk, and the natives tend to be dramatic types. The two
young lovers are not particularly distinguishable from other young
lovers in similar dramas. The natives are stereotyped, and are por—

trayed as natural children of' the jungle, easily cowed by "magic".

Language

The dialogue of Egg corresponds to that of Realism. It is
written in prose and appears natural to the characters and their
positions. Language is used to distinguish between two groups of
characters in the play, the whites and the natives. The whites ex-
press themselves in a way that imitates the speech of ordinary
civilized life. The natives speak a type of "pidgin-English." The

element of discussion plays little or no part in the drama.

Theme

The themes of M correspond to those of Romanticism. Ideas
and problems of contemporary society are totally excluded. The play
projects ideas connected with the emotions of revenge as is evident
in Flint's plans. Love at first sight is a secondary theme in the
subplot between Annie and Kirk. A primary theme is that of moral
justice. Kregg is punished for the wrongs he inflicted on Flint.
Flint in turn is punished for his revenge by losing Annie after he

learns she is his daughter. Annie and Kirk, the only "good" people

314
in the drama, are rewarded by mutual love and escape from the

jungle 0

Style of Play
Kongo achibits one characteristic of Realism and three of Ro-

manticism. All of its form elemmts except that of language corres-
pond to those of Romanticism. The analysis reveals that the play is
basically romantic. The inclusion of realistic traits in this
romantic drama indicates that the style of the play is related to the

dramatic style of "secondhand" Romanticism.

Lucy Sam McCarver by Sidney Howard

Story

A self-made man, Sam McCarver, owns an exclusive nightclub. In
the course of his business, he meets and falls in love with Carlotta
Ashe, a not too respectable member of an American "aristocratic"
family. Sam, in addition to loving Carlotta, sees in her the oppor-
tunity to climb further up the social ladder. Carlotta marries Sam,
partly out of gratitude, after Sam helps to get her out of trouble
over a drunken New Year's Eve party in his club. Their marriage is
not happy. Carlotta is dissatisfied with the manners and education
of her ex-barkeeper husband, and seeks unsuccessfully to improve him.
Sam, on the other hand, cannot stand the parasitic members of Car-
lotta's social set. The marriage is over in a year. Carlotta's
extravagance and ill-health force her to depend on a man who is a
wealthy but reprehensible society member. Her health is destroyed

and she dies of heart disease on the same night that Sam calls on her

 

315

to offer her twelve thousand dollars a year to support herself.33

General Characteristics

Lucky Sam McCarver exhibits four characteristics associated with
Realism. A fourth-wall convention is observed throughout the action
of the drama. There is an imitation of "the contemporary, immediate
world of man and society." The elenent of character is anphasized.
The influence of environment on character is evident in the play.

The play is set in a time corresponding to the Opening year of
the play. The contemporary world of that time is suggested by
references to Prohibition, jazz music, and the fox trot. Sam's
wealth is gained from Wall Street and Oklahoma oil wells. In short,
backgrounds of the 1920's are convincingly suggested.

The title of the play indicates the importance of the element of
character in the play. Lucg Sam Mcnger is a biography of a self-
made man. The drama does not follow the complete life of McCarver,
but it does depict two of the important years in his rise to great
wealth. Carlotta Ashe and Sam McCarver are the center of interest in
the play. The plot is almost non-existent. It provides for four scenes
between Carlotta and Sam, and reveals the changes made in each of them.
His rise and her decline guide the action of the play.

The influence of environment is evidmt in the play. Sam's past
is revealed bit by bit and helps to explain Sam's personality. His

drive for success and wealth are motivated by a desire to forget his

 

33Sidney Howard, "Lucky Sam McCarver," Rgpresentative American
Dramas, Montrose J. Moses, ed. , (revised ed.; Boston: Little, Brown

and Co., 1941), pp. 673-720.

 

316
past. At the same time his manner of dealing with people (which he
learned in the lower levels of society) is carried over into his new
position in society. Sam changes outwardly as he gains polish, better
Speech, and finer clothes, but he remains the same man essentially
throughout the play. Carlotta is similarly influenced by her en-
vironment. She can not get used to the idea that she is no longer
independently wealtkw. Her early experiences do not prepare her to
deal with the practical matters that her mature years encompass.
Differences in environmait make it impossible for Sam and Carlotta to

have a meaningful relationship.
W

Plot

The plot of Lucky Sam McCarver contains traits associated with
Realism. While the structure of the entire play violates the unities
of time and place, there is still a ”structural compactness" evident
in each of its four scenes. These scenes are actually four episodes
in the life of Sam McCarver. Each diSplays a unity of time, place,
and action. Each also contains retrospective exposition which not
only fills in the details of events which occur between scenes, but
also continues to reveal more and more about the past of the main
characters. Obvious "theatrical plotting" is avoided. Even a murder
in the first act is worked caremlly into the action of the play. It
is not meant to provide thrills or excitement.

Although the shifts in time and place might indicate a trait of
Romanticism in the plot, these shifts actually serve to show changes

in character. A reasonable amount of time must lapse in order that

317
the development of the persons may appear credible. These shifts are

a result of the importance of character to the drama.

Character

The persons portrayed in Lucy Sam McCarver have attributes of
character associated with Realism. They are credible, probable people.
They are also relatively complex personalities. Their importance in
the drama and the influence of environment on them have already been
mentioned under general characteristics.

Carlotta and Sam are not "ordinary" people, but they are credi-
ble, probable persons. Carlotta is described as complex in her physi-
cal attributes. She has a face which is "fragile and exquisite" but
the "boyish gawkiness of her bodily movenent" detracts from a ease
of complete beauty.31‘ Mentally she is intelligent, but she eaqaresses
herself in "one mess of musical-comedy catch phrases."35 Sam McCarver
diSplays a similar complexity. He is handsome in a rough way. "As
the occasion demands, he can be terrifyingly harsh or benignly
mellow"36 His intelligence is directed toward gaining wealth and he
does not waste time doing anything for its own sake. Both Carlotta
and Sam are credible in their misunderstanding of each other. They
seen able to see faults in each other, but are unable to see faults
within themselves. They are also interesting in that they are not

wholly sympathetic or unsympathetic people.

 

BAIbido, pp. 684-850
351bid., p. 688.
36Ibid., p. 679.

 

 

 

318

Language

The dialogue of Lucy Sam McCarver correSponds to that of Real-
ism. It is written in prose and appears natural to the characters
and their positions. Characters are individualized through dialogue.
Sam's attenpts at improving himself are made clear in his speech. He
frequently corrects himself when he uses poor granular. Carlotta's
use of catch phrases renders her dialogue distinguishable from that
of other chracters. Carlotta's society friends oftm egress than-
selves in an affected manner which is consistent with their position
and behavior. The elenmt of discussion is found in the play, but is
not prevalent. However, McCarver and a ram husband of Carlotta
do talk over Sam's practice of "using" other people to get ahead.37

Thane _

The thence of Luca SQ Mchg correspond to those of Realin.
The play deals with individual human probless. The conflicts betwem
Sam and Carlotta project the idea that power and wealth should not be
sought for their own sake. Carlotta's own difficulties point out the
need to face the reality of life. Perhaps the basic these of the plq
is expressed by Carter Ashe, one of Carlotta's former husbands. He
speaks to Sam about his "using" people: "Once a man begins to depmd
on other people, he has to consider them.”38 This statuent indicates

a thane of personal and social responsibility.

S e P
Lucy Sam 11ch exhibits four characteristics of Realism. All

 

371-bge, pa Wée
33mg.

= we:

 

 

319
of its form elements correspond to the same style. It is evident
that the style of the play is related to the dramatic style of Real-

ism.

M3 by Edward Sheldon and Charles MacArthur

Story
Lulu Belle is a Negro prostitute with many male admirers. Her

uninhibited manner and love of fun make her a center of attention in
her neighborhood. Partly in jest, she makes advances to a married
barber, George Randall. He falls in love with her, and she delights
in tormenting him. George deserts his wife and family for Lulu
Belle, but she drOpS him for a prize-fighter, Butch Cooper. George
knifes and kills Butch in a fight over Lulu Belle. Lulu Belle thm
becomes the mistress of a degenerate French nobleman, the Vicompte de
Villars. He dresses her beautifully, and teaches her to Speak
Hench. George, who has been running from the law, still loves Lulu
Belle, and works his way to France. He enters her apartment one
night and pleads for her to come; back to him. She taunts him, and
then refuses his plea. In a rage, George strangles her with his bare

hands. He is caught by the police and sent to await trial.39

General Characteristics
Lulu Belle exhibits two characteristics associated with Natural-

ism. It portrays "life in..the lower levels of society." Also,

 

39mm Sheldon and Charles MacArthur, 'Hy Lulu Belle," un-
published play, U.S. Copyright Office, Washington, No. D72824
(September A, 1925). The play was produced under the title of "Lulu
Belle," but the c0pyright manuscript bears the title "My Lulu Belle."

 

 

A
‘ \. ,
, a

V—c-‘erm——

 

 

320
"sordid, unpleasant, bestial aspects of life are frankly treated."

Lulg Bills depicts the conditions of existence among the low
level of New York. The background of the first act is a sidewalk of
San Juan Hill in the Harlan district“) Most of the Negroes who live
there are shown spending what money they have on liquor, narcotics,
and prostitutes, all escapes from the life they lead.

The sordid and bestial side of the characters is obvious in the
play. Lulu Belle is amoral and erotic in her obvious sexuality.
George and Butch fight like savage animals over her, until George
kills Butch. In the first act, two women also carry on a fight that
draws laughter from the rest of the characters watching it.

M exhibits one characteristic that can be associated
with either Naturalism or Realism. The slenent of character is aspha-
eized. In spite of all its welter of detail, the play is primarily a
character portrait of Lulu Belle. Her morality, ambition, and sexu-
ality guide the actions of other characters and the actions of the
play. The conflicts aroused in George over his desire for Lulu Belle
lead to actions which provide interest in the play.

M also exhibits three characteristics of Romanticism.
There is an emphasis on emotionality and subjectivity. The play in-
cludes a rebellion against the moral and social codes of society.
Local color and the picturesque are depicted.

The instinctive and non-rational powers of human beings are
aphasized in the characters of the drama. While there can be some
argument for Naturalism in the animal behavior of some of the

“l

waid., p. 1.

321
characters, this character attribute is softened in its impact.
George may revert to savagery in his fight with Butch, but his attrac-
tion to Lulu Belle is not portrayed as entirely one of sexual in-
stinct. He agonizes too much over his love. If he is guided by a
strong sesmal instinct, it iszaroused only by Lqu Belle. The fact
that George displays a great deal of self-pity in his conflicts over
the love of Lulu Belle indicates that the emotionality and subjectiv-
ity in the play are more romantic than naturalistic.

Lulu Belle and George both display a tendency to revolt against
the established laws or society. Lulu Belle does so opuly. She
glories in shocking people with her language and behavior. The fact
that she is a prostitute and finds no shane in her profession indi-
cates a disregard for canon morality. George suffers from his re-
volt against the established social order. He loses a wire and
children and because an outcast of society when he breaks society's
laws. in important point about this revolutionary attitude in the
play is that Lulu Belle is rather idealised in her disregard for the
acres and strictures of society. She is happy, untroubled, and
"sassy."

The inclusion of details of local color is apparent in the play.
Harlan is shown in the first act as a colorful and noisy environment.
Men ganbls on doorsteps. Children play tag. Two women argue and
right as a crowd urges than on. Uninhibited gaiety and music are
shown in a Saturday night dance at the Elite Grotto. These details
or life in Harl- are viewed as local eslor rather than as an attupt
to present a "slice of life." Only the first twmty-one pages of the
first act suggest the "slice of life" concept of Naturalin. The

322
details are used to create mood. They become less numerous as the

dramatic action of the play is established.
0 ts

Plot

The plot of Mg contains traits associated with Natural-
ism. Its content is sordid and "crass. " It is taken from contupor-
my life. Both of these traits should be obvious non the discussion
under general characteristics.

It is important to note that while the naturalistic traits in
the play are important eluents in its style, other traits of
Naturalism are not present. The play does not avoid or underplay
"big scenes" or theatrical climaxes. The "slice of life" technique
is used to create atmosphere, but it is not uployed to the extent
that the play appears to have no beginning and no end. The beginning
of the dramatic action is hidden in the detailed depiction of life in
Harlem in the first act. However, the ending of the play is unmis-
takable. The "slice of life" concept is a device in the play, and
not the determinant of plot structure.

The plot of M also contains traits associated with
Romanticism. Over all, the plot is "loose" in its construction.
Although details tend to obscure it, the action of the play is simple
and unified. However, the unity of time is ignored. The action of
the play covers a period of alnost six years. The unity of place is
broken, as the events of the play are set in three locations in

Karla and one in France.

I;

v I.
.
.
W
\I

323

The chronological structure associated with Romanticism is
present in the play. The point of attack, the first confrontation
between Lulu Belle and George, is early, and the drama. unfolds in
action which does away with the need for extensive narrative exposi-
tion. The action is not revealed as a series of thrills, but some
events in the play clearly are included to induce excitement. Two
examples of this are the fight between Butch and George and the
strangling of Lulu Belle. The emphasis on isolated bits of excite-
ment indicate a romantic trait in the plot.

It should be added that the plot of the play bears a striking

similarity to that of the Opera, Carmen.

Character

The persons portrayed in Lulu Belle have attributes of charac-
ter associated with Romanticism. While not wholly unrealistic, they
are improbable people. They are guided more by enotion than by
reason. Lulu Belle is related to the "less reputable fenale charac-
ters' found in "historical" Romanticism.

George is an improbable person in that his changes in character
are too rapid and dramatic. In Act I he is a shy, moral man who loves
his family and goes to church. Three months later, in Act II, he is
consumed by lust and has completely out himself off from his past.
Sex is clearly his motivation, but it is not tempered by any other
consideration. George demonstrates a romantic trait in that he is
almost literally the victim of an anotional state connected with love,
jealousy, melancholy, deepair, self-pity, and lust.

Lulu Belle is improbable in her enthusiasm for living the life

she does. Her amorality is made appealing. The sexual attraction

324
she has for men is overemphasized. But, above all, Lulu Belle comes
closest to resembling the less reputable fenale characters in
"historical" Romanticism. Like them, she shows traits of lust, am-
bition, and heartlessness. Her sexual nature has been mentioned
several times already. In addition, she is ambitious. She chooses
her lovers in order to rise higher in her particular society as is
evident in her choice of the prize-fighter. Her ambitions are fully
realized when she becomes the mistress of a count. Heartlessness is
shown by her treatment of George. She first becomes interested in
him as a challenge to her abilities to attract men. She pursues him
until his purity no longer exists and then turns her back on him.

She continues to resist his love until he kills her.

Language
The dialogue of Lulu Belle corresponds to that of Realism. It

is written in prose and appears natural to the characters and their
positions. Since most of the characters are from the same social
class, language does not serve to distinguish than from one another.
Dialogue in the play attempts to imitate the speech of everyday life.
Slang and jargon are used frequmtly. However, the dialogue is too
direct in the expression of thoughts and the advancement of plot to
be considered the phonographic Speech of Naturalin. The elanent of

discussion often associated with Realism is absent from the drama.

Theme
The themes of Lulu Belle correspond to those of Romanticism.
Although the contemporary world is the background of the play, there

is no involvement in any ideas or problems of modern man or society.

325
The thane of rebellion against established order has been pointed
out under general characteristics. The primary themes in the play
deal with aSpects of love. George loves Lulu Belle at first sight.
He suffers from the anguish of jealousy. The play denonstrates that

love can destroy, that unrequited love can lead to hate.

Style of Play
Lulu Belle exhibits two characteristics of Naturalism, one

associated with both Naturalism and Realism, and three of Romanticism.
The form elanent of plot diSplays traits of both Naturalism and
Romanticism. The elements of character and theme are romantic. The
remaining element of language is realistic. It is plain that the
style of the play is not clearly associated withpa single dramatic
style. However, the romantic characteristics and traits in form
elements are predominant. The love story so reminiscent of 9am
stands out above the numerous details from life and the sordidness of
the subject matter. For all of its attempts to appear real, the play
does not actually deal with real life. In view of the analysis, it
is apparent that the play is basically romantic, but contains elements
of Realism and Naturalism. For this reason, it is concluded that the
style of the play correSponds most closely to the dramatic style of
"secondhand" Romanticism. Special note, however, should be made of

the presence of elenents of Naturalism in the play.

The Mud Turtle by Elliot Lester

Stag
Len Trustine returns from a yearly trip to Minneapolis to his

father's farm in the wheat belt of Northern Minnesota with Kate, his

326
bride. Because of the suddenness of the marriage and the fact that
Kate was a waitress, Old Trustine believes that she is a cheap woman
who took advantage of the pleasant but unsophisticated Len. He un-
justifiably accuses her of being wanton and scheming. When she pro-
tests, he resents her Spirited defiance of him.and slaps her in front
of Len. He wants to prove again that Old Trustine is the master of
the farm.and his family. Kate is proud, and will not give in to him.
While outwardly cowed, she vows to "get even" for Old Trustine's
treatment of her. She learns of the importance of the wheat crop in
the financial plans of Trustine. When a storm threatens, the wheat
must be harvested rapidly. She offers herself to a hired man if he
‘will wreck the threshing machine so that it can't be used to get the
wheat in. The hired man does so, but Kate refuses to give in to him.
Instead, she tells Old Trustine of her success in ruining his crop and
forces Lem.to make a choice between her and his father. Lem sides with
her and they plan to leave the farm. Old Trustine, broken in spirit
by a double calamity, bows to the will of Kate and begs her and Len

to stay. They do.“

General Characteristics

The Mud Turtle exhibits four characteristics associated with
Realism. A fourth-wall convention is observed throughout the play.
There is an imitation of "the contemporary, immediate world of man and
society." The element of character is emphasized. The influence of

environment on character is apparent.

 

“Elliot Lester, "The Mud Turtle," unpublished play, U.S. COpy-
right Office, Washington, No. D67532 (April 21., 1924).

327

The contemporary world is suggested by the location of the
action of the drama, and objects that are used in the action. The
play is set in.Northern Minnesota on a farm which has motorized
threshing machines and trucks. In addition, mention is made of an
actual city, Minneapolis. The fact that Kate was an independent
‘working woman also indicates the contemporary nature of the play.

Character portrayal and conflict are the important factors in
the play. It is the opposition of the strong wills of Kate and Old
Trustine which determine the action of the drama.

The influence of environment is apparent in the characters.
Kate's strength of character stems from.the necessity of having to
make her own way in life. Old Trustine is hard and shrewd because the
demands of running a farm.have made him.that way. His sons obey him
because they have never been allowed to disobey. The plain and spare
nature of the living room.in which the play is set reflects the

42

practical and unimaginative attitudes of Old Trustine.
Form.Elements

Plot

The plot of The Mud Turtle contains traits associated with Real-
ism, It diSplays a "structural compactness" in its treatment of the
traditional unities. Action is unified and simple. Only the bargain
between Kate and the hired man complicate it, and even this incident
has a strong and obvious relation to the main action, the conflict be-

tween Kate and Old Trustine. The unity of place is strictly observed

 

421nm” p. 1.

328
in that all scenes are set in the Trustine farmhouse. The unity of
time is partly ignored. The play covers a period of several days.
The particular handling of the unities in the play results in a late
point of attack. However, there is not a great deal of narrative ex-
position present in the play after the first act.

The play is realistic in its avoidance of "theatrical plotting."
There is a logical cause-and-effect relation between all the events in
the play. The only incident not arising directly from the conflict
between Kate and Old Trustine is the storm. However, its probability
is established well before it appears. That is, it is not meant to

be an element of surprise in the drama.

Character

The persons portrayed in The Mud Turtle have attributes
associated with characters in.Realism. They are credible, probable
people who diSplay some complexity of’personality. In addition, they
are drawn from.the middle class. Two other traits, the importance of
the characters to the drama and the influence of environment, have
already been mentioned under general characteristics.

The credible nature of the characters is demonstrated in the
person of Kate. She is neither strikingly beautiful nor plain. She
is far from.80phisticated, but has learned to deal with people. Her
actions in the drama are particularly probable. She is quite shocked
when her father-in-law resents her. She is too proud to be bullied,
but when it is plain that Old Trustine can back verbal threats with
physical action, she pretends to give in to him. The fact that she is
a woman alone in a strange environment seems to justify her desperate

attempts at revenge. She is also credible when she cannot allow

329
herself to be seduced by the hired man. She can think of the deed,

but she can't face the reality of it.

Language
The dialogue of The Mud Tflle correSponds to that of Realism.

It is written in an unornate prose which appears to be natural to the
characters and their positions. Kate's speech is a bit more refined
than that of the farm family. The father is distinguished by his
slight French-Canadian'accent. Many colloquial expressions and the
contractions of the endings of words aids in giving the dialogue the

appearance of imitating everyday Speech.

Theme

The themes of The Mud Turtle correspond to those of Realism.
They deal with individual human problems in a family situation. The
need for a father to accept others brought into his family is pro-
jected in the play. Another theme is that lack of human understand-
ing is the cause of difficulties in life. There is also the sug-
gestion that pe0ple should be judged by what they are and not what
they do. Old Trustine's narrow views caused him to think that a

waitress was somehow imoral.

Style of Play
The Mud Turtle exhibits four characteristics of Realism. Its

form elements all correspond to those of Realism. It is clear from
this analysis that the style of the play is related to the dramatic

style of Realism.

 

 

 

330
Shanghai Gesture by John Colton

Stog
The play is set in a Chinese bordello in Shanghai, China.

Twenty years before the events depicted in the play, Mother Goddam
(proprietress of the bordello) had been a Chinese princess married to
Sir Guy Charteris. In order to marry his English sweetheart, Sir Guy
sold Mother Goddam into white slavery. Unknown to Sir Guy, Mother
Goddam substituted her infant daughter, Peppy, for his newborn child,
Ni.Pau. .

As the play Opens, Mother Goddam has invited Sir Guy to a
Chinese New Year's Eve party at which she plans to reveal the substi-
tution of children twenty years before. She entertains with an auc-
tion in which.Ni.Pau is sold into the lowest level of prostitution,
the floating junks on the river. Sir Guy objects to the fate of the
girl, and Mother Goddam enjoys a moment of revenge, as she reveals
that the girl is Sir Guy‘s real daughter. He is powerless to st0p
Mother Goddam, however. Her revenge is short-lived because she dis-
covers that her daughter, Poppy, has become a complete degenerate.
Mother Goddam's revenge turns to horror and she strangles Poppy.
Seeing that she has become the victim of her hate, Mother Goddam.then

arranges to have Ni Pau freed and returned to Sir Guy.’+3

General Characteristics
Shanghai Gesture exhibits one characteristic associated with

Realism. A fourthewall convention is observed throughout the action

 

) ABJohn Colton, Shanghai Gesture (New York: Boni and Liveright,
1926 .

331
of the drama.

The play also exhibits four characteristics associated with
Romanticism. There is an evident "tendency away from actuality."
Emotion is an important element in the action. A rebellion against
established order is presented. In addition, there is a. depiction of
local color and the picturesque.

The tendency away from actuality stems from the remoteness of
the play in place and culture. The setting is a bordello in Shanghai.
The cultural background is supposedly Chinese. Any sense of actuality
is also destroyed by the improbable events of the plot and the incredi-
ble. nature of the characters.

Emotion, rather than logic, controls the action of the drama.

The play depends on a strong, even extravagant diSplay of emotion.
There is little subtlety in the hatred and cruelty of Mother Goddam.

It drives her to revenge and then murder. She and the other characters
react almost instinctively, without recourse to rational thought. The
murder of Poppy is one example of the irrational and emotional element
in the play.

A rebellion against established order is evident in the play.

The life of Mother Goddam depicts a breaking of almost every moral and
social law. She was wronged as a young woman and her revenge against
this wrong takes the form of defying the world about her. She believes
that she is above the laws that govern ordinary peOple. Her actions

are self-centered; they are an attanpt to satisfy her individual desires.

The play is marked by a depiction of local color. The surround-
ings of an Opulent bordello are described in detail. The settings are

variously titled "The Gallery of the laughing Dolls,” "The (brand Red

332
Hall of Lily and Lotus Roots ," "The Little Room of the Great Cat,"
"The Ch'een Stairway of the Angry Dragonflu“ Chinese costumes, idioms
and music also add local color to the play. This use of local color
also promotes a romantic feeling of exotic beauty as well as an aura

Of the strange and unusual.
Form Elements

Plot

The plot of Shanghgi Gesture contains traits associated with
Realism. It diSplays a ”structural compactness" in dealing with the
traditional unities. The unity of time is strictly observed in that
the events of the play all occur within a period of twenty-four hours.
The unity of place is only slightly broken. The play has five
settings, but all are located in Mother Goddam’s brothel. The action
is unified, but it is complicated by two relevant subplots, the stories
of Ni Pau and Poppy. The point of attack is late and retrospective
exposition is woven into the rising action of the play.

The plot of the play also contains traits associated with
Romanticism. The action unfolds as a series of thrills in presenting
a content of excitenent, suSpense, and glamor. The vengeance of
Mother GOddam, her confrontation with Sir Guy, the auction of Ni Pau,
the surprising revelation of Poppy's degeneracy, and the strangling of
POppy indicate part of the thrills and excitement in the play. Cos-
tumes, settings, and music provide the glamor. The exotic settings

and the sensational situations are elenents of the strange and the

 

Mlbgg' ., p. 3.

 

 

 

 

333

unusual in the play.

Character

The persons portrayed in Shanghai Gesture have attributes of
character associated with Romanticism. They are improbable peOple
guided by emotion rather than by reason. Mother Goddam.diSplays
traits which correspond to characters in "historical" Romanticism.

The characters are improbable by their very identity. They are
not the persons of ordinary experience. Mother Goddam is a Chinese
princess and a bordello keeper. Sir Guy is a titled Englishman in-
fluential in the government of Shanghai. Ni Pau is a slave in a
brothel, yet she manages to stay "pure." Poppy is a person of wealth
and privilege, and in addition, an alcoholic, a narcotics addict, and
a nymphomaniac. The role of emotion in the characters' actions has
already been mentioned under general characteristics.

Madam Goddam correSponds to a type of character fOund in
"historical" Romanticism. She is an "outcast of society." Wrong done
to her in the past leads her to take revenge on the people and the
society who wronged her. Both her initial betrayal and the urge to
"get even" make her suffer from melancholy and self-pity. In addi-
tion, Mother Goddam.displays the traits of the less reputable female
characters in "historical" Romanticism. She is lustful, ambitious,

and heartless.

Language
The dialogue of Shanghai Gesture correSponds to that of Romanti-

cism. It is written in ornate prose. The expression is idealized as

if the characters had a poet's gift for language. Although there are

331+
many passages which appear to be “realistic" dialogue, the overall
tendency of speech in the play is not to imitate the patterns of con-
versation in everyday life. Chinese accents are not employed, but
supposedly Chinese idioms are. The dialogue is not truly poetic, but
it attempts to be. The characters are further glamorized by their use

of short phrases in French and Spanish.

Theme

The themes of Shanghgi Gesture correSpond to those of Romanti-
cism. There is no involvement in contemporary human or social problems.
Mother Goddam projects the idea of nostalgia, a dream of living accord-
ing to one's wishes and desires. She dwells upon how happy she and
Sir Guy might have been. The theme of Opposition to established order
also appears in the play. Several ideas about love are present. In
the main, the destructive power of spurned love is enphasized. The
death of Poppy indicates that the theme of fate is operative in the

drama. The sins of her mother are visited upon her.

Style of Play
Shanghai Gesture exhibits one characteristic of Realism and four

of Romanticism. The fom element of plot has both realistic and
romantic traits. All. the other form elements correSpond to those of
Romanticism. The play, therefore, appears to he basically romantic
with some inclusion of realistic elements. This indicates that the
style of the play is related to the dramatic style of "secondhand"

Romanticism.

 

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335

Twelve Miles Out by T.‘Jilliaim A. McGuire

Stog
The rather mundane life of John and Jane Burton in their home

on the coast of Long Island is intruded upon by the appearance of
Gerald Fay and his gang of rumrunners. He interrupts one of their
many arguments, to take over their home as a hiding place for a

cargo of liquor. Only ten minutes later, Michael McCue, a hi-jacker,
and his gang arrive and take the liquor, the Burtons, and the Pay
gang on board their schooner. They sail twelve miles out and anchor.
John is tied up below and the rival gang leaders both show an interest
in Jane. They fight over her and Fay wins, killing McCue. Fay's
love for Jane awakens his smse of nobility. The next day when they
are captured by revenue agents, Fay decides to go straight. Jane has
fallen in love with him and agrees to divorce her husband and marry

Fay.l’5

General Characteristics

deve Miles Out exhibits two characteristics associated with
Realism. A fourth-wall convention is Observed throughout the action
of the drama. There is an attempt to imitate "the contemporary,
immediate world of man and society."

The contemporary world is suggested by the cottage of the
Burtons with its electric lighting and objects associated with life
in the twentieth century. The criminal activities of Fay and McCue

involve rumrunning, a crime particularly connected with the Prohibition

 

”William A. McGuire, "Twelve Miles Out," unpublished play, U.S.
COpyright Office, Washington, NO. D7342? (November 21, 1925).

 

 

 

 

 

336

The play also exhibits two characteristics associated with
Romanticism. There is a "tendency away from actuality" and the con-
cept of a search for individual freedmm.

The tendeney away from.actuality is seen in the improbability of
the story itself. The rapidity of change in the action and the pre-
posterous circumstances indicate an escape from actuality, not an
imitation of reality. One may accept Fay's taking over the Burton
home, but the idea of criminal capturing criminal is too improbable to
elicit belief.

Both Fay and McCue illustrate the concept of a search for free-
dom.in the play. They both believe in themselves and in the freedom
to do what they please. The play seems to project the idea that laws
don't apply to all men. There is a definite idealization of the
criminal's Opposing society in that both.MoCue and Fay are depicted

as sympathetic characters.
W

Plot

The plot of Twelve Miles Out contains traits associated with
Romanticism. .Although it observes a unity of time, it is "loose" in
construction. The unity of place is broken by the shifting of the
action between the Burton cottage and.McCue's schooner. The action
is unified but complicated. There is much evidence of Obvious,
theatrical plotting in the construction of the play. Although the
unity of time is Observed, the point of attack is early. There is

little narrative exposition employed in the plot and the action

 

 

 

 

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337
unfolds as "a series of thrills presented in a rapid melodramatic
manner." Jane's drunken brother is killed by one of the gangs in the
first act. Act II ends with a knife fight in a dark ship's cabin.
Altogether, the plot provides the excitement and suSpense often found
in dramas of Romanticism. In addition, the plot appears to be super-
imposed On the characters. What they are and what they do seems to

have little effect on the ordering of events.

Character

The persons portrayed in Twelve Miles Out have attributes of
character associated with Romanticism. They are improbable persons
who tend to be dramatic types rather than rounded individuals.

The improbability Of the characters is emphasized by the
suddenness of the love that McCue and Fay develop for Jane. The two
men are also improbable in their rivalry over her. Although McCue
has Fay in his power, he consents to a knife fight to determine who
will win the girl. Both men enter into the fight with a bravado and
calmness which is unbelievable. Jane is improbable, too, in her lack
of individuality. She is an object of action and not an imitation of
a real person. John Burton is too cowardly and dull to appear
probable. He is too Obviously a foil for the romantic criminal with
whom Jane falls in love. "Romantic criminal" is an apt name for both
Fay and.McCue. As noted, they are drawn as sympathetic characters in

spite of their lives of crime.

Language
The dialogue of Twelve Miles Out correSponds to that of Realism.

It is written in an unornate prose and appears natural to the

338
characters and their positions. The gangs of both Fay and McCue are
composed of national types who Speak with various accents —- English,
Chinese, and Cockney. The dialogue is mainly functional in that it
serves to advance the plot. There is little interest in the language

for its own sake.

Theme

The themes of Twalve Miles Out correSpond to those of Romanti-
cism. Although set in a contemporary world, there is no involvement
in problems of modern man or society. There is an idealization of
the theme of individual freedom which borders on license rather than
liberty. Love at first sight is projected in the characters Of
McCue and Fay as they fall for Jane. The ennobling power Of love is
demonstrated when Fay decides to reform because of his love for Jane.
The idea that a romantic, exciting life is better than reSpectability
is evident in the fact that Jane plans to divorce her husband, a
model of middle class virtues, in order to marry the much less re-

Spectable Fay.

Style of Plgy
Twelve Miles Out exhibits two characteristics of Realism and

two of Romanticism. The form element of language correSponds to that
of Realism, but the other form elements are related to those of
Romanticism. In view of the analysis it is evident that the play is
basically romantic with some realistic traits. This mixture of ele-
ments indicates that the style of the play is related to the dramatic

style of "secondhand" Romanticism.

 

 

339
Sm of the 1225—1226 Season

Analyses of the twelve selected "successful," serious plays
from the Broadway theatrical season of 1925-1926 revealed that in
regard to style five plays (Craig's Wife, The Eng, The Mud Turtle,
The Bride 0: the Lamb, and Lucky Sam McCarver) were written in a
style related to Realism, six plays (The Green Hat, Twelve Miles Out,
Shanghai Gesture, Meat Gatsby, Lulu Belle, and nggg) were
written in a style related to Romanticism, and one play (The Great God
M) was written in a style related to Expressionism. Character-
istics of Naturalism were present in Mu Belle but not to the extent
that the play could be considered naturalistic. NO other dramatic
' styles were represented during the season in the selected plays.

Except for one play, The En , the plays associated with the
dramatic style of Realism correspond fairly closely to all of the
criteria for that style. Obvious manipulation of events in Mr.
Pollock's play are related to Romanticism.

On the other hand, characteristics and traits of Realism are
evident in all six of the romantic plays. All exhibit a fourth-wall
convention. The element of language in four of then correSponds to
Realism. Lulu Belle is of particular interest because its basically
romantic nature contains some indication of traits associated with
Naturalism. All six Of the romantic plays are related to the drama-
tic style Of "secondhand" Romanticism. However, three of them -
The Green Hat, Shanghai Gesture, and Twelve Miles Out -- contain
characters who tend to resemble persons in "historical" Romanticism.

The single play related to Expressionism, The Great God Brown,

340
correSponds quite closely to the criteria of that style. The play

appears to be associated with the Mystic phase of Expressionism.

CHAPTER XII

THE BROADWAY THEATRICAL SEASON OF 1928-1929

Play Selection
Two hundred and twenty-seven full-length plays Opened on Broad-

way in the theatrical season of 1928—1929.1 Out of this total, one
hundred and eight were comedies, musical comedies, or revues. As such
they are not a concern of this study, nor are the twenty-two adapta-
tions or translations of foreign dramas which appeared in this season.
Twenty-two revivals of dramas from.carlier seasons of dramatic periods
were also presented. The remainder of the plays in this season were
serious dramas written by American or foreign authors and intended for
original production on Broadway. However, out of a total of seventy-
five of these plays, sixty-one ran less than one hundred performances
and did not receive favorable reviews at the time of their openings,
nor any significant critical recognition since that time.

Thus fourteen plays fit the standards of selection operative in
this study for this season. Five of the plays ran over one hundred
performances during the season. Eight ran over fifty performances and
enjoyed favorable reviews at the time of their Opening. Two of these
plays also received Special recognition. ‘Qypgy;by'Maxwell Anderson

was chosen as a "best play" by Burns Mantle in his annual book on the

 

lBurns Mantle, ed., The Best Playsggfal928-1929 (New York: Dodd,
Mead 311d COO, 1929), ppe 352-5120

3&1

 

 

 

3h2
Broadway stage.2 Machinal by SOphie Treadwell was selected by John
Gassner as one of the best plays of the 1920's.3 One play, Gods of
the Lightning by Maxwell.Anderson and Harold Hickerson, is included
even though it only ran twenty-nine perfOrmances. It, too, was se—
lected by John Gassner as on of the best plays of the l920's.h
The plays which are analysed in the next section of this chapter

are as follows:

The Age of Ihpocence by.Margaret Ayer Barnes

Brothers by Herbert Ashton, Jr.

Exceeding Small by Caroline Franck:

Gods of the Lightning by Maxwell Anderson and Harold Hickerson

Goin' Home by Ransom.Rideout

The Grey Egg by Lemist Esler

m by Maxwell Anderson

M by W. J. Rapp Wallace Thurman

Jarnegan by Charles Beahan and Garrett Fort

Machinal by Sophie Treadwell

Mr. Moneypenny by Channing Pollock

.Singihg Jailbirds by Upton Sinclair

Street Scene by Elmer Rice

Congai by Harry Hervey and Carlton Hildreth5

 

2mm. pp. 283-315.

3John Gassner, ed., Twent — ive Best Pla s O the Modern Ameri-
can Theatre: Early Series (New York: Crown Publishers, 1949;. pp. A95-
529.

“Ibid., pp. 531-65.

5N0 script of this play was ever found in published or manuscript
form. For this reason it is listed out of slphabetical order and anal-
ysed in a manner differing from.that employed for other plays in this
Chapt er 0

3h3
Stylistic hhilayses of Plays

The Age of Innocence by Margaret Ayer Barnes

Stohy

Ellen, an American.woman, returns for a visit to her native
country to escape the miseries of her unhappy marriage to an insane
Polish nobleman, Count Olenska. There she falls in love'with Newland
Archer, a young man on his way to becoming a powerful political fig--
ure. Newland, however, is engaged to Ellen's cousin, May van der
Luyden. He loves Ellen, but marries May because Ellen will not hurt
May by stealing Newland. Ellen and Newland carry on a brief affair,
but when.Ellen learns that May is to have a child, she gives up News
land and returns to her demented husband. Forty years later, Newland
and his oldest son journey to Paris. The son calls on Ellen, but
Newland does not, since he wishes to remember her as she was in his

youth.6

General Characteristics

The Age of Innocence exhibits two characteristics associated
‘with Realism. A fOurthawall convention is Observed throughout the
play. The element of character is emphasized.

Since the play is primarily a love story, the action of the play
centers on Ellen and Newland. While they are not particularly credi-
ble characters, their conflicts between love and duty, and passion

and nobility guide the ordering of the events in the playi“

 

6Margaret Ayer Barnes, "The Age of Innocence," unpublished lay,
U.S. COpyright Office, washington, NO. D86253 (September 27, 1928 .

34A
The play also exhibits two characteristics associated with

Romanticism. There is "a tendency away from.actuality." The drama
also depends a great deal on emotional appeal.

The tendency away from.actuality in the play is evident in its
depiction of a world remote in time and culture. Except for the last
act, the play is set in the 1870's. The society portrayed is one of
the upper classes, one in which countesses can fall in love with men
destined to become governors. The improbable dignity and "nobility"
Of the characters also suggests a tendency away from.the actual.

Although there is some display of strong emotion in the play,
its overall emotional appeal is one of cloying sentimentality. The
portrayal of a thwarted love between two attractive persons who do
"the noble and prOper thing" is aimed at arousing pity and tears.
The ending of the play is particularly sentimental. In it, the Old
Countess Olenska meets Newland's son who looks like his father did

when Ellen and Newland parted.

Form.Elements

Plot

The plot of The Age of Innocence contains traits associated with
Romanticism. It is "loose" in construction. The unity of action is
maintained and is only slightly complicated. The unity of place is
ignored in that the five scenes of the play are set in four different
locations, three in America and one in France. The unity of time is
broken as the events of the play range over a period Of forty years.
Actually, the first three scenes take place within the period of a

year. It is the last scene which encompasses the greatest jump in time.

31.5

The handling of the unities in the play results in a plot with
an early point of attack and does away with the need for a great deal
of narrative exposition. The plot unfolds in action, but the events
are not thrilling, exciting ones. They show the develOpment of the
love between Ellen and Newland and its unhappy termination.

The plot content is romantic in that it deals with an idealized
and glamorous world. The settings are elegant, the characters superbly

dressed, and their actions dignified and noble.

Character

The persons portrayed in The_Ageagf Innocence have attributes of
character associated with Romanticism. They are not credible,
probable people. They are also persons of royalty.

Although emotion plays a large role in the lives of the charac—
ters in the play, it is the control Of this emotion which makes them
appear to be improbable persons. They are too idealized in their re-
straint. Ellen and Newland give in to passion only once and even this
event is too elegantly portrayed to suggest that it is the result of
sexual instinct. Ellen's decision to give up Newland to avoid hurting
May is too noble a gesture to be probable. Her actions are admirable,
but they are not always believable.

Persons of noble rank appear in the play. 'While Ellen is the
only character with an actual title, the other characters may be
viewed as a part of an American "aristocracy." Although he is placed
against a background of a democratic society, Newland is depicted more
like a prince than a political figure. He and other characters defin-

itely are not commonplace people.

 

 

 

3&6

Language

The dialogue of The Age of Innocence corresponds to that of
Romanticism. It is written in prose and superficially suggests the
Speech of everyday life. However, it is characterized by elegant,
‘well—phrased expression. The characters Speak the way more common
persons might like to speak. They all exhibit a gift fOr using
language well. Like the characters, the dialogue is idealized.
Short phrases of foreign languages are included to enhance the re-
finement of the characters. The language of the play is not wholly

unrealistic, yet it is not an imitation of speech from.ordinary,

everyday life.

Theme

The themes of The Age of: Innocence correSpond to those of
Romanticism. The play projects an idea of nostalgia. As its title
indicates, it is a look back to a time more pleasant and better
ordered. The drama does not deal with any problen of modern man or
society. It does present themes of love and compassion. There is
suffering from.a love that cannot be. A sentimental thought about the
sanctity of family life is evident in Ellen's decision to leave New-
land when May is to have a child. Ellen wishes to protect the

children, both born and unborn.

Style of Play
The Age of Innocence exhibits two characteristics of Realism.and

two of Romanticism. All of its form elements correspond to those of
Romanticism. The presence of realistic characteristics in a basically

romantic play indicates that the style of the play is related to the

 

3A7

dramatic style of "secondhand" Romanticism.

Brothers by Herbert Ashton, Jr.

Sto_r_'y

In a prologue to the main action, three doctors carry on a
friendly argument about whether heredity or environment is the im—
portant factor in human development. Dr. Steven reveals a plan for
an experiment which may settle the argument. He has located identi-
cal twin baby boys in a foundling home. He proposes that one be
raised by a childless couple, Judge Naughton and his wife, and that
the other be given to a poor woman at a settlement house. Later the
doctors can see for thenselves what type of men these boys become,
and judge the effects of different environments on the same heredi-
tary backgrounds. His plan is accepted.

Thirty years later, about 1929, the twins are mature men. The
one raised in the slums, Ed Connelley, is a good—natured, intelligent
fellow with solid values and sound ambitions. Judge Naughton's
adOpted son, Robert, is a lawyer driven to narcotics addiction by
overwork. Robert kills a dope peddler, and Ed is accused of the
crime. Robert successfully defemds Ed in the trial, and Ed is freed.
Robert's addiction gets him in more trouble, and he is placed in a
sanitarium. In order not to disturb the delicate health of Mrs.
Naughton, Ed assumes the identity of Robert and wins the love of
Robert's fiance, Roma. Robert breaks out or the sanitarium and is
killed. Ed's deception is discovered by Roma, but she reveals that
7

she loves him more than she ever loved Robert.

 

7Herbert Ashton, Jr., Brothers (New York: Samuel French, 1931.).

 

 

 

   

348
General Characteristics

Brothers exhibits three characteristics associated with Realism.
A fourthewall convention is observed throughout the play. There is
an imitation of "the contemporary, immediate world of man and society."
The concept of environment figures in the play.

Details and actions in the play suggest the contemporary world
Of the late 1920's, the period of the play's Opening. Judge Naughton
reads the wall Street Journal, Ed receives a call in a phone booth,
and Prohibition is referred to several times.8

As is obvious from.the story, the concept of environment figures
in the play. It must be pointed out, however, that the manner of
dealing with this concept is not related as much to character as it is
to plot. Environment and heredity are the subject matter of the play,
but they are not shown in actual Operation in the drama. The develOp—
ment of the twin boys is almost absolutely contrary to what social and
psychological sciences would predict. The concept of environment is
too Obvious to be ignored as a characteristic, but its main function
in the play is as a device to further a melodramatic plot.

The play also exhibits one characteristic associated with Romanti-
cism, a ”tendency away from actuality." In Spite of its realistic de-
tails and its involvement with the concepts Of heredity and environment,
the play is too preposterous to elicit belief. It is filled with ele-
ments of excitement and sensation. Three murders and a gunfight in a
darkened barroom.figure in the action of the play. Disguises also
complicate the action. Ed's impersonation of Robert is one instance

and another is Dr. Leslie's disguise as "Peeler," a blind man, which

 

8Ibid., pp. 19, 45, to, 61, 65, 79.

ml: ;

 

 

319
he assumes to watch over Ed while he is growing up in the slums. The
disclosure of this dnguises of thirty years is one of the surprises
at the end of the play. While it may not be a concern of dramatic
literature, the theatrical thrill of the play is largely dependent on
the fact that one actor plays both Ed and Robert. Through the use of
doubles and trick panels in the setting, a whole series of rather
"marvelous" quick changes are made possible. iMuch of the complication
in plotting is caused by the employment of this device.9 The improbab—
ility of the characters doesn't do much to diminish the tendency away
from.the actual in the play. Although this characteristic is the only
romantic one evident in the play, it is so predominant that it out-

‘weighs the realistic characteristics.
.Eeznifiisaseis

Plot
The plot of Brothers contains traits associated with Romanticism.

It is "loose" in its treatment of the traditional unities. Several
subplots complicate the unity of action. Dr. Leslie's disguise as a
blind man, Roma's romance with Ed, the gang war that Robert becomes
involved in, and Robert's escape from'the sanitarium.do not exhaust
the complications of the plot. The unity of time is ignored. The
play contains a lapse of thiry years between.the prologue and Act I.
There is also a lapse of one month between Act II and Act III. The
unity of place is broken as the action shifts from the club room of

the prologue to Judge Naughton's home to Joe's "dive" along the water—

front.

 

91bid., pp. 9-10.

 

 

350
The point of attack is very early and the play unfolds in a
series of thrills. Narrative exposition is not totally absent, but
neither is it woven into the rising action of the play. Many bits of
expository material are reserved for surprise disclosure at the end
of the play. The use of the prologue is also an indication of

Romanticism in the plot of the play.

Character
The persons portrayed in Brothers have attributes of character
associated with Romanticism. They are not credible, probable persons.
They tend to be dramatic types rather than fully-drawn individuals.
In doubt due to the fact that one actor is required to play two
roles, Ed and Robert are rather obviously drawn and contrasted.
Robert is "mean," ”almost a heavy; nasty, very irritable."lo Ed is
"carefree, happy, jovial."ll Such contrast does not produce credi—
bility. The three doctors in the play are almost indistinguishable
in action and attributes. They are neatly differentiated by age. In
the prologue, Holden is thirty, Moore is thirty—five, and Stevens is
forty.12 Roma, the love interest in the story, has nothing to distin-

guish her from any other character of a similar nature in other plays

of this type.

Language
The dialogue of Brothers corresponds to that of Realism. It is
written in prose and appears to be natural to the characters and their

positions. The major characters in the play are distinguished from

 

loIbid., p. 8. llIbid. 12mm.

351

the minor ones through the use of dialogue. Minor characters as a
rule speak a rough and uncultured language filled with mild oaths and
slang expressions. They are the customers in Joe's "dive". The.major
characters express themselves in a manner which passes for ordinary
speech. Although a difference between groups is established by the
use of language, there is not much difference in speech within the
groups themselves. The dialogue is primarily functional, and is used

to advance the complicated action of the plot.

Theme

The themes of Brothers correspond to those of Romanticism. As
pointed out under general characteristics, the theme of heredity and
environment is not dealt with in any truly'meaningful manner in the
play. There does not seem to be any involvement in contemporary social
problems. Robert's dope addiction might be termed a reflection of a
social problem, but it is quite incidental in the totality of the play.
Some rather trite ideas about love are developed in the romance be—
tween Ed and Roma, but they, too, are rather incidental. The main
theme discernible in the drama appears to be the concept of moral
justice. Ed, the upstanding slum dweller, is rewarded with a good
home and a beautiful girl, while Robert, a degenerate lawyer, is killed

for his involvement in criminal activities.

Style of Play
Brothers exhibits three characteristics associated with Realism

and one with Romanticism. However, the romantic characteristic is so
pronounced that it is considered to outweigh the realistic elements in

the play. The element of language in the play is related to Realism,

 

352
but the remaining form elements correSpond to Romanticism. The in-
clusion of realistic traits in this basically romantic play indicates
that the style of the play is related to the dramatic style of "second—

hand" Romanticism.

Exceeding Small by Caroline Francke

Story
Gert's memory of her sister's unhappy marriage which failed be-

cause of economic problems makes her hesitant to marry Ed. Min, Gert's
friend, tries to get her interested in an older businessman. Ed
finally pleads with her to marry him. He is positive that their love
can overcome the difficulties of living on limited means. She finally
agrees to the marriage, and fer a while they are happy, although Ed
only earns twenty dollars a week because of his limited education and
skills. They begin to quarrel over the frustrations of their meager
existence, when Ed suffers a heart attack. The doctor tells him he can
live longer if he can find a job which doesn't require physical labor.
All means of receiving help are closed to Gert and Ed, and in love and
13

despair, they turn on the gas and lie down to die.

General Characteristics

Exceeding Small exhibits four characteristics associated with
both Realism and Naturalism. A fourthewall convention is observed
throughout the action of the play. There is an imitation of "the con-

temporary, immediate world of man and society." The element of

 

13Caroline Francke, Exceeding Small (New York: Samuel French,
1928).

 

r'v‘

 

 

 

 

 

353
character and the relationship between character and environment are
emphasized.
The contemporary world is suggested in the first act in the
depiction of a Chinese restaurant. It is a "stenographers paradise"

with small booths, a dance floor, and jazz music.lh

Slang eXpressions
and catch phrases used in the play seem apprOpriate to the period of
the 1920's.

The element of character is emphasized. The story is an ex-
tremely simple one of two peOple whose love cannot save them from.the
conditions of the life they lead. While Ed and Gert are not terribly
interesting people, it is their hopes and frustrations which the play
focuses upon. Other characters are of some interest and even minor
characters are carefully drawn.

The relationship between character and environment is well-
established in the play. It is the environment which eventually
destroys the characters. Gert's reluctance to marry Ed, although she
loves him, stems from her environmental experiences. She has seen her
sister fail in.marriage because there was not enough money to save her
sister's child. The demands of his environment have shaped Ed's
character. He has had not time for education and can use only his
physical skills.

The play also exhibits three characteristics associated with
Naturalism. It treats unpleasant aSpects of life. A general pessi-

mistic attitude is present. To some extent, a "slice of life"

quality is apparent.

 

lhlbid., p. 5.

 

351+

There is little that is actually sordid in the drama, but many
of the actions it depicts tend to be unpleasant and depressing. Ed
and Gert live in a condition of near-squalor in a one-room apartment.
Their attempts to find happiness and to better their condition fail.
The moments of gaiety in their lives only serve to emphasize the un-
pleasant realities of near poverty and impending death. The fact that
death.is more welcome than life is to them.is an illustration of the
depressing atmoSphere of the play.

An attitude of pessimism.permeates the drama. The characters'
hopes never become realities. Love and physical desire lead Ed and
Gert into a marriage they are sure will not be affected by the
problems of their level of society. When Ed's heart condition be-
comes known, they do not completely despair. They believe that they
‘will get help from.relief organizations or that Ed can find a job
that will not aggravate his weakened heart. Their plans for escaping
their problems are cancelled one by one until their situation is hOpe-
less. Death becomes the only solution. The entire play depicts the
destruction of hOpes. No dream.is allowed fruition.

A "slice of life" quality is projected by the play. The beginning
of the action is not immediately apparent in the many details depicted
in Act I. Characters are shown enjoying a Saturday night out. Ordering
meals, dancing, and light banter interrupt the revelation of the
relationship between Ed and Gert.l5 The story does not develOp in any
direct manner. The other acts of the play also contain details that

are not directly relevant to the main action. In the second scene of

 

lBIbido’ pp. 5'33.

 

 

 

 

355

Act II, much time is devoted to the preparation and eating of a
dinner to entertain two friends of Ed and Gert.16 Even the final
scene leading up to the suicides of Ed and Gert is interrupted by.Min,

who drOps in to offer sympathy and to tell of her newromance.l7

Form.Elements

Plot

The plot of Exceeding Small contains traits associated with
Naturalism. .As mentioned above, the content is taken from.contempor-
ary life. Also the play appears to be a "slice of life." The story
is quite simple, but "filled with.many details of ordinary life,"
such as eating, changing clothes, and silly "horseplay." Climactic
moments in the play are underplayed, but not avoided. After Ed
suffers his heart attack and is examined by the doctor, Gert does
get emotional, but at the end of the scene, she sits calmly on the
edge of the bed "rocking to and fro slightly."18 As is often the case
'with the "slice of life" technique, the plot appears to have no be-
ginning. However, the play has a definite end as Ed and Gert wait for
the gas fumes to fill the room. The content, too, is naturalistic in

that it is depressing.

Character
The persons portrayed in Exceeding Small have attributes of
character associated with Naturalism. They display a close relation

to the influence of environment, a factor mentioned under general

 

16.131219.” pp- 47-55- 17%., pp. 71-77.
13Ibid., p. 61..

 

 

 

356
characteristics. Ed and Gert appear to be the victims of physical
and social circumstances. Ed's heart and the sexual attraction be-
tween Gert and Ed contribute to the idea that physical conditions have
ensnared them both. Social circumstances make it impossible for Ed
and Gert to deal with their problems. Both appear to correSpond to a
type of character found in Naturalism, "physical people with strong
animal drives and little intellectual activity." The bestial side of
the characters is not overemphasized, but they certainly do not dis-
play any mental interests. They are motivated to attain a level of

creature comfort and little else.

Language
The dialogue of Exceedigg Small corresponds to that of’Natural-
ism. It is a close imitation of common Speech of the lower levels of
society. Slang and idioms are employed throughout. Repetitions and
pauses are also used. The following speech by Gert is typical of the
dialogue appearing in the play:
Lissen, Ed. You think I don't love you because I hold out on
you. You don't know -— see? You think I don't want to marry
you; to have you comin' home each night for dinner; to have you
to do for; to know that you an' me belonged ~- see? God! I

would work.m§ fingers to the bone for you, Ed, and like
it 0 O O O 0

Theme
The themes of the play correSpond to those of Naturalism. The

drama shows that human character is determined by heredity and en—

vironment. “Man is regarded as a victim in a world he cannot control."

 

l9Ibid., p. 39.

 

 

 

357
This idea is amply projected in the lives of Ed and Gert. They are
not immoral or corrupt persons; they only seek what so many others
already have. Yet these simple wants are never to be theirs. Ed’s
physical condition and his social world doom him. Life is seen as a

20

trap. Ed says, "The cards is stacked -- see?” His pessimism is

also apparent in the rest of the play.

Style of Play
Exceeding Small exhibits four characteristics which may be

associated with either Realism.or’Naturalism. It also exhibits three
characteristics associated with Naturalism alone. All of its fonm
elements correSpond to those of Naturalism. It is clear that the

style of the play is related to the dramatic style of'Naturalism.

Gods of the Lightning by Maxwell Anderson and Harold Hickerson

§£22x

A union leader and an anarchist, Macready and Capraro, cause the
authorities some difficulty in a city on the eastern seaboard. When a
payroll messenger is killed in a robbery, they are unjustly accused of
the crime. The prosecution, through various means, manages to influ-
ence witnesses against the accused and to "frame" the two men. Their
lawyer, Gluckstein, is brilliant in their defense, but cannot prevent
them from.being sentenced to the electric chair. There is some hope
that the governor of the state will grant a stay of execution, but the

play ends as news of the men's deaths is flashed on a screen on a

 

201bid., p. 79.

358

newspaper building.21

General Characteristics

Gods ofithe Lighggigg exhibits two characteristics associated
‘with Realism. A fourthewall convention is observed throughout the play.
There is an imitation of "the contemporary, immediate world of’man and
society.”

The play imitates the contemporary society of the 1920's. It is
based partly on an actual event of the period -- the trial of Sacco
and Vanzetti. Although the city in which the events take place is not
identified, it is on the eastern seaboard of the United States. The
men are sentenced to die on August 10, 1927.22 Details and allusions
made in the dialogue Suggest the contemporary social background of
America in that period.

The play also contains two characteristics associated with
Romanticism. The play exhibits emotionality and subjectivity. It is
largely concerned with a search for freedom.and a correSponding re—
bellion against established social order.

Actually, both of these above characteristics are closely re-
lated. Macready is often indignant and angry at the men and society
around him. He protests longly and loudly against the injustices he
sees in this world. However, the rebellious attitude of’Macready and
others in the play is not clear as to its origin. True, some terrible

things have happened to the rebellious characters, but they were a

 

2llMaxwell Anderson and Harold Hickerson, Gods o; the Lightning
(New Yerk: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1928).

221bid., p. 93.

359
.gggult of their revolt and not the ggggg of it. The playwrights do not
provide the motives arising from.cnvironment that might explain the
actions and attitudes of their characters. In short, an emotional pro-

test against the world as it is appears to guide the play.
Form Elements

Plot

The plot of Gods of the Lightning contains traits associated with
Romanticism. The play is "loose" in its treatment of the traditional
unities. The unity of action is maintained, but it is complicated by
subplots. A few of these subplots are the romance between.Macready
and Rosalie Suvorin, Mr. Suvorin's involvement in the payroll robbery,

- and the influencing of a number of trial witnesses. The unity of time
is ignored, as the events in the play cover several months. The unity
of place is broken in that the action shifts from.the Lyceum.Restaurant
to the district attorney's office, to the courtroom, and back to the
restaurant.

The point of attack is early and the action is revealed in a
chronological sequence. Narrative exposition is employed to reveal
events happening between scenes. This exposition is not closely
associated with the rising action of the play, however. There is some
evidence of "obvious, theatrical" plotting in the sudden appearance

and confession of Suvorin to the robbery and murder.

Character
The persons portrayed in Gods of the Lightning have attributes of

character associated with Romanticism. They are not credible, probable

people. One of the characters, Suvorin, is reminiscent of the

 

360
"romantic criminal" type found in ”historical” Romanticism.

While not wholly unrealistic, the characters tend to be incredi-
ble, improbable persons. They are rather shallowly drawn. Macready
is eloquently indignant most of the time, although he does show some
tenderness for Rosalie. However, these two traits are about the
extent of his characterization. Capraro is quiet in his protest, but
equally eloquent. Neither Capraro nor Macready demonstrate any nega-
tive aSpects of personality. There seems to be an idealization of
them as persons. Although their protests and actions are out of the
ordinary and aimed at established laws and conditions,.Macready and
Capraro are portrayed as sympathetic characters. Those who represent
society are depicted as unsympathetic characters. They tend to be
villains who are cynical and corrupt. The rather clear distinction
between the characters who protest and the ones who punish makes the
play appear improbable.

Suvorin, the restaurant owner, has the character traits of the
"romantic criminal" type from."historical" Romanticism. He commits
robbery and murder as part of his effort to "get back" at a society
which wronged him. As he says,

. . . I tasted your justice. I drank it deep.. I bear its
marks on.my body and I bear them.on.my brain. My wife died
and I had loved her. She died after fifteen.years of'your 23
justice and I swore by the bleeding Christ you would pay me!
Language
The dialogue of‘gggsgof the Lighggigg correSponds to that of

Realism. It is written in prose and appears natural to the characters

 

23113101., p. 86.

361

and their positions. The lowelife characters in the restaurant employ
slang and ungrammatical constructions in their expressions. Through-
out the play there appears to be an attempt to imitate the common
Speech of everyday life. Mild swearing and interrupted sentences add
to the sense of realistic conversation. Although it appears as a
natural part of the dialogue, there is one set speech by Capraro be-
fore the court which is reminiscent of the use of a similar language
device in Romanticism.21+

The element of discussion often associated with Realism is very

evident in the play. In many respects the entire play is a discussion

of social justice.

Theme
The themes of Gods of the Lightnigg correspond to those of

Realism. The major theme of the play is related directly to con-
temporary American social and political problems. This theme is that
men in a just society should be judged by their actions and not their
thoughts or beliefs. Macready and Capraro are executed because their
beliefs did not conform to those of the established order, not be-
cause they were guilty of a crime. Such a theme is involved with

society's reSponsibility to the individual, a theme of Realism.

Style of Play
Gods ofgthe Lightning exhibits two characteristics of Realism

and two of Romanticism. The fOrm.elements of plot and character

correSpond to those of Romanticism; however, the form elements of

 

24Ibid., pp. 91—92.

362
language and theme are related to Realism. .Although the play has
aspects of the two styles, the romantic characteristic of revolt
against society must be considered more important to the play than
the imitation of contemporary society. The play is viewed as basically
romantic, but greatly influenced by Realism. Elements of Realism in
a basically romantic play indicate that the style of the play is re-

lated to the dramatic style of "secondhand" Romanticism.

Goin' Home by Ransom Rideout

Stogy

When WOrld war I breaks out in Europe, Israel Du Bois, a Negro,
is left in France by his American employers, the Powells. Israel
is conscripted into the French Foreign Legion, where he becomes a
hero and earns the Croix de Guerre. At the war's end he marries
Lise, who believes him to be a rich man, and helps her manage a cafe:
A troop of American Negro soldiers visits the cafe’on their way back
to the United States. They are commanded by Israel's former white
master, Edward Powell, now a major in the A.E.F. When.Major Powell
learns of Israel's marriage to a white woman, his Southern views cause
him to be highly offended. He tells Lise that Israel is not a rich
man and she admits that she only married Israel for his supposed
‘wealth. The major has been drinking when he tells Israel the truth
about Lise's attraction to him and attempts to get Israel to go back
to his "rightful" place in America. Major Powell and Israel quarrel
and then fight. A huge African soldier, Israel's best friend, attacks
Major Powell with a knife, and Israel then kills the soldier. The

major's attitude toward Israel changes and he manages to have Israel

 

363
cleared of blame for the killing. At the play's end, Major Powell

and Israel are ”goin' home.”2

Gengygl Charactgyistics

Goin' Home exhibits four characteristics associated with Real-
ism. A fourth-wall convention is observed throughout the play. There
is an imitation of ”the contenporary, immediate world of man and
society.” The element of character is emphasized. The relationship
between character and environment is apparent.

An imitation of the contemporary world is presented in the play.
The characters are recognizable Americans of both the Negro and the
white races. Their behavior is that of men who are returning from a
war. The allusions made to the war itself are consistent with the
actual events of world war I. The rather ordinary actions of common
men are depicted as the characters drink, sing, and dance in cele-
bration of their impending return home.

Although much of the drama depends on the unfolding of a
relatively complex plot, the element of character is the center of
interest. Israel's wish to be respected as an individual and his re-
luctance to return to a life of servitude are important aSpects of the
story. Major Powell's racial blindness and his eventual recognition
that his "servant" is a human being are of equal importance. Some
turns of the plot seem contrived, but the relation between these two
men does not.

The influence of environment on character is clearly shown in

25Ransom Rideout, "Goin' Home," Goin' Home and Other Pla o
the 1922 Contest (New York: Longmans, Green, and Co., 19285.

 

 

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, . . < . ~ "' -
l
‘I
. . . » v.
-_ a . .,— ,.
. - .
f a
9
-.‘ . I - -‘ - ' - . n y
.
‘ .
_ .-. . p . I .4 . . ,
. . . - V. , ‘. ‘ . . ‘

 

361.
the play. .Major Powell's Southern background dictates his treatment
of Israel and the Negroes in his regiment. He is the master and they
are his servants. He knows no other possible relationship until
Israel saves his life. A change in environment results in a change
in Israel's character. The French view him as a hero and an indi-
vidual, not just as a ”colored man." He achieves dignity and firms
ness in his new surroundings. Yet the environment of his youth still
affects him. In the moment he has a choice between saving Major
Powell's life and seeing him.die, Israel saves him because in a second

he saw all his life "back home."26

Form Elements

Plot

The plot of Goin' Home contains traits associated with Realism.
It displays a "structural compactness" in dealing with the tradi-
tional unities. The unity of time is strictly observed in that the
events of the play occur in less than twelve hours. The unity of
place is maintained: all scenes are set in the interior of Lise's
cafe: The action is unified, but complicated by two relevant sub-
plots: the desertion of a Negro soldier and the friendship between
Israel and the African soldier he has to shoot in order to save Major
Powell.

The point of attack is late and retrospective exposition is em-
ployed to reveal the past lives of the major characters. There are

some moments of obvious excitement in the play, but they are preceded

 

261bid., p. 75.

365
by careful preparation. The last third of the play is marked by
some obvious plotting which is usually fereign to plays of Realism.
This factor in itself does not overshadow the general trend of the

plot toward Realism, however.

Character

The persons portrayed in Goin' Home have attributes of charac-
ter associated with Realism. They are credible, probable persons
who display a relative complexity of personality.

Although fifteen of the twenty-three characters in the play are
Negroes, there is no attempt to draw them as stereotypes. Not every
one of them is highly individualized, but they do appear to be
individuals rather than members of a group. Jim, who attempts to
desert, is bitter about the conditions he knows await him in America.
Samba Saar is a full-blooded African in the French Army. Tom.is
almost uneducated and Speaks with a more pronounced accent than the
rest of his companions. However, the credibility of character is best
shown in the persons of Israel and Major Powell.

Israel is presented as an honest and decent person. His exper-
iences have provoked changes in his attitudes and ideas. It is quite
probable that he is torn between his early training and his way of
life in France. He realizes in the end that he cannot escape from
the need to be with his own people, but this realization does not make
him happy. He also appears very human when he relates how he was
frightened into serving in the French army.27 His bravery and heroism

are not idealized.

 

271bid., p. to.

366

Major Powell reveals a complexity of personality in his ambiva—
lent attitude toward Negroes. Ie wants to separate Israel from.Lise
for two reasons. He is offended by the idea of interracial marriage.
On the other hand, he wants to protect Israel from.Lise's avarice.
Major Powell appears to be more human in dealing with the white char-
acters in the play. 'With them he diSplays a wider range of character
traits. He tends to become a two—dimensional character when dealing
with his tr00ps and Israel. This is probable since he sees the
Negroes as servants and not as human beings. He is not an unsympa-
thetic character, however. His concern for Israel appears to be
genuine, although it is based on false assumptions about how Israel

should live.

Language

The dialogue of Goin' Home correSponds to that of Realism. It
is written in prose and appears natural to the characters and their
positions. The soldiers swear a great deal and use slang often.
"Negro” accents are employed, but they differ from character to char-
acter. French language and French accents appear frequently in the
dialogue. The element of discussion is present in the play. .Major
Powell and Israel converse about the Negro's position in.American
society. A similar discussion is carried on by Israel and the

deserter, Jim.28

Theme

The themes of the play correspond to those of Realism. They

 

281.....bido. pp- 43-46. 74-76.

 

 

367
demonstrate a sympathetic interest in human problems. Israel's re-
lation to Lise and his desire to be truly free are such human problems.
The play raises one question which.may be regarded as a major theme.
That is, what is society's responsibility to the.Negro? Jim points
out that Negroes can fight for their country, but that they have no

29 The play fails to do more than raise

real place in that country.
the question, however. All in all, in a broad sense the play attempts

to deal with contemporary social problems.

Style of Play

Goin’ Home exhibits four characteristics of Realism. All of its
form elements correspondgto those of the same style. It is clear that

.the style of the play is related to the dramatic style of Realism.

The Grey Fox by Lemist Esler

Stogy
In lh99, a Florentine of thirty, Niccolo Machiavelli, asks to

lead a diplomatic mission to the state of Forli. He is sure that
honesty and openness in the affairs of state should be displayed. He
is granted command of the mission. In Forli he is tricked and cheated
by the Countess of Forli, Caterina Sforza, who keeps him ignorant of
his betrayal by becoming his lover during his ten day visit. When he
learns he has been made a fool by Caterina, he denounces idealism in
diplomacy and embraces deceit and cunning as the weapons of power.
Four years later, Machiavelli is already established as the most

capable statesman in Florence. He is called "The Grey Fox" because of

 

29Ibid., pp. 59—60.

368
his slyness in manipulating the states of Italy for the gain of
Florence. He gains some revenge against the Countess Sforza when the
Florentine armies under the command of Cesare Borgia capture her at
Forli. She comes to ask Machiavelli to save her son's life when he
is in danger of being assassinated by Borgia's men. .Machiavelli
arranges for the son to become an officer in Borgia's army, thus
insuring his safety. Then Machiavelli Spurns an offer of love from
the Countess by saying that they are now even for the "favors" granted
him.in Forli four years before.

Six years later, Machiavelli is at the height of his career. He
is now master of treachery and deceit. He discovers a plot against
Florence involving Caterina's son, and arranges to have him.killed in
battle. For her part in the plot, Machiavelli sends the Countess
Sforza to a convent in Florence. She invites him.there in order to
have him assassinated. The scheme fails and Caterina is murdered by
Jeffro, Machiavelli's servant. Machiavelli is heart-broken because,
in spite of all her treachery, he had never forgotten his love for
her in Forli ten years before. Disguising his true feelings, he de-
livers a ringing, patriotic Speech to the peOple of Florence.

Five years later,.Machiavelli is revealed as a white-haired old
man. He has been stripped of power. His book, The Prince, which he
sent to the De.Medici family, is used against him. They banish him
from.Florence forever. In his bitterness, Machiavelli denounces all
honest and worthy attempts to govern. He advises Jeffro to be stupid,

30

cowardly, and treacherous.

 

30Lemist Esler, The Grey Fox (New York: Samuel Hench, 1930).

369
General Characteristics

The Grey Fox exhibits two characteristics associated with
Romanticism. The play diSplays ”a tendency away from.actuality.”
Emotion and subjectivity guide the actions of the characters. A search
for political freedom is dramatized to some extent.

The tendency away from.actuality is fostered by remoteness in
time, place, and culture. The play takes place in Italy in the late
fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. Although the subject of the
play is the life of an actual person, Machiavelli, there is little
attempt to imitate actual historical events. The drama emphasizes
the relationship of Machiavelli and Caterina and completely ignores
the fact that the historical Machiavelli was married and the father of
children.31 This and other factors render the play a fictitious bio-
graphy of a real personage.

In Spite of all the intelligence and acuity diSplayed by
Machiavelli in the play, he is primarily guided by emotion. He is de-
voted to his native state of Florence. It is this feeling of patriot—
ism.which actually guides the rational and devious thoughts of the.man.
His infatuation with Countess Sforza stems from.a ten day affair with
her in his youth. It influences him.to allow her freedom.even when
she and her plans are a threat to Florence and himself. Her hatred,
in turn, is only partly inSpired by reasons of state. She cannot for-
give him.f0r Spurning her offers of love made when Machiavelli saved
her son.

Machiavelli and Caterina both seek the freedom of their

 

311bid., p. 110.

370
reSpective states. The conflict between them arises largely over the
political conflict. In the early part of the play Machiavelli demon-
strates a rebellious attitude toward the established policy of dis-
honest diplomacy, but his betrayal by Caterina wipes out all Signs of
this idealism. Caterina's search for personal freedom leads her to

plan the assassination of Machiavelli.
Form.Elements

Plot
The plot of The GreygFox contains traits associated with
Romanticism. It is "loose" in its handling of the traditional unities.
The action is unified, but extremely complicated. The main action,
the relation between.Machiavelli and Caterina, is interwoven with sub—
plots of diplomatic intrigue, military campaigns, and deceitful
.friendships. The unity of time is ignored: the actions of the drama
cover a period of fifteen years, from.lh99 to 1514. The unity of
place is also ignored in that the eight scenes of the play are set in
seven different locations. The rather free use of elapsed time and
shifts in place are some indication that the plot is a romantic one.
The plot is marked by an early point of attack and unfolds in
a multi-scened chronological sequence. Action largely replaces
narrative exposition. This action often provides thrills and excite—
ment as is evident by the number of murders and assassination attempts
in the play (including one mass execution of over ten men).32

Overall, the plot is quite similar to those found in "historical"

 

321bid., p. 65.

371
Romanticism. However, the plot does not include soliloquies or
asides to advance the action. The use of an epilogue in the play also

suggests "historical" Romanticism.

Character

The persons portrayed in The Grey Fox have attributes of char-
acter associated with Romanticism. While not wholly unrealistic,
they are not credible, probable people. They display some complexity
of personality. The two major characters resemble dramatic types
found in "historical" Romanticism.

The characters are fictitional imitations of actual persons.
Machiavelli as a character in this play is an improbable person partly
because he fails to conform to what is known of the historical
Machiavelli. He is drawn as a sympathetic character whose seeming
villainy masks the noble and honest person he actually is. The
difference between his outward acts and his actual motives produces
a complexity of traits in his personality. He is cruel, tender,
cynical, sentimental, and melancholy. The character of Machiavelli
is reminiscent of the Byronic hero of Romanticism. He suffers from
ennui and deSpair in a life affected by a wrong committed against him
in the past. His betrayal by Caterina causes a change in appearance
and personality which is too sudden to be credible. When she reveals
he has been duped by her, he

sheds from his face and body all expression of love, of youth.
Over his lips creeps the twisted smile which is to accompany

him through life, the smile which meant ”What do you take me
for? A fool?"33

 

33Ibid., p. 41.

 

 

 

372

Caterina is also an improbable person. She, too, is complex in
that she is beautiful, sensual, intelligent, and fearless. She re-
senbles the less reputable female characters of "historical" Romanti-
cism. She displays traits of lust, ambition, and heartlessness. Her
laugh is described as "cynical and mocking, but carries in it also
more than a little pleasuredal" She seeningly enjoys lust but uses
her body to further the cause of her small empire. She has little
feeling or pity for those who stand in the way of her ambition.

Language

The dialogue of The Grey Fog; correSponds to that of Realism.
It is written in prose and appears natural to the characters and their
positions. The author of the play attempts to give a feeling of
immediacy to his drama by employing an imitation of modern speech.
Soldiers and commoners in the play even use modern words and along
in their conversations. One soldier says he receives "pay fur
overtime -- after four o'clock.“35 His companion rouses the Swiss
Guard by shouting, "Ya Swiss Boy Scout!"36

Theme

The themes of The Org 2035 correspond to those of Romanticism.
There is no involvement in contemporary human or social problems.
Instead, Machiavelli's life is used to; project nostalgia. He wishes
to live according to his dream of a united Italy. Political freedom
for their respective states is an ideal of both Machiavelli and

Caterina. More important than these ideas, however, are the thanes

 

341mm, p. 33. 35Ibid., p. 21. 36Ibid.

373
of emotion in the play. Patriotism, thwarted love that turns to hate,

conflict between duty and love, and sentimmt are explicit in the
drama. Love of country and love of persons are primary subjects of

the play.

Style of; Play
The Grey on exhibits three characteristics of Romanticism. All

of its form elements except that of language are related to those of
the same style. The dialogue correSponds to Realism, but it is not
enough of a factor to outweigh the prevailing romantic quality of
the drama. From the analysis it is evident that the style of the
play is related to the dramatic style of "historical" Romanticism.
It is not related to "secondhand" Romanticism, because it does not

deal with the contanporary world.

m by Maxwell Anderson

5232::
Ellen and David Hastings have a rather unconventional marriage.

She loves David, but. hates to be: tied down by anything, including
marriage. Ellen is self-supporting and goes out with other men.
Although she is not faithful, she prides herself on telling the truth
about her affairs. David has just forgiven her for an affair with
Jerry, an actor, when she beginsaxa romance with a novelist, Cleve.

She leaves David and tells him she is going to live alone in order

to avoid hurting him. Actually, she shares her room with Cleve.

When David discovers this, he is "shattered" by the unperience. Cleve,

who has witnessed David's misery, sees that Ellen is no more faithful

J . f
-.
o
‘ v

 

37A
to him than she had been to David. Rather than be hurt in the same

way, Cleve leaves Ellen. At the end of the play she is talking on
the telephone to another man. The implication is that her pattern of
infidelity will be repeated.37

Gengal Characteristics
mg; exhibits four characteristics associated with Realism. A

fourth-wall convention is observed throughout the play. There is an
imitation of "the contemporary, immediate world of man and society."
The elment of character is emphasized. Environmental influence on
character is evident.

Backgrounds and details in the play suggest the contanporary
world. The drama is set in New York City in the 1920's, the period
of the opening of the play on Broadway. Actual street addresses in
the city are given in the play, such as "West 18th Street" and "East
Elst Street."‘38 In addition, the use of telephones and telegrams in
the play suggest the contemporary world.

Character is the most important form element in the play, which
is essentially a dramatic portrait of a neurotic woman. Ellen Hastings
and her inability to establish lasting or meaningful relationships
with others is the center of interest in the play. The play reveals
her disturbed personality and the possible reasons for it, but does not
offer any solutions to her problms. In the course of the action, she
comes to realize that her desire to be unhampered in life is actually

3711mm Anderson, "Gypsy," The Best P o 28- 2 , Burns
Mantle, ed., (New York: Dodd, Mead, and Co., 1929).

331mm, pp. 283, 306.

 

 

375

an inability to love. This realization does not alter her behavior
or bring her happiness. What Ellen is and what she does determines
what little plot there is in the play.

The influence of environment on character is evident in the
play in the relationship between Ellen and her mother, Marilyn
Russell. Although Ellm hates her mother, she becomes more like her
as the play progresses. As a girl of ten, Ellen had witnessed her
mother's infidelity. She also saw her mother enter: into three
marriages. Her mother was too busy to- pay any attention to Ellen,
who went to boarding schools and did not live at home.39 These
incidents in her early environment "e:cplain" her inability to enter

into lasting love affairs.

gem Elanents

Plot

The plot of may contains traits associated with Realism.
Although some liberties are taken with the unities of time and place,
the play displays an overall "structural compactness." The action
of the play is extremely simple. The unity of time is violated in
that the events in the play cover a period of almost five months.
The unity of place is largely maintained, although the last act
differs in setting from the first two acts. While there are devia-
tions from a strict adherence to the unities, the play is rendered
structurally compact by the use of retrospective exposition which
is woven carefully into the rising action of the drama. As the story

 

39Ibide, p0 2900

 

 

 

376
moves forward, more and more of Ellen's past is revealed. Discovery
of her neurotic behavior is accompanied by information relating to

the cause of the behavior.

Character
The persons portrayed in m have attributes of character

associated with Realism. They are credible, probable people who

display some complexity of personality. The psychological conflicts
of one character are important to the drama as a whole. One other
trait, the evidence of environmental influence on character, has
been mentioned under general characteristics.

The persons in the drama are not dramatic types, but they do
resemble types of peOple found in empirical reality. David Hastings
is "a suggestively aesthetic young man of open countenance and
trusting eyes."l"O He is not a strong man mentally, physically, or
unotionally. It is probable that he would allow his wife to "date"
other men. He will do anything to make her happy. He cannot
effectively cope with the world, and he finds comfort in the love
of one human being. He is also credible in the fact that he can
intellectually agree to let Ellen be free but cannot bear the reality
of her freedom and the infidelity it entails. He forgives her for
one affair, but the second is too much for him.

Ellen is also a probable and complex person. She believes in
faninine independence and is semi-intellectual. She flirts with ma:
and otherwise makes herself attractive to them, but can't really love

than in spite of all her avowals to the contrary. Her psychological

 

1+0Ibid., p. 285.

377
problems invite most of the interest in the drama. She claims she
doesn't know'who she is. Her search for freedom.is vague and unde-
fined. She hates herself for what she is, but is powerless to do

anything about it.“1

In seeking love she destroys others. Her
personality and her actions are not sympathetic, but they are quite

credible.

Language

The dialogue of my corresponds to that of Realism. It is
written in prose and appears natural to the characters and their
positions. The characters express themselves in a fashion consistent
'with their fairly high educational levels. They speak of.Harx,
Gibbons, James Fenimore Cooper, and Nietzsche in their rather shallow
intellectual conversations.

Discussion is used extensively in the dialogue of the play. In
some respects the entire play may be viewed as a discussion of
modern marriages and changing values. However, particular passages

of discussion deal directly with.marriage and fidelity.“2

Theme

The themes of m correspond to those of Realism. They
demonstrate a concern for individual human problems in treating the
life of a neurotic woman. Ideas in the play also touch on the
responsibility of individuals toward each other. In some ways,
Ellen's difficulties arise from an inability to assume any responsi-
bility. Ideas concerning sex are included in the play and indicate

 

Allbide, p. 3120 albido, pp. 286‘We

378
a relation to thanes of Realism. Overall, the play projects a con-
cern for the problems which arise from the changing values and

standards of a society.

Style of Play
may exhibits four characteristics of Realism. All of its

form elements are related to the same style. It is evident that

the style of the play corresponds to the dramatic style of Realism.

Harlem by W. J. Rapp and Wallace Thurman

Story
Seven Negroes, the menbers of the Williams family, come to New

York's Harlem district from their poor life in South Carolina. The
better life they seek in the North turns out to be a myth, and they
suffer from a number of unhappy experiences in Harlan. A daughter,
Cordelia, becomes a semi-prostitute. The threat of poverty forces
them to give "rent parties" in order to pay their landlord. Cordelia
meets a West African Negro who wants to marry her, but she refuses
and becomes involved with a gambler. When the gambler is slain, the
West African is accused of the crime. He is proven innocent, but his
love for Cordelia does not prevent her from falling lower into the

world of squalor that is Harlem."3

General Characteristics
Harlem exhibits four characteristics associated with both Realism

and Naturalism. A fourth-wall convention is observed throughout the

 

“William J. Rapp and Wallace Thurman, "Harlem," unpublished
play, U.S. Copyright Office, Washington, No. D87133 (December 10, 1928).

v . .c
j
«,7- ._.‘..--»v
- '1
a ‘ ,
.‘Air_
. ' . .
. A . r'
—--- -o ,. . . , . _

   

379
play. There is an imitation of "the contemporary, immediate world

of man and society." The element of character is emphasized. The
influence of environment on character is evident.

The contemporary world is the object of imitation in this drama.
The scene is Harlem, an actual district of New York City. The time
is the late 1920 's, the period of the original production of the play
on Broadway. The use of Jazz music and modern dances suggests the
immediacy of the play. The immigration of Negroes to Harlan from the
South depicted in the drama also suggests the contemporary nature of
the play.

Although there is a great deal of interest supplied by the plot,
the element of character is most important to the drama. The dashed
hopes of the Williams family and the frustration of their lives are
the focal points of the story. In particular, it is the degradation
of Cordelia which is of major interest.

The relationship between character and environment is obvious in
the play. Specifically, it is the change in environment which affects
the characters most. The honest peasants of South Carolina are forced
into less honest ways of life by the sordid surroundings of Harlan.

In addition, the play exhibits three characteristics associated
with Naturalism. "Life in the lower levels of society is portrayed."
"Sordid, unpleasant, and bestial aspects of life are frankly treated."
To some «tent, a "slice of life" quality is evident.

The low level of life depicted in the play is that of poor
Negroes in Harlan. The people portrayed are largely uneducated, amoral,
and downtrodden. The settings of the play also are described in a way

380

which suggests poverty, squalor, and ruin.“ Sordid and bestial as-
pects of life in this part of society are frankly presented. Drunken-
ness, narcotics addiction, gambling, prostitution, and murder figure
in the action of the play. Cordelia Williams' erotic animal appeal is
anphasized.

While it cannot be claimed that the entire play appears as a
"slice of life" some scenes suggest this quality. The opening of
the play and the second act "rent party" suggest the sordid and
animalistic lives of the characters. They fit into the action, but
are more important for the mood they create. They contain more action
and detail than is necessary to merely advance the plot. The Jazz
music and orgiastic dancing at the party are particularly effective

as details of a "slice of life."

Eorm Elements

Plot

The plot of m contains traits associated with Realism. It
displays a "structural compactness“ in the handling of the tradi-
tional unities. The unity of action is maintained, although the action
is somewhat complicated (eSpecially towards the end of the drama).
The unity of place is largely observed in that the events of the play
occur in two settings, the Williams' apartment and the gambler's
room. The unity of time is broken, as the play covers a period of a
week.

The point of attack in the play is late. The action begins

 

“and... p. 1.

381
after the arrival of the Williams family in Harlem. ‘Retrospective
exposition is employed to a large extent in the beginning of the play
to establish the former life of the Williams family. However, the
play tends to unfold in action rather than narrative exposition after

the first act.

The play deviates from.plots associated with Realismuwhen it
shows a tendency toward "obvious, theatrical" plotting. The murder
of the gambler and the arrest of the Nest African are rather con-
trived situations. Such plotting is usually fOreign to realistic
plots. 7

One trait associated with Naturalism appears in the plot. Its

content is depressing and sordid.

Character

The persons portrayed in.§§g;§m have attributes of character
associated with.Naturalism. Their attributes "stem.fr0m.heredity
and environment." They appear to be "victims" of their social cir-
cumstances." There is some relation between them.and types associated
with Naturalism. In addition, there is some suggestion of a group
protagonist.

The sordid and bestial traits of the characters arise from the
influence of heredity and environment. The fact that they ars Negroes
dooms than to live in an unpleasant environment. The environment in
turn shapes their character. Pleasures are few and education is al—
‘most non-existent. It is small wonder the animal side of their
natures is dominant. This observation does not necessarily apply to

the older members of the Williams family who have not been exposed to

382
the Harlem environment for a great length of time. However, environ-
ment seems to play a major role in shaping the lives of the minor
characters.

The characters in general appear to be trapped by their social
conditions. Race, poverty, and lack of skills or education make it
difficult to escape from Harlem.

Most of the persons in the play conform to a character type
found in Naturalism. They are persons of strong animal drives and
little intellectual activity. Cordelia is a prime example of the
presence of this type in the play.

In some reSpects, the Williams family may be viewed as being a
group protagonist. This naturalistic trait is not consistent in the
play. The first half of the play appears to center on the family as
a group, but the second half tends to concentrate on Cordelia. How-

ever, Cordelia's decline into immorality is a concern of the entire

family.

Language
The dialogue of am corresponds to that of Naturalism. It
is written in prose and appears to be a close imitation of Negro
folk speech. It is marked by the use of slang and colloquial idiom.
Pauses, broken sentences, ungrammatical constructions, and repetitions

reinforce the "phonographic" quality of the dialogue.

Theme
The thenes of Harlem correspond to those of Naturalism. The
corruption of Cordelia in the play enphasizes the idea that character

is determined by environment. Life in Harlem is projected as mean.

 

£54-.

 

383
The social condition of the characters entraps then. They appear to
be victims of a world they cannot control. In Spite of some scenes
of excitement and gaiety, the play projects a general atmosphere of
pessimism. However, there is the implication that changes in environ-
ment might improve the condition of the people. Although Cordelia
succumbs to indecency, other members of the Williams family maintain

their honest ways .

Style of Play

W exhibits four characteristics associated with both
Realism and Naturalism. It also exhibits three characteristics
associated primarily with Naturalism. All of the form elements ex-
cept that of plot correspond to those of Naturalism. The element of
plot is related to Realism, and contains some traits which deviate
from that style. The play lacks one requisite of a naturalistic
drama, that of an overall "slice of life" quality. While the play
is not entirely naturalistic, it is more closely related to that style
than to any other. From this analysis the style of the play may be
viewed as corresponding to the dramatic style of Naturalism. Some
note, however, should be taken of the realistic plot and the effect
of melodramatic plotting which prevmts the play from being considered

wholly naturalistic.

Jarnegan by Charles Beahan and Garrett Fort

Stog

A rough sac-convict, Jack Jarnegan, works his way into the motion

picture industry. He earns the reputation of a demanding but

38h
accomplished director. In filming a picture he is introduced to
Daisy Carol, a girl like many others he has met who have come to Holly-
wood for quick fame and recognition as a "star." Although Jarnegan
does not have any romantic interest in Daisy, he appreciates her
sensitivity and innocence and makes an effort to psotect her from.
unscrupulous movie industry peOple. In spite of Jarnegan's efforts,
Daisy is lured into an affair by the promise of furthering her career.
Edward Bernard, one of Jarnegan's directing competitors, seduces Daisy,
and she becomes pregnant. Bernard arranges for her to have an abortion,
and Daisy dies from.the effects of the Operation. When Jarnegan learns
of Daisy's death and the causes of it, he gets drunk and "storms" into
a fashionable Hollywood party. The play ends with Jarnegan's bitter
and violent denunciation of the motion picture industry and its

#5

immorality.

General Characteristics
Jarnegan exhibits two characteristics associated with Realism.
A fourthdwall convention is observed throughout the play. There is an
imitation of "the contemporary, immediate world of'man and society."
The play imitates the contemporary world of motion pictures in
Hollywood, California. The time of the action is the late 1920's,
and is identical with the period of the original production of the
play. Objects and details of action present in the drama are con-

sistent with the actual world of Hollywood. The use of telephones,

 

ASCharles Beahan and Garrett Fort, "Jarnegan," unpublished
playS U.S. Copyright Office, Washington, No. D82852 (February 13,
1928 .

385
the depiction of story conferences, and the bargaining over contracts
provide a sense of reality.

Jarnegan also exhibits one characteristic of Romanticism. There
is "a tendency away from actuality" in the play. The Hollywood setting
of the play may or may not be considered remote from common, everyday
experience. This is a matter of personal interpretation. However,
the tendency away from actuality is apparent in the inmrobable nature
of the story itself and in the improbable characters who appear in it.
An ex-convict, who brags he spent the five dollars given to him upon
leaving prison on whiskey and a woman, becomes an influential Holly-
wood director. He takes a respectable interest in an innocent young
girl fl‘om the Middle West, but she is seduced by an unscrupulous
director. The whole chain of incidents does not elicit belief. In
addition, except for Jarnegan, the characters are drawn as extremes

of good or bad.

Form Elements

Plot

The plot of Jarnegan contains traits associated with Romanticism.
It is "loose" in its handling of the traditional unities. The unity
of action is maintained. Action is relatively simple and only slightly
complicated by subplots involving minor problems in the career of
Jarnegan. The unity of time is igiored, as the action of the play
covers a period of at least two years. The unity of place is broken.
There are different settings for each of the three acts.

The point of attack is early, as the action begins with

Jarnegan's attempts at becoming a director. The story unfolds in a

386

chronological sequence which makes the extensive employment of retro-
spective exposition unnecessary. Exposition is used, however, to

relate events occurring between acts.

Character

The persons portrayed in Jarnegan have attributes of character
associated with Romanticism. Except for Jarnegan, they tend to be
"types," He is a complex character, but an improbable person.

Daisy Carol and Edward Bernard are examples of the "type"
characters in the play. Daisy is a girl from the Middle west who
goes to Hollywood to make her fortune. She is pretty and‘very'inno-
cent. However, she does not show any complexity in personality as
a character. Daisy is used as a means to motivate the character of
Jarnegan, but her own motivations are not established. Edward
Bernard is just too evil a person to be probable. He is lecherous,
immoral, and irresponsible. He.mainly functions as a villain in the
plat-

Jarnegan displays several factors in his personality. He is
hard-driving in.making the arrangements for his pictures. He has an
unhuman aloofness about him.when he deals with his subordinates. Yet
he has a sense of'humor and can show’some concern for weaker persons
like Daisy Carol. His actions are quite human when he learns of'Daisy's
death. In spite of a dimensionality in his characterisation, however,
he is an improbable person. His prison background is well-established
by exposition in Act 1. He is "hard-boiled" and rough, but has a
"soft heart" fOr Daisy. His tough exterior and his "heart of gold" are

too trite to be probable.

 

 

.)

.v.

I! ll {.11.

G.

If!

 

 

 

387

Language

The dialogue of Jarnegan corresponds to that of Realism. It is
written in prose and appears natural to the characters and their
positions. Some characters express thenselves in an affected manner,
but this seens a reasonable extension of assumed exterior personali-
ties. Swearing and slang expressions are used extensively. Extraneous
conversation about drinking and parties adds to the realistic effect of
the dialogue. One character, Nathan Leedman, is identifiable by his
"Yiddish" accent.

The play as a whole is not dependent on the element of dis-
cussion, but Jarnegan's speech at the end of the play is evidence of

an attempt to provoke thought through dialogue.

Theme

The themes of Jarnegan correspond to those of Realism. The
- play illustrates the need for responsible action in the treatment of
human beings. Jarnegan's denunciation of the motion picture world
points out the immorality of "using" people and taking advantage of
their weaknesses. In a sense, the play deals with social values.
The false values of the seemingly glamorous picture society are in-
dicted in the play. Daisy's life shows that the pursuit of sudden
fame can lead to destruction. Although the play pertains to a particu-
lar part of society, it demonstrates a need for ethical relationships

among humans.

Style of Play
Jarnegan exhibits two characteristics of Realism and one of

Romanticism. The form elements of plot and character correspond to

388
those of Romanticism. Language and theme are related to Realism. In
view of the improbability of the play in general and its characters
in particular, Jarnegan is considered to be a romantic play which in-
cludes realistic attributes. The combination of stylistic elanents
indicates that the style of the play is related to the dramatic style

of "secondhand" Romanticism.

Machinal by Sophie Treadwell

Stom
A Young Woman is frustrated and numbed by life in modern society.

She works as a stenographer in an office and goes home to the stulti-
tying company of her mother. She gets married to a man who is insensi-
tive, and offers her little understanding. She becomes a mother, but
this brings her no joy or peace. A man takes her to a Speakeasy and
then to a room where he is intimate with her, yet she is still "unfill-
filled." Then she murders her husband, is tried for the crime, found

guilty, and executed.“6

General Characteristics

Machgg‘ exhibits four characteristics associated with
Expressionism. The play suggests inner conflicts in concrete form. It
anploys a dream-like structure. Aspects of the empirical world appear-
ing in the drama are distorted and exaggerated. The use of symbols is

apparent.
Through the use of interior monologues, the play presents the

 

héSophie Treadwell, "Machinal," Twenty—Five Best P1513 of
Modern American Theatre, pp. 495-529.

389
subjective thoughts of the Young Woman in a direct manner. In epi-
sodes one and four, she reveals the confusion in her mind."7 These
monologues are especially expressionistic in that they are "not pre-
sented in an orderly fashion." Thoughts are briefly stated and not
logically connected in the common sense of the word. 7

The play employs a dream-like structure that resembles a
musical form of theme and variation. Most of the nine episodes of
the play reflect the same thene of alienation from a mechanistic
society. The Young Woman is not free to be herself; she is hanmed in
by the demands and wants of other characters. She is a cog in the
machinery of the office. Her mother needs her for security. Her
husband wants her for sex. Each episode emphasizes some aspect of
the mechanical nature of the Young Woman's world.

Distortion and exaggeration aid in producing the dream-like
quality of the play. In the first episode characters Speak short,
repetitious sentences in monotonous voices. Hackneyed phrases
accompany mechanical gestures and movanent."8 The total effect is
one of life in a typical business office, but this life is abstracted
into distortion and exaggeration. Distortion and exaggeration are
also evident in the trial scene."9

The life of the protagonist is symbolic of life in modern
society. The episodes of the play symbolize common experiences of

almost any person's life. Sound is used symbolically to suggest the

world surrounding the Young Woman. Most of the sounds are either

 

“7222a” pp. 501, 508-509. 4811331., pp. 497-501.

49Ibid., pp. 519-26.

390
noisy, strident, or'mechanical. Sounds of typewriters, radios, Jazz
bands, riveting guns, pianos, hand organs, telephone bells, telegraph

instruments , and airplanes are heard throughout the play.
Form Elements

Plot

The plot of Machinal contains traits associated with Expression-
ism. As already mentioned under general characteristics an episodic.
musical form of theme and variation is employed in the play. The
plot of the drama is also marked by a pageant of pilgrimage-like
structure which reveals the life story of the protagonist in several
places and times. For example, the Young Woman's life is presented
in episodes which depict marriage, motherhood, adultery, murder, and
death. The plot is also expressionistic in that preparation and
emposition are largely ignored. Action jumps from scene to scene
rather than following a pattern of cause and effect. Rapid shifts

in time and space are frequent.

Character

The persons portrayed in Machinal have attributes of character
associated with Expressionism. They are identified by abstract or
personified names. Although they are imitations of beings in empiri-
cal reality, they are not human entities. In addition, several
characters represent obstacles and opportunities in the life of the
protagonist.

Not a single character in the play is identified by anything but

his or her function in the play. The characters are identified by

 

 

 

 

391
such names as Filing Clerk, Nurse, Priest, and Third Reporter. None
of than has a given name or surname.

A Although the outward appearance of the characters is not dis-
torted in any way and they appear to be human beings, the characters
do not act like persons in empirical reality. They are given one or
two outstanding characteristics which serve to identify them. For
example, Young Woman has beautiful hands and a habit of arranging her
hair over her ears.50 The characters serve a symbolic purpose and
are not meant to present actual people.

Obstacles and Opportunities in the protagonist '3 life are repre-
sented by other characters in the drama. The Mother represents the
stifling home life of the Young Woman. The Husband represents the

dullness of domestic life. The Man represents love and pleasure.

Language
The dialogue of Machinal corresponds to that of Expressionism.
It is Spare, unadorned, and does not attempt to closely imitate the
Speech of everyday life. It is marked by two long interior monologues
in which the Young Woman expresses her inner thoughts. These mono-
logu'es are not written in complete sentences, nor do they project com-
plete ideas. For example, in the first monologue, the Young Woman
says,
Marry me -- wants to marry me -- George H. Jones -- George H.
Jones and Company - Mrs. George H. Jones - Mrs. George H.
Jones -— Dear Madame -- marry -- do you take this man to be

your wedded husband -- I do - love honor and to love --
kisses -- no - I can't . '. . .

 

50Ibid., p. 497.
511bid., p. 501.

392
The example above from the interior monologue also illustrates
the expressionistic use of "telegraphic" dialogue. This device of
language is used extensively in the play. Almost the entire first
episode is written in a telegraphic form. Few sentences are over six
words in length. Often Speech is limited to short phrases or even

single words.52

Theme

The thenes of Machinal correSpond to those of Expressionism.
Ideas in the play are related to both the Mystic and Activist phases
of Expressionism. The Young Woman's frustration in life and her wish
to be free suggest the Mystic side of the style. It is a call for
man to rise up and be human. However, the play is primarily related
in theme to Activism. The entire play presents a protest against the
mechanization of human life. No new plan or suggestion to change
society is presented, but the negative aSpects of the world as it is
are profie'cted. The depiction of the almost systenatic destruction of
the Young Woman demonstrates that the play is concerned with the effect

of the machine age on man.

Style of Play
Machinal exhibits four characteristics of Expressionism. All of

its form elenents correspond to the same style. The element of theme
contains traits of both Mystic and Activist Expressionism, although
the Activist ideas seem predominant. In light of this analysis, it

is apparent that the style of the play is related to the dramatic style

 

521mm. , pp. 497-501.

 

 

 

 

 

   

393

of Expressionism.

Mr. Moneypenny by Charming Pollock

Stog

John Jones has worked for twenty years as a clerk in a bank.
One day while guarding a shipment of money, he expresses a desire to
be as wealthy as those who own the bank. Mr. Moneypenny appears
seemingly out of nowhere. Jones is promised immense wealth if he
will sign himself over to Mr. Moneypenny. Jones does so and enters
into a life of extravagance and pleasure. He find, however, that
everyone in his family enjoys his money but him. He is driven to the
point of death by working to keep money flowing. All of his activi-
ties are directed by Mr. Moneypenny. Jones decides that wealth is
not as important as happiness, and returns to his former way of

life. 53

Generg Characteristics
Mr. Monm exhibits three characteristics associated with

Expressionism. It has a "dream-like" quality which is enhanced by
the use of distortion and exaggeration in the elenents of the play.
Symbols are used frequently in the drama.

The drama as a whole seems to be more like a dream than an imi-
tation of empirical reality. It is primsrily an allegory of modern
life in which association of ideas supplants construction of plot

based on a logical connection of cause and effect. The play is more

 

SBChanning Pollock, Mr. Monmenny (New York: Brentano's,
1928).

39h
musical in form than dramatic. It follows a pattern of theme and
variation. The theme, the evil of wealth gained for its own sake, is
established by the end of the second of eight scenes. The remainder
of the scenes are episodes illustrating such related ideas as marriage
for riches instead of love, families spoiled by too much wealth, the
boredom of an overprivileged life, and the toll that the work to gain
wealth takes on.man's health. The play is by no means an imitation
of a dream, but it suggests a state of dreams rather than one of
reality.

The suggestion of a dream.is furthered by the distortion and
exaggeration of elements in the drama. An office scene in the second
episode contains an "enormous metronome" which "gives the tanpo of
office activity."54 The office itself is not an everyday type of
office. "It is the apotheosis of such an office -- the office of a
super-tired businessman might vision in a nightmare."55 The distor-
tion and exaggeration found in the office scene is carried on through-
out the play in actions and objects too numerous to mention.

The allegorical nature of the play requires the use of.many
symbols. The basic action of the play itself is symbolic of the
author's view of a materialistic society. Faust-like, Jones sells
his soul to the Devil, Mr. Moneypenny, whose name obviously suggests
wealth. This event implies that the American society has lost its
spiritual values in the pursuit of materialism. All of the symbolism
in the play is quite obvious. The strain on men who seek great wealth

is symbolized in one brief incident. Jones is shown on a treadmill

 

Sthide, pe 27o 551bide, pe 29o

395
trying to reach stacks of bills and coins. He is burdened down with
briefcases and tangled in ticker tape. Mn Moneypenny goads him on
with a whip. Jones yells he is dying, but the treadmill continues to
56

rune
Form Elements

Plot

The plot of Mr. Mongypgngy contains traits associated'with
Expressionism. It conforms to an "epic" form of construction. The
eight scenes of the play change rapidly in time and space. The pageant
or pilgrimage-like structure found in Expressionism appears in the
play. The life-story of John Jones is followed as he dreams of
wealth, attains it, suffers from.it, and finally rejects it. As in
Expressionism, only crucial events are portrayed in this life-story.
Although the play has a definite logic of its own, the exposition
and preparation found in conventional dramas are largely ignored with
the result that the play does not seem to progress by cause and effect.
Also, the author indicates that the play takes place "here and now,"
yet the action seems to occur in a void of unspecified times and
locations.57 Over all, the plot provides "a jumble of fragments

which suggest rather than describe the experience of the play."

Character
The persons portrayed ianr. Mongypgggy have attributes of

character associated with Expressionism. For the most part, they have

56.1—21.4." Pp. 128-299 57Ibide, ppe 1.3.

396
abstract personified names. They are puppet-like and purely imagina-
tive. They are definitely not imitations of human beings.

Some of the major characters have recognized given names and
surnames such as John Jones, Murphy, David Jones, and Carrie Jones.
But even these names are selected for their commonness in order to
suggest universality. The majority of characters are named after
their function in the play or their appearance. Some have seemingly
different names which are all associated. For example, the office
typists, who all look alike, are identified by the names of flowers --
Violet, Rose, Iris, Pansy. The office clerks are named after colors --
Black, White, Brown, Gray.

The names of the characters are only one indication of the
depersonalization in the drama. The "persons" in the play are
allegorical figures manipulated by the author in order to project his
ideas. They have little or no apparent motivation of their own.
Puppet-like, they act according to the requirements of the thene.

John Jones may represent mankind, but he is not based on an imitation

of human attributes found in empirical reality.

Language

The dialogue of Mr. Moneypenny corresponds to that of Expression—
ism. Although it contains passages of dialogue which may be identified
as realistic, it does not generally attempt to imitate the speech of
ordinary life. Frequently, a "telegraphic" style of dialogue appears
in the play. An office scene contains stylized dialogue of this type
which employs short advertising slogans such as "Big Money . . .

Quick and Easy!" -- "Buy Today . . . Pay Tomorrow!" -- "Brighten Your

 

 

 

 

397
Eyes!" - "Whiten Your Skin!" -- "Kiss-Proof and Permanent!"58 Unison
chanting and even singing are also included in the language element of

the play. 59

Theme

The themes of Mr. Mongypgm correspond to those of Expression-
ism. In particular, they are related to the Activist phase of the
style. The play obviously and directly calls for a change of values
and attitudes in present society. It does not deny that wealth is
necessary, but it does deplore life that is purely materialistic. As
one character says, man must be taught "that to have money, and
nothing else, is to be very poor."60 In addition to materialism, the
play deals with the mechanization of society. Many of its scales
depict characters behaving as machines. The drama is related to
Activist Expressionism in that its themes treat the negative aSpects

of the present and call for a transformation of society.

Style of Play

Mr. Mongypegny exhibits three characteristics of Expressionism.
All of its form elenents conform to those of the same style. Fre-
this analysis it is evident that the style of the play is related to

the dramatic style of Expressionism.
Singing Jailbirds by Upton Sinclair

Story
A union organizer for the I.W.W., Red Adams, is arrested and

 

582221.. p- '36. 592113., pp. 62-63. 60113541., p. 151..

 

 

   

398

jailed for his part in a Los Angeles strike. Because of his un-
cooperative attitude, he is placed in solitary confinement on a diet
of bread and water. He resolves not to eat in order to be a symbol
to his men.of defiance against unjust laws. Darkness and starvation
cause him to gradually lose his mind. The dreams and hallucinations
stemming frem this decline are dramatized. They reveal the unjust
treatment of labor by the capitalistic society and Red's ideal of a
new world. As Red dies, I.WIW. songs are sung quietly in the back-

ground.61

General Characteristics

Singing Jailbirds exhibits feur characteristics associated with
Expressionism. The play projects the inner, subjective thoughts of
characters in a direct, concrete form. There is a "dreamelike"
quality apparent in the play. Distortion and exaggeration of elements
accompanies the "dreamllike" quality apparent in the play. Distor-
tion and exaggeration of elements accompanies the "dreamylike" quali-
ty. The use of symbols is evident.

The play is primarily involved in projecting the inner thoughts
and the dreams of its protagonist. The dreams and hallucinations of
Red Adams are presented in dramatized form. In addition, several
interior monologues reveal Red's rambling thoughts while he is
conscious. The most striking of these monologues is over five pages
in length.62 This play is mainly devoted to presenting "reality" as

it is viewed by the protagonist. His dreams and thoughts determine

6J'Upton Sinclair, Sin in Jailbirds (Pasadena, California:
published by the author, 19245.

62Ibid., pp. 30-36.

 

399
the scenes presented and the overall shape of the drama.

As is obvious from the above, the play has a "dream-like"
quality. Reality and dreams are mingled. Earlier scenes when Red
is first placed in solitary confinement are quite realistic. As his
mental and physical condition deteriorates, the line between reality
and dream begins to disappear. The dreams become more and more fan-
tastic and distorted. In Spite of their nature the presentation of
these dream scenes is carefully ordered. Dreams of the past are
almost realistic in tone. Dreams of Red's present are based on
empirical reality, but contain elements of distortion and exaggera-
tion. Finally, Red's dream of the future is quite mystical and un-
realistic.

Distortion and exaggeration are present in the dream.aequences,
but are moderately employed. When Red dreams of his unfair trial,

63

the characters are seen as animals. However, distortion and exp
aggeration are also evident in the rapidity of change in scene and
locale of the dreams. Some of Red's memories are distorted, too. He
imagines an affair between his mistress and the District Attorney, an
event that has no basis in fact nor any likelihood of actually
happening.

The use of’symbols is apparent in the play, although they are
“employed sparingly. When the characters turn into animals in the
trial scene, the lawyer is portrayed as a "jack-in—the—box," the
64

informer as a snake, the judge as a tiger, and the police as bulls.

In another scene, Red recalls the death of his wife from.a self-~

 

631mm. , pp. 63—71. 6“Ibis.

LOO
inflicted abortion. He cries out, "Blood," and the lights on stage
turn red.65 Finally, there is a "messianic" symbol in the last of
Red's dreams. He sees the future in which an enormous statue of him-
self is erected in an idyllic park in.memory of his martyrdom for the

cause of labor.66 He is almost Christ-like, a "saint" of the I.W.W.

Form.Elements

Plot

The plot of Singing Jailbirds contains traits associated with
Expressionism. Its structure is episodic rather than dramatic. It
follows a pageant or pilgrimage-like pattern in depicting the life-
story of Red Adams. The episodic nature of the play is complicated
by frequent shifts in time and place. The use of a simple setting
and changing lights enables scene to follow scene almost simultan-
eously. The shifts in planes of consciousness as Red drifts from
reality to dream and back to reality are also indicative of Expression-

ism.

Character

The persons portrayed in Singing Jailbirds have attributes of
character associated with Expressionism. Red Adams is not wholly un-
realistic, although he is rather idealized by the author. His sense
of justice and his rough nobility are rather incredible. However, his
suffering and his reactions to darkness and starvation are quite

probable. Yet he appears to be used for some purpose rather than

 

65%.: P0 530 661bido, p. 82.

[.01
being independently motivated. His life and his agony are a symbol
of humanity in gmeral and labor in particular.

The other characters in the play appear to be projections of
the subjective mind of the protagonist. Undoubtedly, these characters
have an existence of their own, but they are projected to the audience
as seen by Red. The District Attorney and the police are obstacles in
Red's life. His wife and his mistress represent the few moments of
love and peace in his life. The change of characters into animals
in the trial scene is explained by their being projections of Red's
inner mind. At that moment they seemed to be animals to him, so

they are projected as animals to the audience.

Language

The dialogue of Singing Jailbirds corresponds primarily to that
of Realism. In spite of all the elements of Expressionism in the
play, the dialogue is largely an imitation of everyday speech. It
is quite colloquial and marked by swearing, slang, and poor grammar.
Fully two—thirds of the dialogue in the play is of the realistic
variety.

Several elements in the dialogue of the play do correspond to
Expressionism, however. Several long interior monologues appear,
all spoken by Red Adams. They are marked by rambling, uncompleted
thoughts which suggest a stream-of-conscious approach to revealing
subjective thought.

The "telegraphic" dialogue associated with Expressionism is
apparent in only one scene of the play. A parody of trial procedures

is presented in a short rapid-fire manner.

1.02
Theme

The thanes of Singing Jailbirds correspond to those of
Expressionism. Red's defiance of the law is an attempt to reform
society for the good of the proletariat. He sees the world as unjust
to those who labor with their hands. The play dwells on the negative
aSpects of society. In these themes the play is related to Activist
Expressionism. The Mystic phase of Expressionism is present to a
limited extent in the "messianic" vision Red has of the future.
However, this theme appears to be less important than the Activist
ones.

The themes of the play may also be viewed as correSponding to
those of Realism. This is not incompatible with the general ex-
pressionist tendency of the play. While there is a general expression-
ist thane which involves improving society, there is a specific theme
related to labor and its problems in modern society. This concern
for a contemporary social and human problem is related to the ideas
associated with Realism. Although this idea is advanced by the play,
it is clear that the expressionist themes are prhary and the real-

ist ic one secondary .

Style of Play
Singing Jailbirds exhibits four characteristics of Expressionism.

The form elements of plot and character also correspond to the. same
style. The element of language is primarily realistic and secondarily
expressionistic. The element of theme is primarily eocpressionistic,
but does have some relation to Realism. While not every aspect of the

play is clearly expressionistic, the general quality of the drama

 

   

403
suggests that its style is related to the dramatic style of Expression-
ism, in particular to Activist Expressionism. However, special note

should be taken of the traits of Realism in language and theme.

Street Scene by Elmer Rice

Stogy
Anna Maurrant, a mature woman and mother of two children, finds

little love and affection in her marriage to Frank, a narrow-minded,
insensitive man. She carries on an affair with Steve Sankey, a milk-
man. The illicit relation is common knowledge in the neighborhood,
but is kept from Frank, who travels as a stagehand. One hot June day,
Frank, who has been drinking, returns unexpectedly and discovers Anna
and Sankey in the Maurrant apartment. In a drunken rage, Frank shoots
Sankey dead, and mortally wounds his wife. He runs from the apartment
and hides from the police. While the police search for him, his wife
dies in the hospital. Frank is caught shortly afterward and taken to

jail. As the play ends, another couple comes to rent the Maurrant

apartment . 67

General Characteristics

Street Scene exhibits four characteristics associated with both
Realism and Naturalism. A fourth-wall convention is observed through-
out the play. There is an imitation of "the contemporary world of man
and society." The element of character is emphasized. Finally, the

relationship between character and environment is evident.

 

67Elmer Rice, Street Scene (New York: Samuel French, 1929).

#04

The contemporary nature of the play is suggested by its setting
and the details included in the action. The drama unfolds in front
of "a 'walkeup' apartment-house, in a mean quarter of'NewYork."68
The time of the action is parallel with the Opening of the play On
Broadway, in 1929. An extremely large number of details from.empiri-
cal reality are included, as, for example, street excavation, home
milk delivery, ice cream.cones, and ambulances. In addition, the
noises of New York City'life are heard unceasingly in the background.
They include "the distant roar of 'L' trains, automobile sirens and
the whistles of boats on the river."69

The element of character is emphasized in the drama. Over
forty persons appear in the play, and of these, about fifteen are
drawn with some care. It is their personalities and their reactions
to the Maurrants' difficulties which.provide the interest in the play.
There is little that is extraordinary about the persons portrayed, but
the total effect of the play depends on the depiction of them as they
go about a rather ordinary way of life.

The influence of environment on character is also emphasized
in the play. The immediate effect of environment is shown by the
reactions of the characters to the heat of a June day. Almost all
of them remark about their discomfort, and repeat the same tired

70 The deeper effects of

phrases about perSpiration and humidity.
environment are apparent in the behavior of Anna Maurrant. Her sensi-

tive nature which attracts her to music and other forms of beauty is

 

68Ibido, p. 30 69Ibide, p. 5.

709m” pp. 6-7, 15, 18, 23.

405
incompatible with the life she leads with the unimaginative Frank.
The family environment drives Anna into her affair with Sankey. In
general the environmental conditions revealed in the play are not
conducive to meaningful human relations. As Rose Maurrant says to
Sam Kaplan, ". . . things might be different, ir you only had a
chance to breathe and Spread out a little."71

Street Scene also exhibits four characteristics particularly
associated with Naturalism, Life in the lower levels of society is
portrayed. The sordid, bestial, unpleasant aSpects of this life are
frankly treated. The play appears to present a "slice of life." A
general pessimistic attitude is evident.

The people and the environment in the play are of a low level
of life in.America. The setting is a slum.area. Many'of the charac-
ters are either foreign-born or are second generation Americans.
-They are rather poor and not well educated. Most of the men work
at menial jobs.

The affair between Sankey and Anna Maurrant is but one instance
of the frank treatment of sordid aspects of life in the play. An
open treatment of sexuality is also apparent in a minor incident be-
tween Mae and Dick, as he gets her drunk and leads her off to a
friend's apartment.72 Frank Maurrant is portrayed as a somewhat
bestial type of human being. He is physically strong, belligerent,
and mean. His intolerance and lack of intellectual curiosity are
obvious in his discussions with others. He actually doesn't talk

much, and then only in short sentences. His drunkenness and

 

711bid., p. 232. 721bid., pp. 92-96.

406
uncontrollable rage which lead him to murder are also indications
of his animal-like nature.

The large number of characters and the seemingly aimless pro-
gression of the play indicate a "slice of life" technique in the play.
Although selection and manipulation of details from.observed reality
is evident upon close reading, the immediate effect of the play is
one of a complete imitation Of reality} The main action dealing with
the Maurrants is woven into many other events. These various inci-
dents do not develop in a direct manner. Interruptions Of particular
actions is frequent. For example, a discussion of poetry between
Rose and Sam.Kaplan is broken up as Mr. Buchanan calls for Mrs.
Haurrant to help his wife who is in labor. The lives Of the charac-
ters are also entangled. Rose likes Sam.Kaplan, but his sister,
Shirley, Opposes their friendship because it mdght interfere with
Samis plans for a college education for which Shirley is sacrificing
her own financial well-being. In addition, many'emtraneous details
and characters are introduced into the action. They provide atmos-
phere and aid the "slice Of life" quality, but they could be
eliminated easily and not affect the main actions of the play. In
every act unnamed characters stroll across the sidewalk in front of
the apartment house who have nothing to do with the‘agtigg of the
play at all. For example, two girls pass over the stage talking about
eyeglasses. They Speak seven short lines of dialogue, exit, and do

73

not reappear. All of the interruptions, entanglements, and extran-

eous details produce a "slice Of life" quality in the play.

 

731bid., pp. 136-37.

1+0?

A general attitude of pessimism is generated by the drama. The
content is depressing, and little hOpe of change in the condition of
the characters is suggested. Mrs. Maurrant says, "What's the good
of being alive, if you can't get a little something out of life?

You might just as well be dead."7l+

Sam Kaplan also reflects a pessi-
mistic mood when he says to Rose, that God is an illusion, a lie
"that people tell themselves, because reality is tOO terrible for
them to bear."75 Finally, pessimism.is suggested by the end of the
play in which nothing seems to have changed as a result of the minor
tragedy that occurred in the neighborhood. Another couple moves into
the Maurrant apartment and life goes on as before. Although the
pessimistic feeling is strong, there is some hOpe for a better life
shown in the parting of Sam Kaplan and Rose. She leaves the slum to

seek a better existence, and Sam returns to his studies to gain an

education which may someday free him from his surroundings.
.Esnaifilsasais

Plot

The plot of _S_t_r;eet Scene contains traits associated with Natural-
ism. As mentioned under general characteristics, the play employs a
"slice of life" technique. There is a close approximation of observed
reality. The plot is simple but filled with many details of ordinary
life. Theatrical climaxes or "big scenes" are avoided or underplayed.
For instance, Act I ends in silence as Rose and Sam say good night.

Act II has an exciting finish as Mrs. Maurrant is brought out on a

 

7il§ido. p. 155. 75Ibid., p. 166.

408
stretcher, but the most exciting part Of the act, the murder, occurs

76

seventeen pages before the end of the act. Act III ends very

quietly.

The play does have a beginning and end, but they are not
immediately Obvious. It takes most of the first act to establish the
conflict between Mr. and Mrs. Maurrant. The exposition which reveals
the condition of these characters is interwoven in rather unimportant
incidents. The end of the action, when Frank.Maurrant is led away by

the police, occurs almost ten pages before the end of the play.77

Character

The persons portrayed in Stgeet Scene have attributes of char-
acter associated with.Naturalism. Mrs. Maurrant reveals a complexity
of factors in her personality. She is a good mother and a sensitive
person. Yet she enters into an affair with a rather loud and crude
man. She aids her neighbors and has their reSpect except for her
affair with Sankey. She has many positive qualities but cannot escape
the promptings of her sexual instinct.

Mr. Maurrant, on the other hand, resembles a type found in
naturalistic drama in that he is a physical person with strong animal
drives and little intellectual activity. He threatens and bullies,
but does not try~to understand. He has a strong sense of how a family
should be handled, but lacks the love and compassion to be a good
husband or father.

As mentioned under general characteristics, the characters'

actions stem.from.the influence Of environment. They seem to be

 

~ 761bido, pp. 183-200. 77Ibido, pp. 230-390

 

#09
victims of this environment. The frustrations of living in their
social conditions suppress desirable human qualities and foster a be-

havior more animal than human.

Language

The dialogue of'§t£eet Scene correSponds to that of Naturalimn.
It is a close approximation of everyday Speech. Except for Rose and
Sam, the characters Speak with poor grammar and frequent mispronuncia-
tions. Many of the characters are of various national origins and
employ accents of those nations. Mr. Fiorentino even lapses into
Italian conversation at times. Efforts are made to distinguish char-
acters from.cne another through their Speech. Even "American" accents
range from Rose's rather common one to the "Brooklyn" dialect of some
minor characters. Slang is employed frequently, as is swearing.
Some employment of interruptions and pause also marks the dialogue as

corresponding to Naturalism.

Theme

The themes Of §t§§§t Scene correspond to those of Naturalism.
Man is shown as the victim of a world he cannot control. Frank
Maurrant says of his crime, "It ain't that I meant it to be. It's

78 Life in the

just the way things happened to turn out, that's all."
slum is viewed asva trap. Mrs. Maurrant, Rose, and Sam.all speak Of
escape from.their conditions. As mentioned under general character-

istics, the general theme of pessimism.is apparent in the play. The

play does not project the idea that man is doomed to defeat and

 

781bid., p. 229.

14.10
annihilation, but it does suggest that certain men in particular

social conditions are.

Style of Play

Street Scene exhibits four characteristics which may be
associated with Realism.and Naturalism. In addition, it has four char-
acteristics associated with Naturalism. All of its form.elements
correspond to those of Naturalism. In light of this analysis, it is

clear that“the style of the play is related to the dramatic style of

Naturalism.
Congai by Harry Hervey and Carlton Hildreth
Stogy

The background Of the play is French Indo-China at the time of
World war I. The plot Of the play as described in The Best Plays of
1228;1222 is as follows:
Thi—Linh, half-caste daughter of a native Annamite mother and
a French father, loves Kim.Khouan, also a native, who deserts
her. Thereafter Thi-Linh defiantly lives the life of a congai,
or courtesan, and.manages through a succession of experiences,
to be a litt$e revunged on life and the French officers in
IndO-China.

General Characteristics

From.what can be gathered from information in The Best Plgys Of
1228—1222 and an anonymous review in the New York Times, Congai exhib-

its one characteristic associated with Romanticism. There is a

 

79Best Pla s of 1 28-1 2 , p. 429. This play was not available

in book or manuscript form. It does not appear to exist in the files
of the U.S. Copyright Office.

All
tendency away from.actuality in that the play is set in a culture
remote from.the experiences of ordinary individuals. In 1929, the
year of the play's original production, French IndO-China must have
been relatively unfamiliar to the western world. The exotic nature of
this culture is established in the depiction of "atmOSpheric tropical

settings" and "oriental costumes."80

Form Elements

Plot

From limited sources, it can be inferred that the plot of'Qggggi
contains traits associated with Romanticism. There is an indication
that it is "loose" in its treatment of the unities. The unity of time
is ignored in that the events of the play evidently cover a period of
time necessary fOr Thi-Linh to be deserted by her lover, to become a
courtesan, and to live "through a succession of experiences."81 The
unity Of place is ignored as six settings are employed in the drama.
They are a pool, a street, a bungalow, a barracks, a house, and a
governor's Office. The first two of these settings are located in“

the city Of Stung Treng and the rest are located in Saigon.82

Character
Very little is revealed about the characters in the play except
that Thi-Linh seeks some revenge and that she defiantly lives the

life of a courtesan. The newSpaper review also mentions that although

 

80"Congai," New'York.Times, November 28, 1928, p. 2h.

8lBest Plays of 1928-1929, p. 429.
82Ibid.

A12

she lives a life of shame, she behaves "with noble resignation and
sweet consideration."83 In spite Of her betrayal, her heart is with
her native lover and their son.84 These comments on the major charac-
ter indicate attributes of Romanticism in characterization. It appears
that Thi—Linh resembles the "outcast of society" type Of character
found in "historical" Romanticism.

There is not enough information to indicate anything about the

elements of language and theme in the play.

Style of Play
It appears from.the available information that Congai exhibits

one characteristic of Romanticism. Enough of the plot is presented

to identify it with the same style. The only evidence concerning the
element of character indicates that it, too, is related to Romanticism.
On this limited analysis, it is assumed that the style of the play
correSponds to the dramatic style of Romanticism. However, it is not
possible to state whether the play is related to "secondhand" or
"historical" Romanticism. In view of the manner resorted to in
determining the style Of the play, its place in the pattern of trends
in style on Broadway cannot be equated with those plays which are

given a fuller examination.

Summary of the 1228-1222 Season
Analysis Of the fourteen selected "successful," serious plays

from.the Broadway theatrical season of 1928-1929 revealed that in regard

 

83NewYorkTimes, November 28, 1928, p. 24.

841nm .

1+13

to style six plays (Jarnegan, The Age of Innocence, Brothers, The Grey
3335, Gods of the Lightning, and, probably, 9911.333.) were written in a
style related to Romanticism, three plays (Street Scene, Exceeding
ggggj, and Hgglgm) were written in a style related to Naturalism, three
plays (Machinal, Singing Jailbiggg, and.Mr. Mengypenny) were written
in a style related to Expressionism, and two plays (Goin' Home and
.gypng‘were written in a style related to Realism. NO other dramatic
styles were represented during the season in the selected plays.

Three plays - Brothers, Gods of the Lightning, and Jarnegan —-
correSpond to "secondhand" Romanticism. They reveal varying degrees
of influence from.Realism. All observe a fOurthawall convention and
imitate the contemporary world. These plays employ dialogue associated
with Realism. Gods ofgthe Lightning and Jarnegan are of particular
interest since their themes are related to those of Realism. All of
the plays are primarily romantic in the elements of character and in
a characteristic tendency away from.reality. Two plays, The Age of

Innocence and The Grey Fox, contain aspects of "historical" Romanticism.

 

The latter play especially is closest to this phase of the style. Yet
it shows some influence Of Realism.in that its fifteenth and sixteenth
century dialogue correSponds to that of twentieth century Realism.
The play also conforms to the fourthawall convention. Both The Age of
Innocence and The Grey Fox portray characters resembling those of
"historical" Romanticism, characters Of the nobility or aristocracy.
Of the three plays containing characteristics and elements Of
Naturalism, Street Scene is the most clearly related to the style by
virtue of a closer conformity to the "slice of life" technique.

This technique is apparent but not as prevalent in Harlem and

All.
Exceeding Sm__§_l_._l_. Sordid and unpleasant aspects of life appear in all
three plays. In addition, a pessimistic attitude is present in these
plays. This attitude is especially marked in Exceeding Small.
m shows some tendency toward the depiction Of a group protagonist.
This play also disturbs its general naturalistic pattern by the em-
ployment Of Obvious plotting in its concluding act.

The three plays Of Expressionism are quite different fl'om each
other. Machinal and Singing Jailbirds show some prediliction toward
Mystic Expressionism, although they are primarily of the Activist
phase. Mr. Monem is also related to the Activist movement and is
the most fantastic in its employment of expressionist techniques. The
other two plays have a closer surface relation tO Realism. Singing
Jailbirds contains dialogue which is closer to Realism than Expression-
ism. Machinal diSplays the closest imitation of expressionist
language. In regard to theme, Singing Jailbirds shows some inclination
toward Realism, although this is secondary in importance in the play.

In terms of style, there is little of striking interest in two
plays of Realism that appear in this season. Although Goir! Home and
m differ greatly in subject matter, they are quite clearly related
to Realism. Goin' Home diSplays structural compactness in its plot,

while Gypsy is much more of a psychological character study.

CHAPTER XIII

CONCLUSIONS

The purpose of this study was to describe trends in dramatic
styles in the "successful," serious American drama of the 1920's. In
order to accomplish this end, a method for describing dramatic styles
was develOped. Utilizing this method, criteria for identifying eight
modern dramatic styles were established. The criteria for recog-
nizing these styles were used to analyze forty-six "successful,"
serious American dramas selected from.every third Broadway theatrical
season, beginning with the season of 1919-1920. The analyses of the
dramas from.each of four theatrical seasons were reported in separate
chapters and summarized. These analyses formed the bases on which
the following conclusions were drawn.

While definitive conclusions are made concerning only four
seasons treated in this study, qualified conclusions may be reached
dealing with all ten seasons. If the six theatrical seasons not in-
cluded in this study are similar in nature and pattern to the four
which are included, then the definitive conclusions Of this study may
be extended to encompass stylistic trends in "successful," serious
American drama for the entire period of the 1920's.

However, it is not claimed that all trends in dramatic style in

the 1920's have been discovered. Investigation of the theatrical
4.15

A16
seasons omitted from.this study might reveal further trends.l Yet it
is improbable that such an investigation would negate the particular
conclusions reached in this study.
In brief, the view is held in this study that the trends in
styles in "successful," serious American dramas of the 1920's indi-
cated by the investigation of four evenly separated theatrical seasons

reflect the state of dramatic styles in all the seasons of the period.

Conclusions

Some questions were presented in the introduction to this study
which may now be answered on the basis Of the data gathered in this
investigation.

1. ‘What were the overall stylistic trends of the period? Egg;
styles were exhibited in the dramas of thi8periog?

‘Within the context of this study, it appears that the "success-
ful," serious American drama of the 1920's changed in terms of style

from.a state of near uniformity at the beginning Of the decade to a

 

1It is quite possible that the six theatrical seasons not
treated in this study are similar in nature and pattern to the four
which are. A cursory investigation by the author of all the theatri-
cal seasons in the 1920's revealed that they correSpond in several
ways. The total number of productions in each season is roughly
two hundred. .About half this number are comedies or musical comedies.
Translations and adaptations of foreign dramas along with revivals of
plays from.past dramatic periods or theatrical seasons constitute
about one-fourth Of the total. The remaining quarter Of the dramas
are usually serious plays by American authors. About fifteen of this
quarter may be considered either pOpular or critical successes.

While these are only approximate figures, they do reveal a
similarity among the theatrical seasons of the 1920's. If they are
similar in these reSpects, it is reasonable to assume that they may
be similar in others, including trends in dramatic style.

 

#17

state of multiformity by 1929. Successful plays were written in four
dramatic styles: Romanticism, Realism, Expressionism, and Naturalism.

In the theatrical season of 1919-1920, eight of the selected
plays (At 4:45, A Voice in the Dark, The Storm, De’classe/e, The Son-
Daughter, The Sign on the Door, The Acguittal, and For the Defense)
appeared to be written in a style which corresponded to Romanticism
and two (Beyond the Horizon and The Famous Mrs. Fair) in a style re-
lated to Realism. In the theatrical season of 1922-1923, four of the
selected plays (Whispering Wires, The Last warning, Rain, and l§_i§
the Law) were deemed to be written in a style corresponding to
Romanticism, four (The Fool, Icebound, §3g_gp, Uptown West) in a style
related to Realism, and two (The Adding Machine and Roger Bloomer) in
a style associated with Expressionism. In the theatrical season of
1925-1926, six of the selected plays (The Green Hat, Twelve Miles Out,
Shanghai Gesture, The Great Gatsby, Lulu Belle, and figggg) appeared to
be written in a style corresponding to Romanticism, five (gggigis‘Wife,
The En , The Mud M3, The Bride of the Lamb, and Luclgy Sgr_n
McCarver) in a style related to Realism, and one (The Great God Brown)
in a style associated with Expressionism. In the theatrical season
of 1928-1929, six Of the selected plays (Jarnegan, Con ai, The Age of
Innocence, Brothers, The Grey Fox, and Gods of the Lightnigg)'were
deemed to be written in a style related to Romanticism, two (Geigl
Heme and gypgy) in a style correSponding to Realism, three (Machinal,
Singing Jailbirds, and Mr. MOneypenny) in a style associated with
Expressionism, and three (Street Scene, Exceedinngmall, and Hgglgm)

in a style related to Naturalism.

#18

Clearly, Romanticism, which appeared in eight out Of ten plays,
was the predominant style of the first theatrical season. In addition,
the primary tendency in all of the romantic plays of this season was
toward "secondhand" Romanticism. In contrast, the last theatrical
season was found to be quite diverse in that four dramatic styles
were employed by playwrights. Further, the "secondhand" and "histori-
cal" variants of Romanticism.and the Mystic and Activist phases of
Expressionism were recognizable in the 1928—1929 season. In short,
"successful," serious American drama of the 1920's changed from near
homogeneity to diversity in dramatic styles in the course of ten.years.

It is significant that the dramatic styles of Symbolism, Formal-
ism, and Surrealism were not employed in any of the forty-six selected
plays. From.this fact it may be concluded that either these styles
appeared in theatrical seasons not covered in this study or that they
'were not adopted by American playwrights who wrote "successful,"

serious dramas.

2. Was there a dominant dramatic style in the 1220's? ‘Hgg
frequently were different styles egplqyed?

Again, within the context of this study, it appears that Romanti—
cism.was the dominant dramatic style of the "successful," serious
American plays of the 1920's. NO other style in any single season
appeared more often than Romanticism. Only in the theatrical season
of 1922-1923 was Romanticism equalled in number of appearances by
another style, Realism. Dramas written in a style related to Romanti-
cism.constituted eight of the ten selected plays from.the theatrical

season Of’l9l9-l920, four of the ten selected plays of 1922-1923, 811

#19
of the twelve selected plays of 1925-1926, and six of the fourteen
selected plays of 1928-1929. The total number of plays related to
Romanticism which appear in this study is twenty-four.2 This number
represents just slightly more than one-half of the forty-six selected
plays. Clearly, the findings of this study indicate that in four of
the ten seasons of Broadway drama in the 1920's, Romanticism.was the
most prevalent style employed in "successful," serious drama by
American playwrights during the 1920's.

As for the frequency of appearance of styles other than Romanti-
cism, this study shows that Realism.was the second most prevalent style
in the selected drama of the period. It appeared as the style of
thirteen dramas. Expressionism.and Naturalism.appeared relatively in~
frequently. Expressionism.was the style of six plays and Naturalism
of three. Expressionism appeared in every theatrical season but the
first one. All three naturalistic dramas were produced in the final
season of 1928-1929.

It may be concluded that Romanticism.and Realism were the most
frequently employed dramatic styles. Expressionism.and.Naturalism
may be viewed as minor stylistic movements in the selected American
drama of the 1920's.

3. Did dramas of the 1920's contain combinations of dramatic

styles?

A trend toward eclecticism.was evident in the serious American

 

2Two plays, The Acquittal and Con ai, may be subtracted from
this total because the means of analyzing these plays was not based
on an actual reading of them, They are only assumed to have been
romantic dramas. However, their inclusion or exclusion as romantic
drama does not affect the overall conclusions concerning Romanticism
as a dramatic style.

 

 

 

   

420
drama of the 1920's. The analyses of selected plays revealed that
many plays of a certain basic dramatic style contained characteristics
or traits of other styles.

Dramas written in the style of ”secondhand” Romanticism.included
aspects of Realism. Several mystery melodramas, such as At 2:45 and
Whis erin Wires, exhibited the realistic characteristics of a imita-
tion of the contemporary world and the observance of a fourthawall
convention and had plots which were structually compact with a rather
strict adherence to the traditional unities. Two plays reflecting a
romantic style, Jarnegan and Gods of the Lightning, had themes
associated with Realism. In addition, a large majority of the plays
associated with Romanticism contained dialogue related to Realism.
Typical of these plays were The Sign on the Door, §g§_the Defense, and
The Last warning;

On the other hand, some basically realistic plays incorporated
traits of Romanticism. The romantic characteristic of dealing with
the strange or unusual appeared in.The Fool and.§up_§p. Obvious
plotting and thrilling scenes, traits connected with Romanticism, were
apparent in The Enemy and.The Famous Mrs. Fair. The chronological
structure of plot found in Romanticism.also was found in such real-
istic plays as The Fool and The Enemy.

Lastly, one romantic play, Lulu Belle, contained Sordid subject
matter associated with Naturalism. Sigging Jailbirds, a basically
expressionistic play, had dialogue related more to Realism.than
Expressionism. The themes of this play were related secondarily to
those of Realism.

From.the above and other examples found in the play analyses,

421
it is apparent that a mixture of dramatic styles occurred in a number
of the selected plays from the "successful," serious American drama

of the 1920's.

A. What were the similayities ingplays related to particular

dramatic styles? What were the differences?

 

Romanticism

The analyses of the Selected plays revealed that there were
differences between two groups of plays related to Romanticism. How-
ever, there was a great deal of similarity among plays within the
groups, especially in "secondhand" Romanticism.

Over fifteen of the romantic plays were related to "secondhand"
Romanticism. These plays were connected with Romanticism.by such
characteristics as a tendency away from.actuality, the inclusion of
some aSpect of social freedom.or rebellion, and the depiction of the
strange or unusual. Generally, they were marked by improbable action
and characters. As a group, they displayed rather undistinguished
themes. These plays exhibited some tendency toward Realism.in that
they usually appeared to imitate the contemporary world of their era,
observed a fourthawall convention, and employed dialogue resembling
that of Realism. Among the plays containing most, if not all, of the
attributes of this group were At 2:55, Twelve Miles Out, Brothers, It
is the Law, and The Sign on the Door. It should be noted that most
of the plays in this group were mystery melodramas.

Approximately seven of the selected plays related to Romanti-

cism.contained elements which were reminiscent of "historical"

422
Romanticism. The "outcast of society" and the "romantic criminal"
were most often imitated in the form element of character. Some plays
primarily devoted to themes of love and sentiment also tended toward
"historical" Romanticism. Examples of the type of play found in this
group were Déblassee, Rain, Shanghai Gesture, The Age of Innocence,
The Great Gatsby, and The Storm. While these plays tended toward
"historical" Romanticism, there was only one play included in the en-
tire study, The Grey Fox, which was primarily associated with the

“historical” variant of Romanticism.

Realism

Dramas related to the style of Realism were, for the most part,
concerned with the element of character and the relationship between
character and environment. Such plays as Craig's Wife, m, and
Lppgy;5am.McGa£yer tended to be character portraits. Second to
character in realistic plays was the element of theme. Concern with
individual and social problems was marked in such plays as £23233
'West, The Enemy, The Bride of the Lamb, and Goin' Home. All the
realistic plays were alike in that they depicted the contemporary
world, observed a fourthewall convention, and imitated the speech of
everyday life in their dialogue. The largest single area of differ-
ence among the realistic plays was in the form element of plot. Most
of the plays were structurally compact within individual scenes but
did not diSplay this compactness throughout the entirety of the play.
Only in Craig's Wife and Goin' Home were the unities of action time

and place strictly adhered to.

 

 

423
Expressionism

Dramas related to the style of Expressionism tended to be differ-
ent from each other, although each correSponded to the criteria for
that style. Mr. Moneypenny was the most fantastic of the group in its
use of distortion and exaggeration, while SingingLJailbirds tended to
include some aspects of Realism, especially in its dialogue. As for
similarities, The Adding Machine, SingingJailbiI-gg, and 1" . Mon ,
whose themes implied a criticism of modern society, were primarily re-
lated to Activist Expressionism.’ Machinal and Reger Blooms; were also
related to Activism, but diSplayed some tendency toward Mystic
Expressionism. The play closest to this phase of the style was The

Great God Brown .

Naturalism

Dramas related to the style of Naturalism were quite similar to
each other. They all displayed a frankness in treating the sordid
and unpleasant aSpects of life in the lower levels of society. All
three projected an attitude of pessimism, but only one, Exceeding
_S_m_a_l_l_, did not offer some hopeful aspect of life to temper this atti-
tude. In addition, many of the characters in these plays were in-
clined to be physical "types" with little intellectual talent. m
§_c_ep_e_ and Exceeding Small were similar in their approach to the
"slice of life" technique associated with Naturalism, but shifts in
time and place tended to destroy the "life-like" illusion in m.

In addition to answering the questions raised in the introduc-
tion to this study, one other conclusion may be made. Realism was

not the prevailing style of the period, but the anployment of its

1.2!.

characteristics and traits in other dramatic styles shows that it
was a major influence on all styles appearing in the American drama
of the 1920's.

The fourthawall convention of Realism.is a characteristic of
Naturalism.as well. However, this characteristic appeared in twenty-
two of the twenty-four romantic plays. All in all, this convention
was observed in thirty-eight of the forty-six plays analyzed in this I

study. Another characteristic of Realism, the imitation of the

_ _._——:‘T.._._.l

contemporary world, was present in thirty-four of the selected plays.

Dialogue associated with Realism.appeared in at least thirty dramas. i
In short, Realism was a very major influence on the serious drama
of the period, even though the style was not the dominant one of

the decade.

Further Observations
The conjectures contained in the discussions which follow are
related to this study, but are not consistent with the original aims,
intentions, and limitations of the investigation. In addition, some
of the following commentary involves a certain amount of subjective
evaluation.
Dramatic Styles: POpular
and Critical Success
If a differentiation is made between the pOpular and critical
success of the plays included in this study, additional conclusions
regarding stylistic trends in the American drama of the 1920's may
be drawn. Such a division was not made in the major portion of this

study, since there was an attempt to treat the total pattern of styles

125
as they appeared in the period. "Success” was the sole criterion,

whether it was pOpular or critical.

Realism

Realism was the dominant style of critically successful dramas
analyzed in this study. This does not mean that dramas associated
with Realism did not enjoy popular success as well. Eight of the
thirteen realistic plays in this study ran over one hundred per-
formances. However, of all the plays considered in this study, the
ones related to Realism, as a group, have received the most critical
recognition. Specifically, the realistic plays which were both
critical and popular success were Beyond the Horiggg, The_Eamous Mrs.
Fair, The Fool, Icebound, §u§_gp,‘gptown west, Craig's'Wife, and The
M. In addition, the rmaining five realistic dramas (The Mud
Turtle, The Bride of the Lamb, 1.110118% McCaryex; m, and fl'
.EQES) received critical recognition although they ran less than one
hundred performances.

The fact that a majority of the critically successful dramas
included in this study were realistic in style is consistent with
generally held opinions that Realism is the dominant style of drama
in the twentieth century. However, itappears that such opinions are
based on consideration of the quality of drama and not on popularity.
In brief, when the American drama of the 1920's is characterized as
realistic in style, it would appear that only the best of its plays

are considered.

Romanticism

Romanticism.was the dominant style of pOpularly successful

#26
dramas. Only four of the twenty-four dramas in this study judged to
be written in a style of Romanticism ran less than one hundred per-
formnces. The four plays were For the Defense, Kongo, The Grey on,
and Gods of the Lightning. It is the author's opinion that the latter
two plays have some merit. The same cannot be said of many of the
popularly successful romantic plays. Out of the twenty romantic plays
which were popular successes, only Rain and The Great Gatsby are E
judged by the author of this study to be worthwhile drama. Based on

subjective evaluation, only four of the twenty-four romantic dramas

,.‘ ‘; ‘ ‘I

included in this study appear to exhibit qualities of good drama. g

Obviously, the conclusion reached in this study that Romanticism
was the dominant style of "successful," serious American drama of the
1920's is directly related to the inclusion of pOpularly successful
dramas. A few of these plays did receive critical recognition, how-
ever. De’classe’e, Rain, and The Green Hat were chosen as "best plays"
by Burns Mantle. Gods of the Lightning was selected by John Gassner
as one of the twenty-five "best plays" of the 1920's.

In general, the critical reception of the romantic dramas in-
cluded in this study was poor. As a group, the plays of Romanticism,
while they enjoyed popular success at the time of their original pro-

ductions, did not diSplay the qualities of enduring drama of merit.

Expressionism

In this study dramas related to Expressionism generally were
found to be critically successful plays. Only one play of this
style, Meat God Brown, was both popularly and critically suc-

cessful. Machinal, The Adding Machine, Ro er Bloomer, SinginLJailbirds

A27
and Mr. Moneypgggy ran less than the one hundred performance total
which indicates popular success.

While more data from.theatrical seasons not included in this
study is needed in order to make definite conclusions about the status
of Expressionism.in the serious drama of the 1920's in America, the
tentative suggestion is made that the style was not accepted generally
by the commercial theatre audiences. Expressionism.as a dramatic
style seems to have been of interest primarily to critics and

historians.

Naturalism

Since only three plays in this study were associated with the
style of Naturalism, it is difficult to generalize about the relation
of critical and popular success in these dramas. Stpeet Scene,
Exceedin Small, and flgglgm were all critical successes, but only
1§t£eet Scene achieved popular success. The tentative conclusion that
can be drawn from the fact that only one of a very small number of
naturalistic plays was a pOpular success is that Naturalism was not

accepted generally by the commercial theatre audiences of the 1920's.
Author's Commentary

Dramatic Styles and Subjectivity
The element of subjectivity plays a large role in dealing with
questions of dramatic style. However, the author feels that the
criteria for identifying dramatic styles contained in this study were
useful in narrowing the areas of subjective judgment.

One may gain ideas and feelings about the style of a play by

A28

viewing it in its entirety, but the employment of the various cri-
teria enables one to make more rational decisions based on established
standards. Of course, even these decisions cannot always be entirely
free of subjective influence. For example, the difference between
”secondhand" Romanticism and Realism is apparent in the element of
character. Deciding whether a play is romantic or realistic in style
may depend on whether theicharacters are viewed as improbable or
probable. This judgment of probability is essentially subjective.
While the criteria aid in reducing the area of subjective judgment,

they do not entirely eliminate it.

Characteristics and Form.Elements

Overall characteristics provide a better means of relating
dramatic styles of plays than do details of form elements. A rigid
conformity to identifying Specific traits may be misleading in de-
termining the style of a play. The very fact that characteristics are
general in nature renders them.a more flexible means of dealing with
styles.

For example, Realism.is identified with "structural compactness"
in plot. However, some of the most obvious melodramas of "second-
hand" Romanticism.analyzed in this study had structurally compact plots
that conformed to the unities of action, time, and place. In this
respect, such plays are realistic. However, the romantic character-

istic of "a tendency away frem.actuality" identifies the plays more

aptly e

A29
Suggestions for Eu__r_ther Study

1. A study similar to this one might be undertaken to investi-
gate the theatrical seasons of the 1920's not included in this study.
Such an investigation, when compared with the present one, would pre-
sent a rather complete record of trends in dramatic style in "success-
ful," serious drama in America in the 1920's.

2. Studies of dramatic style in comedy are also recommended.
The description of dramatic styles in comedy would in itself provide
enough material for a doctoral research project. The possibilities of
investigating comedy styles in the American drama of the twentieth
century are numerous in view of the fact that the majority of’the plays
offered on Broadway are comedies.

3. A study related to scenic styles is suggested. Again the
establishment of criteria might constitute an entire thesis. A study
of this nature would necessitate developing a method of describing
scenic styles. There is also a need for a study of the relationship
between scenic and dramatic styles.

A. A study might also be undertaken to determine whether there
is any connection between general conditions of life in the United
States and the appearance of dramatic styles. This suggestion is
prompted by the observation in this study that Naturalism.appeared as
a style in a few dramas at a time when America was experiencing an
economic "boom." How'was the pessimism.of this dramatic style related
to the general optimism of the nation?

5. A study of the employment of dramatic styles by individual
playwrights might be done. Of course, much has already been written

about Eugene O'Neill, but this study indicates that Elmer Rice and

430
Charming Pollock also wrote in a number of different dramatic

styles .

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Mal

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MICHIGAN STATE UNIVER ITY LIB

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