AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY OF THE :COSMOLOGICAL INFLUENCES ON THE ENVIRONMENTAL SETTLEMENT IN TRADITIONAL CHINA Thesis for the Degree of M. U. P. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY DAVID CHENG - CHI SHIH 1970 LI BRA R Y Michigan 5.1 late University ABSTRACT AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY OF THE COSMOLOGICAL INFLUENCES ON THE ENVIRONMENTAL SETTLEMENT IN TRADITIONAL CHINA by David Cheng-chi Shih A major problem of modern society has been a disassociation of men and nature. As a result of technological development and man's desire to conquer nature, the unbalanced ecological process has greatly threatened the survival of the human being and his quality of living. Hostility to nature is the root of our personal anxiety and loneliness. In an age of machines, the city is beyond the human scale and has lost its symbolic meanings. While man is an "animal symbolicum," he is constantly in search of himself and the relationships between himself and the outside world. Disharmony between the inside world and the outside world is often a cause of frustration and, consequently, the brutality and crime in the urban scene. In observation of the above, this study attempts to demonstrate the importance of unity of man and nature, and the symbolic meanings of form by exploration into the cosmology of traditional China. In general, while the human mind is impressed with the image of cosmos, I cosmology is a reflection of man's inner feelings. The image of cosmos models human actions - reflected in man's building of his city as a microcosm. The city space created is the symbolic eXpression of human feeling. Hence, forms are made to meet man's psycholo- gical needs. Man does not live by bread alone. This ideal state of man's living conditions depends largely upon the ful- fillment of his psychological needs and his harmony between the inner world and the outside world, as well as of his physiological needs. To serve this purpose, provision of meaningful urban form harmonious with the natural process is essential. From study of the system of fengeshui (geomancy), it is noted that man and nature are in perfect harmony with each other. The thesis is that no man is fit to control nature unless he feels himself to be a part of it, fully aware that seemingly individual things, includ- ing himself, are in fact inseparably related to events. AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY OF THE COSMOLOGICAL INFLUENCES ON THE ENVIRONMENTAL SETTLEMENT IN TRADITIONAL CHINA by David Cheng-chi Shih A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF URBAN PLANNING School of Urban Planning and Landscape Architecture 1970 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS To the School of Urban Planning and Landscape Architecture of Michigan State University, I am grate- ful for the opportunity to learn from outstanding teachers. In particular, I would like to thank Professor Sanford Farness for his thoughtful criticisms and sugges- tions in preparation of this thesis. My special acknowledgment to Professor Charles Barr, who directed, counselled and encouraged me delib- erately during the years I studied at Michigan State University. I also thank Professor Chang Sen—tou of the Depart- ment of Geography, University of Hawaii, for his valua- ble help in researching the sources of this study. I wish to express my deep appreciation to my friends, Mrs. B—J Diamond and Mr. Kirk Hampton for their efforts in editing and proOfreading this work. Also, I thank Miss Marla Martin for her help in typing this theSis. Above all, I wish to thank my father for his ever- lasting encouragement during the time I studied in a foreign land. The necessary Chinese literature he deli- vered to me from Taipei, Taiwan, have been invaluable for the completion of this thesis. T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INTRODUCTION... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EXPLANATION OF TERMS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER I. II. III. BACKGROUND 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O The Nature of Universe. . . . . . . Ch'i: The Cosmic Force . . . . . . DualiSm: The Princ—ple of Yin and Yang 0 O O I O O O O O O O The Principle of Eight Trigrams . . The Principle of the Five Elements. Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . FENG-SHUI AND COSMOLOGY. . . . . . . . . Relationships of Ch'i to Feng—shui. Feng-shui and Animism . . . . . . . Feng-shui and the Eight Trigrams. . Feng—shui and the Five Elements . . Feng-shui and Astrology . . . . . . Time as an Element in Feng—shui . . The Geomancer . . . . . . . . . . . The Psychology of Feng-shui . . . . Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . CITY FORM AND COSMOLOGY. . . . . . . . . ii PAGE iv 12 24 24 27 28 3O 35 41 45 46 48 52 53 54 55 60 61 64 69 CHAPTER Iv. V. T'ien-Yuan Ti-Fan: Mandala. City Form and the Mandala. . Conclusion HOUSING COMPOSITION AND COSMOLOGY The Chinese The Moral Aspect of the Universe The Unity of Man and Universe. . The Traditional Chinese Family System . Housing Composition in the Traditional China. . Conclusion SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. . . . . . Man-Form-Cosmology Relationships The Unity of Man and Nature. The Symbolic Meanings of the Form . 0 Conclusion APPENDIX: BIBLIOGRAPHY. CHINESE DYNASTIES. iii 69 75 104 104 105 108 112 122 126 126 130 137 140 144 145 FIGURE 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. L I S T O F F I G U R E S The Yin-Yang Symbol . . . . . . . . . The Diagram of the Eight Trigrams . . Diagram of Cosmic Evolution in Terms of the Sixty-Four Hexagrams . . . . . Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate . . . . Design on a Tile During Han Period. . . Type Shapes of the Five Elements. . . . Maya, the Eternal Weaver of the Illusory World of the Senses, Encircled by the urOboros O O O I O O O O O O C O O Mandala of "Three—Heaven and Two-Earth" Peking Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Forbidden City and the Buildings on the Central Axis . . . . . . . . . Plan of Peking Interpreted as Volume, with the Front and Rear Courts of the Plane Superimposed . . . . . General View of the Altar of Heaven . . The Round Terrace of Heaven and the Hall to the Vast Heaven . . . . . . . . The Altar and the Temple of Grain . . Ceiling of Huang-ch'iung Yu . . . . . . Square Altar of Earth . . . . . . . . . iv. PAGE 30 31 35 38 49 54 73 75 79 83 84 86 88 89 90 91 FIGURE 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. PAGE Relation of Various Parts of Chang-an . 92 Chang-an: The Original City Plan as Reconstructed from Historical Accounts and Recent Archaeological Excavations. . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Plan of a Ming T'ang in the Han Dynasty 97 Ming T'ang in the Chou Dynasty. . . . . 99 Three-Room Dwelling in Taipei . . . . . 115 Five-Room Dwelling in Taipei . . . . . 115 Chou's Mansion in Taipei. . . . . . . . 116 Lin's Mansion in Taipei . . . . . . . . 117 Plan of a Typical Peking House. . . . . 119 A Circular House in Fukien Province. . 121 129 Man-Cosmology-Form Relationships. . . INTRODUCTION PURPOSE The purpose of this study is to examine the Chinese cosmological influence on the environmental settlements in traditional China. It attempts to demonstrate (1) the role of cosmology in determining the spatial form -— e.g., how the physical environment is associated with symbolic meanings; and (2) the attitude of the traditional Chinese people toward the universe -- e.g., how the Chi- nese view nature and live in harmony with it. Selection of this topic as a field of study was motivated by the following factors: A. Quest for the Human Nature The cliché -- "planning is for people" -- really means that the major concern of planning is man himself. Understanding human nature is a prere— quisite to sound, meaningful planning. In order to find the true nature, or essence, of man, we must first remove from his being all external and incidental traits. The human animal is endowed with consciousness, sense-perception, feeling, memory, imagination, and experience. "All that befalls man from without is null and void. His essence does not depend on external circumstances; it depends exclusively on the value he gives to himself."1 In search for the nature of human beings, man has been declared "to be that creature who is constantly in search of himself - a creature who in every moment of his existence must exam- ine and scrutinize the conditions of his exis- tence."2 He is constantly seeking the relationships between himself and the outside world. He is always try- ing to identify his position in the universe. "He who lives in harmony with his ownself, his demon, lives in harmony with the universe; for both the universal order and the personal order are nothing but different expressions and manifestations of a common underlying principle."3 Therefore, in order to understand the order of human things we must begin with a study of the cosmic order.4 Promotion of the Cultural Exchange In western culture cosmological influences on city form -- or the importance of symbolic meanings of form —- have been studied, particularly in this century, by Mircea Eliade, Earnest Cassirer, C. G. Jung, and others. However, it appears that the significance of the symbolic expression of city form has not been fully recognized by contemporary plan- The cosmological influences on the environ— ners . mental settlement in traditional China is a field of study rarely touched upon by either Western or Chinese scholars. A complete study in this field actually does not exist. It is the intent of the author, using his background as a native of China, (1) to introduce to Western culture some of the factors significant in determining the physical environment in China; and (2) to give new meaning to the Chinese city and building forms by applying modern theories developed in the Western world, such as C. G. Jung's theories of psychoanalysis. By bring— 'ing the West and the East together in this way, it is hoped that cultural barriers to mutual understanding will begin to crumble. Human nature is, in the final analysis, universal. Thus, it is also hoped that this study will serve as a mirror for both West and East, to reflect something meaningful. HYPOTHESIS There is a relationship between cosmology and the physical environment. The establishment of this relation— ship is based on the hypothesis that the image of man's outside world is, to a certain extent, a projection of his inner world. As will be reflected in this study, cosmology consists largely of man's psychic contents. It has been observed that "both our behaviour and the things we use 'express' something about ourselves."5 As in the plastic arts, the physical forms created by man are expressive of his feeling through an "architec- ture process."6 The created space itself is a projected image and "something purely imaginary or conceptual translated into visual impressions."7 Examples have .been given by Susanne Langer in Feeling and Form: "Through the organism of his forms, he (the sculptor) creates a 'restricted space' as a symbol of the universe." (p. 91) WArchitecture is the firnImanifestation of man creating his own universe, creating it in the image of nature." (9. 97) Meaningful man-made forms are, in essence, expressive of the form—maker's inner feelings, and in many in- stances, of his image of nature. In recognition of man's "symbolic reference in perceptive expression,"8 Cassirer has defined man as an animal symbolicum,9 a point of departure for exploration of the nature of man. $93.12 As the title reveals, this thesis serves only as an introductory study of the field concerned. It at- tempts to provide a general perspective of the cosmo— logical influences on the physical environment of tra- ditional China. The sc0pe of the research will be limited to the following areas: A. The Chinese conception of the universe as a background for this study. PhilOSOphical interpretation of fengrshui (or, geomancy), which has had profound influence on the location and form of the cities, buildings, temples, and graves. Cosmological influences on city forms, primarily in terms of the concept "heaven round and earth square," using two Chinese cities, Peking and Chang—an, as examples. Cosmological influences on housing design in terms of the moral aspect of the universe, as conceived by the Chinese people. LIMITATIONS A. Urban Development in Modern China: The word "tra- ditional" employed in this thesis is synonymous with "pre-industrial," denoting the long period of Chinese history before the immense impact of Western culture, beginning in the later part of the nine- teenth century. Urban development and planning in modern China will not be covered. Historical DevelOpment of Chinese Thought: As a result of the evolution of the cosmological con- cepts in Chinese history over a period of several thousand years, it is almost impossible to trace, in detail, the origin of each concept. Hence, it lies beyond the scope of this study to explore the historical development of the concepts involved, such as the principle of yin and ynng. To provide better understanding of some of the Chinese terms used in this thesis, the "Explanation of Terms" following the "Introduction" is offered as an aid to the reader. Techniques Employed in the Practice of Feng-shui: In this study, feng-shui provides a philosophical background in terms of cosmology. The specific tech- niques of fengrshui will not be discussed, because they are quite involved and would require a pro- fessional geomancer to do justice to them. Also, this type of discussion is unnecessary for the pur— poses of this study. Cities in the Southern China: The typical city form in China, as illustrated by Peking and Chang- an, is either square or rectangular. This is espe- cially common in Northern China. Exceptions are found in Southern China, where the cities are largely ' irregular in shape, due to the "rugged terrain of the area as well as the relatively late date of urban development."10 The cities of Nan-king and Hang—chow are good examples of the latter type. The irregular shape of the cities in the South are beyond the scope of this study. CHINESE COSMOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHY Chinese cosmology is interwoven with Chinese phil- osophy. They are in fact inseparable in the intellectual history of China. A brief review of the history of Chi- nese philosophy will reflect this fact. Two major streams of philosophies permeated the Chi- nese mind for more than two thousand years. They are Confucianism and Taoism. Buddhism can be regarded as a third major stream of thought that has had dominant influ- ence on the Chinese way of life. Since the complex reli- gious systems of China are not the major concern in this study, they will not be discussed here. Confucianism is the philosophy of ethics dealing with social organization and daily life. It emphasizes the social responsibilities of man, while Taoism empha- sizes that which is natural and spontaneous in man. Chuang Tzu says that the Confucianists roam within the bounds of society, while the Taoists roam beyond it. DeSpite the differences between these two schools, their basic concern is the same: human life. Both schools maintain that the highest achievement of a man is to be a sage and the highest achievement of a sage is to identify the individual with the universe.ll Thus Con- fucianism and Taoism share the same concept of cosmology: the unity of man and universe. The Chinese concept of cosmogony is based on a dualism —— the principle of yin and yang, derived from the I Ching (the Book of Change). In his later years, Confu— cius delighted in the I Ching. He once said, "Give me a few more years like this, and I will come to a perfect knowledge of the i."12 The influence of the I Ching on Lao Tzu is evident. His saying that "The ten thousand things carry the yin and embrace the ynng, and through the blending of the material force (gnii) they achieve harmony" (the Tao Te Ching) is just like the quotation from the i gning. Thus, under the shadow of the I Ching, both the Confucianists and the Taoists shared a common View of cosmogony and of the relationship between man and universe. Also, it is striking that the cultural traditions reflected by the dominance of Confucianism and Taoism survived for several thousand years -- until very recent decades —- despite the numerous political changes of Chinese history. DIFFERENT WAYS OF THINKING BETWEEN THE WESTERNERS AND THE TRADITIONAL CHINESE PEOPLE Before discussing the Chinese conception of the uni- verse, it would be helpful to relate some of the differen- ces between Western and Chinese thought. It is the way of thinking that dictates the culture of a society. Professor Northrop has said that there are two major types of concepts: those achieved by intuition and those achieved by postulation. "A concept by intuition," he says, "is one which denotes, and the complete meaning of which is given by, something which is immediately apprehended. 'Blue' in the sense of the sensed color is a concept by intuition... A concept by postulation is one, the complete meaning of which is designated by the postulates of the deductive theory in which it occurs... 'Blue' in the sense of the number of a wavelength in electro—magnetic theory is a concept by postulation."l3 Western knowledge tends to be formally and doctri- nally expressed in logically developed scientific and philosophical treatise. On the other hand, the Chinese people look at things by immediate sense experience. They use bits of linguistic symbolism, largely denota- tive, and often purely idiographic in character, to point toward a component in the nature of things which only immediate experience and continued contemplation can convey. Philosophers such as Confucius and Lao Tzu were trying to designate something which is immediately appre— hended. To use Professor NorthrOp's terms (in The Meet- ing of the East and West), there is an "immediately appre— hended aesthetic continuum" between perception of the world and formulation of ideas. It is this differentiation that sets Westerners and Easterners in two completely different worlds. While -10- the former shape their concepts by postulation, the latter shape theirs by intuition. While the Westerners gain knowledge by means of theoretical science, based on schemes of abstract concepts, the Easterners gain knowledge by imme- diate sense experience. The origin of the concept of an "aesthetic continuum" is farming.l4 China is predominantly an agricultural country. The farmers have to deal with such things as the farm and crops -- all things which they immediately appre- hend. And in their primitivity and innocence, they value what they thus immediately apprehend. It is no wonder that their philosophers likewise take the immediate apprehension of things as the starting point of their philosophy. -11- Footnotes: 1Earnest Cassirer, An Essay on Man (New Haven: The Yale University Press, 1944), p.77. 2Ibido pp. 5-6. 3Ibid. p. 7. 4Ibid. p. 6. 5Christian Norberg-Schulz, Intention in Architecture (Massachusetts: The M.I.T. Press,’l965), p.763. 6Susanne K. Langer, Feeling and Form (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1953), p. 72. 7Ibid. p. 93. 8Alfred North Whitehead, Symbolism, 6th impression (New York: MacMillan Co., 1959), p. 18. 9Cassirer, op. cit., p. 26. loChang Sen-dou, "Some Observations on the Morphology of Chinese Walled Cities," unpublished paper read in the 64th annual meeting of the Association of American Geo- graphy, 1969. llFung Yu-lan, A Short History of Chinese Philosophy, ed. by Derk Bodde (New York: The Free Press, 19487, P. 16. 12Analects. English translation adopted from Fung Yu-lan, A History of Chinese Philosophy, tr. by Derk Bodde (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1952), Vol. 1, p. 44. 13F. S. C. Northrop, "The Complementary Emphasis of Eastern Intuition Philosophy and Western Scientific Philosophy," in PhilOSOphy, East and West, ed. by C. A. Moore (Prince- ton: Princeton University Press, 1946), p. 187. l4Fung Yu-lan, A Short History of Chinese Philosophy; 92- cit., p. 24. EXPLANATION OF TERMS Chang_Tsai (1020-1077): An eminent Neo—Confucian- ist of the Sung dynasty. His fundamental idea was that the universe is one but its manifestations are many. Ch'eng Hao (1032-1085): Also called Master Ming—tao. He and his brother Ch'eng Yi (also called Yi-ch'uan, 1033—1107) patterned Neo—Confucianism. Both brothers became outstanding philosophers of the Sung dynasty, reminding of the two brothers, Asanga (c.4lO-c.500) and Vasubandhu (c.420-c.520) in the history of Indian phil- osophy. gnii: The cosmic or material force that produces all beings. It can also be interpreted as "subtle, incipient, activating force." Graham expresses the sense of the term most correctly in the phrases "inward spring of movement" and incipient movement not yet visible out— side."l In many cases, especially before the Neo-Confucian doctrine of ii (principle) developed, gnii denotes the psychophysiological power associated with blood and breath. Chou Tunjyi (1017-1073): Generally called the pio- neer of Neo—Confucianism. In two short treatises, the T'ai-chi-t'u Shuo (An Explanation of the Diagram of the Great Ultimate) and the T'ungéshu (Penetrating the i Ching), he laid the pattern of metaphysics for later Neo— Confucianism. -12- -13- Chu Hsi (1130-1200): The greatest Neo-Confucian- iStr known as Chu Tzu2 or Master Chu. No one has exer- cised greater influence on Chinese thought than Chu Tzu, except Confucius, Mencius, Lao Tzu, and Chuang Tzu. He was a philosopher of subtle argument, clear thinking, wise knowledge, and voluminous literary output. His Recorded Sayings alone amount to 140 chuan, or books. He synthesized Confucius' concept of inn (humanity, bene- volence), Mencius' doctrine of humanity and righteous- ness, the yin—yang and the Five Elements doctrines of Han times, and practically all the important ideas of the Neo-Confucianists of early Sung. His most radical innovation was to select and group the Analects of Con- fucius, Book of Mencius, the Great Learning, and the Doctrine of the Mean (both of which are chapters of the Li Chi or Book of Rites, compiled in the Han dynasty) as the Four Books. He then wrote commentaries on them, interpreted them in a new light, and made them the foundation of his social and ethical philosophy. From 1313 to 1905 the Four Books were the basis of the civil service examinations. As a result, they have exercised far greater influence on Chinese life and thought in the last six hundred years than any other classics. Through his interpretations of the Four Books, Chu Hsi made Neo- Confucianism truly Confucian, stripped of the Buddhist -14- and Taoist influence which had been conspicuous in previous Neo—Confucianists. Chuang Chou (c.369-c.286): Better known as Chuang Tzu, perhaps the greatest of the early Taoists. He is famous for his concept of Nature. To him, Nature was not only spontaneity but was also in a state of con- stant flux and incessant transformation. This is the universal process that binds all things into one, equal- izing all things and all opinions. The pure man makes this oneness his eternal abode, in which he becomes a “companion" of Nature and does not attempt to interfere with it by imposing the ways of man on it. His goal is absolute spiritual emancipation and peace, to be achieved through knowledge of the capacity and limitations of one's own nature, nourishing it, and adapting it to the univer- sal process of transformation. His works were compiled and entitled Chuang Tzu. He and Mencius were contemp— oraries, but evidently neither was aware of the other, in all likelihood because of geographical separation. Confucius (551—479 B.C.): Confucius is the lati- nized name of the person known in China as K'ung Tzu. His family name was K'ung and his personal name Ch'iu. He is the greatest phiIOSOpher and educator in Chinese history. His influence on Chinese thought was so far- reaching as to justify the title often attributed to him of the "uncrowned emperor" of China. As a philosopher, -15- he was a‘in and the founder of the in school, known in the West as the Confucian school. It emphasized matters concerning human-heartedness (jen) and righteous- ness (yi). On the basis of the Analects (Discourses), in which his sayings were recorded by disciples, we can see how Confucius determined the outstanding character- istic of Chinese philosophy, humanism. He did not care to talk about spiritual beings or even about life after death. Instead, believing that man "can make the Tao great," he concentrated on man. His primary concern was a good society based on good government.and harmo- nious human relations. As aneducator, Confucius was the first man in China to make teaching his profession, and thus popularize culture and education. It was he who opened the way for the many travelling scholars and philos0phers of succeeding centuries. It was also he who inaugurated, or at least developed, that class of gen— tlemen in ancient China who was neither farmer, merchant, nor actual official, but was professional teacher and potential official. Feng-shui: Known to Westerners as Chinese geomancy. It is ”the art of adapting the residences of the living and the dead so as to cooperate and harmonize with the local currents of the cosmic breath."3 Fengfshui is based on the concept that man is the product of the -16— universe. For more detailed descriptions, see Chapter Two. Five Elements, the: Five dynamic and interacting forces resulting from the interaction of yin and ynng —- wood, fire, earth, metal, and water. With these were correlated directions, seasons, colors, and forms, etc. They perform important roles in the practice of ieng— Fu-Hsi: The mythological Emperor from whose reign the Chinese commence their chronology. It is said that he was the inventor of the Eight Trigrams, each contain- ing three lines which multiply themselves to become sixty—four hexagrams. The I Ching says, "...In this manner, he invented the Eight Trigrams, as a means of demonstrating the virtues of spiritual beings, and illustrating the conditions of all things under heaven." I Ching, the: The "Book of Changes" as it is known to Westerners. It is a book written by the people of the Chou dynasty. The author is unknown. It grew out of the ancient practice of divination. It is ascribed to Confucius by tradition but to unknown writers three or four centuries later by some scholars. The texts consist of the sixty-four hexagrams and judgments on them. The symbols of the hexagrams were supposed to mirror in some way all the process of Nature. Its -17- text is very cryptic and no definite philosophical con— clusion can be drawn from it. In the commentaries, however, there is a clear outline of a rational ap- proach to a well—ordered and dynamic universe. K'ao Kung Chi: A Code Book of Work or the Arti- ficers Record as a section of the Chou Li (Record of the Rites of the Chou dynasty), compiled by unknown writers in the Han dynasty. Kuo P'u (276-324): A scholar of high attainments; a great patriarch of the art of feng-shui. His Tsang Ching (or Tsang Shu, the Book on Burial) takes rank among the products of fengrshui literature as a standard book. Lao Tzu: The pioneer of Taoism and the author of the (approximately 5,250-word) Lao Tzu or Tao Te Ching (Classic of the Way and Its Virtue). It is a combina- tion of poetry, philosophical speculation, and mystical reflection. No other Chinese classic of such small size has exercised so much influence. "No one can hope to understand Chinese philosophy, religion, government, art, medicine - or even cooking - without a real appre- ciation of the profound philosophy taught in this little book."4 Regarding the person Lao Tzu (meaning “an Old PhilOSOpher"), it is said that his family name was Li, private name Erh, and posthumous name Tan, that he was a custodian of imperial archives, and that Confucius -18.. visited him for information on rituals. But in the past few decades, some scholars have dated Lao Tzu at the fourth or third century B.C., approximately 200 years after Confucius.5 ii: (1) §§_ originally meant a religious sacri- fice, but has come to mean ceremony, ritual, decorum, rules of propriety, good custom, etc. (2) IE. means "principle" to govern the operation of gnii. "When there is an agglomeration of gnii, the ii is also present within it." All things consist both of gnii and of ii which give them their form; yet in a sense the ii is prior, since it existed before any objects had come into being. Lu Chiujyuan (1139—1193): A Neo-Confucianist of the Sung times. Mandala: The Sanskrit word mandala means "circle." It is the Indian term for the circle drawn in religious rituals. Viewed in terms of psychology, "the true mandala is always an inner image, which is gradually built up through (active) imagination, at such time when psychic equilibrium is disturbed or when a thought cannot be found and must be sought for, because not con- tained in holy doctrine."6 Historically, the mandala served (1) as a symbol to clarify the nature of the deity philosophically, or to demonstrate it in a visi- ble form for the purpose of adoration, or (2) as in the -19- East, as a yantra for yoga practices.7 The term "mandala" employed in the present study denotes the cosmic diagram of "three-heaven and two-earth," based on the concept of "heaven round, earth square" (see Fig. 8). The wholeness of the celestial circle and the squareness of the earth express completeness and union. Mencius (371-289 B.C.? : Like Confucius, Mencius was born in the modern Shang—tung Province and was a professional teacher. He had studied under the pupils of the grandson of Confucius. Basically, Mencius' teachings were derived from Confucius. But, he took a big step forward by declaring definitely that human nature is originally good. He was the first to build an entire philosophy on this tenet. Ming_T'ang: A place in which the emperor offered sacrifices and gave audience to princes. Also, it may be used by the emperor as a dwelling place. Neo-Confucianism: The full flowering of Chinese thought, developed during the last eight hundred years. Its major topics of debate, especially in the Sung and Ming periods, are the nature and principle (ii) of man and things. Supplementary to these topics are the problems of gnii, yin and ynng, T'ai Chi being and non- being, and the unity of man and nature. It can be said that the Neo-Confucianists are the Cosmologists. There -20- are three lines of thought that can be traced as the main sources of Neo-Confucianism: (1) Confucianism; (2) Buddhism; and (3) the Taoist religion, of which the cosmological views of the Yin-Yang school formed an important element. The cosmology of the Neo-Confucianists is chiefly connected with this line of thought. Tai Chen (1723-1777): Also called Tai Tung—yuan, a philosopher of the Ch'ing dynasty. T'ai Chi: The Supreme Ultimate. For every kind of thing there is the ii, which makes it what it ought to be. It is the ultimate standard. For the universe as a whole, there must also be an ultimate standard, supreme and all-embracing. This embraces the multi— tude of ii for all things and is the highest summation of all of them. Therefore, it is called the Supreme Ultimate or T‘ai Chi. Chu Hsi says, "The Supreme Ultimate is simply what is highest of all, beyond which nothing can be. It is the most high, most mystical, and most abtruse, surpassing everything." Tao: Usually translated as "the way." The earli— est meaning of tao was "road" or "path." For Confucius, the Tao was "the Way" above all other ways that man should follow. For the Taoists the Tao was not the right way of life within human society, but the way in which the universe worked —- the Order of Nature. -21- inn is what gives principles, whereas inn brings the principles of all things into single agreement. inn, then, is the all-embracing first principle of things. The goal of human wisdom is to fall in line with ing or the ways and laws of Nature and live in harmony with them. A man who achieves this happy state is said "to have attained the ing," or teh-tao. Taoism: A philOSOphy which teaches the doctrine of following nature. The Taoist school tried to escape the disorders of its day by retiring into the world of nature. Among such men, living amid natural surround— ings, there gradually developed the concept of ing as the eternal way of Nature which all men should follow, and the consequent distrust of all human insti— tutions as perverters of the natural order. Tiinn: According to Professor Fung Yu—lan, the word Eii§n_occurs in Chinese writings with the follow- ing five different meanings: 1. A material or physical t'ien or sky; such as t'ien ti (heaven and earth). 2. A ruling or presiding t'ien; such as Huang T'ien Shang Ti (Imperial Heaven Supreme Emperor). 3. A fatalistic t'ien, equivalent to the concept of ming (fate). 4. A naturalistic t'ien, equivalent to the English word "nature." -22- 5. An ethical t'ien, one having moral princi— ple, which is the highest primordial prin— ciple of the universe; such as t'ien 1i (the principle of universe).8 Thus, t'ien can be either personal or impersonal. Tung Chung-shu (c. 179-0. 104 B.C.): Was chiefly instrumental in making Confucianism the state doctrine in 136 B.C. This supremacy excluded other schools, and lasted until 1905. Yin and Yang: There are two aspects of ch'i: yin, the negative principle (female), and ynng, the positive principle (male). The gnii that moves is called yang; the gnii that rests is called yin. Through interaction of these two principles, all phenomena of the universe are produced. The dual- istic elements are the fundamental of the universe in Chinese cosmology. Yin:yang School: Originated from men who had specialized in such occult arts as astrology and divin- ation. This school represents a scientific tendency in the sense that it tried to give a positive interpre— tation to natural events in terms of natural forces. Footnotes: lA.C. Graham, Two Chinese Philosophers: Ch‘ennging- tao and Ch'eng Yi-ch'uang TLondon: Lun Humphfies, 1958), p. 35. 2The word "Tzu" or "Master" is a polite suffix added to names of the distinguised scholars, such as Chuang Tzu and Chu Tzu, etc. 3H. Chatley, "Feng-shui," Encyclopedia Sinica (ed. Chouling). 4Wing—tsit Chan, A Source Book in Chinese Philosopny (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969T, p. 136. 5Ibid., p. 138. 6C.G. Jung, "The Symbolism of the Mandala," Psychology and Alchem , the Collected Works of C.G. Jung, Vol. 12, 1944, p. 92. 7 , Psychology and Religion (New Haven: Yale Ufiiversity Press, 1938), p. 96. 8Fung, A History of Chinese PhiloSOphy, Vol I, p. 31. CHAPTER ONE BACKGROUND In order to demonstrate the cosmological influ- ences on environmental settlements in traditional Chinese society, provision of an analytical background regarding the cosmological ideas is necessary. There- fore, this chapter will present some fundamental con- cepts of cosmology (such as the yin-yang and Five Ele- ments principles) to clarify the discussions of ensuing chapters. THE NATURE OF UNIVERSE The different modes of thinking of the Chinese and of Westerners, as stated earlier, can be further illustrated by the concept of universe. Joseph Needham has pointed out that Westerners have been dominated by a world View in which the cosmos -— far from being a self-contained, self—operating organism -- is conceived of as having been initially created, and since then externally controlled, by a Divine Power who "legis- lates" the phenomena of the non—human natural world.1 In China, on the contrary, quite a different situa- tion prevailed. The most important divinity of the ancient Chinese, to be sure, was a purposeful ruling power known as Tiign or "Heaven," capable of exercising control over natural and human events in the religious -24- -25- sense. However, Tiign is not a Creator of the universe. (The creation of the universe will be stated later on.) As observed by Needham, the Chinese world View depended upon a totally different line of thought. The harmonious cooperation of all beings came not from the orders of a superior authority external to themselves, but from the fact that they were all parts of a hier- archy of wholes forming a cosmic pattern. What they obeyed were the internal dictates of their natures.2 Geographic factors have played a part in causing such cultural differences. China is a continental country. To the ancient Chinese their land was the world. There are two eXpressions in the Chinese language which can both be translated as "the world." One is "all beneath the sky“ and the other is "all within the four seas." These conceptions of world are important because they led to the Chinese definition of "universe." The word "universe“ expressed in the Chinese language is yu—chou, denoting space and time. Lu Chiu- yuan says, "The four directions, together with what is above and what is below, are called yn; the bygone part and the coming future are called 939.11.” in and onon taken together represent the primor- dial unity of the system of space with the system of time. -26- Yu—chou, as the Chinese philosophers have conceived it, is the unified field of all existence. Space alone is static, but it becomes dynamic as soon as time streams through it. Both are inseparable. As time changes, the positions of all things in space change accordingly; consequently the nature of all things and their contents change, entirely or in part, into something else. Time, whose nature is change, like the mischievous spirit forever welcoming the new and bidding farewell to the old, cannot remain fixed. Since change is the nature of all things, including the universe itself, the universe is a changing one.4 In the Chinese mind, the universe is not a mechan- ical field of physical actions and reactions, but a magnificent realm of the concrescence of Universal Life. Nothing in the world is really dead. There lurks in every phenomenon an impetus of life. Thus, the Chinese philosophers do not use the term yu-chou very often, because they are unwilling to look upon the universe merely as a mechanical system of space and time. In the ancient classics, we constantly meet with such concepts as “heaven," “heaven and earth," and ch'ien and knn, denoting the creative and procreative func- tions of the universe. All these concepts and terms, though varied in meaning, are designed to give an ade- quate rational explanation of cosmic order and structure. -27- CH'I: THE COSMIC FORCE The Chinese people believe that the formation of physical phenonmena is caused by onii, translated into English as Ether, cosmic force, material force, vital force, matter energy, subtle spirit, etc. The word onii literally means "breath" in the Chinese language. It can also be regarded as the "breath of nature" in terms of feng-shui. The onii is an intangible ethereal substance, a supernatural force, and a dynamic power that can be conveyed in every thing. Heaven is nothing but the ex- pression of onii. Huai Nan-tzu (c. - 120) says, "Before the heaven and the earth took shape, there was an abyss without form and void; hence...the ing, the way of the universe, began with Emptiness and the Emptiness pro- duced the universe. The universe produced onii...That which was clear and bright drifted up to become heaven, and that which was heavy and turbid solidified to form earth."6 The onii produces every thing including man. As noted by Chuang Tzu, "Man's life is due to the conglo- meration of the onii, and when they are dispersed, death occurs...All through the universe there is one onii, and therefore the sage prized that unity."7 Thirteen centuries later Chu Hsi remarks, "From the -23- point of view of material force, that which receives it in its perfection and is unimpeded becomes man, while those that receive it partially and are obstructed become things."8 The Operation of gnii does not perform arbitrarily or at random, but follows fixed and immutable law, or rational principle. Otherwise disaster would result. The law or rational principle in the Chinese language is ii, which is the cosmic principle of organization - the dynamic order and pattern in nature. ii, which is exhibited in every object in nature, in its cosmic opera- tions impels the vital energy, onii, to generate movement and change. The two interact in mutual dependence, and the process results in the creation of matter. As noted earlier, onii is dynamic and can be con— veyed in everything. Since everything is created by and composed of the onii, man and nature mutually interact through the operation of gnii. To the Chinese, man can never live alone. Man's prosperity and happiness depend to a great extent upon the har— monious relationship between man and nature. DUALISM: THE PRINCIPLE OF YIN AND YANG There are two aspects of ch'i, negative force and positive force. The former is yin, and the latter, yang. The word yang originally meant sunshine, or what -29- pertains to sunshine and light; yin meant the absence of sunshine; i.e., shadow or darkness. In later devel- opment, the yang and yin came to be regarded as two cosmic principles or forces; Yang representing heaven, masculinity, activity, heat, brightness, dryness, h3rdness, etc., and Yin representing earth, femininity, passivity, cold, darkness, wetness, softness, etc. According to the I Ching, there exists one Bound- less Immutable Principle, one Absolute Reality, which antecedes all manifested conditioned Being. It is called T'ai Chi, or Supreme Ultimate. The Supreme Ultimate produced Two Forms, yin and yang. As Chou Tun-yi says: "The Supreme Ultimate through movement (tung) produces the an . The movement, having reached its limit, is followed by quiescence (Ching), and by this quiescence it produces the in. When quiescence has reached its limit, there is a return to movement. Thus, movement and quiescence, in alteration, be- come each the source of the other. The dis- tinction between the yin and yang is deter- mined and the Two Forms stand revealed."9 When Chu Hsi was aSked about the material forces, he drew a circle on the desk and said, "Principle is like a circle. Within it there is differentiation like this. All cases of material force which are coming forth belong to yang and are positive forces. All cases of ma- terial force returning to its origin belong to yin and the negative force." -30- In the cosmic symphony neither the yin nor the ynng ever permanently triumphs; each grows from the other and needs the other as its partner in order to generate the universe as we find it. "That is why in the Yin-Yang symbol (Fig. l), a black dot appears within the light-colored ynng, symbolic of the embry— onic yin, and a light dot within the dark—colored yin, SYmbolic of the embryonic yang."lo Fig. 1 The Yin-Yang Symbol Yin and yang, the Receptive and the Creative, being inseparable parts of a unity, are always at work in space and time, interplaying and cooperating with each other; and it is the interplay and cooperation of these two cosmic forces that causes the ever-changing phenomena of the universe. THE PRINCIPLE OF EIGHT TRIGRAMS According to the I Ching, the two cosmic forces, yin and ynng, constitute a stream of continuous change. They are mutually revolving and circulating through time and space without cease; this is the way of regeneration, of life begetting life. The image of change in the in- 'finite complexities of phenomena has been represented by the symbols known as the Eight Trigrams (Fig. 2), -31- whiCh are said to have been invented by the legendary figure, Fu Hsi. . ‘-.- -.;fifi~ i 21-..- ,.-S- ., __' Fig. 2 The Diagram of the Eight Trigrams Behind thefiEight Trigrams lies the concept that all substances embodied within yin and‘ynng are subject to four sequential steps of change: growing - fullness - declining - destruction.12 All beings move from one stage toward another without interruption. The Yin- Yang Symbol shown in Fig. 1 is strongly suggestive of this concept. In the I Ching, the ynng principle is represented by an unbroken line , and yin, by a line broken in two __ __. The single lines were combined in pairs to denote the existence of a matter in terms of changing phenomena of yin-yang: __ __ Less yang (shao yang) _____.Greater yang (tainyang) -32- Less yin (shaonyin) .:: Greater yin (tai_yin) All of the movement of yin-yang is upward from the bottom. Thus, the "less yang" means that there is yin not yet overcome, and the yang is growing. This is the initial stage in formation of all beings before they reach maturity. The four stages derived from yin and yang, denoting the changing character of beings, are called Four Emblems. To each of the combinations, a third line was then added. In this way the Eight Trigrams came into being. The I Ching says: "Hence, there is in the system of metamor- phoses of Nature the Supreme Ultimate, and this produces the Two Forms. The Two Forms produce the Four Emblems which again pro- duce the Eight Trigrams." Richard Wilhelm has explained the Eight Trigrams excellently. The following paragraph is from his notable book, the I Ching: "These eight trigrams were conceived as images of all that happens in heaven and' on earth. At the same time, they were held to be in a state of continual transition, one changing into another, just as transi- tion from one phenomenon to another is con— tinually taking place in the physical world. Here we have the fundamental concept of the Book of Changes. The eight trigrams are symbols standing for changing transitional states; they are images that are constantly undergoing change."l3 It is noted that each trigram possesses either yin or yang. It should also be remembered that the yang is the male principle, and the yin, the female principle. -33- The significance of the Eight Trigrams is shown in Table l on the following page. From this table it is observed that "there is an intermingling of the genial influences of heaven and earth, and the trans— formation of all things proceeds abundantly" (I Ching). While heaven and earth are the physical representations of the yin and yang, ch'ien and k'un are their symbolic representations. The ynng is the principle that "gives beginning" to things; the yin is that which "completes" them. Thus, the process of the production of things by the ynng and yin is completely analogous to that of the production of living beings by the male and female. A human being is produced by the union of man and woman, and so by extension, the universe is also considered to have two uniting principles: the male, or ynng, for which the trigram is ch'ien; and the female, or yin, for which the trigram is kinn, This is just as the Greek philosopher Protagoras says: "Man is the measure of all things." As illustrated in Table l, the Eight Trigrams are also associated with directions, seasons, human bodies, the Five Elements, etc. Again, the signifi- cance of these relationships lies in the unity of man and nature, the interplay of time and space, and the harmony of the cosmic order. ~33... dupe? «finesse 2133 -92 We 95.3w mar 3.3 m S... ......III.......... N .ILLJOI Bqfix. , MYN Ni.“ Hugues“. “3.343% m 61.030 N3... muzu V _4 .ll. sum 3 «#339 $13.... __...uaw Beams may 62.3 :3 HIM :3an A3 .3. video v.3... \Sm m I... Nmuifin _ “H w 04m: A 3)) :3 3m vzfiam 3qu 522 44.5.. Sammy 23:23: N 2mg u4w dubs} ton. QN Mm??? .92 >> 441394 m2... Much? m 24.x mm been 0 33 :3 .5. Steam w 2 $383 was H323 w 2mg HI” ”“1954 k P 2 2132 End I I 1 : u4m mm: o Muzzam P73 2 gtmomu ma Euqm » ZS. HM. 64m: 4.4pr amid 7133 E3 m wages we amen: w 3:3 HI... race :41 « pautmaw M)...» 23.2..mw. P2.0m I3: no 52$ miomdwn... - 3.52033 smegoo and >4 . 34n— BMFSQOmmq omwflfiflmwd zofikmumwb mUSs: xmm mid: momirm “Equguh .533. mi. Ho MUZQSEZUE n mfifleui -35.. In order to achieve a still greater multipli— city, these Eight Trigrams were combined with one another, whereby a total of sixty-four hexagrams was obtained (see Fig. 3). Each of the sixty—four f ' v'dutfi- ,1 ° - y; , iv”, . . . II 7W I. Y. Heuuuauuu .rusau nun Iazuzanabat WM, $123 .fial‘ . \ ii ” \h'leggélii‘filllglllga .., 'f‘i ., \ \ / \ \‘ \\\ QR. h ‘ . ' '4 (IRIAH RYIMT HSSI-R \ \NG Ig/ZLESSFR YIN§ (ERIE/\1II{Y\ c F’ me; D. u‘k-_-____’..i...#1J.J.L (f. 1T5 ‘ I / // / 7'11”" rl'vl r-nnvw‘v‘TQiis --—'-I y/VZ? YNHLI_ gfl . YANG I SUPRLMi iLTIMATE ‘I Numbers at 16?) are [Im'ic of Sixty-four I'I’anuns ‘.- 0"“ Nnmrs In Mn'il'lllc Mr thov- III' I'igIJ 'lrigzams a; , Fig 3 Diagram of Cosmic Evolution in Terms of the Sixtyofour Hexagrams -—_.,. “_ 7—. a“... .___ _fi _- Source: Fung, A History of the Chinese Philosophy, Vol. II, p. 459. signs consists of six lines, either positive or negative. Again, each line is thought of as capable of change. All things in the universe proceed in a stream of change and continue to pass through stages of transmutation, implying renovation by regeneration. THE PRINCIPLE OF THE FIVE ELEMENTS As noted earlier, the yin-yang doctrine teaches that all things are produced by two forces: yin, the negative force, and ynng, the positive force. This theory is associated with that of the Five Elements (wu-hsing), which may be taken as an elaboration of the yin-yang idea. -36- The Chinese word nning means "to act" or "to do," so that the term wu-hsing, literally translated, would mean the Five Activities, or Five Agents. They are also known as EEZEEI which means Five Powers. The origin of the concept of Five Elements is still obscure.l4 It seems that the two concepts of the yin—yang and the Five Elements go far back to anti- quity and to quite independent origins. Tsou Yen (305-240 B.C.) is usually credited as the one who combined the two independent currents into one.15 The Five Elements, in the evolutionary order in which they came into being, are wood, fire, earth, metal, and water. They are conceived as five material forces derived from the yin and ynng. As Chu Hsi says in his Conversations (Yu—lei), "The transformation of ynng and congealings of the yin thus produce water, fire, wood, metal, and earth."16 The Five Elements, as well as the yin and ynng, are the matter energy, gnii. It is believed that after the yin-Ch'i and yang-Ch'i are brought into being they form the Five Elements. Based on the concept that interaction of the gnii creates all things, the Five Elements are, in essence, five cosmic forces that produce or destroy all living or non-living beings through a process of movement. Tung Chung-shu remarks in his Spring and Autumn Annals -37- (Chuan Chui Fan Lu): "Collected together, the ethers (Ch'i) of the universe constitute a unity; d1Vlded, they constitute the yin and yang; quartered, they constitute the four seasons; (still further) sundered, they constitute the Five Elements. These elements represent move- ment (hsing)."17 The relationship of the Five Elements and the yin and yang may be demonstrated by the Diagram of the Su- preme Ultimate developed by Chou Tung—yi in Fig. 4. This diagram, in which Chou elucidated the origins of "Heavenly Principle" and probed into the beginning and end of all things, is in fact a summary of the Chinese concept of cosmology. The fundamental idea of the Five Elements is that the substances in the universe never exist independently. Instead, they are closely related to each other, inter- acting mutually because of the operation of the cosmic force, ch'i. The principles of hsiang-seng, hsiang- sheng, hsiang—chih and hsiang-hua may well illustrate the characteristics of the Five Elements. Hsiangeseng, a principle of mutual production, applies to the elements in that one will produce or generate another, in the following order: Wood produces fire Fire produces earth Earth produces metal Metal produces water Water produces wood18 As seen from the above, the process is circular. -33- Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate The U timateless! Yet also the Supreme Ultimate! Yang Yin Movement Quiescence' Water The Ch'u'u Prinprle The K‘un Principfe becomes the male becomes the femafe element element Production and Evolution of All ThIIIgs Fig. 4 Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate Source: Fung, A History of the Chinese Philosophy, Vol. II, p. 436. -39.. The logic behind this is that wood when burned pro- duces fire; fire, by burning wood, produces ash, or earth; earth produces metallic ores within its rocks; metal, when melted, gives rise to liquid, or water; water gives birth to trees, or wood. Hsiang-shen is the principle of mutual conquest: Wood conquers earth Metal conquers wood Fire conquers metal Water conquers fire Earth conquers water At this point the cycle begins all over again. The logic behind this is that wood, when growing, ex- hausts the supply of energy in the earth; metal cuts woods; fire melts metal; water extinguishes fire; earth, in the form of a dam, controls water. Hsiangéchih, the principle of control, holds that a given process of destruction is controlled by the element which destroys the destroyer. For example: Wood conquers earth, but metal controls the process Metal conquers wood, but fire controls the process Fire conquers metal, but water controls the process Water conquers fire, but earth controls the process Earth conquers water, but wood controls the process Hsiang-hua, the principle of masking, holds that a process of change can be masked by some other process which produces more of the substrate, or produces it faster than it can be destroyed by the primary process Thus, -40.. Wood conquers earth, but fire masks the process Fire conquers metals, but earth masks the process Earth conquers water, but metal masks the process Metal conquers wood, but water masks the process Water conquers fire, but wood masks the process As with the Eight Trigrams, there are a number of symbolic correlations of directions, season, color, etc. with the Five Elements as shown in Table 2. Table 2 Significance of the Five Elements Element Color Direc- Season Planets Associated Associated tions Sense Organ Form Wood green E Spring Jupiter eye long Fire red S Summer Mars tongue pointed Earth yellOw center - Saturn mouth thick Metal white W Autumn Venus nose square Water black N Winter Mercury ear round L and the four seasons rest upon the concept that the four The relationships of the Five Elements seasons result from the waxing and waning movements of the yin and yang. When the yang is in the ascendancy, it assists wood and fire to form Spring and Summer, whereupon all things are born and grow. But when the yin is in the ascendancy, it assists metal and water to form Autumn and Winter, where- upon all things are stored up or go into hibernation. TO demonstrate the relationships between the Five Elements _41.. and the directions and seasons, the following passages are quoted from Tung Chung-shu's Chuan Chiu Fan Lu: "Thus wood has its place in the east and has authority over the ch'i of Spring. Fire has its place in the south, and has authority over the ch'i of Summer. Metal has its place in the west, and has authority over the ch'i of Autumn. Water has its place in the north, and has author- ity over the ch'i of Water... "Earth has its place at the center and is (as it were) the rich soil of Heaven. Earth is Heaven's thighs and arms, its virtue so pro- lific, so lovely to View, that it cannot be told at one time of telling."19 As is seen in the following chapter, most of the re- lationships described above directly affect the practice of feng-shui. Many of the correlations are artificial and arbitrary. However, they illustrate the perfect cosmic order and the mutual influence of every thing. CONCLUSION The universe is conceived by the Chinese people as the combination of time and space. There are two funda— mental principles or cosmic forces in the universe, the yin and ynng, and Five Elements of which all beings are composed. Since the cosmic force, gnii, is not static, but organic, the Chinese cosmology is characterized by the permanence of change and the mutual interaction of all things. The universe is a harmoniously functioning organism consisting of an orderly hierarchy of inter- related parts and forces. -42- Chinese cosmology is characterized by "correla— tive thinking," which can be best illustrated by the microcosmrmicrosm.doctrine. On the one hand, all through the history of Chinese thought the universe— analogy goes on. As mentioned previously, the body of man and the cosmos are correspondent point-to-point. On the other hand, the creation of beings by the interaction of heaven and earth, or yin and yang, is inspired by "man is parallel to the human sexual eXperience. Thus, universe; a universe is a man and a man is a universe."20 -43- Footnotes: 1Joseph Needham, "Human Laws and Laws of Nature," Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. XII, 1951, 21bid. 3Fung Yu-lang, A History of Chinese Philosophy, trans- lated by Derk Bodde (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1953), Vol. II, pp. 572-3. 4Chen Li—fu, Philospphy of Life (New York: Philoso- phical Library Inc., 1948i, p. 15. 5Fung, A History of Chinese Philosophy, Vol. I, 1952, p. 31. 6Cf. Fung Yu—lan, The Spirit of Chinese Philosgphy, tr. by E. R. Hughes (London: Kegan Paul, 1947), p. 112. 7James Legge (tr.), Texts of Taoism, Oxford, 1891, Vol. 2, p. 59. Adopted ffbm JOseph'Needham, Science And Civ- ilization in China (Cambridge: The Cambridge University Press, 1956), Vol. II, p. 76. 8Adopted from Wing-tsit Chang, A Source Book of Chinese Philosophy, op. cit., p. 160. 9Quoted in Fung, A History of Chinese Philosophy, Vol. II, pp. 435-6. 10Derk Bodde, China's Cultural Tradition (New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, 1959), p. 35. lle. Chang Chi-yuan, "Fu Hsi: The First Chapter of Chi- nese History," Chinese Culture, Vol. III, No. 3, March, 1961. 12Fung Yu-lan, Hsing Li Hsieh (Shanghai: Commercial Book Co., 1938), pp. 94-6. l3Richard Wilhelm, The I Ching, tr. by Cary F. Bayne from German to English (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969), p. 2. 14Cf. Suetoshi Ikeda, "The Origin and Development of the Wu-hsing (Five Elements) Idea: A Preliminary Essay," East and West, 16, Sept.-Dec., 1967, pp. 297-309. -44- 15Wing-tsit Chan, A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy, p. 245. 15Fung, A History of Chinese Philosophy, Vol. II, p. 943. 17Ibid., p. 29. 18William A. Lessa, Chinese Body Division (Los Angeles: United World, 19685, p. 20. For original text, see Tung Chung-Shu, "On the Five Elements," Chuan Chiu Fan Lu. For English translation, see Needham, Sci- ence and Civilization in China, Vol. II, p. 249. 19Joseph Needham. Science and Civilization in China, Vol. II, p. 250. 20Wi11iam A. Lessa, 92. cit., p. 18. CHAPTER TWO FENG—SHUI AND COSMOLOGY The system of fengéshui or geomancy has long played an extremely important role in determining the location and shape of houses, villages, and cities. To clarify the meaning of feng—shui, the following passages'are quoted from E. A. Gutkind's Revolution of Environment: "Geomancy is the expression of the cosmic ideas of the Chinese; the cosmic forces of in and yang, the constellation of the heavenly bodies, the con- figuration of the surface of the Earth in a given place as it has been shaped by water and mountains, the access of favourable or unfavourable winds, all the active forces of the air and the earth, and finally the well-being of the souls of those who have passed away and of living human beings, all these are inseparably interrelated. It is necessary, therefore, to pay attention to this interrelationship when tombs or houses are built where man is to live and work. The geomancer must find places where the conditions exist for the right working of all these forces or where they can be created artificially."l The above statement reveals at least the follow— ing major facts regarding feng-shui: (l) Feng-shui is related to the concept of cosmology; (2) Feng-shui (literally, wind and water) deals primarily with wind and water in determining the environmental settlements; and (3) Man and Nature are inseparably interrelated. Viewed in terms of modern branches of knowledge, the sc0pe of fengfshui includes philosophy, psychology, -45- —46- sociology, aesthetics, anthropology, etc. For the purpose of this study, discussion will be concentrated on the cosmological and psychological aSpects of feng: shui to provide a philosophical background of the system. RELATIONSHIPS OF CH'I TO FENG-SHUI As noted in the preceding chapter, there is in the beginning one abstract principle, or monad, called the "Supreme Ultimte," which is the primordial cause of all existence. When it first moved, it produced the yang ghLi, the male principle. When it moved to its utmost, it rested, and in resting produced the yin ch'i, the female principle. In View of the abstract nature of ghii, it is by and large a symbolic rather than a concrete substance. It comes from man's unconscious rather than from con— sciousness. As noted by C. G. Jung, "Symbols were never devised consciously, but were always produced out of the unconscious by way of revelation or intuition."2 Psychic energy or hypothetical life—energy has been termed by C. G. Jung as "libido."3 The concept of life-energy is shown by the primitive idea of magical potency, regarded both as an objective force and as a subjective state of intensity. Many examples have been given by Jung, such as the concepts of -47- wakonda in India, nnnn in Melanasia, 32522 among North American Indians, and wnng of the Gold Coast.4 All of these concepts are, in one way or another, similar to the concept of 22;; in China. While C. G. Jung does not connect any sexuality with the definition of "libido,"5 the concept of Eflli does re- late to sexuality. For 92:; is composed of yin_and ynng. The gnli can be grouped into two categories? (1) the Celestial Breath (t'ien Ch'i), the energy of yang iden- tical with the Heaven; and (2) the Terrestial Breath (ti ch'i), the energy of yin_identical with the Earth. By the interaction of these two energies, life is created. The yin and ynng, alternately bearing sway in Nature and blending their influences together, are the cause of constant growth and decay, of life and death, of the annual rotation of production and destruction. Thus, Nature is looked upon by the Chinese people as a living organism. The inhaling and exhaling breath of Nature is supposed to have influence on the cosmic order and on human life. As to the breath that pervades human beings, the energies of Nature must sometimes be exhausted, and death is that which no man can avoid. However, certain places in the landscape are supposed to have "life breath" (sheng ch'i). As Kuo P'u noted in his Tsang Ching, "Burying is to catch the life breath."6 Potter also noted, "The pseudo-science of _48_ fengeshui is merely one involved method of capturing mana."7 Capture of the living breath, or mana, of the deceased will bring his descendants prosperity and happiness. Feng-shui holds that offspring can be showered with blessings from their ancestors because of the intangible interaction of EELi' provided that the latter's grave is located at the sacred spot which holds the living breath. This is probably the origin of the cult of ancestor worship. FENG-SHUI AND AN IMI SM The animal motif is usually symbolic of man's primitive and instinctual nature.8 Before conscious— ness is highly developed, primitive races "populate the world with a multitude of spiritual beings which are benevolent or malevolent to them, and attribute the causation of natural processes to these spirits and demons; they also consider that not only animals and plants, but inanimate things as well, are animated by them."9 This holds true in ancient China. Even today, the God of Gate (meng sheng), the Spirit (lung sheng), and the Spirit of Dragon (lung sheng) are famil- iar to Chinese children. Among the animals, four possess a special symbolic significance. They are the unicorn, phoenix, tortoise, and dragon. These four animals are believed to be the -49- "aids of the spirit of the Sage."10 Each is associated with a color and is situated at a given cardinal point. Man is in the center. "The world of man is a clearing marked off from the unknown on all four sides by sym- bols in animal form."11 This is the Han world-image, as illustrated by the title design in the Han dynasty exhibiting the said four animals (Fig. 5). South East 1 West ’\\v' \17fifir \‘/'\<} 23‘15?‘3§ECEFT ¢W3$%¥am ' North Fig. 5 Design on a Title During Han period, 206 B.C.-A.D. 220. _50- Reading the design in a clockwise manner, oriented to the south (in ancient China, south was located at the top of maps, where north appears today), there is first the Green Dragon of the East, which stands for the blue-green color of vegetation and represents the element of wood and the upreaching tree. Occupying the direction of the rising sun, it is also the symbol of spring. To the south is the Red Phoenix of summer and of fire at the zenith. Next, there is the west and the White Tiger of the metallic autumn, symbolic of weapons, war, executions, harvest, of fruitful conclu- sion and the calmness of twilight, of memory and regret, and of unalterable past mistakes. It is the end of the road, but not the end of the cycle, for a new beginning will come from the all-inclusive dark- ness of winter. Its position is the cold region of the north; its color, black; and its element, water. Picture here is Hsuan-wu, a snake coiling around a turtle, two hibernating reptiles forming a picture, behind man's back, of life preserved underground. Facing south, his feet firmly on the fifth ele- ment, the earth, is man. Via a negative approach — not knowing how high is up, how deep is down, and how far away is the end of the world in each direction - man fixes his position as equidistant from all sides; i.e., -51- as squarely in the middle. He is not represented by any picture, but his desire is expressed clearly in writing. Scattered inside the square world of man are these words: One thousand autumns and ten thousand years, Enduring happiness, never to end.12 The importance of the four animals rests upon the concept that they are representative of the Celestial Breath. For "no part of the soil can be fully impreg— nated with the beneficial influences of Heaven unless those four quarters operate upon it conjointly, that is to say, unless it be surrounded by mountains, bluffs, boulders or buildings, which can be identified with those symbolic animals."l3 Thus, the most beneficial location of graves and edifices must be a site upon which the four animals can be identified, symbolically oriented to each side of the graves or buildings. Among the four animals, the Dragon is the most important. "Capture of the Dragon" (hsun lung) is indeed the major task of the geomancers. Since the four animals are the symbols of the Celestial Breath, they are expressed by the "land forms" in nature (fining, or ti-moh, the pulse of the earth). The es- sence of feng-shui is the configuration of land forms and bodies of water. It is believed that "the wind may -52- disperse the 22;; in the earth and the gnLi, in a moving state, may rest in confrontation of the bodies of water."14 Chinese people experienced nature spontaneously as an animated organism. There is an intangible move- ment or rhythm in the earth which is the breath of the dragon or tiger flowing underground. This move- ment or rhythm can be conceived, but cannot be per- ceived. FENG-SHUI AND THE EIGHT TRIGRAMS To identify favorable sites for graves and edi- fices, a "diat-plat" (lo-pan) is employed by Enng: nnni professors. It is a circular piece of wood approximately ten inches in diameter, rounded at the bottom, with a magnetic needle in the center. Radi- ating from the center, there are a number of circular lines representing the principal factors that play a part in the art of fengfshui. The first (innermost) circle gives the Eight Trigrams. The Eight Trigrams are important in feng-shui, because each trigram has been associated with various meanings, as shown in Fig. 2 and Table l of Chapter One. Determination of the direction of a building, for ex- ample, should depend on the Eight Trigrams. Combined by the I Ching with a number of qualities, the trigrams -53- allow a wide play to the imaginative ingenuity of geomancers. FENG-SHUI AND THE FIVE ELEMENTS According to the Tsang Ching, the so-called "life breath" is nothing but the harmonious movement of the Five Elements. It should be remembered that the Five Elements, along with yin and yang, are the cosmic ener- gies. Again, according to the Tsang Ching, the purpose of feng-shui is "to identify a site which is able to keep the eight types of malicious winds from the earth and to hold the gnli of the Five Elements inside the earth." While the Five Elements have numerous relationships with other factors, such as yin-yang, the Eight Trigrams, cardinal points, etc., the major function of the Elements is in their relation to land forms. In feng-shui, land forms have been classified in five categories. Each ca- tegory is identical with one of the Five Elements, as shown in Fig. 6. In any given locality, it is all-important to determine whether the elements represented by the configurations of the ground form a harmonious con— junction. It would, for instance, be highly detri- mental if hills or boulders representing both fire and wood were in close proximity to graves or houses, as this would certainly render those houses liable to -54- frequent conflagration. However, based on the principle of hsiang—chih and hsing-hua, an unfavorable site could c.15- . _ 6 _,, . 7 Source; (Andrew L. March, "An Appreci- ation of Chinese Geomancy," Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 27, No. 2, Feb., 1968. be modified by changing the land forms. To serve this purpose, a number of methods could be applied, depending upon the judgment of the geomancers. Planting trees or erecting a pagoda at the strategic locations are typical solutions.15 FENG-SHUI AND ASTROLOGY In the theory of feng-shui, everything terrestrial has its prototype, its primordial cause, its ruling agen- cy in heaven. Some scholars tended to believe that the idea of the Five Elements were derived from the five planets (Venus, Jupiter, Mercury, Mars, and Saturn).16 The geomancers see the planets' counterpart on earth in ceaseless interchange and permutation of the Five Ele- ments (metal, wood, water, fire and earth). It is not uncommon in feng—shui literature to find the statement: "There are five Planets in the heaven, and there are Five Elements on the earth."17 It seems that the Chinese look upon heaven as the ideal type, of which the earth is but the coarse material reflex.18 -55.. Further, the geomancers believe that the planets correspond to certain parts of the earth and determine its fate. An axiom of their system is that “the stars of the Heavens above, and the configurations of the Earth beneath correspond with each other." This dogma arises directly from the great fundamental principle of both ancient and modern astrology; i.e., that every human affair has a star or asterism controlling it. As noted by De Groot in The Religion System of gning, the four animals previously discussed have each been subdivided into seven constellations, called gin. These twenty-eight groups are irregularly distributed over the sphere as it is visible in China. Hills and mountain ranges being the embodiment of the influence of the four animals, their several parts are deemed to stand each under the influence of a gin. In this manner, feng—shui is ingeniously combined with astrology. The reason for the interest in astronomy and astrology in relation to feng-shui is psychological. It is the existence of "classificatory thinking," or "associative thinking," combined with the belief in a "celestial-terrestrial parallelism."19 TIME AS AN ELEMENT IN FENG-SHUI The association of the four seasons with the Five -56- Elements and the Eight Trigrams have been noted before- hand. Also, the Chinese developed the system of ten "heavenly stems” (t‘ien‘k'an) and twelve "earthly branches" (Ei_gnin). The latter are associated with twelve animals and twelve months, as shown below: The Heavenly Stems ' The Earthly Branches l. chia l. inn - the rat — November 2. yi 2. 92:23.“ the cow - December 3. ping 3. yin - the tiger - January 4. Eing 4. mng - the hare - February 5. yn 5. ch'en - the dragon - March 6. gni 6. EEE - the serpent - April 7. kgng 7. EB - the horse - May 8. REES. 8. nni - the goat - June 9. inn 9. shen - the monkey - July 10. kuei lO. yn - the fowl - August 11. ngn - the dog - September 12. hai - the pig - October The combination of these cyclical signs in pairs, beginning with chia-tzu, and continuing until each stem has been combined with each branch, yields a total of sixty different combinations before chia-tzu, the first pair, reappears. Also, the single day is divided into twelve time periods, and each period corresponds with an earthly branch. The significance of the "heavenly stems" and the twelve "earthly branches" lies in the -57- fact that they are associated with the Five Elements: ‘ Five Elements Stems Branches Wood gnig, yi yin, mao, ch'en Fire 2.1.22: Lisa gas: We: 319.; Metal keng, hsin nngn, yn, nnn Water jen, kuei hai, tzu, ch'ou Earth nn, gni Since the Five Elements are also associated with four directions, and land forms, time and space are interrelated as well. In practice, there are many ex- amples of postponing the date of a building construc— tion merely because of feng-shui. SOME EXAMPLES OF THE INFLUENCE OF FENG-SHUI ON CITY FORM AND LOCATION Examples of the influence of feng-shui on the environmental settlement are ample. Many have already been touched upon in the discussion of the city of Chang-an. The examples given below are primarily for cities. A. The City of Peking: Peking is protected on the northwest by the Kin-shan or Golden Hills, which represent the Tiger and ensure the city's prosperity. These hills contain the sources of a felicitous water source, called Yuh-ho or Jude River, which enters Peking on the northwest and flows through the grounds at the back of the Imperial Palace, then accumulates its beneficial influences in three -53- large reservoirs (or lakes) dug on the west side, and finally flows past the front of the inner Palace. Its course is in perfect harmony with the principles of fengéshui. Also due to the feng-shui, the wall at the northwest corner of the city was cut for several feet in order to receive the bene- ficial breath of nature from the northwest. The City of Canton: According to Eitel's Feng— gnni, Canton enjoys a favorable situation because it is placed in the angle formed by two::hains of hills running in gentle curves towards the Bogue, where they almost meet each other, forming a horseshoe. The chain of hills known as the White Clouds represents the dragon, while the undulating ground on the other side of the river forms the white tiger. The most favorable site of Canton is therefore the ground near the north gates, while tiger and dragon run out to the right and left. Feng—Shui and City Design: There was a story in the Annals of the States of Wu and Yueh (composed approximately in the first century A.D.) illustrat- ing how the King Hoh LE established the state power by consulting with his minister Wu Tsze-su, who employed the feng-shui principles and accomplished the King's will. The text was translated by -59- De Groot in his The Religious System of China: "Hoh LB said (to his minister Wu Tszé-su, see page 349): 'In what does the art of ensuring peace to princes and good rule to their peOple consist?‘ The answer was: 'He who wishes to ensure peace to the prince, to have the people ruled in a proper way, to make strong govern- ment prevail, and to cause perfect rulers to bear sway from close by over those who live far off, he certainly ought to start by erect- ing city walls and moats, by appointing military chiefs, by filling the granaries and stores, and by properly attending to the arsenals: in this the art in question consists.‘ 'This is all very well and good,‘ retorted Hoh Lu; 'but, though in building fortifications, store-houses and arsenals we really take notice of what ought to be taken notice of with regard to the terrestrial influences, still there must exist in the domain of the Celestial Breath some fac- tors of which we may avail ourselves to keep neighboring kingdoms in fear and awe; is it not so?‘ -- 'Yes,‘ was the reply. 'I charge you to put those factors into practice,’ said Hoh Lfi. "Tszé—su now gave orders for the investigation of the ground and the examination of the water- courses, and, imitating the configurations of Heaven and Earth, he built a large city, forty- seven miles in circumference. It had eight land— gates in imitation of the eight winds of Heaven, and just as many water-gates corresponding to the eight good qualities of the Earth. He also built a smaller city (inside the other), ten miles in circumference. It had three land-gates; but that on the east (where light is born) was not opened, in order that the lustre and glory of the (ini- mical) realm of Yueh might be exterminated. The Gate of Effulgent Sunlight was built as a representator of the gate of the heavens, and to admit the winds of the Gates that are shut upon the Effulgent Sunlight; and they made also a Serpent Gate in imitation of the door of Earth. Desiring westward to defeat the kingdom of Ch'u, which was situated northwest from his, Hoh Lu had the Gate of Effulgent Sunlight built, to admit the Breath of the heavens; therefore, they called it also the Gate to defeat Ch'u. And as he desired to pacify eastward the kingdom of Yueh, which was situated to the southeast, he erected the Serpent -60- Gate, in order to subdue his hostile country. "Wu (Hoh Lfi's realm) being situated in Ch'en, which point of the compass corresponds to the Dragon, a pair of i—yao fishes with reversed fins were placed over the southern gate of the small city, to represent the horns of the Dra- gon. And Yueh being situated in Szé, a point of the compass corresponding to the Serpent, there was over the great south gate a wooden snake, stretched towards the north and pushing its head into the gate, thus indicating that Yueh belonged to Wu."20 THE GEOMANCER The Yin-Yang School of Chinese Philosophy finds its origin in the occultists, known as fang shih, or prac- titioners of occult arts.21 Geomancy is a profession classified as fang shih. Because of the importance in Chinese society of determining the location of buildings or graves, geo— mancers enjoyed unusual popularity in traditional China. Although the system of feng-shui has a pro- found philos0phical background, "scarcely any of them (the geomancers) have acquired their skill by profound and serious studies of the books written by the sages and philosophers of the nation."23 A geo- mancer, as a rule, learned to read and write at school; but for the rest, he largely acquired the knowledge of feng-shui from a professor who had adopted him as a disciple. -61- THE PSYCHOLOGY OF FENG-SHUI The system of feng:shui is, to be sure, based on Chinese philosophy -- particularly in relation to cos- mology. Eital says, "The history of the leading ideas and practices of feng-shui is the history of Chinese philosophy."24 Chinese philosophy is, as noted by Richard Welhelm, "Built on the premise that the cos- mos and man, in the final analysis, gbey the same law. Man is a microcosm and is not separated from the macrocosm by any fixed barriers. The very same laws rule for one as for the other, and from the one a way leads into other. The psyche and the cosmos are to each other like the inner world and the outer world. Therefore, man participates, but nature, in all cosmic events, and is inwardly as well as out- wardly interwoven with them."25 As mentioned before, the two cosmic forces, yin and yang, on which the fengrshui system is developed, originated from the sexual relationships of human beings. This type of psychic projection was termed by C. G. Jung as the "argument of correspondence."26 When the psychic energy of gnii is transferred into a physical form, such as a dragon or a tiger expressed by the land forms, the dragon or tiger is nothing but a symbol. _62_ The concept of feng—shui is shaped unconsciously. It develOps from intuition rather than postulation. As C. G. Jung says, "The transformation of libido through the symbol is a process that has been going on ever since the beginnings of humanity and continues still. Symbols were never devised consciously but were always produced out of the unconscious by way of revelation."27 In China, many physical objects (such as heaven and earth) are conceived in terms of ynng and yin, The human body is also thought to be activated by the interplay of two psychic structures: nnn, which belongs to the ynng_principle; and pin, which belongs to the yin principle. nnn can be translated as aminum, the male character in a woman's mind. Pin_is anima, the female character in a man's mind. The traditional Chinese people believe that at man's death, the nnn and pin are separated but still exist. The concept of immor- tality and the dualism of yin and ynng provide the foundation of the feng—shui system. Fengrshui is associated with the cult of ancestor worship. The Chinese character for the word "ancestor" is *5. (Enn). The left portion of this character j. means temple (ning). One of the meanings of the word "temple" in the Chinese language is “appearance" or "the place where the appearance of the ancestors has -63- exhibited."28 The archaic form of the character.{fl is E E], was written as 9 or 3 in oracle bones and archaic bronze.29 Thus, many scholars, such as Kuo Mo-jo (1919-) and B. Karlgren, have maintained that the hieroglyphic form of the character was originally phallic.30 Thus, the cult of ancestor worship and the concept of yin-yang illustrate the role of sexu- ality in the system of feng-shui. Sexuality is not merely instinct; it is an indisputably creative power that is not only the basic source of our individual lives, but a very serious factor in our psychic life as well.31 Belief in the immortality of human beings can be interpreted as "animation of human individual." In this conception, as Freud once noted, "Human beings have souls which can leave their habitation and enter into other beings; these souls are the bearers of spiritual acti- vities and are, to a certain extent, independent of the bodies."32 This concept is very close to the feng—shui of the Chinese mind. According to Freud, animism was natural and self— evident to primitive man; he knew how the things of the world were constituted and how he conceived himself to be. "We are therefore prepared to find that primitive man transfered the structure relations of his own psyche to the outer world."33 Animism "gives not -54- only the explanation of a single phenomenon, but makes it possible to comprehend the totality of the world from one point, as a continuity."34 Nature in the Chinese mind has been conceived as a unified and organic system. Man, as a living creature within the system, should be harmonious with nature. This is the underlying meaning of feng—shui. The motives which created fengjshui from its animistic origins can be recognized very easily. They are the wishes of man. In the final analysis, feng:shui is a psychic act to fulfill human desire. Thus, when De Groot says that feng-shui is "not generous, but selfish," he is correct in the psychological sense. CONCLUSION Feng-shui is a psychic process in search of a meaning. Unconsciously, the Chinese people applied a series of symbols (such as the Eight Trigrams) for self-protection and self-expression. The principle of yin-yang is nothing but a psychic projection. Through the equilibrium between the inside world and the outside world, man's conscious and unconscious mind achieved a state of balance. To maintain the integrity of nature, houses are built at a site in harmony with the built-in rhythm of nature, result- ing from the movement of gnii. Thus, the "intuition" of space is not a "reading" or apprehension of the -55- properties of objects, but, from the very beginning, an action performed on them.35 Many Western writers have typically been less kind to fengrshui. "A ridiculous caricature of sci- ence," "farrago of absurdities" (De Groot), and a "perverse application of physical and meterological knowledge,"36 are among the names that feng:shui has been called. The scoffers looked down upon feng:shui because it was based on superstition. However, the value of feng-shui should not be overlooked in terms of its psychological meanings. "In feng-shui, as in alchemy, a main purpose is to achieve certain results in the psyche, and, hence, material things are evaluated above all in terms of their psychological properties."37 One cannot make sense of it by regarding it as just a defective natural science, a king of superstitious fortune—telling, or an adjunct of social organization -- although it undoubt- edly does have all these aspects.38 If we admit that "any activity has to take place with a psychologically satisfactory frame," we will be able to appreciate more the psychic act of feng-shui. -66- Footnotes: 1E. A. Gutkind, Revolution of Environment (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., 1946), pp. 211-2. 2C. G. Jung, On the Nature of the Psyghe, translated by R. F. C. Hull (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969), p. 48. 3inig., p. 17. 4inig., p. 62. 5inig., p. 30. 6Kuo P'u, Tsang Ching (Hsing Chu, Taiwan: Ch'uang-yi Publishing Co., 1968), p. 81. 7Jack M. Potter, "Wind, Water, Bones and Souls: The Religious World of the Cantonese Peasant," Journal of Oriental Studies (Hong Kong University Press), Vol. VIII, No. 1, January, 1970, p. 151. 8Aniela Jaffe, "Symbolism in the Visual Arts," in Man and His Symbols, ed. by C. G. Jung, et. al., A Laurel ed. (New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1964), p. 237. 9Sigmund Freud, Totem and Taboo, translated by A. A. Brill, A Vintage Book (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1946), p. 99. loNeedham, gn. cit., p. 269. 11Nelson I. Wu, Chinese and India Architecture (New York: George Braziller, 1963), p. 11. 12Translated by Wu, Ibid., p. 12. 13J. J. M. De Groot, The Religious System of China (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1897), Vol. III, p. 949. l4Kuo P'u, gp. cit., p. 11. 15Juliet Bredon, Peking (Shanghai: Kelly & Walsh, Ltd., 1922), p. 315. 16Suetoshi Ikeda, 9n. cit., p. 304. -67- 17For a typical example, see Yang Yun-sung (T'ang dynasty), Ch'ing Nang Ching. 18Earnest J. Eital, Feng-Shui (London: Trubner & Co., 1873), P. 10. 19Wolfram Eberhard, "The Political Function of Astron— omy and Astronomers in Han China," in Chinese Thought & Institutions, ed. by John K. Fairbank, Phoenix edition. (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1967), p. 35. 20J. J. M. De Groot, gp. cit., pp. 985-6. 21Fung Yu-lan, A Short History of Chinese Philosophy, p. 129. 22John T. Howard, "Planning Is A Profession," Ameri— can Institute of Planners Journal, Vol. XX, No. 2, Spring, 1954, p. 58-59. 23J. J. M. De Groot, gp. cit., p. 1,011. 24Earnest J. Eital, gp. cit., p. 61 25Richard Wilhelm, The Secret of the Golden Flower, A Harvest Book (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1962), p. 11. 26C. G. Jung, Psyche and Symbols (Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Co., 1958), p. 250. 27C. G. Jung, On the Nature of the Psyche, p. 48. 28Shung-Sheng Ling, "Origin of the Ancestral Temple in China," Bulletin of the Institute of Ethnology (Taipei: Academia Sinica), Vol. 7, Spring, 1959, p. 177. 29;§;§,, p. 145. 3°;gig,, p. 178. 31C. G. Jung, On the Nature of the Psyche, p. 57. 32Sigmund Freud, gn. gin., p. 99. 33;§;§., p. 119. 34Ibid., p. 101. _68- 35J. Pigat & B. Inhelder, The Child's Conception of Space (London, 1956), p. 449. Adopted from Charistian Norberg-Schulz, Intentions In Architec- ture (Cambridge: The M. I. T. Press, 1965). 36George Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science (Baltimore, 1927), Vol. 1, p. 345. 37Andrew L. March, "An Appreciation of Chinese Geomancy," Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. XXVII, No. 2, February, 1968. 38Ibid. CHAPTER THREE CITY FORM AND COSMOLOGY This chapter will deal with the Chinese city form from the cosmological point of View. It is interest- ing to note that the people in traditional China believe that "the heaven is round, the earth is square." (T'ieneyuan ti-fan.) Created collectively and hardened into a fairly rigid form through gene- rations, the cosmic diagram, the square and the cir— cle, has exerted profound influence on city form. This chapter will examine the concept of t'ien-yuan ti-fan and its impact on the physical environment in traditional China. T'IEN-YUAN TI-FAN: THE CHINESE MANDALA A. The Cycle and the Square: Probably the earli- est literature recording the concept of t'ien- yuan ti-fan is the I Ching: "The Creative is heaven. It is round....It is father...The Recep- tive is the earth, the mother." The I Ching did not specify that the earth is square. However, the square-earth idea can be traced back as far as the second century before Christ to another Chi- nese classic, the Ta Tai Li Chi, a paragraph of which reads as follows: -59- -70- "Tseng Tzu said, "That to which Heaven gives birth has its head on the upper side; that to which Earth gives birth has its head on the under side. The former is called round, the latter is called square....The square is dark and the round bright. The bright radiates ch'i, therefore, there is light outside it. The dark imbibes ch'i, there- fore, there is light within it. Thus, it is that fire and the sun have an external brightness, while metal and water have an internal brightness. That which irradiates is active (shih), that which imbibes irra- diation is reactive (hua). Thus, the yang is active and the yin reactive."l Here, Tseng Tsu, the disciple of Confucius, not only introduced the idea of t'ienfiyuan ti-fan, but also related this concept to the principle of yin and ynn_. The square symbolizes the four cardinal points, four seasons, and the Four Emblems which are derived from the Two Forms (yin_and ynng). The square motif is an eXpression of man himself. As shown in the square-shaped "Han tile" design (Figure 4), with the four animals in the four directions, man is in the center. Similar examples regarding the four creatures at the cardinal points have been given by C. G. Jung in his article, "Concerning Mandala Symbolism," in nnnnnf types and the Collective Unconscious, 1959. Jung holds that "Animals generally signify the instinctive forces of the unconscious, which are brought into unity within the mandala. This integration of the instincts is a -71- prerequisite for individuation." (p. 366) The concept of "round heaven" was symbolized by the circle. The significance of the circle can be interpreted as (l) representation of ing or One; and (2) the symbol of the Self. 1. Circle as representation of Tao or One: Lao Tzu says, "Heaven and Earth and the ten thousand things are produced from Being; being is the product of Non- being." It can be assumed that for the universe to have come into being, there must exist an all-embrac- ing first principle, which is called Tao. The role of Tao in the cosmic order has also been noted by Lao Tzu: Tao produced the One. The One produced the two. The two produced the three. And the three produced the ten thousand things. The “One" can surely include everything. Tung Chung- shu termed it as "yuan" (origin). "Yfian is the root of all things, and it has man's own origin." Chuang Tzu says, The universe and I came into being together; I and everything are One.2 ‘ The great One is the term given to that which has nothing above it. It is the Supreme Ultimate, the void, the empty infinity without beginning, with— out end, without past and without future. The conception -72- of "Oneness" has been symbolized by_a circle. Chu Hsi says, "Principle is like a circle." 2. Circle as the Symbol of the Self: The ori- ginal meaning of mandala is "the ritual or magic cir- cle used in Lamaism and also in Tantric yoga as a yantra or aid to contemplation."3 The true mandala is always an inner image, which is gradually built up through "active imagination, at such times when psychic equlibrium is disturbed or when a thought cannot be founded and must be sought because it is not contained in holy doctrine."4 The mandala, reflecting man's mental image, is "metaphysical" in nature. "Unless everything deceives us, it signifies nothing less than a psychic centre of the personality not to be identi- fied with the ego."5 The center acts like a magnet on the disparate materials and processes of the unconscious and gradually captures them as in a crystal lattice. For this reason the center is often pictured as a Spi- der in its web (Fig. 7), especially when the conscious attitude is still dominated by fear of unconscious pro- cess."6 Thus, C. G. Jung called the center the "Self." The circular symbols of the magic dance, the crowned dragon, the Golden Flower, and the dream of a snake with its tail in its mouth are all examples of the man- dala motif.7 -73- Fig. 7 Maya, the eternal weaver of the illusory world of the senses, en- circled py the Uroboros. Source: Jung, Psychology And Alchemy, 19 , p. 08. As a psychic content, the image of roundness is found almost in every corner of the world. Recalling Chu Hsi's remark that "principle is like a circle," Van Gogh says, "Life is probably round."8 Joe Bousquet also says, "He had been told that life was beautiful. No! Life is round."9 And the concept of "center" and I I C ‘ 0 "round heaven" is also found in Rilke's Poemes francais: Tree always in the center Of all that surrounds it Tree feasting upon Heaven's great Dome. 10 Here, around a lone tree, which is the center of a world, the dome of the sky becomes round. This con- ception is not a question of observing, but of experi- encing being in its immediacy. It is a psychic projec- tion. "Images of full roundness help us to collect ourselves, permit us to confer an initial constitution on ourselves, and to confirm our being intimately, inside."11 The square and the circle, while they have their own meanings, are not separate entities. The imagi- native cosmic order can never be perfect without the -74- integration of heaven and earth, i. e., the cir- cle and the square. They are not in conflict but complement each other. The Mandala of "Three-heaven and Two-earth": It should become clear that the Supreme Ultimate is One, symbolized by the circle. The four Em- blems, four seasons, and four cardinal points are all derived from the One (the Supreme Ultimate). Then comes the squaring of the circle. This has been "one of the many archetypal motifs which . form the basic patterns of our dreams and fanta- sies."12 C. G. Jung called it the “archetype of wholeness."l3 As symbolized by the sixty-four hexagrams, all things are growing and decaying endlessly in the stream of the universe. It is a process of ceaseless evolution. The I Ching introduces this concept of evolution by designating a series of numbers as below: Heaven is one, earth is two; Heaven is three, earth is four; Heaven is five, earth is six; Heaven is seven; earth is eight; Heaven is nine, earth is ten. There are five heavenly numbers and five earthly numbers. The number for the heaven is odd, for the -75- earth is even. The continued interaction of heaven and earth may be symbolized by squaring the circle and then circling the square (Fig. 8). This is known to the Chinese as the mandala of "three-hea- ven and two-earth" (tsan—t'ien lian-ti). The reason for designating three circles and two squares is, according to K'ung Yung-ta (574-648), that "two is the even number; and three the beginning of odd num- ber." The One is not regarded as the beginning of __. _—._ '—— Fig. 8 Mandala of "three- heaven and two-earth" odd number, because "three" (heaven) is covering "two" (earth, and "two" covering "one" heaven).15 One is supreme over anything. One includes and is independent of all numbers. CITY FORM AND THE MANDALA -76- As Mircea Eliade says, "The chief difference between the man of the ancient and traditional socie- ties and the man of the modern societies with the strong imprint of Judaeo-Christianity lies in the fact that the former feels himself indissolubly connected with the Cosmos and the cosmic rhythm, whereas, the latter insists that he is connected only With History."15 The meanings of human acts in tra- ditional societies "are not connected with their crude physical datum but with their property of repro- ducing a primordial act, of repeating a mythical example."17 For traditional man, reality is a func- tion of the imitation of a celestial archetype.18 Eliade's theories, cited above, prove to be strik- ingly valid, when used to interpret Chinese city form in relation to the cosmic pattern, as reflected by the Chinese mandala. Most ancient Chinese cities are, like ancient Roman towns, walled in a square or rectangular shape. With the exceptions of the cities in southern China, "all important imperial capitals in Chinese history were of square or rectangular form symboliz- ing the miniature of the known world."19 It is per- fectly true when Gutkind says that "The rectangular form in general and the internal division by the main -78.. streets connecting the gates were conditioned by the conception of the Earth as a square and by the sym- bolism attached to the idea of a town and to its foundation."20 Also, William Willetts remarks, "Choice of the square was probably dictated by cosmological belief. Earth was thought of as square, and was worshiped by means of a square altar at sacrifices presided by the ruler."21 To illustrate the symbolic expression of cosmology through city form, the Cities of Peking and Chang—an, together with the "Ming T'ang" development, will be discussed below. 1. The City of Peking: Peking continued to be the seat of the capital of Liao, Yuan, Ming, and Ch'ing (Manchu) dynasties for nearly 1,000 years from the latter part of the tenth century. It shows all the characteristics of a Chinese town, from the magical symbolism to the bustling economic life of modern China.22 As shown in Fig. 9, Peking is a combination of square and rectangular shapes. It consists of five walled—in districts, three of which are enclosed con- centrically one within the other. The innermost part, the Forbidden City, is surrounded by a wall and a moat. Surrounding it as the next zone is the Imperial City, the old home of the lesser members of the Court K} l5 ‘r—f m‘x. v a V . ~ \ ‘3'“. {III-LII 51hr} gwthhflfluflm ”III“? LIIMIIIMUIID I... Eat? - Id Hutu-SI- I -.. . fl . I‘ll: IETrIIIHIVI. .IrnFIIE .voLIIOIL n. .m. Iv\ . 1...- III-II. II. .1... I. II r \ ‘\ III-{III .- Iv ,: III; III. I Q'I'DII It“: . k ..I . I I: ,. L I III-WI, WIN-e- LIIII Il!_IIIII IQIII. I. I- I III! IINI'II ¥ \ .8. 1‘ i. “‘9' #fi . “ I\\ t. _‘ . 3‘...\\\;II. a. \. . I - I I... I I.\\ I W - ,_ III- .I .I DIIIIIZIIIL [III-III j. . \ r--. T‘ ,1. Cm- 2 fa q- I description of the numbers.) -79- 1 [‘5‘ # 7‘-.. I I (gitj/‘ry “If '- .0 . .. .(‘thim 0“ ‘ q \ ' '2" (See next page for 9 Peking Plan Fig. Source: Willetts, Foundation of Chinese Art, p. 373. -80... Description of the Numbers in Figure 9 l. Te-sheng Gate 2. Bell Tower 3. Drum Tower 4. Hon Men (Gate) 5. Prospect Hill 6. San Ta Tien 7. Wu Men (Gate) 8. Central Park 9. Working People's palace of 10. T'ien—an Men Square Culture 11. Observatory 12. Ch'ien Gate 13. Temple of Agriculture 14. Temple of Heaven 15. An-ting Men (Gate) (bounded on the north by Hon men and on the south by T'ien—an Men, or the Gate of Heaven's Peace). Then comes the Tartar City with its lakes. The Chinese City adjoins on the south. The city walls have special meanings. According to the Chinese concept of cosmos, the reality of the universe is understood as the combination of "a six- sided world" (top, bottom, and four sides) plus the time glement: past, present and future. Chuang Tzu called this six-sided world "liu ho" (six-side enclo- sures). Thus, the Chinese universe is actually a cube. As this cube of a universe spins down the central axis of time, Chinese history unreels, the four seasons revolving with the Chinese cyclical calendar. There are good years and bad years, but the nation is forever the "Central Kingdom" -- which is, in fact, the -31- meaning of "China" in the Chinese language. The walls, in addition to other functions, reinforce the sense of space, denoting the central location of the city in the six-sided world. Examples of the "center" conception are abun- dant. Chuang Tzu's friend Hui Shih says, "I know the center of world; it is north of Yen and south of Yueh.“ Here Hui Shih implied that northern China was the center of the world. Aside from the “han title" design revealing man's location in the center of the world, the image of center has also been sym- bolized by the location of one of the Five Elements, earth, in the center. Eliade adds that "The capital of the perfect Chinese sovereign is located at the center Of the world."23 With the center concept in mind, the city of man was always walled to separate it from the outside world. In the Chinese mind, because of the situation at the center of the cosmos, the temple or the sacred city is always the meeting point of the three cosmic religions: heaven, earth, and hell. The center, then, is preeminently the zone of the sacred, the zone of absolute reality.24 The road leading to the center is a "difficult road.“25 The Forbidden City, abode of the Son of Heaven (T'ien Tzu), the Emperor, is not accessible to the common people. As shown in -82- Fig. 10, the access, which is "forbidden," is through a number of Gates. The area depicted in this figure is identical to the area of Numbers 6 to 12 in Figure 9. Although the actual height of the palace is not very striking, the length of the long southern avenue must be interpreted as height. The long avenue of approach from the south, with all the gates and yards, enhances the significance of each stage of procession to the Forbidden City. No matter how the natural ter- rain of China is formed, one always goes np to Peking (nnnng Peking). The psychological height of the For- bidden City is illustrated in Figure 11. The area depicted in this figure is identical with that of Fig- ure 10 from the bottom. The roof of the central square building, T'ai-ho Tien, on the top indicates a meeting point of the axis, a point leading to Heaven. T'ai- ho Tien, therefore, is the climax coming after a sequence of nine important doorways. The emperor's Audience Hall is, therefore, "high;" and we shall see how the height of heaven is expressed. Discussion of Peking in relation to cosmology would be incomplete without including the various altars in the city. In the ancient religions of China, the gods and spirits which were generally worshiped -33- *0...“ H“ 111.....1 DI -l. HIM! 473””... . rs .. .. flHII f u) t—. I _ . )1) ....1 1 . . I ... my. “truur—TH .w_1tt..tc_JL1:1:..h.1r1. 112...? 21.3:1 .-.._I—. mmm. Lug Cunt J. FF F.1LHHMI . . ImmmJE .4....1.I..b I1. ..111111111111 1,1,11- 1.3.1.33de 11.1.1111I1. - 1 with the front and rear courts of. the palace superimposed, Fig , 10 The Forbidden City and the ‘2' I W cm. IIM t a T... 1...“. n4... m V «In. m b t. Q .m of l’rking interpreted as volume. (shaded «MCI-l). P1 F1521 v Wu, Chinese And India Architecture, 1963. Source: -34- were divided into four classes: Shang-ti (the Supreme Being), Heavenly Gods, Earthly Gods, and Human Ghosts.26 Sacrifices were made to these supernatural beings either at a tan (raised platform, or alter) or a shag (level spot, or court). According to Professor Shun- sheng Lin, "Rank differentiation was mandatory in ancient China for the performance of sacrificial ritu- als; only the emperor and his princes were allowed to sacrifice to Shang—ti, Heavenly Gods, worldly deities, and Human Ghosts; and the sacrificial ritual for Shang- ti, in particular, had to be performed by the Son of Heaven, the emperor, himself. Naturally, the ancient tan's and shan's were built in the capital areas.27 The tag or shag provides spiritual relief to the city dwellers. As Sylvia Thrupp contends, when men first began to build cities, they were concerned with more than shelter, convenience, and defense. The tem- ples and alters of early cities were centers of commu- nication with a people's gods - centers in which kings and priest, with appropriate rituals, called upon the gods to favor and defend the city. From this cult func- tion of the city came the idea of “cosmicizing” the city's design, of making it a model and a symbol of an ordered universe.28 As shown in Fig. 12, the Temple of Heaven complex (No. 14 in Fig. 9) at the southeastern portion of -85- Peking is composed of the following structures, viewed from south to north: A. Yuan-Chiu Tan (commonly known as the Alter of Heaven). B. Huang-ch'iung Yu (the Imperial Firmament). C. Chi-nien Tien (the Hall of Annual Prayer, or the Temple of Heaven) on Chi-ku Tan. The tan and shan were unsheltered, and all sac- rifices were made in the Open.29 The openness of the Alter of Heaven is a typical example. The cir- cular structure of three tiers with a central plan (Fig. 13, identical with the southern squared por- tion in Fig. 12) does not belong to any courtyard, but is simply situated under heaven and on earth. As Nelson Wu remarks, "On this Alter man has no privacy from heaven and the roof is removed as if it were a hat from his head. There is a mute message in the rectangular plan with its northern end rounded off. The traditional idea of t'ien- yuan ti-fan (heaven round and earth square) is here a vertical volume sitting squarely on earth and terminating in the firmament of heaven."30 I The Alter of Heaven, the small intermediate building, and the Chi-nien Tien are therefore the humble efforts of man to arrange on a horizontal axis elements that should rise in succession one above the other, with the necessary gateways to heaven in between. -35- g”. '51-’55 .‘gcnhn: E‘V‘u u- ‘D b i'lj '1‘ ‘41’41‘1 . .mfih» . ‘1‘! grant .... ... ... TJ , Jkfifiu'SEfflfifirtfifif”:‘fllflflflfl am! View of the Altar of Heaven (as contained in Vol. 1. Pictorial "The Sacred Enclosures and Book of they»Various Rituals of Ching Dynasty). : Ling, Source dal Platforms of i 44. II p. Stepped Pyram Peking, -37- A divisional wall, separating north and south, sym— bolically separates above from below (Fig. 14). Significantly, this wall is semicircular, and there- fore may be interpreted as a semi-spherical dome which the passage to the Temple must penetrate. The glazed tiles roofing the Temple are the roof of the entire composition - the azure sky.31 The intermediate small buildings, the Huang- ch'iung Yfi, housed the tablets representing various gods and ancestors of the royal house. It is the inter— mediary station between earth and heaven, just as the ancestors and gods are perhaps the links between man and the mysterious energy of nature. In the ceiling of this small building, the square motif of earth is transformed into the circular motif of heaven as it progresses to the center (Fig. 15). The building is walled on three sides, excepting the entrance from the south, and the journey north is blocked —- for from here, the way leads heavenward. The temple of Heaven also has a domed ceiling inside its unusual three-tier roof construction. But here the circular motif in the middle rises above the dome leaving an "eye in the ceiling similar to that of the Pantheon in Rome. Man's physical passage -88- .N: .m =.m:1xom to wEHompmHm HchEOHhm cmddmpm one mohzmoaocm cohowm mes: .msdq “mohzom Anew-10 mo mocuuw macs-mm mo 35...:qu .v .75 E 352:8 93 29:3: uwm> of 3 :1”: of can c9182.? Humbug. eds-Wu 2:. m. $31 {$33 wmmsem33saeceeees II . 1,. 0...: ...-.1“... I...) .v’)!..ill..a§¢n.fl 1)-. ..I... .-\-If .3. r or. .'.I:.I'o.| (if? . . A... .. J . .1 . 1 ..... ..II.. IN In. u: .wwweamWW an... I. 1.. .0. u/(PJ ... 3 s \ ‘ . g Q 0‘ .II..\Hl-hl’..4~... .NHHUIJuI-Hle. ..n\\ul. A....‘A|WoH../;. ”Hi .%.0 | i . $M.nukl\~..o.l.u/fl... )NWAQVW‘Wfi . - An .. . . ....” afinfia a«.fl.§.§§aflfi1fl. G 1331§UI§3hfiuflfiadiddg . .nw 1......\,I..1 ... u....\.L-/....¥u.w...“-.11... 5. . .4.... WI wnmx‘lfih ...“...HAJVMJ» Trina ..th Yb nut ’ eff. HS flu..- .. h \ x I. C 1 A: I. l I . . r0 . 1 . 1...... ,c. C E .....- .. I. fl J 'p‘fi 1\ .7 ‘ I . \ A. .. II .../t ....\.Y r \ /./-,.p .I. Ix”..\ ... . .I/d . I\\5 1..\ /./,.... . . _. .‘l . v , ...w . ..Il. ..\ \ . i... a - - I \«I. ././I....- .. p. .. I.. /J z. 1. . . ..\ n 7.1. (1:\\ ) ... I...r Rut. _ . .p v .\ . ..I fr»... .1- 1 p .I 1 1 «.3. Q ......» ......w............ ..."... 4..... 3.15m gm! ...n- "51.! (i. ..I .r ‘ In Hm ....\_.1......_. ...... .1 ...... I.....m.l .. ..-w . . v ..1 1 ...f .4.. 7.1,.M/w ... r _ an . .. kn .........)/.. .... (w r... .. F 1 S‘mH)-.q4v~-.‘... .a...h\. r/L ... ”’11..th ......II-.. a ..a n :3. ...... 3. i . . 1 I 5V...“ . A 1 1 V ,J‘ I (‘ ..- .‘--‘_ ; ‘ ... .‘ Al_.‘A.. ‘ ‘M . 1* ““‘“‘4 m-‘fl-i‘—\*“ ...- "‘ J- r :_..;"‘\7 J.AN.v.:‘4-.’M r“ J‘zr «(IC- D.” {’l 5 .2 %:1 is; ' I ~ bviapo I; Lucy “I .. . ,m ..wwazamwN igxwg -89- ‘1‘ t am )3 ‘ *-~ . ‘ 71“} 'u \D ‘ '11 \I‘t :- . o / a. Q _, - :‘A'frl'.’ _ - «fifls ‘-.3 ~. - "19.." gimuu u‘r ...—__.. ‘11!!!" uwuufingiu.“ .,"- ‘2': :JEIT'I ‘11 m m 'Kiniflflim c u ' ' Wyml n “:21 Immmmnflmlfl fififlflfiififlfwfimflmfifififl Fig. 14 The Altar and the temple of Grain (as cpntamed in V0]. 3. Pictorial Bogkpf the Varioge Ritua‘ s of Ching Dynasty). Source: Ling, "The Sacred Enclosures and Stepped Pyramidal Platforms of Peking," p. 49- -90- J-vH raw-7 -.-r n KL: :- 3T, ( W/W % I. _ (A M!” . ‘I ’m “ - o I I \ ‘1’”; 9 ‘5 J I." a I! var” ‘O’ \ .‘il ’9'." 3.5.5. ‘ 5;! '1" ”fly! '. ’ ”"7; y; ‘ '7 a"? P=. .‘3 E». I. .4. ‘ ' . 1 WM 1. \ ’0 ”I I Ceiling of Huang-ch'iung Yu. Wu, Chinese And India Architecture, 1963. in the ceremony ends here, beneath it. He looks up and spiritually soars through the opening Whereas the Alter of Heaven is round, the Alter of Earth at the northeast side of An-ting Men (NUmber 15 in Fig. 9) in Peking is square in shape (Fig. 16) -91- .~O> Cm chmwuc ”P "n I! 0 15’3- ' rz'mrz‘x m . t .l I , 1‘ nu. 751.. I #313. I flhfilil'.”' an W V I LYLE 51. I I '71”. My? O .- 3' {mm $.56 {'5 Nimifnn [.. I- .1! J00! « durufl. v 8 we 5 1.... . . .. 14. .. v. -~r ~ - 1 l Imumflldn‘ ‘1." JINHQ’II.» ‘1H|ul :x" h_?'- 'W" . .- hi I .. q, x I" .1; ’l V," b m I. - mm ‘W. s)‘ 4:. ‘ ‘1 I . “'1. 71m { \ IA ’ "43?“. law 5 ,jfi/ 5'11! 3:" L" ’ ’.'l 1‘1“}le mm" ~31 . V ‘ HEY-r; --'.. d fig“ 9" 'nuu'nuq uh,” W-L “ 0"», .. v '1 j;v Al.” . . 9F. .;?,ir'/mmtfi_,1f_.._ .... ‘ - “13.“. ..l .jh“d| ’JE'J’ u -.. 9-- J A nit-u- , ,.,. _ mm}; _ . I , .v-wrv—xv, , ' ... - - ‘ at. -flV-f 33"."27Q‘v-v -—I x.)r—.__.- ‘ —-—'-—é~.4.fl ' l fillm‘fl ‘1-..~ -_ ._ ~ ,1, l . 2;‘_f 7.. .. ».« -.IP I.—. ., ,.-.. . ‘hu‘h:;‘r;-’fi: I. "A -— a... . __ "j I '— Pun-7L1"??— n ‘ I -' 'lth- { -92- As mentioned earlier, the earth was worshipped on a square altar with sacrifices presided over by the emperor. The graphics make it clear that the phy- sical form was an expression of idealogy (the man- dala motif). 2. The City of Chang-an: Chang-an is located by the Wei River in Shen-si province. It was founded in 1327 B. C. and was the capital of "Western Han," Sui and T'ang dynasties. As shown in Fig. 17, the location of the city has shifted over time. During the earlier period of Sui dynasty, Emperor Wu (for mystic reasons) decided to found the new capital at a site southeast of the old Chang-an. Fengeshui was one of the important factors. Astronomers were no doubt employed as well, to assure that the orientation of the new capital was attuned to the cosmic order. Recent excavations of the walls have shown that the north-south axis is only sixteen minutes west of true north.32 r’“’5" Fig. 17 [Marion o/varxbw part: of CI: ’ang-an 1. Han city 2. T’ang city _ 3. The Ta-mz'ug Palace of the T '01:: period 4. Impefz'al Park 5. Sim of the Min: and C/t’ing pm'od: ' Source: Boyd, Chinese Architecture And Town amms, , i 'p’ —-.-.._ . . -93- Changan -——{ N Forbidden l l Ta Ming P a r k Pa la ce . a . : "" '3 ~“' '3’ t r——-—¢ ,g- in . .I ‘ .. .. . . ."‘- . I ‘_l Hung L'h’mg I Palate.- li-jéi 1:ng ......... ‘gtiEjzj' Pa !l( -' I ‘ ~ . Q. . . v t . ‘ " ' ' 5.7 “J ' ". " ‘ , ' .’ ... ... I. ":2“, . . .. , . ,4. .t‘ ' ”‘H _‘I‘ . _ .' . ‘: "'rl .' .. - f . ‘ I. "\ M [-_ ...l [_ _ ._ . ' L I._#Il ' - ’I :: l a Svrpc-nfum- T—fl P’h——‘ 1 t I, ‘ Fig. 18 The original (ity plan as reconstructed from historical accounts and re- cent arrhcnlngital excavations. Adapted [mm [(7me 1963, No. l 1, Plate 1. Source: Wright, "Viewpoints on a City: Chang-an (583-904): Chinese Capital and Asian Cosmopolis," p. 19. -94- The Sui-T'ang Chang—an was 5.92 miles east and west, 5.27 miles north and south - fairly square in shape (Fig. 18). The division of the city into three main precincts - the outer city (with its 106 walled 33), the administrative (or the wards and two markets imperial) city, and the palace city — represents a logical development of ideas that had been common in northern China; The layout of the city, showing the grid street plan and the orientation to the four points of the compass, is a typical one in traditional Chinese city design. As a capital city, Chang-an has been symbolized as the center of the earth, as well as playing a lead— ing role throughout the empire as a political, cultu- ral, and socio-economic center. It is interesting to note that the square or rectangular shape and the north-south axiality of both Chang-an and Peking sym- bolize exactly the Chinese character "center," written as 5P (ch'ung) .34 The royal palace in the center dominates the whole city and, symbolically, the universe. The Son of Heaven, facing south in the great audience hall known as the ' Palace of the Supreme Ultimate (T'ai-chi Tien), domi— nates the bureaucrats working in their special precinct directly below him. -95- Tribute missions or returning provincials who entered the city through the monumental central gate, the Gate of Luminous Virtue (Min-te Men), in the south wall were subjected to a spatial dramatization of the powers that presided over the city and the empire. On both sides of the broad treelined avenue were the pop- ulous walled residential wards, then - to the right and left, the metropolitan temples of Buddhism and Taoism - centers of the state's control of these reli- gions. Then came the great gate that led into the main north-south street of the Imperial City. Then, passing out the north gate of the adminis— trative city, the traveler would pause before the impos- ing gate of the palace city - the "Gate of Acquies- cence to Heaven" (Ch'eng-t'ien Men). When the Gate swung open, the splendors of the great palace on its terraced foundations lay before him. "Here was the seat of earthly power and here was the center of the cosmos."35 The gate to the administrative city from the south is the Gate of Red Phoenix (Chu—ch'iao Men). The gate to the palace city from the north is called Hsuan-wu Men (Gate of the Black Serpent). The Red Phoenix and Black Serpent are among the four animals depicted on the "Han tile." The "Han tile" is a rigid and finite design. When circumstances permit, this image is readily translated into the classical city plan of -96- China, sometimes using the same animal symbols to name the gates at corresponding cardinal points. It manifests an intellectual order superimposed upon a natural terrain. The Sui-T'an Chang-an and its Japa- nese copies, Nara and Kyoto, together with many other traditional Chinese cities, are such expressions. The Han dynasty Chang-an was a makeshift capital (Fig. 16). The city was not a square or rectangular one because of irregular terrain. The high and steep terrace was made by shaping the top of a natural hill, such as the Dragon Head Hill for the Han palace. Accord— ing to the K'ai Kung Chi ( a "Code Book of Works”) in the Li Chi, the Han Chang-an had "three gates on each side... The Altar of Ancestor is to the left (east), and that of Earth, right (west). The court is held in front, and marketing is done in rearing," forming a Chinese mandala of nine squares with a man in the cen- 36 ter 3. The Ming T'ang Development Probably the most typical architectural design reflecting the Chinese mandala motif is a well-planned site founded in a recent excavation in the vicinity of the City of Sian.37 It is believed that the site was developed in the Han dynasty. As shown in Fig. 19, its central plan is -97- accentuated by a sequence of concentric circles and squares, as might be expec- ted. Circled by a moat, the square- shaped walls have four gates on each side. Within the walls there is another moat 195 feet in diameter. Surrounded by said moat, there are terraces and buildings in the four directions. {Hing T'ang 1’i-yung, Stan, early first century. A. Square terrace. [3. Circular terrace (195 feet in diameter). C. Square terrace (673 feet north-south, 676 feet east-west, about 5 feet 4 inches above ground level). a. central buildings. b. corner buildings, c. well. (I. gates, e. wall, and [. moat. 11 Fig:_l§ Plan of a Ming ETEEg“ih the” Han dynasty. Source: Wu, Chinese and India Architecture, 1963. -98— The use of the subject site is still uncer- tain. Some authors believed that it was a Minng'ang. According to Nelson Wu, a Ming T‘ang is a place where the emperor performed religious ceremonies for the state.38 As noted by Cammann, the Ming T‘ang usually had a square plan to resemble the earth, and it was covered by a circular roof to resemble the sky.39 It was also the emperor's living place. As Needham remarks, "In the proper pavilion of the Ming T'ang or Bright House, no less his dwelling place than the temple of the universe, the emperor, clad in the robes of color appropriate to the season, faced the proper direction, caused the musi- cal notes appropriate to the time to be sounded, and carried out all the other ritual acts which signified the unity of heaven and earth in the cosmic pattern."40 In the Chou dynasty, the Ming T'ang usually had five rooms (Fig. 20). Each room represents one of the Five Elements in accordance with the cardinal points. According to the 5:39 Kung Chi, the "wood room" was located at the .33 a a}? - l 39.- i’ ’9'L“il Fig. 20 l ’1 ' I r3 _ . | “‘“' 3' ‘ Source: p 5n" :UU 1 . UP“ a -- ’M "“}I?:..- Ming T'ang in the Chou dynasty Yi-tung Ch'ung- Tai, The History of Chinese Archi- tecture, p. 81. northeast corner, the "metal room" south- west, the "water room" northwest, and the "earth room" in the middle.42 The room in which the emperor resides corresponded with the Five Elements in relation to the four seasons. Accordingly, he lived in the room at the northeast corner in Spring, at the southeast in Summer, at the southwest in Autumn, at the northwest in Winter, and at the center in the last month of Summer.43 CONCLUSION The form of Chinese cities is a repetition of a divine model. The origin of the square or rectangular city form is by and large creditable to the concept that the earth is square. Cities were designed to reflect the cosmic pattern and the proper position of man in the uni- verse. They were miniature representations of the universe. -100- The symbol is not merely a means of expression. It creates an effect in its maker.44 Expressing man's inner self through the mandala motif, the making of a city form is a process of unconscious activities, Therefore, within the city‘s built-up space, there lies a hidden dimension which conveys a certain intan- gible meaning. The city is not merely a place of liv- ing and working but also a symbolic expression of psy- chic contents. In addition to performing socio—eco— nomic functions, cities should also be designed to meet man's psychological needs. -lOl- Footnotes: 1 Translated by Needham, Science and Civilization in China, Vol. II, p. 269. 2 Translated by Lin Yu-tang, The Wisdom of China and India (New York: Random House, 1942), p. 638. 3 C. G. Jung, "The Symbolism of the Mandala," in Psy- chology and Alchemy, The Collected Works of C. G. Jung, Vol. 12 (New York: Pantheon Books Inc., 1944), p. 91. 4 Ibid., p. 92. 5 Ibid., p. 94. 6 Ibid., pp. 209-210. 7 Cf. Richard Wilhelm, The Secret of the Golden Flower, Op. cit., and C. G. Jung, "The Symbolism of the Man- dala," op. cit. 8 Gaston Bachelard, The Poetics of Space, translated by Marla Jolas (Boston: Beacon Press, 1964), p. 323. 9 Ibid., p. 232. loIbid., p. 239. llIbid., p. 234. 12C. G. Jung, "Concerning Mandala Symbolism," in Arche- type and the Collective Unconscious, The Collected Works of C. G. Jung, Vol. 9 (New York: Pantheon Books Inc., 1959), p. 389. l3Ibid. 14Ch'ien Chi-p0, Chou-I Jai—Ti Chi-Ch'i Tou-Fa (Taipei: Commercial Book Co., 1967). p. 91. 15Ibid. 16Mircea Eliade, Cosmos and HiStOEXI translated by Willard R. Trask, A Harper Torchbook (New York: Harper & Row, 1959), p. vii. 17Ibid. -102- 18Ibid., p. 5. 19Chang Sen-dou, "Some Observations on the Morphology of Chinese Walled Cities," unpublished paper read in the 64th annual meeting of the Association of American Geography, 1969. 20Gutkind, Revolution of Environment, op. cit., p. 296. 21William Willetts, Foundation of Chinese Art (London: Themes & Hudson Ltdf] 1965), p. 362. 22Gutkind, op. cit., p. 321. 23Mircea Eliade, The Sacred and Profane, translated by Willard R. Trask: Harper Torchbook ed. (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1961), p. 39. 24Ibid., p. 17. 25Ibid., p. 18. 26Shung-sheng Ling, "The Sacred Enclosures and Stepped Pyramidal Platforms of Peking," Bulletinfiof the Insti- tute of Ethnology Academia Sinica (Taipei), No. 16, Autumn, 1963, p. 83. 27Ibid. 28Cf. Sylvia Thrupp, "The City as the Idea of Social . Order," in The Historian and the Cigy, ed. by Handlin and Burchard, (Cambridge: The M.I.T. Press, 1963), p. 121. 29Shung-sheng Ling, op. cit. 3ONelson Wu, Chinese and India Architecture, op. cit., p. 44. 3llbid. 32Arthur F. Wright, "Symbolism and Function," Journal of Asian Studies, Vol.24, No. 4, August 1965, p. 670. 33Arthur F. Wright, "Viewpoints on a City, Chang-an (583- 904): Chinese Capital and Asian Cosmopolis," Ventures, Vol. V, No. 1, Winter 1965, p. 17. -103- 34Cf. Lin Yutang, Mngountry and Mnyeople, rev. illus- trated ed., a John Day book (New York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1937), p. 315. 35Wright, "Symbolism and Function," op. cit., p. 672. 35Nelson Wu, op. cit., p. 37. 37Editorial Board of, Ch'ung-kuo Chien-chu Chien-shih (Peking: Ch'ung-kui Kung-yeh She, 1962), p. 35. 33Nelson Wu, op. cit., pp. 41, 45 and footnote 59 on page 119. 398chuyler Cammann, “Types of Symbols in Chinese Art," in Studies in Chinese Thought, ed. by Arthur Wright (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953), p. 199. 40Needham, Science and Civilization in China, Vol II, p. 287. 4J-Adopted from Shang Ping-ho, Li-tal She-huei Fengfsu Shih—wu Kao, 2nd printing (Taipei? Commercial Book Co., 196777 p. 157. 42Yi-tung Ch'ung-tai, The History of Chinese Architec- ture, translated by Cheng Ching-Chuan from Japanese to Chinese, 3rd printing (Taipei: Commercial Book Co., 1968), p. 83. 43Wilhelm, The Secret of the Golden Flower, 9p. cit., p. 102. CHAPTER FOUR HOUSING COMPOSITION AND COSMOLOGY Chinese people look at the universe not as a mechan- ical entity but as an orgasm endowed with moral ideals, as represented by 332° Modeling the heavenly moral ideal, man has shaped his living space to maintain congruent social order and to meet his psychological needs. THE MORAL ASPECT OF THE UNIVERSE The universe, seen in the light of Chinese wis- dom, is filled with the attribute of morality. The I Ching says: "One yin and one an constitute what is called Tao. That which 18 perpetuated by it is good. That which is completed by it is the individual nature (hsing). The benevolent see it and call it benevolence (jen). The wise see it and call it wisdom." The above statement is explained by Chiao Hsun (1763-1820) and Professor Fung Yu-lang. Chiao says, "That which is divided from Tao is called Fate (ming). That which is manifested in the individual is called his nature. The unity of Tao is divided so as to give completeness to the nature of individual man. The natures of all things are united so as to give completeness to the whole of Tao. One yin and one Yang are what make Tao never ending."l -lO4- -105- Human nature is expressed by acting in accord- ance with Tap, the universal principle. The nature of $22 and its relationship to man have been noted further by Professor Fung, "....The relation given here between Tag and the individual nature is exactly that of the Taoist between 239 and Tg_(morality). Tap is the all—embracing first principle through which all things are produced, and the natures of individual men and things are parts separated from this Tag. There is nothing evil produced by $39 and so the I Ching says: 'That which is perpetua- ted by it (Tgp) is good.‘ It is only after 232 sepa- rates that it becomes defined and gives completion to something, and, therefore, the 1 says: "That which is completed by it is the individual nature.”2 From the above it is seen that the universe in the Chinese mind is not a mechanical one but one endowed with moral Spirit. The significance of this concept lies in the fact that the cosmic moral ideal has been modeled by man. THE UNITY OF MAN AND UNIVERSE It is seen from the above that human nature is derived from Tao. Thus, the nature of man and the 'nature of the universe are virtually unified. Cheng -106- Hao (1032-1086) says, "The human—hearted man is one with heaven and earth and all the myriad things." Chang Tsai (1020-1077) also says, "The nature pertaining to Heaven exists in man precisely as the nature of water exists in ice. Although freezing and melting are different (states), the substance (thus frozen or melted) remains one and the same."3 He further remarks, "Ch'ien is called the father and k'un the mother. We, these tiny beings, are commingled in the midst of them. I, there- fore, am the substance that within the con- fines of Heaven and Earth, and my nature is that of two (two) commanders, Heaven and Earth. (All) people are my blood brothers, and (all) creatures are my companions."4 Here Chang not only emphasized the unity of man and universe, but also introduced the root of the Chinese concept that "all of the people within the four seas are my brothers." This concept —- that man and universe are -- one is reflected in housing as well as city development. We are clearly told the attitude we should take toward the universe and the creatures in it. Not only is the body a micro-cosmos, as reflected by the correspondence of the parts of the human body with aspects of nature, but also, man's individual nature is identical with that of the universe. The universe is one great stream of life, and one great benevolence; therefore, it is the men imbued with this -107- benevolence who are capable of achieving oneness with the universe. "All things are complete with us.“ (Mencius) "The universe is my mind, and my mind is the universe." (Lu Chiu-yuan) "Man is never set apart from the universe, and the universe is never set apart from man.” (Chu Hsi) "The excellence of the universe can be summed up in one word, namely, benevolence; the spirit of men can be equally summed up in one word, namely, benevolence." (Tai Chen) Underlying the concept of the unity of man and universe is the implication_that man should act accord- ing to the universal Tao. The Chinese way of being man is to strive to the utmost for the attainment of the supreme good in imitation of the cosmic splendour. This is very similar to the Indian religious idea, "Thus the gods do, thus men do."5 "The great men and sages, so inspiring to the Chinese people, are the most ideal personalities, being identical in attri- butes with Heaven and Earth, coextensive with the won- drous infiltration of $22, and conductive to the emi- nent deeds of universal love."6 In short, man and the universe in their common drift of life are so harmoniously interrelated that they take similar creative steps to arrive at the same destination. Human relationships are based on the unity of man and universe, and thus the Chinese family system has developed. -108- THE TRADITIONAL CHINESE FAMILY SYSTEM The family is the fundamental unit of society. The major Characteristics of the traditional Chinese family are: subordination -- of the individual to the group, the young to the aged, the living to the ances- tor (through ancestor worship), the wife to the husband, the daughter-in-law to the mother-in—law; emphasis on progneny -- not romantic love -- as the prime reason for marriage, with the resulting commitments of arranged mar— riage and (for the wealthy, not the poor) concubinage; intense family solidarity —- giving to the individual the psychological and economic security that comes through membership in a tightly-knit group, but at the same time leading to frequent nepotism or parasitism.7 Probably the most distinguishing characteristic of the traditional Chinese family system is the tremendous household size. It is not surprising to find a rich family house of fifty persons under a single roof.8 It should be noted that the joint family is achievable only by the upper class. The size of the family increased with the accumulation of wealth. Poverty and disease kept the families of the humbler villagers down to small numbers.9 In modern China, the average peasant household size rages from 4.9 to 7.6 individuals in twelve hsiens 10 (counties) of Fukien andthangtung Provinces. It is -lO9- found that the "limited" extended family is the common pattern in the rural areas and the "true" extended fam- ily is an urban trait. To understand better the Chinese family system, it is essential to note the ethics of social relationships which dictate the position of the individual in the fam- ily as well as in society. Traditional Chinese society was organized with what were known as the five social relationships. They were those between sovereign and subject, father and son, hus- band and wife, elder and younger brother, and friend and friend. Each relationship was governed by a moral prin- ciple. As Mencius says, "Father and son should love each other. Sovereign and subject should be just to each other. Husband and wife should distinguish their respec- tive spheres. Elder and younger brothers should have a sense of precedence. Between friends there should be good faith." These relationships and the moral prin- ciples governing them were considered as "the duties of universal obligation" (the Doctrine of Mean) which should be followed by all men. Of these five social relationships, three are fam- ily relationships. The remaining two, the relatipnships between sovereign and subjects and between friends, though -110- not family relationships, can be conceived in terms of family. The relationship between sovereign and subject can be conceived of in terms of that between father and son. The relationship between friends can be conceived in terms of that between brothers. Indeed, this is the way in which the Chinese people usually con- ceive these relationships. According to Tung Ch'ung-shu (c. l79-c. 104 B. C.), all things are correlated. The yin is the correla— tive of the ynng, the wife of the husband, the son of the father, the subject of the ruler. There is nothing that does not have such correlates, and in each such correlation there is the yin and ynng, Thus, the rela- tionships between ruler and subject, father and son, and husband and wife, are all derived from the principles of the yin and ynng. The ruler is ynng, the subject yin; the father is ynng, the son yin; the husband is ynng, the wife yin. Thus, Tung concluded, "The regu- lations for love, righteousness, and social institutions are wholly derived from Heaven."11 Man's imitation of the cosmic pattern can be best examplified by the conception of marriage as the union of heaven and earth. Eliade says, "Marriage rites, too, have a divine model, and human marriage reproduces the -lll- hierogamy, more especially the union of heaven and earth." "I am Heaven," says the Indian husband, "thou art Earth."12 Similarly, the old Chinese saying goes: Heaven and Earth are the great husband and wife; Husband and wife are the small Heaven and Earth. Marital union is a rite integrated with the cosmic rhythm and validated by that integration.13 Marriage is a repetition of the union of Heaven and Earth. According to the Chinese tradition, one of the rites during the wedding ceremony is to "worship Hea- ven and Earth" (pei-t'ien-ti). Unlike the Western cus- tom, the traditional Chinese wedding ceremony takes place in the bridegroom's own home (gnin), instead of the church. Cnin, literally translated as "family," is not merely a place to live -- it is also a place for wor- ship of the gods and ancestors. "The dual quality of the house, as a setting for ceremony and as a home, is a most important characteristic of the house as an image of human relationship."14 In this sense, the traditional Chinese people are living in the cosmos and are Open to the world. This means (1) that they are in communication with the gods; and (2) that they share in the sanctity of the world. The dwelling is a microcosm.15 The universe comes to inhabit man's house.l6 -112— HOUSING COMPOSITION IN TRADITIONAL CHINA The traditional Chinese family system is governed by the five social relationships which are believed to correSpond with the cosmic order. Following these so- cial relationships is called ii (obeying social norms). The essence of ii is to humble oneself in order to honor others. The use of ii is, therefore, "to assure security. Li-lessness meansdanger."l7 ii is inte- grated into the physical housing design, and, thus, the housing composition reflects these human rela- tionships. Our discussion will he proceeded by a description of housing composition in the following areas: (1) Taipei, Taiwan; (2) Peking; and (3) Fukien and Kwang- tung Province. The sc0pe of research has been limited to domestic dwellings. A. Housing Design in Taipei, Taiwan: Discussion of the housing composition in Taipei, Taiwan is based on Lin Heng-tao's article, "Old Mansions of Taipei City."18 Unless noted otherwise, the data used are cited from said article. The traditional housing composition in Taipei has been in a uniform pattern which disregards the social status of the dwellers. The basic features can be summarized as follows: -1l3- 1. Shape: square or rectangular 2. Orientation: face to the south 3. Proportion: symmetry 4. Story: flat It is seen that the Chinese peOple are particular— ly in favor of the south. Both the emperor's pal- ace and the domestic dwellings are predominantly orientated to this direction. In addition to the physical advantages of weather, there are psycholo- gical factors. In the sixty-four hexagrams, the south is symbolized by the hexagram iaz;g . According to the I Ching, "Its omen is a mare, symbolizing advan- tage. The superior man has an objective and sets forth to gain it. At first he goes astray, but later finds his bearings. It is advantageous to gain friends in the west and the south, but friends in the east and the north will be lost to us. Peace- ful and righteous persistence brings good fortune."19 The basic floor plan in Taipei is the three— room dwelling. This type of house is called chen- sheng (main body, principal building) or tsan-chien- chi (three—room dwelling). As shown in Fig. 21, the room in the center is the main hall (chen—t'ing), which serves as a living room. Ancestor worship also takes place here. The room to the right side -ll4- is called ta-fang (first chamber), which is occupied by the head of the family. The room to the left is called erh—fang (second chamber), which is occupied by younger members of the family. If the living space is not enough for the family, two wings, which are called wu-chien-chi (five-room dwelling) are added to the main building, a shape shown in Fig. 22. The newly added wings at each side of the main building are called hsiang-fang or hu-lung (safeguarding dragons). Usually, the par- ents live in the main building, and the sons and their wives live in the "safeguarding dragon." Again, the older brother and his wife live in the right side of the "safeguarding, and the younger brother in the left side. Between the "safeguarding dragon" there is a yard called ta-cheng, which is used for children's recreation, family gatherings (especially during summer evenings), and exposing agriculatural products to the sun. If the family can afford to erect fences in the front, the entrance gate will be in the middle leading to the main hall. The yard, surrounded by the buildings, creates a "socio-petal space"20 to encourage the social interaction of family members. If further living space is needed, additional -115- 1* rat )5 Fig. 21 Three-room dwelling ii 7< . in Taipei 71‘ x :. l X p: l3 1% SI :‘ 11' X ' ‘ m ', ”i Fig. 22 Five—room : as dwelling . U.“ - __ in Taipei ( GATE. ) buildings are added to, and, in certain instances, are separated from the "safeguarding dragon." These buildings are called wei-hu (outer safeguards), and are usually occupied by the younger generations of the family, the family's remote relatives, or the domestic servants. The Chou's mansion at Hsing-yi Road, Taipei, as shown in Fig. 23, is a typical ex- ample of this type of dwelling. At the back of the house there are hills and forests. In the front there is a road at a reasonable distance. Further additions to the wei—hu are illustrated in Fig. 24, showing the Lin's mansion at Ta-an Ward, Taipei. This is rather a complicated housing compo- sition. The three small courtyards surrounded by the buildings are called Heaven's wells (t'ien- ching). The room in front of the courtyard in the o , .0. . . ‘ . v. '. - 8' A ' " :, ' ' '.' 0'-.. | , ' 1’ _ ‘ I T" J ‘ \ V. _I '1‘. O‘.' . ' ‘. .. ‘. ‘$“..I '.. . "‘flz‘fi' r9, ”$37.." \, /[~.” II“ ut“‘$\‘ ' H\\H\.\w »: ‘. v. , -'$-; )1, .471?" 4/ I I t I " t. I v " ‘ E»),- K ’ O .' 7‘ . c .‘ . Q, ', ’7 77 WZ-V . /4/ M. - ;. .. I ‘ e ‘4; ' 4.3452. ' ' i avific ’fli} ". . " " / /.'. . : 433' f’ ."WEE/ “9° 23 ’/ 2% :5;#'g / v".' ‘ . 41$ 2,¢ . _,§?.£ Chou's man31on 4%;g: g' 2 in Taipei ”Mfg“ middle of the building is the front hall (ch'ien- tien), and the room at the back of the courtyard is the rear hall (hou-tien). The quarters between the courtyard are "safeguarding dragons," and the quarters to the left and right sides of the court- yards are all the "outer safeguards." A pond is in front of the house. Theoretically, the number of courtyards one could have, and the accompanying sense of privacy, was determined by one's status. Sitting in his hall and facing his courtyard, the Heaven's well, the Chinese sees beyond his walls. Through the courtyard he is emotionally able to communicate with the outside world, the unbounded universe. -117- It appears that the courtyard is the window of the soul, through which the unification of man and uni- verse is realized. qa‘: Fig. 24 Se Lin's mansion ‘F in Taipei H! 11 71 UL ifl Separation of the front and the rear halls by the courtyard echoes the distinction between re- spect and intimacy in Chinese etiquette. The honored guest is received with great respect in the rear hall facing the main courtyard; but the private quarters of the house where the family dwells is beyond, and only intimate guests and relatives may enter there. Housing Design in Peking: The residential layout in Peking is essentially similar to that in Taipei: a walled enclosure composed of one or more court- yards. A typical dwelling plan is called tze-ho- yuan (four-side-enclosre-court). As shown in Fig. 25, kitchen and servant's quarters are in the front. -118- The entrance gate is usually at the right side corner. The entrance always has some form of screen on the inside for privacy. As noted by Lin Yutang: "No Chinese mansion allows an outsider to look through the iron gates at a long drive, for that would be against the prin- ciple of concealment. Facing the gate, we see perhaps a small courtyard or a mound giving no idea whatever of the expansive- ness of space inside, and leading one step by step into new and bigger views, in a continued series of surprises and astonish- ments. For we wish to show the small in the large, and show the large in the small."21 The quarters for the younger generations of the family are at the side suites. The parents' suite is on the north. Again, whether guests are received in the front or rear room depends greatly upon the intimacy of the guests to the family. The long guestroom or reception hall which separates the two courtyards marks a defi— nite division between the other half of the house, where acquaintances come and parties are held, from the inner hall, where only relatives and intimate friends are welcome. The most private places in this very private house are the two little Open-air courts surrounded by high walls, one at either end of this main suite. One may be the special retreat of the father, and -ll9- stnltt' . - . . . ...VI .) ' O . J -, r a .- V. ‘ 3'; i ' i I PAIFNTI' SPITI ‘1 ..... é ...... 3----.' u I Il--——:ll , u' t I I ['il 4 I .-...-3-..... . are. .... u 3" I! E: 3 2 ' . 1 1 .1 fig i d l t 4 .pqh. I, ., :' I #- 1 . 2. u '._ ' 5- y Iouzs'r' *W‘ P‘A I ' r: FLT—PI £59: _ ' Tram“ “9 “Tm-n . .... . - -- ‘ 3 o '0 10 I: T M rm " . . I ' ” Kifcurn SIRVAN‘s a FT . , : Tj’ ' . A ...J... v Fig. 25 Plan of a typical Peking house Source: Boyd, Chinese Archi- tecture and Town. -120- the other may be for the gathering of the female members of the family. The sequence of courtyards from the south to the north yields a depth of space, Usually, the principal building on the north (the parents' suite) is higher than the rest of the buildings. Like the city design of Peking, people always go up the the principal building on the north, which yields a dramatic climax when one enters there. Ke-ChiaKs Housing Composition in Fukien and Kwangtung Provinces: The Ke-Chia people in Fukien and Kwangtung Provinces in southern China migrated to these areas from central China at various times from the third century onwards. Because of their hostile reception by the local people, they developed a tradition of living in collective, large-walled, often multi-story, communal buildings. The circular plan is the most population shape of these communal buildings. The example discussed below is a house located in Jung—ting Hsien, Fukien Province. As shown in Fig. 26, the circular house con- sists of a four-story ring block. There is a cir- cular courtyard in the center, and four small square yards at each side. The ground floor is fluuxun ixwunum Caouup _ noon fitfit§$£9fi$~+aaa¥na * .—\—_._ ...—‘_._._ Fig. 26 A Circular House in Fu- kien Province 8 Source: Ch'ungjkuo Chien-chu Chien-shih,fll962. -122- mainly for guest reception, storage, kitchen, etc. The smaller out—building contains privies. Living-rooms and bedrooms are on the upper (third and fourth) floors. The second floor is mainly for food storage. CONCLUSION The houses in Taipei and Peking are predominantly square or rectangular in shape, and the Ke-chia's house in Fukien and Kwangtung Provinces are charac- terized by a circular plan. Similar to the city form, the housing design has also been dominated by the mandala motif -- both round and square. To a certain extent, there is a similarity between the building form and city form, for both the house and the city are the extension of man.23 Both the city and the house are the same cultural object manifesting man's inner feelings. Modeling the cosmic pattern, the Chinese is neither living in his own house nor the city; he is living in the cosmos. By so doing, he is always able to attain emotional comfort by identi- fying his inner world with the outside world. Chinese houses are more than shelters serving physiological needs. The physical design of the houses allows the expression of human relationships and social norms, and thus attempts to meet man's psychological needs. -123- As seen from the housing composition in Taipei, additional buildings can be erected any time without destroying any parts of the original structure. The new buildings are always complementary, never con— flicting, to the original ones. This illustrates the flexible and dynamic nature of the Chinese hous- ing design. -124- Footnotes: lFung, The Histopy of Chinese Philosgphy, Vol. I, 1952, p. 384. 21bid. 3Fung, The History of Chinese Philosophy, Vol. II, p. 490. 4Ibid., p. 493. 5Eliade, Cosmos and Histopy, p. 21. 6Thomas H. Fang, The Chinese View of Life (Hong Kong: The Union Press, 1957), pp. 150-1. 7Derk Bodde, China's Cultural Tradition, pp. cit. 8Sideon Sjoberg, The Preindustrial City (New York: The Free Press), p. 157. 9Maurice Freedman, Chinese Lineage and Society (London: The Athlone Press, 1966), p. 43. loMaurice Freedman, Lineage Organization in Southeastern China (London: The Athlone Press, 1958), p. 19. llFung, The Histopy of Chinese Philosophy, Vol. II, p. 43. 12Eliade, Cosmos and History, p. 23. l3Ibid., p. 25. l4Wu, Chinese and Indian Architecture, p. 172. 15Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane, p. 172. 16Gaston Bachelard, The Poetics of Space, p. 51. l7Wu, pp, cit., p. 33. 18Lin Heng—tao, "Old Mansions of Taipei City," Taipei Wen Hsien, Journal of Local History Research of Taipei City, Vol. III, 1963. 19John Blofeld (tr.), I Ching (New York: E. P. Dutton Co., 1968), p. 90. -125- 20Edward T. Hall, The Hidden Dimension (Garden City: Doubleday & Co., 1966), p. 96. 21Lin Yutang, My Country and My People, p. 332. 22Andrew Boyd, Chinese Architecture and Town Planning, 1500 B.C.-A.D. 1911 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1962), p. 82. 23Marshall McLuhan, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (New York: The New Library, 1963), p. 117. CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION The following has been show in the previous analy- sis of cosmological influences on the environmental settlement in traditional China: - There is a close relationship of man, forms and cosmology; - The Chinese people live in harmony with nature; - The city and building forms are charac- terized by their symbolic expression of inner life. MAN-FORM-COSMOLOGY RELATIONSHIPS As with Plato, Dante, Thomas Aquinas, and other philosophers of Western culture, the universe in the Chinese mind is regarded as more than a mechanical entity, subject to casual and physical laws. Rather, the universe is endowed with moral qualities. Inn is the natural law that governs everything. As Lao-tzu says: Man models himself after the Earth The Earth models itself after Heaven The Heaven models itself after Tao Tao models itself after Nature. The above saying implies that the cosmos and man are obeying the same law. Heaven is a divine model for human conduct. Man is only repetition of the Creation. -126- -127- To the Chinese people, man is the universe in mini- ature; man is the microcosm, Nature the macrocosm. Man creates an image of the universe according to his image of his own nature, as illustrated by the principle of yin and yang, corresponding to the union of man and woman. Once this image is formed, he shapes his living environment in accordance with his image of the cosmos, as illustrated by the city forms corresponding to the concept of "heaven round, earth square." The relationships of man, cosmology, and the physical forms are shown in Fig. 27. Their mutual influences are stated below: A. Man-Cosmology Relationships: Mental Man Influences Cosmology: The human mind is imposed with the image of cosmos; cos- mology is a reflection of man's inner feelings. Cosmology Influences Man: The cosmos models human actions as relfected by the building of cities as microcosms. The word "mental" in Fig. 27 denotes that man—cosmology relationships result from man's consciousness. -128- B. Man-Form Relationships: Social Man Influences Form: Man creates form in accordance with his own conceptions, including the image of cosmos. Form Influences Man: Forms are made to meet man's psychological needs as well as physiological needs. The word "social" in Fig. 27 denotes that man—form relationships are established through social institutions. C. Form—Cosmology Relationships: Symbolic Form Influences Cosmology: Forms are analogous to the cosmic pattern. Cosmology Influences Form: Cosmos is symbolized by form. Their relation— ships are "symbolic" because they are abstract representations of man's mentality. The idea of the physical universe as a symbol for human society has had a great influence upon human behavior; because, at every moment of history, man has an individual picture of the universe; prac— tically, the complete chain of reasoning is not con- . . 1 scious to man when he has to make a deCiSion. -129- CMMOLOGY FORM A syMa-ouc Fig. 27 Man-Cosmology-Formi Relationships —130- THE UNITY OF MAN AND NATURE A. The Chinese View of Nature From the previous chapters the following man- nature relationships have been demonstrated: 1. Heaven (denoting nature) and man are one. 2. The human body is identical with the non- human world. 3. From the standpoint of feng-shui, nature is organic, possessing gnii, the cosmic force. 4. Man and nature are in perfect harmony. Generally speaking, "The cosmos is Heaven, Earth, and Man. Man is in it and of it."2 To an observer, the landscape is more than nnn there, and he enjoys it. His appreciation of the landscape is cosmological. For him, the viewer and the viewed interact. Through the landscape he finds comfort and contentment in its beauty. Ideally, the landscape affects him directly, making him feel relaxed and confident. Man is in nature. Thus, Maurice Freedman remarks that the Chinese people "are asserting a human response to forces working in the cosmos.“3 -131- The Chinese view of nature can best be expressed by paintings. Painting may serve as an “unspoken language." The Chinese people believe that man has to be "put in his place," and he is always put in place against nature's background.4 This is why Chinese landscape artists always paint the human fig- ure so small. With the cosmic spirit in mind, the Chinese people "live in heaven and earth as in home." As Yuan Tsi (210-263) asserted, "The Chinese land- scape painters, unlike the Western painters applying the law of perSpective,"5 always tried to express the rhythm of life and attempted to eXpress the unique quality of a place. According to Chiang Yee, "rhythm" denotes "nothing disturbing or extraneous. It is the power which we feel keeps nature working in fullness, unity, and balance. Man, in such an environment, becomes diminished to the proportions Of one live creature among all the host of nature."6 It can be said that the Chinese peOple are prone to see what lies behind their eyes rather than what appears before them. i The feeling for this rhythm of life in nature has a cultural background. Confucius expressed his belief about nature in his famous and typically moral -l32- saying, "The wise take pleasure in rivers and lakes, the virtuous in mountains." Lao Tzu, at the time of social disorder, urged every individual to go back to the original natural state of being by following the principle of wu-wei; or non-action, or non-inter- ference. An essential point of wu-wei is "not chang— ing of man-made things and of Nature,"11 for "nature does nothing, yet everything is done."7 Taoism im- poses upon its believers the obligation to see life whole, and to understand the balance in the relations of living things with one another, which constitutes the rhythm of life. According to Lao Tzu, it is the eternal or uni- versal law responsible for the rhythm of life in nature. He says: He who knows the Eternal Law is tolerant; Being tolerant, he is impartial; Being impartial, he is kingly;8 Being kingly, he is in accord with Nature; Being in accord with Nature, he is in accord with Tao; Being in accord with Tag, he is eternal. And his whole life is preserved from harm.9 As mentioned earlier, Lao Tzu says, "Tao models itself after nature." In other words, to identify oneself with Tao is to identify oneself with nature. The Chinese love of nature thus differs from the Western love of nature in that its aim is identification -l33- with her, not imitation or "conquest" of her. And to identify oneself with nature is to find one's own place in the rhythm and, thus, preserve the integrity of one's being and the complete freedom of the soul. To give sense of living in nature, Chinese gardens and architecture always remain in harmony with nature. As Lin Yutang says, "The best archi- tecture is that which loses itself in the natural' landscape and becomes one with it, belongs to it... and is that in which we are not made to feel where nature ends and where art begins."lo B. Dissociation of the Modern Western Man with Nature While the people in traditional China sharpened their sense of place-possibility and discovered some of the joys in nature, it seems that mod— ern Western men have moved in the other direc- tion: conquest of nature. With the advent of machine and increasing improvement of technolo- gy since the nineteenth century, the urban land— scape has grown beyond human scale, and the natural environment has become polluted. This violation of nature has resulted in physical disorder, and the ecological balance of man -134- and his environment has been destroyed. Lewis Mumford's lament about the urban en- vironment thirty years ago is still valid today, "As the pavement spreads, nature is pushed farther away...the rhythm of the seasons disappeared...millions of people grow up in this metropolitan milieu who know no other environment that the city streets."11 C. G. Jung also complained, "Our present lives are dominated by the goddess Reason, who is our greatest and most tragic illusion. By the aid of reason, so we assure ourselves, we have conquered nature."12 Modern man attempts to conquer nature and has freed himself from "superstition," but "in the pro— cess he has lost his spiritual values to a positively dangerous degree. His moral and spiritual tradition has disintegrated, and he is now paying the price for this break-up in world-wide disorientation and dissociation."13 As scientific understanding has grown our world has become dehumanized. Man feels himself iso- lated in the cosmos because he is no longer in- volved in nature and has lost his emotional "unconscious identity" with natural phenomena.14 —l35- Biological studies lead to the belief that man can not really master the environment. Rene J. Dubos, a microbiologist, points out that ancient man naturally lived in intimate contact with nature, and his activities were therefore governed by natural rhythms, such as the daily change from light to darkness and the recurrence cf the seasons. As a result, his body and mental functions exhibited diunal, lunar, and seasonal cycles linked to those of the cosmic order.15 Dubos contends that "man retains many biolo— gical and mental characteristics of his remote ancestors."16 Thus, the biological cycles be- come inextricably woven in the human fabric during evolutionary times, and they still link modern man to cosmic events. The dissociation of modern life from the natural cycle is likely to exert deleterious effects on the human or- ganism. In fact, man is likely to suffer from many of the new environmental forces he has set in motion because he has not encountered them in his evolutionary past.l7 -136- Remedies to the Modern Society Disasters caused by man's interference with nature have posed great challenges to today's society. It is imperative for urban planners to exert every effort to determine what con- stitutes a balanced and self-renewing environ— ment, containing all the ingredients neces- sary for man's biological prosperity, so- cial cooperation, and spiritual stimulation. Aware of the unbalanced ecological process between man and his environment, planners have started to attack the problem by con— scientious design in accordance with nature and the ecosystem.18 There is no doubt that.m0dern technology will be able to provide useful tools to attack the disasters mankind faces today. However, any physical approach -- even with the aid of computers —— can only cure the urban di- sease superficially. The root of the problem of man's interference with nature 13 spiri- tual rather than physical. In other words, the fundamental problem in today's Western society is not merely whether we can use our knowledge, but how people eel about nature. Man's decision either to conquer nature or -137- to live in it is a matter of attitude, a state of mind, or a value judgment. For the betterment of urban life, a change of attitude and revival of the spirit of naturalism would be more important than mere technological improvement. It is probably high time for Western man to con— sider the development of a new cosmology to achieve a balance with ecological processes. THE SYMBOLIC MEANINGS OF THE CITY FORM A. The Traditional Chinese City As A Symbol With the cosmic diagram as expressed by the mandala, Chinese cities were designed to pattern the image of cosmos. Through this symbolic expression, the cities become symbols. Thus, city dwellers were living in the universe, and the universe "lived" in the city dwellers. Through the unity of man and universe, symbolized by the concep- tion of the city as a microcosm, there is no Outside or Inside, nothing Active or Passive. It is, therefore, true that the symbolic form is an expression of man himself. Suzanne Langer contends, "Architecture creates the semblance of that World which is the counter— part of a Self."19 In sculpturing the world -138- of symbolic forms, man sculptures and forms his own soul. What he looks at in the vari- ety of form is his own inner life.20 Within the cities, space has been structured to achieve a particular purpose. For example, when one goes np to Peking he will find that the access to the Forbidden City and the Temple of Heaven is "difficult." Even domestic dwellings have a depth of Space which gives different degrees of privacy and reflect human social relationships. Thus, the space created is "meaningful" to the users or observers. "Meaning" is "anything which, for some mind, stands as a sign of something else."21 The meaning of the form may be interpreted as a symbolic expression of human feeling. Langer has de- fined art as "the creation of perceptible form expressive of human feeling."22 Thus, a creative symbolic city form is virtually a work of art. And any form of art is symbolic form. Needs in Symbolic City Form for Today's Society One of the differences between human beings and animals is that man is able to think -139- abstractly and to use symbols. Langer has defined a symbol as "any device whereby we are enabled to make an abstraction."23 "That symbolic thought and symbolic be- havior are among the most characteristic features of human life, and that the whole process of human culture is based on these conditions, is undeniable."24 It can be said that symbolic forms are the state of man's soul. In China, the concept of feng:shui, the image of the mandala motif, and the plan of Ming T'ang, are nothing but spiritual expressions. The process of phy- sical design of the artifact is really man's psychic search for a soul. "Man is the sculptor of the symbolic forms - forms of his own conscious.“25 Thus, symbolic form is the language of the emotion." Primarily, language does not express thought or ideas, but feelings and affections.26 It is, therefore, true that symbolic forms may meet man‘s psychological needs. Through visible and symbolic space, man is able to express inner experience or life and thus achieve a state of balance between conscious -l40- and unconscious. Psychologists contend that the unbalance of conscious and unconscious is the fundamental cause of mental disorder. What modern man really needs is a cultural world to give meaning to his life and enable him to find a place for himself in the uni- verse. In this sense, city form may reveal meaningful, spatial relationships, to help serve man's ego needs, and to create a really "human" world. When man is identi- fied with his works, he is moral —- for then he is identified with the works of all mankind. CONCLUSION As noted in the beginning of this thesis, plan- ning is for people. In this sense, it is imperative to search for the nature of human beings. Previous studies reflect that man is what Cassirer termed as animal symbolicum, and has psychological needs as reflected by the symbolic expression of the city and building forms. This illustrates the importance of the study of humanity as well as of pure science for the improvement of society. Man does not live by bread alone. The ideal state of man's living con~ ditions depends largely upon the fulfillment of his -l4l- psychological needs and his harmony between the inner world and the outside world, as well as on his physi- ological needs. To serve this prupose, the provision of meaningful urban forms, harmonious with natural processes, is essential. -l42- Footnotes: 1Philip G. Frank, "The Physical Universe as a Symbol," in Symbols and Society, pp. cit., p. 7. 2Freedman, Chinese Lineage and Society, pp. cit., p. 122. 3Ibid. 4Lin Yutang, The Importance of Living (New York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1937). P. 281. 5Cf. Gibson, The Perception of the Visual World (Boston: Houghton Mifflin{fil95U). 6Chiang Yee, "The PhilOSOphical Basis of Chinese Painting," in Idiological Differences and World Order, pp. cit., p. 64. 7E. A. Gutkind, Revolution of Environment, p. 211. 8Wang; a possible translation is "cosmopolitan," i.e., regarding the world as one. 9Lin Yutang, The Wisdom of Laotse. 10 , My Country_and My PeOpie, p. 321. llLewis Mumford, The Culture of Cities (London: Secker & Warburg, 1935), p. 253. 12C. G. Jung, "Approaching the Unconscious," in Man and His Symbols, p. 91. 13C. G. Jung, "Approaching the Unconscious," pp. cit., p. 84. 14Ibid. 15Rene J. Dubos, "Man Adapting: His Limitations and Potentialities," in Environment for Man, ed. by William R. Ewald, Jr. (Bloomington: Indiana Uni- versity Press, 1967), p. 14. 161bid., p. 13. 17Ibid., p. 15. -l43- 18To give a few examples, William H. Whyte, The Last Landscape (New York: Doubleday & Co., 1968); Ian Mcttarg, Design with Nature (Garden City: The American Museum of Natural History, 1969); and the article in Ekistics, Vol. 29, No. 175, April, 1970. 19Susanne K. Langer, Feeling and Form, p. 98. 20Robert Hartman, "Cassirer's Philosophy of Symbolic Forms," in The Philosophy of Earnest Cassirer, ed. by Paul A. Schilpp (Evanston, 111.: The Library of Living Philosophers, Inc., 1949), p. 324. 21F. I. Sorokin, Society, Culture, and Personality (New York: Cooper Sq. Publishers, 1969). p. 40. 22Susanne K. Langer, Philosophical Sketches (New York: The New American Library, 1962), p. 77. 23Ibid., p. 60 24Earnest Cassirer, An Essay on Man (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1944), p. 27. 25Schilpp, pp. cit., p. 321. 26Earnest Cassirer, pp. cit., p. 25. -144- APPENDIX CHINESE DYNASTIES Name Date: (“$22.2226) Remark: (Mythical) 2697-2206 B.C. XXVlI-XXIII Legendary Hsi: 2205-1784 3.0-. ““4“" iii??? 323$“; Shang (Yin) 1783-1123 B.C. XVIII'XH “Three Dynasties" Chou 1122-222 B.C. XI-III Classic period; Ch’- unch‘iu period 722-481; Chankuo period 403- 221 Ch'in 221-207 B.C. end of III Reunified China Han 206 B.C.- II B.C.-A.D.II “Eastern Han" from AD. 219 AD. 25 Wei 220-264 middle III Wei, Wu and Shu forming the "Three Kingdoms" from about AD. 200 Chin 265-4I9 mid. III-IV “Eastern Chin" from 317. Barbarians’ king- doms in North China 304-439 r These are called “North and South" Dynasties = sung 420-478 for distinction. Together ‘3 Ch‘i 479-501 V VI , with preceding Wu and Z Liang 502-556 I ' 5 Eastern Chin, called : Ch'en 557-588 ‘ ‘Six Dynasties,” a l term referring to south- L cm culture : Sui 589-617 round AD. 600 Reunified China ‘ T'ang 6x8-906 VII-IX Liang 907-922 1 These are called “Wu- ! S. Tang 923—935 l tai," or "Five Dynas- l g Chin 936-946 first half X ties" for distinction I _3 Han 947-950 I ' from other dynasties of . Chou , 95x-959 the same name Sung 960-1276 latter half X- "Southern Sung” from ' XIII 1127 onward, with Northern China under ‘ Manchus and Mongols Yiian (Mongol) 1277-1367 end of XIII- Foreign rule mid. XIV Ming 1368-1643 mid. XIV-mid. Restored to Chinese XVII rule Ch'ing (Manchu) 1644-19” mid. XVII-XIX Foreign rule Republic x9u- XX BIBLIOGRAPHY NOTE: Those works marked with an asterisk (*) are written in the Chinese language. Bachelard, Gaston. The Poetics of Space. Boston: Beacon Press, 1964. Bodde, Derk. China's Cultural Tradition. 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