DIETARY PRACTRCES OF 50 NEGRO
WOMEN 31 TO '79 YEARS 1N
LANSING. MiCHiGAN. WITH THE.
DAiLY PROTEIN {NTAKE OF
15 WOMEN DETERWNED BY
ANALYSES

"Russia in? the Dogma of M. S.
MECHIGAN STATE COLLEGE
Eelena Augustine.- jcseph

39135

 

This is to certifg that the

thesis entitled

o "omen 31 to 79
th the paiiy Protein
termineo by

Dietary Practices of 50 Negr
Years in uansing, Michigan, wi
Intake of 16 Women be
Analysis.

presented bg

Selena Augustine Joseph

has been accepted towards [ulfillment

of the requirements for

AIL-#52: - ”degree inf ' -gyj_,-~-

 

Qfifl LN

ajor professor

 
 

moi/«flogging

ltd-795

 

DIETARY PRACTICES OF 50 1:13ch :7 1.2m
51 TO '79 mus IN LAIIBIIIG, IIICBIGILI,
‘x‘IITI-I ‘I’EiE DAILY LB I LnI 111'me OF 15 noun-I
DETEPJ.»III<IED BI Ai-‘IALYSIS

by
smLNA AUGUSTINE JO SEPH

A THESIS

Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Hichigan
State College of Agriculture and Applied Science
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

EASTER OF SCIENCE

Department of Foods and NUtrition
School of Home Economics

1945

 

 

 

THEStS

7/1¥/%u

ACLU IO 'a'JLEDGLIIIN TS

The writer wishes to express her appreciation to
Dr. Margaret A. Ohlson, under whose guidance this study was
made, and to Dr. Dena Cederquist andlfiiss Wilma Brewer for
their assistance and advice. Qhe writer is also grateful to
the group of Negro women of Lansing for their cooperation,

‘which made this study possible.

/7/ 3f6

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER

I.
II.

III.

IV.

V.

II‘ITRODUCTIOII . . . . . . . . . . . .
EKPER RENTAL PRO CEDURE . . . . . . .
Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Questionnaires . . . . . . . . . .
Weighed food intake studies . . . .
LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dietary studies . . . . . . . . . .
The process of ageing . . . . . . .
Protein and other food requirements
women . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Protein requirement . . . . . .
Other food requirements . . . . .
Nutritional Status . . . . . . . .
PRESENTATION OF DATA AND DISCUSSION .
Character of the group . . . . . .
Food habits . . . . . . . . . . . .
Health histories . . . . . . . . .
Weighed food intake records . . . .
Food analysis . . . . . . . . . . .

SULHiLMiY . o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

LITERATTJRE CIIPED . O O O O O C O O O O O O

O O O O O

of older

PAGE

CiUll—PIPH

IO
10
15

27
29
29
54
41

56
65

69

‘I‘ABLE or Cd-ITBI-Irs (cont.)

APPENDIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
NUtrition Study of Wbmen over 40 - Lansing, Spring,
1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Symptoms which, if persistent, may indicate lack of

adequate variety or amount of food . . . . . . .

Food Intake Record Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . .-

Equipment for laboratory analysis . . . . . . . . .

Food Selection Score Card . . . . . . . . . . . . .

PAGE
75

76

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE
I. Distribution of Women by ‘ee . . . . . . . . . 29

II. Distribution of women by Place of Birth . . . . oO

 

III. Distribution of women According to Years
Residence in.fiichigan . . . . . . . . . . . . o0

IV. Educational Achievements . . . . . . . . . . . 31

.4

Record of Employment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

VI. Per Cent of Women Eating Meals Alone . . . . . 55

 

VII. Distribution of Women in Relation to Family
Size and Character . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
VIII. Home Food Preservation . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
IX. iMethods Used in Vegetable Cookery . . . . . . . 35
X. Methods Used in.fieat Cookery . . . . . . . . . 56
XI. Use of Variety Cuts in the Dietaries . . . . . 57
XII. The Intake of Certain Foods in the Dietaries
as Estimated by the women . . . . . . . . . . 58
LXIII. Food Eaten in the 24-Hour Period Previous to
the Interview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
LXIV. .A Comparison of Estimated and Actual Food
Habits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
XI} Maternal Histories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
XNI. number of Nemen Reporting Symptoms Which May

Indicate Food Deficiencies . . . . . . . . . 46

XVIII.

XIX.

XX.

XXII.

RXIII.

IXXIV}

LIST or TABLES (cont.)

Age, Weight, Height, and Size of Family of
Each Subject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Calculated Daily Intake of Food Nutrients of
Fifteen Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Averages of Food Eutrients Supplied in Low
and High Protein Levels . . . . . . . . . . .
Average Daily Calories Supplied in the Diet-
aries of 15 Women from Fats and Refined Car—
bohydrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Daily Protein Intake of Subjects as Calculated
and as Determined . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Percentage Caloric Intake Derived from Protein,
as Determined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Percentage Protein Derived from.Plant and Ani—
mal Origin .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
History of Symptoms Sometimes Associated with
Specific Food Deficiencies in Relation to

Caloric and Protein Intake . . . . . . . . .

PAGE

48

59

61

62

 

 

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE
1, Food Selection over the 7-Day Period on the
Group of 15 Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2. Comparison of Food Selection of 150 Women over

24—Hour Period with That Or 15 Women over

7-Day Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE} PAGE
1. Food Selection over the 7-Day Period on the
Group of 15 Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2. Comparison of Food Selection of 150 Women over

24-Hour Period with That 01 15 Women over

7-Da3f lDeI'iOd o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 52

III‘I‘RO DUCTIO 1?

Food practices of groups of people in early years were

.—

influenced principally by customs, traditions, sectional in—

stitutions, and availability of food supplies. Possibly the

driving force in man, as in animals, in the selection of food

was that inward urge of the body for the sa‘isfaction of a
full stomach. As civilization developed, dietary practices
were further modified by educationrand economic conditions.
More recently there has developed an interest in the role of
food in promotinfl better health. Since World Jar I, the food
consciousness of the nation has become evident in rapidly in-
creasing tempo. The attitude has been promoted by popular
education and by current methods of advertisement. here we
have economic conditions vying with preferences and preju-
dices in food tastes (Mendel '55). The Degro, like other
racial groups, has been affected by all these influences to a
greater or lesser degree.

As other customs and practices in the American way of
living have changed, so have food habits and practices. How-
ever, the greatest influences of food habits in recent years
have been education and economic conditions (Nutrition,
Geneva, '57). During the war years, rationing and shortafles

in civilian supplies have done much toward influencing eat-

{‘0

ing habits, at least temporarily. There has been keen in-
terest in knowing to what extent nutritional requirements
have been met by civilians in their adaptation to a limita-
tion in food supplies other than that imposed by a lack of
money.

It has often been assumed that the diets of American

Negroes show*marked divergence from the diets of the Ameri-

 

can Whites. Joffe and walker ('44) reported that there were
no purely Kegro food habits, and that the most important
factors operative in setting up patterns are those of cul-
tural heritage and income levels. Steibling ('41) and Moser
('35) reported that the diets of the American Negro and the
American haite showed no significant differences when the
economic levels and education were the same.

Dietary practices of the older group are of special
interest because of the increasing numbers of older people
in the total population each year. Accompanying the change
in population structure, is the disturbance of sex ratio. A
large part of the older population will be women, since fe-
male mortality in adult life, and especially at the older
ages, is considerably lower than that among men (Cowdry
"59).

It should be of interest to mankind not only to have
a long life span, but to enjoy the pleasures and happiness
of a long life with.good health. Recent investigations re-

veal that a reasonably high percentage of older people have

3
shown various chronic dis ases which tend to interfere with
their capacity for useful activity (Downes '41). Chronic
diseases, though in some cases associated with senescence,
may be of nutritional interest, since investigations of food
deficiencies among the older group have been given little
attention until recent years.

In the present investigation it has been possible to
study the food practices of 50 Negro homemakers between the
ages of SI and 79, living in Lansing, Michigan. It was pos-
sible to have 15 women of this group keep individual weighed
food intake records over a period of seven consecutive days
and to collect a laboratory sample of food as ingested. The
purposes of the investigation were: first, to study the di-
etary practices of Negro women in the older age brackets;
second, to determine the conditions which have been contrib-
uting factors toward development of these practices; third,
to obtain a nutritional history of the span of adult life of
these women; fourth, to make weighed records of food intake
on part of the group as a check on the validity of the data
obtained by interview; and fifth, to determine by analysis

the total protein in a week's dietary sample.

 

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Subjects

host of the subjects were selected from a list of

 

names of women which was secured from a local school. The
women were judged to have had some interest in a nutrition
program since they had attended meetings during the war
emergency years at which nutrition problems had been dis-
cussed.1 All women assumed or known to have been less than
40 years of age were eliminated from the list.2 The experi-
mental group was then selected from representative sections
of the city so as to make the group heterogeneous in charac-
ter. Although no specific checks on economic status were
made, all the subjects chosen were known to have had suffi-
cient income to be able to provide adequate food supplies.
The sample represented an industrial population during the
peflcofxmwtnm aqflommmt.

Information was gathered from two major sources:

first, two questionnaires dealing with habits of food intake

 

1These meetings were conducted by'hrs. Jane 3. Wil-
liams, nutrition consultant, from war Food Administration,
‘Washington, D. C.

2For this assistance the writer appreciates the serv—
ice of Miss Nell M. Bloodgood, principal of the local school,
and.Krs. Rose Brunsen, president of Lansing Women's Clubs.

1

and a health history, and second, weighed food. intalze rec-

ords, including laboratory food samples.
Questionnaires

Procedure:

The subjects were interviewed inliv dually by the in-
vestigator. All data on food habits,p practices and general
health conditions past and present were obtained from a

questionnaire wh1c- had been used in making a si ilar study

;..n

on a group of rural white women in Iowa, 1948. 3 r"he form

was revised to make it appropr riate for use with an urban

group. A record of all food eaten during the 84 hours be-

fore the V1s1t was obtained. A second ones “10 naire was de-
signed to inves tigate the _oresence or absence of a series of
symptoms associated vfli uh specific food deficiencies. This

form was adapted from the discussion of Kruse on the evalua-
tion of nutritional status ('48). A copy of each question-

naire may be found in the Appendix. 1 total of 50 women
were interviewed and complete records obtained.

The survey was done at intervals ertendi: g over a pe—
riod of five months, beginningliarch 83, and ending August
“5, 1945. In most instances the w man was contacted by tel-
ephone and the appointment made for a personal interview.
Uhen.called upon, the nature and purpose of the interview

'was cleei ly expla ined., as well as the 1.oort nee of the in-

 

3Unpublished data, couites J of La. Margaret Ohlson,
Iiichigan State College.

 

it”! -

6
formation desired. She was assured that all information was
strictly confidential and.mnuld be used in a nonapersonal
manner only to contribute to the investigation. Uhen it was
certain that the good will of the woman had been obtained,
the questionnaire was begun. During the questioning period
the interviewer anned to make the woman feel at ease and al-
lowed ample opportunity for her to talk freely if she desired.
Each interview required one to one and a half hours, during
which time there were frequent discussions on food and
health problems, at the end of which there were usually ex-
pressions of appreciation by the woman for having been in-
terviewed.

Analysis:

The 24-hour records of food intake on the group of 50
women were analyzed as to the food selection and the number
of servings of certain food portions per day. Information
concerning food habits, practices, and nutritional history
was studied, tabulated and evaluated. fhe findings from the
second questionnaire dealing with symptoms as related to
food deficiencies were evaluated in relation to the food

habits of the subjects.
Weighed Food Intake Studies

Experimental Plan:
Fifteen women were selected from the 50 interviewed,

to make weighed records of their food intake. Homen whose

duties took them out during the day and necessitated their
eating away from home were not asked to participate because
of the inconvenience of keeping accurate records and samples
of all food eaten. The plan usually was discussed at the
first interview and the woman asked if she would like to
participate. In most cases, if she was interested, she vol-
unteered before the question was asked.

Since only two women could be studied at any one
time, definite dates were arranged for each subject to suit
her convenience. During the week of food collection, the
wmman was asked not to eat away from home, or do anything
that would interfere with the accuracy of the records. He
plans or suggestions were made for the time and method of
eating. All meals were self-selected and each subject was
urged to eat as she had been accustomed. The only require-
ment was that she weigh all food eaten, keep an accurate
record, and collect food samples for the laboratori.

Procedure:

A.kit containing supplies needed by each woman in
making the food collections was prepared. A list of items
included may be found in the appendix. Each kit contained
beakers for food collections, cellophane covers and rubber
bands to fit the beakers for protection of food samples from
foreign matter. A dietetic scale graduated in grams was
used for the weighing. A glass which had been calibrated to

one-ounce divisions by use of tiny strips of adhesive tape

8
applied to the outside, was used in measuring the water in-
take without use of the scale.

Twenty per cent HCL was used in preservation of the
solids and concentrated ICL was used in preservation of the
liquids. .A small beaker without preservative was provided
for fats. The supplies were packed into a small fruit bas-
{et which completed the kit. Each woman also was supplied
with a duplicating record book and pencil.

host of the subjects chose Sunday as the first day of
the experiment which then ended after the last meal on Sat-

urday. The women were reimbursed for the food samples as a

0

means of encouraainE cooperation.

U

The weighed records of food intake were made over a
period of eight weeks, beginning June 24, anddending August
25, 1945. On the day before the collections were begun, the
supervisor arranged to call on the subject and deliver the
kit. At this time the woman was introduced to the use of the
scale and instructed in keeping records. This was followed
by a demonstration of weighing various food combinations,as
coffee with cream and sugar, bread with butter, potatoes or
rice with gravy, and so on. Two weights were taken: (1) the
food plus the dish, (2) the dish with any uneaten portions
of food. The difference between these two weights was the
weight of the food ingested. A copy of the-record form may
be found in the Appendix.

Each afternoon, after the last meal was served, the

investigator called on the subject. The records were
checked for possible errors. Problems and misunderstanding
were cleared up and the laboratory samples weighed and
placed in the respective beakers in the presence of the sub-
ject, who was allowed to assist. One seventh of the full
day's intake of each food, including water and other liq-
uids, was collected as the laboratory sample. At the end of
the seven days the beakers contained the equivalent of one
full day's intake of all the solids, liquids, and fats in—
gested by the subject.

Analysis:

 

The collections were then brought into the laboratory
where they were made into a "brown digest" by the method of
Stearns ('29). The product was analyzed for total nitrogen
by the Lacro-Kjeldhal Lethod (Hawk and Berguin, '44). A
list of materials and supplies used may be found in the Ap-
pendix.

The weighed records of this group were then analyzed
for other food nutrients by the revised Food Composition
Table for Short method of Dietary Analysis, prepared by

Donelson and Leichsenring ('44).

LITERATURE

Dietary Studies

The first attempts in this country to evaluate Ameri-
can dietaries were made by Atwater in 1886. In 1898, through
the Federal Office of Experiment Stations, headed by Atwater,
studies of food intake were made on as many as 200 families.
Sherman and Gillet, in 1914 to 1915, made a study of the di-
ets of low income families,most of whom lived in New'York
City. many dietary studies have been made since this time,
the most extensive of which are reported by Steibling and
Phipard ('39), including $000 records from eight major sec-
tions of the United States. Most of these families were
white; however, a feW'fiegro families from the South and
Southeast.were included.

In these investigations the food consumption during
the week was determined by taking inventory by weights of
food on hand at the beginning of the period, food brought in
from all sourdes during the week, and food on hand at the
end of the period. The families were all employed wage
earners and clerical workers in cities. It was reported
that the protein intake was adequate, averaging at least one
gram per unit body weight per day. Diets of the Negro fami-

lies were adequate in protein, iron, and vitamin A, but low

11

in calcium and vitamin B. Niacin appeared deficient in 60
per cent of the Hegro family dietariea and 70 per cent of
the white families lacked full protection. The diets of
both groups showed approximately 50 per cent deficiency in
riboflavin. Vitamin C probably was low. The Negro families
ate 41 pounds of tomatoes per year, while the wiite families
on the same economic level ate 28 to 41 pounds. The Negro
families ate 21 pounds of green leafy vegetables to 11
pounds by the whites, 91 pounds of green and yellow vege-
tables against 60 to 122 pounds by the whites, and 91 pounds
of potatoes (more sweet potatoes) to 100 pounds by the
whites. Diets of all families on low incomes were 1ow in
calcium and vitamin Bl° Higher intakes of these items were
characteristic of families of higher economic status.

Steibling, in a second study ('41), found only one-
fourth of the diets of the families studied to be good.
here than one-third were fair and more than one-third were
poor. when Negro and white families lived on the same eco-
nomic level, their diets rated good, fair, and poor in the
same proportion.

A nutritional survey made in a small community of
North Carolina in a cotton mill section resulted in similar
findings. Seven-day records of the diets of both Negro and
white families were kept and analyzed by the use of tables
to show the daily intake of carbohydrates, protein, fat,

calories, iron, calcium, vitamins A, B, C, and riboflavin.

12

Laboratory examinations were made on the blood for vitamins
A and C, carotene, total protein, calcium, phosphorus, phos-
phatase, hemoglobin, red count, and red cell volume. The
results showed low plasma vitamin C, especially in the
spring, but there was little scurvy and practically no other
obvious cases of deficiency disease. Vitamin A was sl’ghtly
below normal in the blood. Thiamin, riboflavin, iron, and
calories were below normal. Ledical examination was of lit-
tle help in determining dietary deficiency. Lore informa-
tion was obtained from health histories and food habits
(hilan '42)

Winters ('52) studied the diets of hexicans in Texas.
Food records were kept for one week on 65 families. The di-
ets of 54 01 these families were inadequate in calories, 29
per cent were inadequate in protein, 94 per cent in calcium,
54 per cent in phosphorus, and 51 per cent in iron. All di-
ets were low in Vitamin A. It was thought that if the hexi-
cans bought enough food to meet the caloric reeuirement, but
did not change their food selection, all deficiencies prob-
ably would disappear, except those of calcium and vitamin A.

Hoser ('55) studied a group of both white and Legro
farm families in South Carolina. findings seem to agree
with those of the previous investigators. The protein of
the diets varied with the energy and money values. Higher
money expenditures showed a higher percentage of animal pro-

ntakes of calcium. Ihere also were season-

’40

tein and higher

al high and low intakes of vitamin a and iron. Diets whien
showed 10 to 14 per cent of the ca alories to come from pro-
tein were representative of 11.9 per cent of the white famr
ilies and 11.5 per cent of the Negro families. Diets below
standaids in protein weie shown by 10 per cent of the whit e
families and 21 per cent of the Negroes. Diets with at
least one-half of the protein supplied from animal origin
were representative of 59 per cent of the white and only

[11

27.9 per cent of the ifegro families.11ese diets also were
low in phosphorus.

Lockhart et a1. ('44) have reported a study of the
nutritional quality of dietari 1es det e111 in ed b: chemical a-
nalysis of a group of 71 families in 3oston and hew'York.
The average intake of these families was adequate in ascor-
bic acid, calcium and iron, but ina dem1ate in thi amin, ribo-
flavin and niacin. Only 7 per cent of these families re-
ceived adequate intakes of all the nu”rients required. The
average intakes for adult women from the two sections were:

fi1iamin, 1.21 mg.; riboflavin, 1.85 mg.; niacin, 12.0 mg.;
ascorbic acid, 80.4 mg.; calcium, .90 gms.; and iron, 14.0
{31115 .

In another study ti at has been reported by Barsook
('42), on a group where the economic factor was unimportant
in determining the quality and quantity of food, only 25 per

cent of these families had good diets, 65 per cent were

classed as fair, and 5 per cent were classed as poor. In a

group where the income was

families had good diets, 50 per cent of

classed as fair, and again 5 per

cluded that the necessary

the well-to- do will not always choos e a

ford optimum health.

the B complex vitamins. In the low 1

Downes and Baranovcs y(' 41)

population in Baltimore,
sed foods, meats,

rationing of proces

habits

The frequency of the seven basic foods in the daily

a. .-

was reported by the group. 1. rhed

[-J

ity of the diet were

quently in cl1e use of citrus fruits and

leafy and yellow vegetables, and milk.

were areates t in the old-a

u)"

cgroup.

Tuohy ('40) studied the relation

gy-producing and otective diet to the

’3
PI

and feund that some W1nde n01m1s

due to limited food. im1 akes because of f"u1ty
herent fear. hith the senescent group,

plex and play important roles

F5

less fear of f001s

protective elements,

Q5,000 or more,

cent were poor.

technical knowledge

11 C 0310

studied the

beioie and af or

were studied in relation to the aae of t

deficiencies in

1oted in both periods,

11: cut 1111011r

or older people, inclu.d1ng

especially ample sup

14

65 per cent of the
the diets were
It was con-
even

01 et that 1i11 af-

The chief diffe1e11ce was the lack of

groups, the situ-

the beginning of

10 housewife.
dietaries
the qual-

to be most fre-

d.

0111

93

oes, green,

These deficiencies

of an adequate ener-
health of the aged
old people was
advice or in-
thiamin, the 3 com-
Tuohy recommended

the necessarv

ply of thiamin for

15

carbohydrate metabolism.

 

Tuohy ('43) has further outlined the dietary treat-
ment for the aged by pointing out the importance of protein.
Protein safeguards the health of the liver. He recommends
at least one gram per kilogram body weight per day, less
fat, eggs and bulky foods, more cheese and yegetables, cof-
fec and tea for bo y fluids,and fruit juices for vitamins.

From the foregoing investigations, certain dietary
deficiencies seem to be found in all groups irrespective of
the economic status, although they are more prevalent at the
lower than higher incomes. Calcium, thiamin, riboflavin and
niacin appear to be deficient more frequently than other
food nutrients. In normal times and in average income
groups, protein has been eaten in adequate amounts. From
these studies, there appears to be a need for mass education
on the foods necessary for an adequate diet, and to provide

sufficient means with which to supply these foods.
The Process of Ageing

Investigators have revealed a number of physiological
as well as pathological changes associated with old age
(Cowdry '59). Just where to distinguish between pathological
and physiological changes is quite uncertain. however, it
is believed that many of the changes due to ageing may be ac-
celerated or slowed by dietary practices.

Benedict ('28) performed a study on one older man and

16
three older women who were presumably in good health. he
observed a gradual decrease in physical powers accompanied
by a lowered basal metabolism. basal metabolism in old men
of 77 to 83 years was studied earlier by hub and Du Bois
('17), who have reported similar results. They found the
average basal heat production decreased 12 per cent below
that for men 20 to 50 years old.

Later, Benedict and Sherman ('57) were able to con-
firm these reports with a study on rats, where the entire
life span could be observed. They found a decline in body
temperature and a decrease in body weight in aged rats. A
greater decrease in body weight than in body temperature in-
dicated a loss of fat and water with lesser drafts on the
protein. Lowered basal metabolimn in old age suggests the
need for lowered intakes of calories.

Cowdry ('40) has reported a decrease in water content
with ageing, in which he observed shrinkage of older people
in both weight and height. He also has reported a decrease
in the rate of tissue replacement.

Gastrointestinal disturbances are common among older
people, but whether or not this accompanies the ageing pro-
cess is not certain. A number of investigations have shown
a decline in the gastric acidity with age and a decrease in
the volume of digestive secretions. The investigations by

Vanzant et al. ('32-'35) who studied over 3,000 cases at the

Mayo Clinic, are probably the most extensive. Results of

17

these studies showed that there was a high incidence of

[—4.

achlorhydria with increase in age, part cuhirly after the
age of 65. Jemen showed lower gastric acidities and higher
percentage of cases of achlorhydria than men.

Ieyers et al. ('37) studied the secretion of saliva
of a group of patients in a home for the aged. Subjects
were 66 to 81 years of age. It was found that the concen-
tration of ptyalin and the volume output of saliva was much
decreased as compared to that of young people, resulting in
a deficiency in starch digestion in the mouth and stomach.
Thus, the entire weight of carbohydrate “igestion was thrown
on the pancreas. Yavorsky, Almaden and King ('34) have re-
ported a decrease in vitamin C in the pancreas and also in
the liver, but the effect of this on digestion and metabolism
is not certain, nor is there a certain relation to‘the diet-
ary intake.

Ivy ('59) has speculated that the decrease in hunger
uotility of the stomach of the aged may be due to two fad-
tors: (l) the change in the musculature controlling the mo-
tor mechanism of the stomach, and (2) the decline in metabo-
lism, amich.may reduce the quantity of the blood-borne chem-
ical stimuli of the hunger mechanism. In the aged, it is
common to observe changes in the tonus of the musculature of
the mouth, and appetite may be absent. hausea may or may
not be a complaint (Meyers '40). Thiamin stimulates the ap-

petite by shortening the emptying time of the stomach (Ivy

I8
'39).

The effect of ageing on glycogen concentration of the
liver has been studied on “ats by Deuel et al. ('57). The
content of liver glycogen increases from birth up to 40 days
of ag , when it exceeds 8 per cent. It then decreases slow-
ly to 4 per cent at about 75 days of age. In old age the
glycogen content was much decreased, but there was no dif-
ference in content in the sexes. Differences did occur dur-
ing adult life when the glycogen content of the female was
less than that of the male. This decreased glycogen concen-
tration in the liver indicates lowered energy reserves in
older age, resulting in more rapid body exhaustion. This
suggests the need for frequent supplies of energy-producing
foods.

No serious studies have been made on the volume out-
put of bile and its composition in the liver in old age.
however, Boyden and G~antham ('36) studied the evacuation of
the gall bladder after feeding of a test meal in 24 men and
women between the ages of 60 and 78 years. It was concluded
that if the biliary tract escapes pathological alteratihns,
its motility does not become impaired with age. The rela-
tion of gall bladder pathology to age is pointed out by
Crump ('51), who found 78 per cent of 325 cases with gall
stones to be over 40 years of age, The incidence was higher
in females than in males.

Albright et al. ('41) found that bones,like many

19
other tissues, atrophy in old age in both sexes. Adult bone
is subject to two cantinuous processes, formation and re-
sorption. The mass of the bone may be deficient either be-
cause resorption is too great, or because formation is too
slow, Furthermore, formation may be inadequate, either be-
cause the osteoblasts do not lay down sufficient osseous ma-
trix, or because the matrix once laid down is not calcified.
Albright believes that increased availability of phosphorus
and calcium as a result of a diet rich in these substances
is a stimulus to osteoblastic activity. It also was found
that osteoporosis occurs after the menopause, affecting par-
ticularly the short bones of the spine and pelvis. However,
an investigation of the diets of those subjects studied
showed inadequate intakes of calcium by most of them. The
diets of many of the subjects contained very low daily in-
takes of milk.

Certain Chang s, such as lowered basal metabolism,
gastrointestinal disturbances, decreased secretion of diges-
tive juices, decreased appetite, decreased glycogen storage
in the liver and the pancreas, and the high incidence of
gall stones and osteoporosis in old age, as studied by these

investigators, should be of interest to the nutritionist.

20

Protein and Other Food Requirements of Older Women

Protein Requir ment

There seem to be two schools of thought on the daily
protein requirement, the "minimum" and the "optimumv. In-
vestigators in the period following the first World War em-
phasized the minimum or low protein ration, vhile recent
workers recommend more liberal intakes.

The low protein era was introduced by Uhittenden
('05), who showed that young men could maintain vigor, and
freedom from physical ailments, on 40 to 50 grams of protein
per day. Dr. Chittenden ('07) carried out a.personal experi-
ment on low protein intake. At the time,he weighed 65 kilo—
grams and was nearly 47 years of age. Total nitrogen excre-
ted was measured each day to check protein metabolism. He
was able to keep his body in good health on 56.6 grams of
protein per day and 1,549 calories. however, he was not
very active at the time.

Chittenden worked further with a group of United
States soldiers in training, who were sustained on less than
50 grams of protein per day with an intake of 2,500 to 2,600
calories. These soldiers were in good health throughout the
experiment of five months. Experiments were carried out
with other groups of individuals and with dogs, in which
similar results were obtained (Chittenden '07).

Humerous and carefully conducted experiments have

shown the possibility of healthy adults with nitrogen equi-

21
librium upon dietaries which furnished not over 0.5 grams of
protein per kilogram body-weight per day, even when the pro-
tein food was not of the highest nutritive value (Sherman
'57). It was shown by Jose and Cooper ('17) that nitrogen
balance was maintained when nitrogen was supplied by pota-
toes, in an amount ranging from .04 to .08 grams per day.
Rose and McLeod ('25) further demonstrated that adult women
sustained nitrogen equilibrium.on 0.5 grams of protein per
kilogram.body—weight when the source of nitrogen was milk,
meat, bread and milk, or soybean curd.

Sherman (‘41) reviewed the literature and found rec-
ords of 109 experiments on healthy individuals in which the
nitrogen balance showed sufficient approach to equilibrium
to make it appear that the output of nitrogen might be taken
as an indication of the protein requirement. The apparent
protein requirement, as indicated by the data of these indi-
vidual experiments, ranged between the extremes of 8 and 65
grams, averaging 44.6 grams of protein per 70 kilograms body-
weight per day. 1

None of the ahove experiments were conducted over any
considerable portion of he life cycle of the adult. Nitro-
gen equilibrium may be maintained on a low'protein intake
over a short period of time, but the effects over the entire
life span of the individual are to be considered. host of
these experiments on very low protein intakes were conducted

under laboratory conditions. here maintenance of nitrogen

28
balance may not allow a safe margin for the individual who
must be prepared to meet emergencies. For the adult women
of 56 kilo ogzams body-weigit, the Iational hesearch Council
recommends 60 grams of pi otein per dciy, which is at least
1 gram per kilO"rmn bod ay-wci{;

Sloanker and Car ('35) found that pubescence, fer-
tility, and the menopause in mice were unfavorably influ-
enced by a restricted diet and that the addition of animal
protein to the ration lengthened the period of reproductiv-
ity, but that high protein intake resulted in higher mortal-
ity and a shorter life span. KcKay et al. ('41) agreed with
the former investigators that a hi igh protein re tion was ac—
companied by high mortality, but the t femaharats lived long er
than males. In these experimental ligll protein referred to a
protein concentration greater than 14 per cent of the calor-
ic intake.

Cannon ('44) stated that from clinical, chemical and
erperimental facts the acqui “sit on of a high level of immu-

nity is dependent upon an adequate food intake, particularly

of proteins, since an adequate supply of proteins of hood
biolog'cal valu is essential for globulin synthesis. An-

derson ('4 5)l Wuroher brings out the dependence of the body
upon a continuous supply of proteins for the development of
hormones, enzymes, plasma albumin, globulin, and hemoglobin,
in addition to the over-all needs for growth and repair of

tissues, suggesting that protein should be ingested liberal-

23
ly. According to Sherman the daily protein intake should be
at least 10 per cent or more of the caloric intake. Little
is known about the needs for advancing age. however, pro-
teins ingested in excessive amounts result in increased spe-
cific dynamic action, which is a waste of energy. Further-
more, a high protein diet is expensive.

Albright et al. ('41), in a study on osteoporosis
which is associated with senescence, indicated that a diet
inadequate in protein might lead to a negative balance,and
this in turn might make it impossible for osteoblasts to lay
down the necessary organic matrix which is the first step in
bone formation, and that some osteopathies which have been
attributed to lack of phosphorus and calcium, may have been
due to lack of protein. It has also been shown that the body
tends to adjust its protein metabolism to its protein sup-
ply, When the adult body has been accustomed to a certain
rate of protein metabolism, it reeuires a period of time to
adjust itself to a materially higher or lower rate (Sherman
'41).

Cannon ('44) again has reported that patients with
low preoperative concentrations of serum.protein were more
susceptible to infection than patients with adequate protein
reserves. Jones and Eaton ('35) have reported that in 34
patients, 26 showed postOperative nutritional edema and that
others showed potential edema. All cases had a previous

history of limitation of food and/or loss by vomiting, diar-

[‘0
#3

rhea, or exudates previous to the operation. fiighteen of
the 26 cases were between the ages of 45 and 65 years.
Postoperative records in all these cases showed serum pro-
tein and serum albumin far below normal values.

Johnson ('44) has suggested that a high protein diet
must be high caloric with the greater supply of energy from
carbohydrates. Entritional edema or war edema has been
shown to be due to insufficient intake of dietary protein or
to interference with the assimilation of protein due to gas-
trointestinal disorders.

from the iivestiqations reported, both the absolute
intake of protein and the per cent of protein dalories would
seem to be important.

Other Food dequirements

Earlier standards for the optimum.intake of the vari-
ous food nutrients by individuals were published by Sherman
('57), through the analysis of the results of a number of
experiments conducted by other investigators. These stand-
ards redently have been superseded by the recommendations of
the hational Research Council ('45). The daily allowances
for the adult woman of 56 kilograms body—weight are as fol-
lows: calories, 2,100; protein, 60 gms.; calcium, 0.8 gms;
iron, 12 mgs.; vitamin A, 5,000 I.U.; thiamin, l.l mgs.; ri-
boflavin, 1.5 m5s.; niacin, 11 mgs.; ascorbic acid, 70 mgs.

however, no specific allowances have been determined

for the aged. Are the requirements for the adult man or

25
nmman adequate or inadequate for the ageing group? It has
been observed that old age is accompanied by slowing up of
physical activities and lowered basal metabolisn. host
people in the older group live moderately inactive lives.
This should suggest a lesser need for energy, resulting in a
lowered caloric requirement.

A decrease in calories may not indicate a need for a
decrease in specif'c food nutrients. Decreased digestive
secretions in the digestive tract of the aged, as has been
mentioned, may result in.more food nutrients being lost in
the steel, which might suggest a need for an increased in-
take, so as to assure the body of adequate supplies.

The lack of appetite in old age often leads to the
intake of more palatable food in the form of carbohydrates
that usually are low in thiamin concentration. The lack of
teeth or poorly fitted dentures also contribute to the in-
take of soft, easily masticated foods usually low in nutri-
tional values. Lack of appetite and gastrointestinal dis-
turbances in old age suggest the need of a diet that is at-
tractive, appetizing, easily digested, and high in thiamin
concentration (Tuohy '45).

The process of ageing has been shown to be accompa-
nied by a decrease in the storage of certain food nutrients
and an increased demand for others. A decrease in the stor-
age of vitamin C in the liver and pancreas has been reported

'

by Yavorsky, ALmanden, and King ('34). King and henton

26
('35) have reported that liberal intakes of vitamin C will
protect against capillary fragility which is a part of the
ageing process in some people, and will combat toxins. They
also have indicated that the body may or may not develop ar-
terio-sclerosis, according to the liberality with which this
vitamin is supplied.

A decrease in the storage of liver glycogen in the
aged (Deuel et a1. '37) suggests more frequent feedings in
relatively smaller amounts for needed energy. This group
also has shown an increased need for calcium in the body
(Albright '41). A iet high in calcium mus' also be high in
protein (Sherman '41).

Sherman and Campbell ('56) found that senility is de-
ferred in adult rats whose calcium intake is greater than
the requirement for maintenance. Ehe utilization of calcium
by normal women was studied by Ryder ('38), who showed that
the calcium requirement for maintenance of equilibrium.by a
human adult is dependent not only upon the amount of mineral
needed for maintenance of vital metabolic processes, but also
upon the body stores, and that the higher the previous in-
take, the higher will be the demand for maintenance.

Tuohy ('43) has suggested that excess fats in the di-
et may be dangerous for the aged, but leaving out what is
needed may be fatal. Fats spare the protein and thiamin,
and produce energy, but if not well utilized may damage the

liver. Drummond ('54) has reported that stores of vitamin A

27
in the human liver gradually become exhausted if the diet is
deficient, and that a prolonged deficiency undermines the
organs of resistance to infection.

From previous observations, it seems that some prog-
ress has been made in determining what foods the aged should
eat. The recommendation, as s mmarized by Euohy ('45), are:
low calories, but high intake of the specific food nutri-
ents; less bulky foods, fats and eggs, but more liver, cheese,
and vegetables. Tea and coffee when not too strong may help
furnish body fluids. Liberal use of fruit juices should
supply added vitamins. Condiments may be tolerated to help
the appetite. However, there still is much uncertainty about

requirements of specific nutrients for the aged.
hutritional Status

methods which have been used in nutritional status
studies are: (1) clinical examinations, (2) demonstration
of biochemical and physiological lesions, and (3) estimation
of dietary intakes (Dann and Darby '45). To this group may
beadded a fourth method, a detailed history of the food and

health habits of the individual.

Previous investigators have found sufficient weak-

tritional deficiencies. As Dann and Darby ('45) have pointed
out, clinical examinations detect only well defined defi-

ciency diseases and must therefore be supplemented by other

28

the biochemical teets are un-

.15
J.

1’43

evidence. Lesults 0 most 0
certain, because the tests have not been correlated with the
production and cure of the clinical signs in human subjects,
and dietary standards which have been widely employed in es-
timating dietary adequacy, were developed on a limited

amount of evidence on human subjects. Since data have been
limited, there has been a tendency to set standards high.

It is therefore possible in some cases that redommendations
have been excessively high. A detailed history may give a
certain amount of information concerning the extent and prog-
ress of the development of undernutrition symptoms.

In this study no clinical or biochemical tests were
conducted. The nutritional status of the group was deter—
mined in the following ways: (1) a history of the food and
health habits of the members of the group was taken; (2) a
single day's food intake was obtained from.memory from each
of the fifty subjects questioned; (5) fifteen women were se-
lected from the larger group for whom food waS'weighed for
seven consecutive days and a laboratory sample obtained of

all the food eaten; and (4) total nitrogen was determined on

the samples.

PRESENTATION OF DATA AND DISCUSSION

In the analysis of the data collected in this inves-
tigation, a study has been made of the character of the pop-
ulation sampled, their food habits, health histories and
food intakes. The results obtained are presented in a se-

ries of tables and graphs.
Character of the Group

The age distribution of the group is shown in Table I.
Seventy per cent of the women were between the ages of 40
and 60 years. Two women were less than 40, and 13 were over

60. The youngest woman was El years and the oldest 79.

TABLE I
DISTRIBUTION OF WOMEN BY AGE

J m

 

 

 

 

women in group

Age range Number Per cent
Bl - 59 2 4
40 - 49 20 40
50 - 59 15 SO
60 - 69 7 14
70 - 79 6 12

 

Many of these women had.migrated to Lansing from va-

rious sections of the United States, Canada, and the west

Indies. However, 50 per cent of the group were from the

southern states, and 52 per cent were from Michigan and
Ohio. Only a small percentage were from other sections. A
distribution of the group according to the place of birth is

shown in Table II.

I%BLE II
DISTRIBUTIOH OF WOMEN'BY'PLACE OF BIRTH

 

 

Sections of Other

‘

 

United States Per cent regions Per cent
Southern States 50 Canada 6
horthern States 52 West Indies 2
Western States 8
Eastern States 2

 

Although most of the individuals were not natives of
hichigan, 72 per cent of them had lived in the area 20 or
more years. Table III shows a distribution of the group ac-

cording to years of residence in.hichigan.

TABLE III

DISTRIBUTION OF WOMEN
ACCORDING TO YEARS RES" EU‘E IJ MICHIGAN

 

 

humber of years lumber of women
0 - 4
5 - 9
IO - 19
20 - 29 2
50 - 59
40 - 49
50 and over

(DOPE-490101

A.majority of the migrants had come from the South
where food habits might have differed, but the fact that all

but 14 had lived in Lansing most of their adult lives would

51
suggest that local food habits and food supplies might be
xpected to influence the selection of a diet.
Since education may influence familiarity with food
and cooking practices, the educational achievements of the

group were studied. The results are shown in Table IV.

TABLE IV

EDUCATIONAL ACMIEVEQENTS

 

 

 

Elementary Some Completed Some
_grades high school high school college
Per cent of women
34 42 I2 12

 

Sixty per cent of the group had received an education
above that of the elementary grades and none had completed
less than five of these grades. In addition, most of the
women had received some nutrition education through emergen-
cy nutrition meetings during the war years. Levee and
Downes ('41) found in a group of families in hew'York that
food and health habits were improved through intensive nu-
trition education.

Some of the women worked for a wage either outside of
or within the home, in addition to performing usual household
tasks. Ebployment, particularly outside of the home, may in-
fluence the character and regularity of meals. The distri-
bution of the group in terms of gainful employment is given

in Table V.

TABLE V
RECORD OF H-J’LOYLIENT

 

 

 

 

Per cent of women employed Per cent of women
At home Away from home not employed
6 54 60

 

Forty per cent of the women were employed at or away
from home. About half of the employed group were over 50
years of age.

The diets of the employed and 1e unemployed women
were studied as to the daily intake of basic foods. In the
working group 57 per cent of the women h ad milk, 87 per cent
had some kind of fruit, 67 per cent had two or more vege-
table, and all had breads,and meat or meat substitutes. In
the non-working group, 49 per cent ha d milk, 85 per cent had
some kind of fruit, 72 per cent had two or more vegetables,
all had breads, and all but one had meat,or meat substitutes.
In terms of the condi ions under which th survey was con—
ducted, these probably are not important differences. There
was no difference in the type of meals served by the working
and non-worlci ng group. Moser (' M9)1as reported that in-

9.1.

cieaSins vari mtr of foods, especially fruits and vegetables,
appeared in the dietaries when more time was spent in house-
hold food production.

Another factor sometimes determining food intake is

whether meals are eaten alone or in a family group. Fifty-

two per cent of these women ate at least one meal alone, as

shown in Table VI.

TABLE VI

gu’u

P1111 01.1111 .L ”"011411: AlLIiJG 1.11311le MOHL

‘4

 

 

All meals Some meals 1.0 meals
12 40 48

t"
5‘

st of the women lived in families where there were
not more than we per Hon . Two-thirds of these were over 50
years and about one-fourth of them were over 60. There were

n families where there were from

f—h

only seven women who lived
five to seven persons, and 16 women were responsible ior

children under 20 ye.r s of age. Four women lived in homes
with non-relatives, but prepared and ate their meals alone.

The size and character 01 the family group with whom the

woman ate her meals is further described in Table VII.

TABLE VII

DISPRIBUTIOLI or .1011:
I1: .1101; .c mam SIZE AZTD cmnmcrmz

 

 

 

 

Number 6? adults and children in families Per cent

Adults Children Children of
6-209years under 6 years women

1 O O 8

2 O O 46

5 O O 14

2 O l 8

2 - 3 l«- 2 O 10
2 - 3 3 - 4 O 14

 

The type of meals eaten by women who ate some or all

of their meals alone, and tM1o e who ate all of their meals

54
in a family group was studied. In the group eating some of
their meals alone, an average of nine different foods were
eaten during the day, and 64 per cent of the group ate three
meals. In the group eating all of their meals in a family
group, there also were an average of nine different foods
served, and 54 per cent of this group ate three meals. In
the group eating all meals alone, an average of seven dif-
ferent foods were served,and none in this group ate more
than two meals per day. In the group where some of the
meals were eaten alone, some of the women were employed and
probably required more food; however, more desirable habits
of food intake were found in the groups eating some or all of
their meals in a family atmosphere, confirming the clinical

observation of Tuohy ('40).
Food Habits

The availability of food, the food tastes, and cook-
ing practices, all may influence the quality of the diet;
therefore, the food habits were studied. Thirty-two women
had vegetable gardens, each producing from six to 13 differ-
ent vegetables. Twenty—seven families had fruit trees, and
most of the women canned food for home use. The amount of

food preservation done in the home is shown in Table VIII.

55
TABLE VIII
HOME FOOD PRESERVATION

 

 

 

Per cent Quarts Average number
of of food Quarts Persons Quarts
group canned pper family per family Aper person
55 100-400 204 3 68
45 12- 80 45 2 23

 

Although two-thirds of the women had vegetable gar-
dens, some of the gardens were inadequate to supply vege-
tables for home canning; so much of the fruit and vegetables
for this purpose were purchased. Fifty—five per cent of the
women canned about one-half the fruits and vegetables needed
by their families. The War Food Administration reported in
1944 that two-thirds of the canned fruits and one-half of
the vegetables used by civilians in that year were supplied
by home canning.

Since methods of cookery may affect the nutritive
value of the diets, some of the practices in vegetable cook-
ery were studied. The results as obtained by questioning
are shown in Table IX.

TABLE IX
METhODS USED IN VEGETABLE COOKER

 

Number women

Cookery methods using_methOdS

Cook vegetables:

In small amounts of water 41
Until just tender 28
Use vegetable stock 59
Use soda in certain vegetables 84

Cook certain vegetables in jackets 88

36

The interpretation of "amounts of water" used in veg-
etable cookery, and the "length of time" in cooking, are too
indefinite to draw any conclusions; however, it was shown
that at least half of the group were aware of the advantages
of small amounts of water and short cooking times. The use
of soda in certain foods vas reported by 48 per cent of the
group. Certain vegetables cooked in the jacket were report-
ed by 48 per cent of the group. Certain vegetables cooked
in the jacket were reported by a larger group of women who
did not work away from hmme and who probably spent more time
in food preparation. Jason ('39) suggests quick boiling,
small amounts of water, and certain vegetables cooked in the
jacket for best retention of food nutrients. Alkali, al-
though useful in retention of certain pighents, may be de-
structive to specific food nutrients.

Similarly, Table X showsznethods most used in meat

 

 

cookery.
TABLE X
LIETHO DS USED IN LiEA’i‘ COOKERY

, a Number of women
Methods most used using_methods
Roasting 43
Stewing 30

Deep fat frying ll
Droiling, or pan broiling 23

Wash meats before cooking; 37

 

More roasting and stewing than broiling and frying

were reported in meat cookery. Since this study was made

87
during the rationing of meats and fats, this result might be
expected, and might not be characteristic of another period.
Three-fourths of the group washed meats before cooking,
which seems to be a general practice among American house—
wives. Eason ('59) again suggests stewing for retention of
nutritive qualities and that washing meats before cooking
increases food losses.

Variety cuts are known to contain high nutritive val-
ues. The use of these foods in the dietaries of this group

as reported is shown in Table XI.

mam XI

USE OF VARIETY CUTS IE THE DIETARIES

 

Lumber women using variety cuts

 

 

Organs , ,_ Seldom, or
Once per week Once per month not at all
Liver 2 22 6
Kidneys 3 l 46
Brains 5 O 47
Sweetbreads O O 50

 

Liver was reported used more often than any of the
other organs, probably because of its availability in the
markets. Liver is an excellent source of iron and vitamins
A, niacin and riboflavin, as well as protein. All of the
organs are good sources of iron (Sherman '57). IddKay et al.
('41) found a longer life span in rats when animal protein
was furnished largely from liver.

The frequency with which the women thought they use.

certain food groups is shown in Table XII. Ninety per cent

38
of the group thought they had fruits once or twice per day,
and 98 per cent said they had vegetables. One woman ate

.,
I

practically no vegetables, but reported a hign intake 0

H3

fruits and a large daily intake of milk. hilk was reported
to have been used in some form, at least once per day, by 70
per cent of the vomen,and an equal number said they ate some

raW‘vegetables.

TABLE XII

ThE IliTmiE or li‘RTAII-I BOODS In Tz-m DIEMES
AS hs‘rn-..;.za*hb BY THE wonml

 

Per cent of women using foods

 

 

Foods Once Ufiflce Seldom, or

per day .per day not at all
Fruits, fresh or cooked 92 50 8
Vegetables, cooked 98 50 2
Vegetables, raW' 7O 0 30
Milk, or milk substitutes 7O 2 50
Heatggor meat substitutes 98 48 2

 

The food habits of the group were studied further,
from a record of the food intake of the 24-hour period pre-
vious to the interview ( able XIII). On the day recorded,
96 per cent of the group had meat, or meat substitutes at
least once, 60 per cent had milk or milk products, 2 per
cent had vegetables of some kind, and 74 per cent had fruits

raw or cooked.

59
TABLE XIII

FOOD 7&“EM IN TEE 24-LOUR PERIOD PREVIOUS TO THE EEERVIEU

 

 

 

Per cent of women eatingpfoods
Serving Two

in food or more
,group servings

Foods One
serving

Whole grain, or enriched

cereals 100 98
Dairy products: Milk 64} 25
Cheese 10 64 0
Fruits: Citrus, or tomatoes 6O 27
Other, raw, cooked or 90
dried 74 16
heat, poultry, fish, or other
substitutes 96 44
Vegetables: Green, leafy, or
yellow 72 10
Other vegetables, cooked 54} 86 0
Vegetables, raW' 44 7
Coffee, tea, or soft drinks 8O 42

 

Vitamin medication with or without the advice of a

an is commonly practiced by the lay public. Thirty-’

l—Jo

physio
four per cent of the group had taken vitamin concentrates,
and 28 per cent had taken cod liver oil; however, only 28
per cent of the medication was prescribed by a physician.
Io evidence of the composition of the vitamin products was
obtained.

The actual food selection of the group of women on
one day,as reported by memory, showed some variation from
their estimation of what they thought they usually ate, as

shown in Table XIV.

4O
1%BLEIXIV
A.COMPARISON 0F BSTBJATED AND ACTUAL FOOD HABITS

 

 

 

 

Per cent
Foods Estimated ‘Kctual
food selection food selection
Fruits, fresh or cooked 92 9O
Vegetables, cooked 98 86
Vegetables, raW' 7O 46
Milk, or milk products 70 64
Keatj or meat substitutes 98 96

 

The greatest variation was found in the use of raw
and cooked vegetables and in milk. Since the survey was
made during the spring and summer months, there is no expla-
nation for the low intake of vegetables. however, the sea-
son of the year may account for the low intake of citrus
fruits and tomatoes. There is no explanation for lOW'intakes
of milk, except that their actual food habits were not quite
so good as they had estimated, Fifty-two per cent of the
group actually drank milk, while another 12 per cent made use
of ice cream and cheese in their diets.

Some other studies have been made, where similar re-
sults were found. Hilan ('42) found diets low in vitamin C,
especially in the spring, and intakes of vitamin 2 that were
slightly below normal, but adequate intakes of calcium.
Steibling and Phipard ('59) found low intakes of vitamin C
and milk, but somewhat higher intakes of vitamin A. Downes

and Baranovsky ('44) found deficiencies in citrus fruits and

tomatoes, green, leafy and yellow vegetables, and milk, in

41
the diets studied by them, and especially was his true in
the older age group. The diets reported in this paper were
rated by the scoring card suggested by Chaney and Ahlborn
('44). Twenty-six per cent were rated good, 50 per cent
fair, and 44 per cent poor. A copy of the scoring sheet may

be found in the Appendix.
Health Histories

The health of the individual may have an influence on
food consumption. The data shown in the following tables
were obtained from responses to certain questions concerning
health which were asked during the interview. Table XV
shows the number of women who had borne children, the number
of stillbirths, miscarriages, and complications during preg—
nancy. Fifty-two per cent of the women had borne children,
and 58 per cent had had one to four accidents of pregnancy
resulting in the loss of a child. Eighteen per cent of the
women reported having pregnancy complications,and there were

reported two Cesarean births.

42
TABLE XV

 

 

MAET.nkL EIST LS
Pregnancies and complications rer cent of women
women:

bearing children 52
having stillbirths 4
Having miscarria ares 54
having Cesarean births 4
Having other complications during

pregnancy

(a) Feet swelling 12

Lb) E‘e‘.‘.r after birth 6

 

All of the women were or had been married. Ehere

were reported 86 children born to this group (not ineludin

C52

losses through accidents of pregnancies), an average of 1.72
children per woman. The number of accidents of pregnancy
resulting in the loss of a child were 50, an average of 0.6
child per woman, and the number of stillbirths were 2.5 per
100 livebirths.

Thompson ('51) has reported the ‘atio of children to
women in the United States in 1920 to be 5.5. The ratio of
children born to colored women was 5.6. In the st to of

‘

Micluie gan the average number of children born to all women

was 5.2 andtb colored women 2.9. hall ('55) has reported in
the 1951 census a total of 17,884 stillbirths or 7.6 per 100
livebirths in the hegro population of the United States. In

the state of Michigan the total number of stillbirths was

W O

5.7 per 100 livebirths, and in the Negro population the per-

centage was 5.8. The SO women studied in this report had an

45
average of 1.72 children, as compared to the 2.9 reported
for colored women in kichigan in the recor s of 1920. On
the other hand, fewer children were stillborn (2.5 as
against 5.8 per cent).

Census figures do not give records on miscarriages.
however, Ebb et al. ('41) have reported that the incidence of
miscarriages, stillbirths, premature births, and pregnancy
complications have been found in increased numbers among
vmmen whose diets were poor before or during pregnancy.

They recorded 58.1 per cent of 120 multiparous patients as
having had miscarriages, where the diets had been poor. In
this group of 50 women there were recorded 54 per cent as
having had miscarriages. Forty-four per cent of the diets
of this group studied scored "poor".

Kiser ('41) has reported the birth rate in relation
to occupational status, educational attainment, and family
income for a group of families in New Yerk. In practically
all groups, more women who had borne children were found in
the moderate or low income status groups and in families
with lower educational attainment. A sharp lowering of
birth rate was found with improved economic status. The re-
productive pattern observed in this study may be an expres-
sion of the fact that the group chosen was economically suf-
ficient.

Since habits of eating may be influenced by adequacy

-of the teeth, the number of women with complete and partial

44
dentures was studied. Twenty-one women had complete, while
15 tomen had partial dentures. No specific data have been
found on the loss of teeth as related to old age; however,it
is observed that most older people have or need artificial
teeth, which may be the result of poor nutrition in child-
hood or adult life. The lack of teeth may result in improp-
er selection of food by the older individual because of dif-
ficulty in chewing.

One school of thought associates the onset of senility
in women with the completion of the menopause (Albright '40);
for that reason the physiological age of the group with re-
spect to this function was explored. Twenty-eight women had
completed the menopause,--22 normally, and six as a result of
operation. In 12 women ranging in age from 45 to 58 years,
the menopause was still in progress. The mean age at which
this physiological change was completed spontaneously was 47
years, with an age range of 55 to 58 years. Lenopause as a
result of operation occurred at from 25 to 40 years, with a
.mean age of 55 years. There was no difference in the age
range at which the period was entered by the women who had
borne children and by those who had not. Sloanker and Card
('25) found that the menopause in rats was hastened on a reh
stricted diet, and later ('58) they found that the menopause
was delayed by adequate intakes of protein.

Ho medical examinations were made; however, certain

chronic complaints were reported by these women, even though

45
none were actively ill. Chronic nephritis, diabetes, neuri-
tis, and gastrointestinal disorders, were each reported by
one woman. hypertension, arthritis and anemia each were re—
ported by two women, and gallstone was reported by four wom-
en. Cowdry ('59) has reported the diseases listed as being

associated with old age. However, investigations by Boyden
and Grantham ('55), Vanzant et a1. ('52), Yavorsky et al.
('54), and by Ivy ('59) have seemed to relate them to the
eating habits of the individual.

Some symptoms which, if persistent, may indicate lack
of specific foods in the diets were studied. The results
are shown in Table XVI., “he high incidence of complaints
reported by this group may indicate that there were food de—
ficiencies present. However, in the list of symptoms, cer-
tain ones are subjective and may easily be influenced by
conditions other than nutrition. Such symptoms as fatigue,
inability to concentrate, nervousness and irritability, may
be in this class. These symptoms were reported by a high
percentage of women.

From the group reporting loss of weight, 10 women had
less because of dieting, and two because of previous ill-
ness. Loss of strength may have been associated with less
of weight. Sore mouth and chronic diarrhea were reported by
a small percentage of the group. Constipation was more
prevalent and has been reported by Cowdry ('59) as a common

complaint of the ageing. Inadequate total intake of food

Xi

46

may result in constipation. Eighteen per cent of the women
reported burning or itching skin, and appr ximately 42 per

cent had some eye symptoms, while 46 per cent complained of
muscle cramps, joint pains, and ease of bleeding and bruis-

ing. Although these symptoms suggest poor food habits,

there may be other influencing factors.

IABLE XVI

15(3le OF WOMEN 13.3190 RT ING SYLCB‘i'OMS
WHICH,MAY INDICATE FOOD DEFICIEHCIES

 

humber of women

 

,
Symptoms reporting_symptoms
Lack of appetite 5
Fatigue, lassitude, lack of interest in
surroundings 25
Loss of weight 15
Inability to concentrate 51
Loss of strength 19
Sore mouth and tongue 7
Chronic diarrhea 7
Herveusness or irritability 29
Burning or prickling of the skin 18
Poor adjuS‘ment of sight from light to darkness 21
Eyes affected by sunlight, snow, rain 24
Eyes itch or burn 16
Eyes water easily 25
muscle cramps 26
Pain in joints 2
Sore gums 12
Bleed easily 28

Spot or bruise easily from slight bumps 28

v.1,—
a

_;a_

‘QWOIA
\

Ueighed Food Intake Records

The objective of this portion of the investigation
was to study more precisely.the habits of food intake of a
selected number of women of the original group, with special
emphasis on the amount of protein supplied by the daily di-
ets.

The age of the women selected for this portion of the
study ranged from 45 to 78 years, with the exception of one
subject who was 51 years; the mean age was 54 years. Sixty
per cent of the group were 50 vcars or over. flhe women
ranged in height from four feet 11 inches to five feet six
inches. Their weights ranged from 122 to 224 pounds, the
mean weight being 167 pounds. Seventy-three per cent of the
group weighed 160 pounds or over, and two women.vmighcd ever
200 pounds. According to Davenport's weight-height-age table
for women ('25), two-thirds of these women were overweight.
The families of which these women were a part were small, the
average size per family being 2.5 persons. One woman had a
family of six persons and two women lived alone. The indi-
vidual data by age, weight, height, and the size of families
'are shown in Table XVII.

Because of the necessity of collecting food samples,
women were chosen who did not work away from home; however,
RR and VB were gainfully employed within the home. All but

two of the women lived within a ‘amily circle. These two

vmmen lived in homes with other amilies but prepared and

 

 

 

TABLE XVII
AGE, HEIGHT, HEIGHT,
AND SIZE OF FAMILY OF EACH SUBJECT
. fi.) V ._ Number of persons
SubJects Age Height Jeight in each family
yrs. ft. ins. lbs.

MS 48 5 l 165 2

151 60 5 5 149 2

RR 45 5 4 174 3

LB 45 5 5 180 6

ED 65 5 5 165 2

MT 56 5 4 205 5

MB 58 5 2 122 2

RS 78 5 5 170 Lived alone
ldDG 58 4 11 160 2

CW 45 5 6 178 2

FL 60 5 6 1 6O 2

MG 47 5 2 224 5

Iflv 59 5 6 180 Lived alone
VH 59 4 11 142 2

EC 51 5 4 125 2
Idean 54 5 5 167

 

49
ate their meals alone. The food habits of the group can be
expressed through the record of food selected over the
seven-day period in relation to the seven basic food groups.

All of the women used whole grain cereals or enriched
breads at least once per day, and 75 per cent of the group
made use of these foods twice per day. The nex most fre-
quently selected foods were meats or meat substitutes.

These included fish, poultry, eggs, sausage and luncheon
meats. All but one of the group selected from these foods
at least once per day,and 15 per cent made use of them twice
per day. hilk and milk products were used by only 40 per
cent of the group daily, and 15 per cent had these products
twice daily. Citrus fruits and tomatoes were less frequently
used,as only a third of the women selected foods from this
group each day; however, an additional one-third ate citrus
fruits and tomatoes three to six times during the week. The
least used foods were green, leafy and yelloW’vegetables.
Thirteen per cent of the subjects used these foods each day,
and 45 per cent of them selected green, leafy and yellow
vegetables three to six times during the week. Other fruits
and vegetables were selected by 55 to 65 per cent of the
group each day, and almost an equal number used these foods
three to six times per week. Coffee, tea, and soft drinks
were used by 78 per cent of the subjects daily. The food
selection of these women over the seven-day period is shown

in Figure l.

 

 

 

m W "

Whole grain and enriched
cereals

Dairy products: hilk

Cheese

Others, raw, cooked or
dried

:eat, poultry, fish, other
substitutes

:3
Fruits: Citrus or tomatoes E

Venetables: Green leaf'xr or

yellow’ ’ ':’ FIIIL, .1

fotatoes and others, raw
or cooked

 

 

Drinks: Coffee, tea, or soft
drinks

g E]

A _‘
v v

10 20 3‘0 40 50 6'0 7'0 so 9010

Per cent of women

— One serving each day
2m IIfwo or more servings ea ch day
‘3 5-6 servings per week

 

 

 

FIGURE 1

FOOD SEL‘L CTIOZE OvnR 7-DAY PEnIOD
LY GROUP 01 Jf>1MDHflI

51

The per day pattern of food selected in the seven-day
period by the 15 women was quite similar to that eaten by
the 50 women in a 24-hour period. Slightly lower intakes of
citrus fruits and tomatoes, green, leafy and ycllow vege-
tables, and milk were observed in the seven—day records
(Figure 2) . Both methods of study showed high intakes of
cereal foods and meat or meat substitutes, with fair intakes
of other fruits and vegetables, and low intakes of citrus
fruits and tomatoes, gceen, leafy and yellow'vegctables,and
Inilk.

All food ingested by these subjects during the exper-
imental period was weighed before eaten. Uhe total food in-
gested in terms of recommended nutrients was calculated by
the revised Food Composition Table for Short hethod of Food
Analysis by Donelson and Leichsenring ('44), as shown in
Table XVIII. The individual data have been presented in the
order of ascending protein intake. The lowest amount of pro-
tein ingested per day was 27.5 grams by LS and the highest
was 65.7 grams by VH, except EC who was pregnant and wh se
intake was 81.6 grams per day. The calories ingested ranged
from 882 by ES to 2,277 by VH, except for EC whose intake

ntake of other nutrients were in

F’-

was 2,571 calories. The
proportion to calories and protein.

An inspection of the data suggested that the women
Iiight be conveniently divided into two groups, one receiving

less than the minimum of 45 grams of protein per day as rec-

-.—-- - 0-“—

w

J ole r“rain an. enriched
£15111?" products: 3.1;?13: m

 

1.; . -.'— ‘0 _. g I _. _ _ _ . J- m
l 11 s: cleans a: tomatoes EEEEEEEEEEF'IIIIII'
L1; 163:; , rats, cool:
.7- ri ed IZEW

 

 

- I J' 1‘ A (V‘ ”\‘1 V- -
vC‘ (365611-82 Ul‘CLzL, lOF*.1',., C-‘
yellow F
'2 4- -:- . j ..
lode-toes an-.. o-mers, ra.
' ‘V
01‘ COCLZCCL

M

7-0 530 30 4:0 ‘50 CO '70 SO 901C.

.’1 ,,n‘ ,\_
.. 'Il\/.'.|.(_/‘.'1

*i,
o
H
c
.9
.....J
c .
O

n" “17?." ' "24-hou° perish by 50 1701011

7 ~— »~ ‘ O G a -‘
"1’? 0°C "__‘ (7.71773'f1-fl 7-0.7? 730:.‘_:.-’;‘(). 1):"

A-.--

”4
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I
4..-!
L
\
L
C.
U

"arkzrsc: or 366;; o... 116., or so ..o..nr our: fall—“LL :‘ 1:
71.2."? 15 ..‘c;..:’:s 05:2: 7-;L’.Y l";j;.ibD

_- ~--~—

   
 

EABLE XVIII

CALCULATED DAILY INT .3113 011‘ FOOD l-IUTRIELTI‘S 0]? 17'1" TEEN WOMEN

 

55

 

 

 

 
  
   
  
  
  
  
  
 
   
 
 
 
 
 
  

 

 

 

 

  
    

 

 

 

 

 

_ _ - ‘ - , Protein Carbo- Cal- Pho s- Vitamin Ascorbic Thia— Ribo— ,- . .
«Group jeets .. Calories Det . Cal . hydrate Fat 0 ium phorus Iron A acid min flavin 111ac1n

gms . gms . gms . gms . gins . gms . mgs , I .U . mgs . mgs . mgs . mgs .

‘MS 882 27.5 50.6 127.1 26.5 .25 .74 7.2 7,445 58 .64 .67 5.75

RM 1,205 51.7 55.2 166.4 46.9 .56 .64 6.5 8,658 56 .78 .77 5.86

RR 1,155 58.7 52.8 145.8 58.1 .47 .89 9.8 1.197 57 .68 1.10 6.93

I LB 1,065 55.5 19.5 155.8 55.5 .45 .88 10.1 4,791 41 -85 1-28 8.77
,9 BB 1,022 59.1 48.8 125.4 57.5 .57 .76 22.6 2,500 41 ~74 .97 9-85
MT 1,021 59.2 59.1 114.5 42.5 .55 .56 9.0 5,457 42 ~64 .61 '7-19

MB 1,484 59.5 49.8 209.0 47.2 .52 .71 11.5 4,558 56 1.42 .92 9-91

RS 1,120 59.6 45.8 145.9 59.6 .57 .72 8.1 4,250 44 .71 ~91 8.57

MDG 1,805 48.8 55.7 255.7 45.7 .52 .78 9.5 4,059 47 .95 1.11 9-10

CW“ 1,559 51.6 71.0 207.4 41.8 .64 .98 15.8 5,541 94 1.15 1.04 15.18

. FL 1,590 52.5 65.4 195.0 59.7 .55 1.04 7.1 5.609 68 1.16 1.41 10.51
:21 MG 1,812 54.8 61.4 181.9 68.0 .55 .89 15.8 9,770 76 1.56 2.09 11.07
'1. HW 1,912 65.0 65.1 167.0 55.8 .45 .92 12.9 4,108 51 .88 1.19 15.16
VH 2,277 65.7 90.5 506.0 72.9 .86 1.51 18.5 9,742 79 1.49 1.76 15.45
EC 2,571 81.6 86.5 297.9 104.6 1.01 1.57 12.9 11,868 88 1.00 2.21 15.72

1,454 4:794: 5602 .50 .91 11.5 5,597 57 088 1022’ 9079

TsBLE XIX
AVERAGES or FOOD NUTRIENTS SUPPLIED IN Low.kwn HIGH PROTEIN LEVELS
" ' ‘ ., , Protein Carbo- ~41 Ca1~ Thos- Vitamin Ascorbic ri‘hia—- Iiibo- .
- Gag-"ones Det . 38.1 . hydrate 1‘ at cium phorus Iron A..." . ac id min fl avin “mom
I _ 81118. gms . gIfls . gms . gms . gms . KISS . LU: mgs ' mgs ° mgs ’ rags ’
I 1,122 41.5 49.9. 167.1 47.5 .41 .84 12.1 4,122 49 ~9 1.0 10
. 1:5.“ 789 56.4: 67 .8 241 . 5 55 , '7 . 59' 1 .19 15 .4 6 , 458 69 l . 2 1 . 5 12

 

«I. wflvr‘wfv _
" ¢t G ', .
1
J
. o
n

 

54
ommended by Sherman (Group I), and one receiving more than
this amount (Group II). The data for EC are not considered
in the averages for Group II. The average intake of all of
the specific nutrients in these two groups are shown in
Table XIX. The average intake for each nutrient is higher
in the diets containing more protein and calories. In other
words, as the food intake was reduced, all nutrients tended
to be proportionately reduced, while all of the available
information on the recuirement of specific nutrients for
older people would suggest that certain of the nutrients,
such as calcium, ascorbic acid, and thiamin, may be needed
in higher rather than lower concentrations.

It was found that in Group I all food nutrients con-
sumed, including protein and calories, were much lower than
recommended for the adult woman by the hatienal Research
Council ('45), with the exception of iron. HOW'VGT, the
iron intake in all but one diet was low, but the extremely
high intake of subject DB raised the average for the group.

In Group II the average protein intake does not reach
the standards of the Rational Research Council for adult
women, but it more than satisfies Sherman's minimum require-
ment. The calories in this group may be adequate for ageing
individuals if all other requirements are met,'since a de-
crease in caloric intake has been recommended for the ageing

by Tuohy ('43). In Group II all other nutrients were con-

sumed in adequate amounts except calcium and perhaps phos-

phorus.

The diets in Group II may be compared to the diets in
a recent study by'hilan ('42), who found a mean intake of 46
grams of protein in a group of Segre housewives in horth
Carolina and 51 grams in a white group. Ehe caloric intakes
were 1,445 calories in the hegro group and 1,577 in the white.
The mean caloric intake found in Group II of this study was
1,789 and the mean protein intake 56.4 grams per day. The
diets studied by'Kilan also were reported below standards in
vitamin A, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, calcium, and iron.
However, the National fiesearch Council standard for thiamin,
riboflavin, and niacin were lowered in the 1945 report of
that group, and a re—evaluation of hilan's data probably
would demonstrate adequate average intakes of these factors.

In Group II of this paper, the diets seemed adequate in all

Q;

foo nutrients except calcium and phosphorus, In these ob-
servations there seems to be a definite relation between the
total food consumed and the adequacy of specific nutrients,
with the exception of calcium. In other words, increased
protein and calories resulted in adequate supplies of all
other nutrients except calcium and perhaps phosphorus.
Because of low caloric intake resulting in low intake
of other food nutrients in Group I, as compared to results
obtained in Group II, the source of calories supplied was
studied. The approximate number of calories supplied by vi-

tamin-free fats and refined carbohydrates, such as cookies,

56
cakes, and the like, are shown in fable XX. The subject re-
ceiving the lowest number of calories (29) from fats and re-
fined carbohydrates was LB. The highest intake from these
sources was 619 calories, consumed by'HW} The average num-
ber of calories derived daily from refined foods in Groups I
and II were 195 and 585, respectively. Ehis observation
seems to show that in all but two subjects, the food pattern
in Groups I and II were the same. The caloric intake in
Group I resulted from a decrease in the amount of total food
eaten, without careful selection, which resulted in low in-

c nutrients. The subjects in Group II

[—10

take of all specif
received more adequate diets, hot by careful food selection,
but by a higher intake of all foods.

If diets are to be reduced to a.minimum caloric in-
take in old age, the diets must be carefully selected, omit-

ting unnecessary calories from fats and refined carbohydrates.
Food Analysis

The food habits were studied further, through a lab-
oratory analysis of the nitrogen content of the diets of the
15 women. Protein was calculated as total nitrogen tunes
the factor 6.25 (Hawk and Bergehn '44).

The total protein obtained by caldulations from food
tables and by analysis showed a variation of from 15 to 50
per cent in 60 per cent of the diets, the calculated value

for protein being greater in each case than the protein

IABLE XI

AVEUIGE DAILY Cr’iORIIFS
SUPPLIED IN THE DIETARIES OF 15 MOLEN
FROM FATS AM) awn-:11) CMIBOHIDPA‘I‘ES

 

 

 

Total Calories derived from
Group Subjects Calories fats and refined
C ‘ carbohydrates
LS 882 201
Edi 1,205 511
RR 1,155 189
I LB 1,065 29
BB 1,022 154
MT 1,021 282
MB 1,484 251
RS 1,120 160
MDG 1,805 591
CW 1,559 275
FL 1,590 .55
II MG 1,812 509
13‘ 1,912 691
VH 2,277 572
EC 2,571 410
Average for Group I 195
Average for Group II 585

 

I 58
found by analysis. The protein int8;e as calculated and as
determined, the weight of subjects by kilograms, and the
protein intake per kilogram bodyweight, are shown in Table
XXI. The smallest subject, who weighed 55 kilograms, had a
protein intake of 0.71 grams per kilogram bodyweight and the
largest subjedt, who weighed 102 kilograms, consumed 0.51
grams of protein per kilogram bodyweight daily. The mean
protein intak was 0.64 grams per kilogram bodyweight.

There are two possible explanations for the differ-
ences in the results obtained in the estimation of protein.
The experiment was conducted during the time when rationing
of meats and other protein foods was at its peak. During
this strict rationing period much of the meat eaten was in
the form of luncheon meats, which at this time may have con—
tained more cereals and less meat than in normal times.
Likewise, many of the diets in which the determined protein
was found to be low, also contained combination dishes as
meat extenders, which can be responsible for error in calcu-
lation. Both these circumstances could, and probably did,
result in an overestimation of protein.

Cannon ('44) has shown that protein supplied in the
diet at a minimum concentration probably does not allow a
safe margin for emergencies. Tuohy ('40) has suggested at
least one gram of protein per kilogram bodyweight for the
ageing group. In this study only 15 per cent of the subjects

)

received this amount of protein in the daily intake. florty

TABLE XXI

DAILY Pm TEII INTAKE OF SUBJECTS
AS CALCULATED AfiD AS DETERMINED

 

..

 

 

. . . , Protein
Group Sub- Weight in pfiélgaEEOtfiéndéfiggEe per kilogram
- jects kilograms culated mined body-weight
‘ as determined
gms. gms. gms.
ES 75 50.6 27.5 0.57
Idi 68 55.2 51.7 0.47
RR 81 02.8 58.7 0.49
I LB 82 49.5 55.5 0.45
BB 75 48.8 59.1 0.51
MT 95 59.1 59.2 0.41
in 55 49.8 59.5 0.71
RS 77 45.8 59.6 0.51
FEDS 75 55.7 48.8 0.66
CW 81 71.0 51.6 0.64
FL 75 61.4 52.5 0.72
II MG 102 65.4 54.8 0.55
E57 82 65.1 65.0 0.79
VH 65 90.5 65.7 1.01
EC 56 86.5 81.6 1.46
Mean 75 56.2 47.4 0.64

 

60
per cent received over 60 grams as recommended by the Na-
tional Research Council for adult tomen. however, two-
thirds of these women weighed more tlan 56 kilograms.

The percentage of calories in the daily int ke as
supplied by protein is shown in Table XXII. The relation of
protein to calories was adequate. Sherman ('41) has recom-
mended that the protein be supplied in the diets at 10 per
cent or more of the total caloric intake. Ho diet in this
study contained less than 10.5 per cent of total calories
supplied from protein foods. There have been some indica-
tions in studies by Sloanker and Card ('58) and by HcKay et
al. ('41) that protein intake greater than 14 per cent in
diets of old rats tended to shorten the life span.

The percentage of animal protein present in the total
protein intake is shown in Table XXIII. The percentage pro-

"0

tein derived Irom animal origin also appeared adequate.

KcCollum.('40) has suggested that the total protein should
be made up of from 25 to 50 per cent animal protein. 30 di-
et in this group contained less than 50 per cent protein de-
rived from animal source.

Since the absolute protein intaces were low in at
least half of the women studied, the diets from Groups I and
II representing high and low intakes of protein and calories
were studied in relation to the list of symptoms that were
recorded during the interview. It is possible that these

symptoms may be a measure of food deficiencies (Youman '44).

TABLE XXII

Pmacmmmm CAL" 0210 Il-ITAICE DERIVED r2401: 131101541113
AS Dmmmzzrn

 

 

 

 

. Caloric Protein intake Per cent protein
Subjects intake as determined calories
IIIIIS 882 27 .5 12.5

151 1,205 51.7 10.5

RR 1,155 58.7 15.5

LB 1,065 55.5 15.5

DB 1,022 29.1 15.5

MT 1,021 59.2 15.5

MB 1,484 59.5 10.6

RS 1,120 59.6 14.1

MDG 1,805 48.8 10.8

CW 1,559 51.6 15.4

FL 1,590 52.5 15.1

KG 1,812 54.8 12.1

187 1,912 65.0 15.6

VH 2,277 65.7 11.1

EC 2,571 81.6 14.6

Ifiean 1,454 15,4

 

TABLE I {III

PERCEILTI‘AGE PRO TEIN
DERIVED FROM PLANT AHD ANIMAL ORIGIN

 

 

 

 

. Per cent of total protein as calculated
Subjects Plant origin Animal origin
MS 70 .0 50 .0
PM 55 .O 45 .0
RR 52 .O 48 .0
LB 47 .0 55 .0
BB 56.0 64.0
MT 57 .0 45 .0
NB ‘70 .0 50 00
RS 44 .0 56 .0
LlDG 60 .0 40 .0
CW 46 .0 54.0
MG 55 .0 47 .0
1117' 51 .0 69 .0
EC 44 .0 56 .0
Mean 14.0 55 .0

 

65
The results are shown in Table XXIV.

The women comprising Group I complained 42 times, or
an average of 6 times per woman, of non-specific symptoms,
frequently associated with chronic undernutrition. In Group
II 25 complaints were registered, or an average of 5.5 per
woman. The symptoms as listed in Table XXIV may not always
be specific for lack of any one food nutrient, but may be
related to one or more deficiencies (Youman '44). Yavorsky
et al. ('54) have suggested the need for higher intdres of
vitamin C in older people, Tuohy ('40) has suggested the
need for increased thiamin, and Albright ('41) for calcium.
The high incidence of symptoms in Group I, where the intakes

of all nutrients were low, would support these suggestions.

H

Cum-N w“: .

 

65
56
58

77m

58
45
60
£7
59

El

HHHHHHH

Caloric
iiittflze

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lbd
065

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L'.1(-J

021
4.84.
120

23 CD
Ci UI to

805
059
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The food habits of a group of 50 Segre women between
the ages of El and 79 years were studied, with special em-
phasis on the protein intake which, for 15 women, was deter-
mined by analysis.

The group of 50 women were interviewed, at which time
a record was made of the food eaten in a 24-hour period.
Records also were made of certain practices in the manage-
ment of food and health histories were taken. From this
number an experimental group of 15 women were chosen, who
kept weighed food intake records for a period of seven days.
All food eaten by these women was weighed, and alliquots of
one-seventh of all food ingested were collected throughout
the period for laboratory analysis. The samples were ana-
lyzed for nitrogen by the macro Kjeldhal method (Hawk and
Bergeim '44).

The group studied represented a cross section of an
American population with average intelligence. All were
economically independent. Forty per cent of the women were
employed away from home. The families within which the wome
en lived were small, most of them consisting of two Persons.

The food habits of the group were studied in terms of

food production and preservation in the home, vegetable and

66
meat cookery and food selection. It was found that 50 per
cent of the women canned about one-half of the fruits and
vegetables used by their families. Kore than half of the
women were using cooring iethods designed for retention of
food values. Eood habits obtained through the record of
food eaten in the 24-hour period showed high intakes of cer-
eals and breads and meat or meat substitutes, lOW'intakes of
citrus fruits and tomatoes, green,leafy and yeIIOW'vege-
tables, fair intakes of other ruits and vegetables, and low
intakes of milk. There was no difference in the type of di-
ets served in the homes by the working or non-working women;
however, more desirable habits of food intake were found in
tomen who ate all or some of their meals in a family group.
Forty-four per cent of these diets were rated as poor.

All of the women had been married. There was re-
ported an average of 1.72 children per woman, 2.5 still-
births per 100 livebirths, and 34 per cent of the group re-
ported.miscarriages. The average age at which the women ex-
perienced a spontaneous menopause was 47 years. Twenty-four
per cent of the group complained of chronic diseases, and
there was a high incidence of non-specific symptoms.of ill“
health.

The food habits of the 15 women studied for a seven-
day period were quite similar to those of the 50 women.
Fifty-three per cent of the weighed food intake records

showed protein intakes belOW'the minimum.requirement of 45

67
grams per day. Calories were low and all other food nutri-
ents correspondingly low, and probably inadequate. The oth-
er 47 per cent of the group had protein intakes above 45
grams wi h higher intakes of calories. In these diets, all
food nutrients were adequate, except calcium and possibly
phosphorus. A definite relation was found between calorie
and protein intakes, and other food nutrients were corre-
spondingly high or low in proportion to the presence of
these two factors in the diets.

The average protein and calories supplied in the gen-
erally low diets were 41.5 grams protein and 1,122 calories
per day. The average supplied in the better diets were 56.4
grams protein and 1,789 calories per day. There were no dif-
ferences in the kinds of foods chosen in Groups I and II.

The basic difference was in quantity. he diet contained less
than 10.5 per cent protein. Likewise, no diet contained less
than 50 per cent protein from animal sources. There was
found a definite increase in certain non—specific ssnptoms
among subjects with inadequate diets as compared to those on
higher food intakes.

In conclusion, this study has shown a tendency in older
people to eat less food, but in most cases without careful
selection, resulting in diets tending to be inadequate in
many respects. Uhen the average protein intake was 56.4
grams per day, all nutrients except calcium and perhaps

phosphorus were present in at least_minimum adequate amounts.

68
If calories are to be reduced in old age, the diets must be
carefully selected so as to be adequate in necessary food

requirements.

31)

C Ill-1':

.. .w...
2’
“OJ. .LLJlI

'r $711."?th
#11441. “

70

Anderson, G. H. 19451‘he Imports nce of Irotein in Diet
Therapy. J..mi. Uiet. Assoc., vol. 21, he. 7, pp. 456-
_59.

Albright, F., H. P. Smith, and A. fiich ardson 194-1 Lost-
menopausal Osteoporosis. J. Am. med. Assoc., vol. 116,

p. 2465.
Larsook, H. 1942 Industrial Hutrition and the Lational
” OI”<r.1cy. ltd. J. (13.911. iieilthq vol. {$3, p. EELS.
Benelict F 1923 Age and Basal Metabolism of Adults.

’ O 0
Am” J. thsiol., vol. 85, pp. 650-665.

Benedict F. G. and H. C. Sherman 1957 Basal Metabolism of
Eats in dole ition to Old Age and flxcrcise during Old Age.
J. hutrition, vol. 14, pp. 179—198.

:‘J
S

Boyden, E. A. ant S. . Grantham 1956 Evacur tion of the
Gallbladd_er in Old A.e. Surg. Synec. and Obst., vol.
2 on 54- 42
9 .:__-° -- 4°
Cannon, L. R. 1944 Protein lw-e +abolis m and Acquired L -Tunity .
.kn. Diet. Assoc., vol. 20, Lo. 2, p. 77.

Chaney, H. S. and H. Alilborn 1945 hutrition. 'Third Edi—
tion, nontnton.mifflia 0011 .y, Cambridge, Lass.

Chittenden, R. H. 1905 The lhitrition of Man. Fredrich A,
Stokes Co: many, new 1011:.

1907 Ibid.

Cowdry, E. V. 1959 Problems of A{eing. The dilliams and
Wilkins Company, Laltimore.

1940 We Grow Old. Scientific Honthly, vol. 50, p.
51.

Crump, C. 1951 The Incidence of Gallstones and Gallbladder
Disease. Surg. Gynec. and Obst., vol. 55, pp. 447-455 a.

[Dann, W. J. and W. J. De arby 1945 The Appraisal of nutri-
tiona 1 Status (intritive) in.Humans ?.dth Especial Refer-
ence to Vitamin Deficiency Diseases. Physiol. Rev., vol.
85, -40. 2, p. 5:36.

Davenport, C. B. 1925 Lody Luild and Its Inheritance.
Publication 529, Carne”ie Institute of Hashington.

71

Deuel, H. J., J. S. Hellman, L. E.l i.urr11 y and Har=y L1unt
1957 The E1fect of Age on the Sex Difference in the
Content of Liver Glycogen. J. Biol. Chem., vol. 119,
pp. 617-620.

Donelson, E. G. and J. H. Leier senring 1944 A Shortlnethod

for Dietetic Analysis. J.A:1U16L. Assoc., vol. 18,
Lo. 7, pp. 450-454.

VDownes, J. 1941 Chronic Dis sease among Hiddle and Old-Age
Persons. The hilbanh_hem. FundU Qua1t., vol. 19, Ho. 1,
pp. 5-25, Lerrlork.

V'Downes, J. n6 A. Laraim Qty 194-4 Food Habits of Families
in the Lia stern 11e11th District of La timore in the Hin-

' C.)

ter m. nd Sim mi ng of 194-5. Hilbalc Hen. Fund Quart., vol.
22, 3.40. 2, :91). 161-1921.
Dm E10 nd, J. C. 1954 Liochemical Studies of nutritional

roelems. Hed. Science, vol. 111, He. 2, pp. 115- 154.

Dubois, E. F. and J. C. Aub 1917 Lesal Leta_bolism of Old
Men. Arch. Int. Hed., vol. 19, pp. 825-851.

Ebb, J. E., F. r. Tisdall and w. A. Scott 1941 ”he Influ-
ence of Prenatal Uiet on the Hother and Child a. J.11u—
trition, vol. 2, Ho. 5, pp. 515-526.

V/Ha11,C.E. 1955 Hegroes in the Unit ed State cs 19 O— 1952.
U. S. Dept. of Com. .L’ureau of the Census, U. S. 1rinting
Of1ice, Washington, p. 578.

Hawk, 1. H. and O. Bergeim 1944 Practical Physiological
Cheziistry. Lleventh Edition, The Llakiston Company,
Philadelphia.

Ivy, A. C. 1959 Digestive System. Crowdry's "Problems in
Age ins", Chapt. 9, pp. 98-245.

V Joffe, N. F. and T. T. Walker 1944 Some Food Latterns of
Negroes in the United States of America and Their Rela-
tionship to Hartime Problems of Food and Hutrition. Na-
tional Research Council, washington (Hineographed).

Johnson, D. 1944 High Protein Diets. Am” Diet. Assoc.,
vol. 20, Ho. 10, pp. 666-667.

Jones, C. H. and F. B. Eaton 1955 Postoperative Nutrition-
a1 Edema. Arch. Surg., vol. 27, pp. 159-177.

Hing, C. G. and.H. L. Lenten 1955 The Influence of Vitamin
C upon Resistance to Diphtheria Toxin. J. nutrition,
vol. 10, pp. 129-140.

72

~¢

Kiser, C. V. 1941 Intra—Group_Differences in birth Rates
of Married women. nilbank “em. Jund Quart., vol. 19,
liOo 2, pp. 147‘1700

‘/Z=Iruse, H. D. 1943 Medical Evaluation of li'utritional Sta-
tus.‘ handbook of nutrition. A Sgnposium, pp. 425, 471,
Am. ned. Assoc., Chicago.

Lockhart, E., R. Harris, E. V. Tapia, h. S. Lockhart,lj.
Nutter, V. Tiffany, and A. Hagel 1944 Study of the Eu-
tritional Quality of Dietaries by Chemical Analysis.

Am. Diet. Assoc., vol. 20, Lo. 11, p. 742.

fiendel, L. B. 1935 Fields of Research in Nutrition. J.
home Economics, vol. 27, pp. 415-420.

hovers, J. J. S. Golden, J. Stein and H. Nicheles 1937
The Ptyalin Content of Human Saliva in Old Age. Am. J.
Physiol., vol. 119, p. 600.

Keyers, J. and N. Heinrich 1940 Studies in Old Age. J. Am.
med. Assoc., vol. 115, p. 2050..

Kilan, D. F.‘ 1942 A Nutritional Survey of a Small North
Carolina Community. Am. J. Pub. Health, vol. 32, p.
406.
V/Moser, Aw M. 1955 Food Consumption and Use of Time for
Food UOrk among Farm Families in S. Carolina Piedmont.
S. Carolina Expt. Sta. Bull. 500, U. S. D. A.

McCollum,E. V., E. Orent-Kiele and H. F. Day 1940 The
Newer Knowledge of NutritionL rifth Edition, pp. 552-
565, The hacMillan Company, flew'York.

chay, 0.14., L. A" Maynard, G. Sperling, and H. 8. Osgood
1941 Eutritional fiequirements during the Latter.flalf of
Life. J. Nutrition, vol. 21, pp. 45-60.

Nason, E. H. 1959 Introduction to Experimental Cookery.
McCraWCHill book Compan‘, Inc., Lew York.

fiational Research Council 1945 fiecommended Dietary Allow-
ances. Food nutrition hoard, Washington.

nutrition 1937 The Relation of Eutrition to Health, Agri-
culture, and Economic Policy. Einal fleport of the nixed
Committee of League of nations, p. 38, Geneva.

Ryder, A. E. 1958 Calcium Utilization by Lormal “Omen on
Three Levels of Intake. Private fidition, Univ. Chicago
Press, Chicago.

73

Rose, I. S. and L. F. Cooper 1917 The Biological Efficien-
cy of Potato Mitrogen. J. Biol. Chem., vol. 50, pp.
201-204.

Rose, M. S. and G. MacLeod 1925 Kaintenance Values for the
Protein of Milk, heat, Bread and.Milk and Soybean Curd.
J. Biol. Chem., vol. 66, pp. 847-867.

Shennan, H. C. and H. L. Campbell 1955 Effect of Increas-
ing the Calcium Intake. J. Nutrition, vol. 10, pp. 565-
571.

Sherman, H. C. 1957 Chemistry of Food and hutrition. Fifth
Edition, The Macfiillan Company, HeW'York.

1941‘ Food Chemistry on Nutrition. Uhe macfiillan
Company, new :ork.

Sloanker, J. R. and T. A. Card 192" The.Effect of Re-
stricted Diet on Protein and.henopause. Am. J. Physiol.,
vol. 64, p. 55.

1958 The Effect of Different Per Cents of Protein
in the Uiets in Successive Generations. Am. J. Physiol.,
vol. 125, p. 526.

Stearns, G. 1929 Rapid Lethod for Preparation of Fecal Di-
gess Suitable for Use in Nitrogen and.Minera1 Analysis.
J. Lab. and Clin. Med., vol. 14, pp. 954-957.

Steibling, H. ~:. and E. F. Phipard 1939 Piets of Families
of Inployed Wage Earners and Clerical Herkers in Cities.
U. S. Dept. Agri. Cir. No. 507, pp. 140.

Steibling, K. K. 1941 Are we Fed? A Report of the Diets
of Families in the United States. Mis. Publications,
KO. 450, U. S. D. A.

Thompson, E. 8. Ratio of Children to Memen 192 . Census
Monogram 11, p. 11, U. S. Gov. Printing Office, Washing-
ton.

Tuohy, E. L. 1940 Geriatrics in Relation to an Adequate
Energy Producing and Protective Diet. Am. hed. Assoc.,
vol. 114, pp. 255-227.

1945 Feeding the Aged. Handbook of Nutrition, A
Sumposium. Am. Med. Assoc., Chicago.

74

Vanzant, F. R°: N. C. Alvarez, G. B. Eusterman, E. L. Dunn
and J. berkson 1952 The normal flange of Gastric Acid-
ity from Youth to Old Age. Arch. Int. med., vol. 49,

pp. 545-559.

Winters, J. E. 1952 A Study of the Diets of‘Kexicans Liv-
ing in Texas. J. Amer. Diet. Assoc., vol. 8, pp. 47-55.

Yavorsky, M., P. Almader and C. C3_King 1954 The Vitamin C
Content of Human Tissues. J. biol. Chem., vol. 106, pp.
525-529.

Youman, J. B. 1941 Eutritional Deficiencies. Second Edi-
tion, J. P. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia.

DC

. curm-

K...

76
HUTRITION STUDY OF WOHEN OVER 40 - LALSIKG, SPRIRG, 1945

II AI. E ADDRESS . PHONE

 

 

DATE

1.
2.

6.
7.

8.

9.

10.

ll.

12.

 

Do you usuall have a vegetable garden? Yes No

What vegetables do you usually raise?

 

 

 

 

HOW'many different kinds of vegetables d3 you usually raise?___

What fruits do you usually raise?

 

Have you usuallv had these fresh vegetables and fruits avail-
able in summer months? Yes No

Do you usually can food from your garden? Yes No

About how many quarts per year? quarts.

Did you can.more or less Past year than the year before?

(a) More (B) Less (0) Same (d) Why

Do you eat vegetables? Fresh? Canned?

Do you usually plan vegetables in your diet? Yes N6

(a) Once per day? Twice per day? More?

Do you eat fruits? Yes No . Fresh Canned

Dried

H!
.‘l
O

 

Eb you usually plan some fruits in yoir diet? Yes
(a) Once per day? Twice per day? More?

Do you eat meat? Yes no

.1

how often do you plan meat in your diet? Once per day?

Twice per day? Several times per week?__

l6.

l7.

18.

19.

21.

111333133101: 8170011)" OF IIOIIISII C'Vlfli 40 - LAIISEEC}, SEIiIJ-G, 194:5
(cont.)
Do you buy (a) Liver? Yes No

( b) Ki dney?
(c) Brains?

(d) Sweetbreads?

 

 

 

 

 

 

how often do you eat:
(a) Live"? Once per week?____.Twice per month__1;Less____
(ID) Drains? n n u _...__.. n u n n
(C) Kidney? u n n ._.._._.._ u u n n
((1) Sweetbreads‘? n n n n n n It
What method is used most in preparing meats? Deep Dryingi____
Roasting Stewing_____Droiling or Panbroiling
Eb you wash your meats before cooking? Yes- he
Do you cook vegetables (a) in large amounts of water?Some_1A11__
b) " small " " " Some_1411__
How long do you usually cook vegetables? Until tender?__1“_
Until 1:911 done?
Eb you use the stock from canned or home cooked vegetables?
Yes_____No_1___HOW'used (a) with vegetables? Yes_____No
(b) in soups or gravies? Yes____1k>
Do you use soda in vegetables? Yes No
Do you boil such vegetables as potatoes in the skin?
Peeled?
Do you eat any vegetables raw? Yes No
Ron'often? Once or twice per day?____.Several times per week?_____

77

 

 

 

78

INTRITIOI‘I STUDY 1“ 1.7 LIEU OVER 40 - LIQISIIZIG, SP1". KG, 1945
(cont.)

26. Record below,to the best of the woman's memory, everything she

[\3
O)

2

5

5

()1 ()3

LC!

9.

O.

l.

#5

ate and drank yesterday or during the last 24 hours.

DHEflfiWST IMUII DEEER

Between meals and at bedtime

 

 

was this a "usual day" with respect to your meals (food in-
take?? Yes No

If it was not usual, why was it unusual?

 

Have you taken any vitamin tablets or cod liver oil in the

O.

No

0)

last ten years? Ye

 

 

If so, which ones and how long age?

 

 

On whose advice?

 

Age (as of last birthday) years.
,

Have you always lived here? Yes he . If not, from

what state or country? Your parents?

 

(from where?)
Grade completed in school. Less than 8th g“ade
Completed 8th grade High School Completed 1.8.

Some college Graduate study

79

EUTRITION STUDY OF WOMEN OVER 40 - LANSING, SPRING, 1945
(cont.)

56. Do you work away from home? Yes No If not, why?

(a) Type of work

 

57. Do you participate in any outside activities? Yes No

58. What are some of the activities you do take part in?

 

 

39. Do you usually work or play out of doors in the summer?
Yes No
40. Have you completed the menopause? Yes_____No_____In progress____
41. How long did it last? years.
42. How long ago was the menOpause completed? years.
45. Did you have:
(a) Hot flashes? Yes_____No____.HOW'long? years.

(b) Nervousness? Yes No How'long? years.

(c) Other ills?

 

 

44. Were any of these symptoms serious enough to consult a doctor?
Ye s No_______

45. List the ones that were severe enough to call a doctor

46. How many people do you cook for? (a) Adults, 21 years and over1__.
(b) Children, 6-20 years_____Children, under 6 years

47. If you don't do the cooking, how many people do you eat with?

(a) Adults Children Children
(21* years; (6—20 years; (under 6 years)

48. If all of the meals are not eaten with the family, give the

meals which are eaten alone or any other usual irregularity.

 

 

49. Children born:

80

 

Order:

ISeX

 

Number monthsifior those children:

 

 

 

 

Age of : :
of : children : : each was : not breast fed .Cause Of
birth:living;dead: M F : breast fed : .give reasons death
LstI ,
2nd; I
5rdI I

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

5thI I I I I I
___6thI I I I I I
7thI I I I I I
ah: ; ; ;
lOthI I I I I I
_11thI I I I I I
thhI
l5thI I I I I I
14thI I I I I I

 

50. Did you have any miscarriages or stillborns?

How many?

51. Did you have any complications of pregnancy such as swelling

of any part of the body, convulsions, fever following birth,

Cesarean.birth, or other?

spect to each birth.

List these complications with re-

 

 

 

‘Qfid’w on.

52.

53.

54.

56.

81

Did you consult a dentist during or following any pregnancy?
Yes... no
If not, should you have? Yes No Don't know
If so, did you have any teeth filled or pulled, or any gum in-
flam'iat ions? Yes .No
Do you have false teeth? Upper complete____ Upper partial____

Lower complete_____Lower partia1_____

What serious illnesses or operations have you had?

 

 

 

 

 

SimPo’OfiS JHICh, IE PEPSISTEPT, LAY IhDICAEE LACK OP ADEQUATE
vA_1‘”1 OR A.OJ;” OF FOOD1

.Check these symptoms which have been severe or annoying
durin the pa st 6 months.

 

1. Lack of appetite.

2. Fatigue, lassitude, lack of interest in your surround-
ings.

5. L ss of weight. Xplain
4. Inability to concentrcd ate.
+30DTLD.

6. Sore mouth and tongue.

7. Chronic diarrhea.

a. Dervousness or ii ritability.
9. Burning or prickling of 6

10. Can you see to follow the ushe: down the aisle of a
dark theater?

11. Does bright sunlight (spillqn , iresh snow, or water)
hurt your eyes?

12. Do your eyes itch or burn?

15. Do your eyes water easily?
14, .111_.D0 you have muscle cramps?
15. .___11 Do you have joint pains?
16. Are your gums sore?

17. _ Do you bleed easily?

6’)
6
C+
CD
'0

18. Do slight humps tend to cau_se black and blue .5

*From report of Council on Foods and Nutrition, American
IMedical Association, Adapted, Symposium by H. D. Kruse, 1943.

CO
C)?

1100:) Ilf’l‘AlCE 11300111) sin...

Date: Day:

 

Iknne:

 

-—.——.- M- - o..-

 

 

Ht height weight Height
of food of
eaten saflnle
gms. ans.

)Fb

5'

Food 0'

“:5 t":
{34

:24

F.) a

U)

:3‘

Q;

 

 

 

’: 3.1.0

1.1
H
(1]..
0
‘v3
" J
5
O

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

4.1.1.1.:

EQUIP”V”

ZOO-ml. Flask
400-3 . Elask

~1‘I‘ FOP. 1.173301” d‘l‘O’i7'iY ALL" YS IS

of
of

The Kit

84

Beakers, labeled "Solids" and "Liquids"

calibrated to 1 oz.

2 S-liter

l BSD-ml. Beaker, labeled "Fat
1 Dietetic scale

1 Drinking glass,

1

l

Concentrated ECL, for "Liquids"
ZOpIHCL for "Solids"

Cellophane covers to fit beakers.
Rubber bands for covers

Record book and pencil

Hots: HCL used in preservation of samples during the collec-
tion period.

Chemical Supplies

Concentrated Sulphuric Acid

Concentrated Hydrochloric Acid
Potassium Acid Phthalate
Sodium hydroxide Pellets
Sodium Hydroxide Elakes
Sodium Sulphate
Cepper Sulphate

SOC-mm.
SOO"J 0
250-111.]. 0
Z-liter
l-liter
BO-liter
B-liter
2-liter
l-liter
B-liter

lijeldhal F1

Erlenmeyer
Volumetric
Volumetric
Volumetric
Fl asks

Flasks

asks
‘5?

Jla

fl
1;-
SD.

Flask
Flasks

Fla

.
.'
Six

‘1 o

‘ Ill

1*

S
S

pment

hiking Flask or Bottle

Wash Bottle

Beakers

ZSO—ml. Beakers

50 —Ill 0
50 -ml .
20 -ml .

S-ml.
10’131]. o

SOD-ml.
lQ-in o

4-11’1.
lO-in o
4:- in.

Mossy Zinc
Kethylene blue
Lethyl Red
Phenalthalein
Alcohol
Lubriseal

Lurrctts

Volumetric Pipettes
Volumetric Pipettes
Volumetric Pipette
Graduated Blood
Pipette

Sample Bottles
Hatch Glasses

Watch Glasses
1?111111631.

Funnel

EQUIPMENT FOR LALORATOKY AHALYSIS

Dietetic Scales
Wire Baskets
Dessicator

Wire Sieve
Spatula
Cellophane Paper
Rubber bands

(cont.)

Gram Scale

balance

Weighing Bottle

Electric not Plates

Digestion and Distillation Racks
Asbestos Glove

Solutions

lO/N Hydrochloric Acid

lO/N Sodium.Hydroxide

lO/N Potassium.Aeid Phthalate

20% IHydrochloric Acid
Concentrated Sodium Hydroxide (Saturated)
Copper Sulphate (5 cc. contained 1 gm. salt)
Mixed Indicator

Materials Used in Each Determination

10 mls.

or 50 mls.
5 mls.

10 gms.

25 mls.

50 mls.

50 mls.

60 mls.

Food Digest (Solid)

Food Digest (Liquid)

Copper Sulphate

Sodium Sulphate

Concentrated Sulphuric Acid
lO/N Hydrochloric Acid

lO/N Sodium.Hydroxide (or less)
Concentrated Sodium.Hydroxide
A feW'pieces of mossy zinc

10 drops Mixed Indicator
(or less)

19"st iv-
" l

86
FOOD SELECTION SCORE CARD

Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agri. Cooperative Extension Service,
Adapted. Presented in Hutritign
by
IJ. S. Chaney andlfi. Ahlborn

 

 

Points Food I No.0f servin s

 

MILK

Adults: 1/2 pt., 10; 5/4 pt., 15;
20 f 1 pt 0 , 20
Children: 5/4 pt., 10; 1 pt., 15
5/4 qt., 20
1 serving, 5; 2 servings, lO;-5 servings,

15
Potatoes and leafy vegetables, 5 extra pts.

40 FRUITS

1 serving, 10; 2 servings, 15
If raw fruit or vegetable, 5 extra pts.

WHOLE GRAIN PRODUCTS
15 {1 serving, 10; 2 servings, l5
CHEESE, EGGS, MEAT, DRIED PEAS AND BEANS

15 {l servnlg, 10

1 serving of any two, 15
WATER
10 {1 1/2 quts., 5; 2 qts., lO

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

100 Points possible
85-100 points Good
75- 85 points Fair
BelOW'75 points Poor

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