$£LF~AUEQN€§MY Efl A MQEERNEZAEEQN SETTENG Ehcsés Ear éEm Degree 3E EVE. A. EMECEEEGIEEEE SEATE UNIVERSEEE” Rabat: Emeat Kmbg 2953 ‘91 {1‘33“}, Michigzm s l IHESlS E E g“ UIIIVL rs; Ann-y.“ U. ,‘L ‘ ABSTRACT SELF-AUTONOMY IN A MODERNIZATION SETTING By Robert E. Krebs This thesis attempts to explore one aspect of the attitudinal configuration referred to as modernity: attitudes toward self-autonomy. Using a measure of autonomy, an sttempt was made to predict the degree of autonomy on the basis of five independent variables: age, family size, physical mobility. formal educstion, and mass media use. The research is dictated by a model of modernisation process developed by Frederick B. Waisanen. Relevant aspects of the model are presented. The data employed for this analysis were provided by a survey conducted by Waisanon and Durlak in Costa Rica. The sample consists of 760 male heads of households in fourteen villages in Costa Rica. The techniques employed for analysis were partial correla. tion and Stepwise Multiple Regression. Only partial support was established for the hypotheses. Findings suggest that further research would be highly desirable. SELF-AUTONOMY IN A MODERNIZATION SETTING BY Robert Ernest Krebs A Thesis Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts College of Social Science ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Frederick B. Waisanen, my advisor, for his patience during the preparation of this thesis. I am also indebted to him for the use of the data with which I worked, and fer the theoretical framework which guided this research. I am grateful also to»Dr. William.Faunco and Dr. Charles P. Loomis for their time and assistance as members of my graduate committee. Their willingness to advise and encourage in spite of other obligations was greatly appreciated. A special debt of thanks goes to the many friends and fellow students whose interest and sharing of experiences has made this thesis project all the more rewarding in a very personal and intimate way. ii I. II. III. IV. V. TABLE OF CONTENTS IntrductICHooooooeooeooooooooee The Problem of Social Change and Development . . ThCCrCCICCI Pr‘m.rk o e e c o e o o o o o e o o o TthhangeMcdcl................ Independent Variables:"Structural Investment” . Variables Independent Variables:"Dissociative, Instrumental" Variables Dependent Variable: Modernity: ”Self-Autonomy" . . HyPCtm...oeooeeooeoeoooeooeo Methodology.................... D‘t‘CCIINCIQMS‘QICooooooeoooe Independent Variables:"Struetural.Investment” . Variables Independent Variables:”Dissociativa, Instrumental" Variables Dependent Variable: Autonomy . . . An‘ly.i. Pr.“.- o e e o o o o RCIult. Ind Pifiln‘. o o e o e o o ParthI c.fl.l.t1m o e o e o Multiple Regression Analysis Sunary and Discussion . . . . . . 518101um 0 O O O O 0 O O O O O O O APPEWICES O O O O O O O O O O C O 0 iii Page 20 21 22 26 27 27 28 29 30 32 34 34 37 39 42 45 Table I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XVI. LIST OF “8135 AND DIAGRM‘B Page A Model of the Modernisation Process . . . . . . . . l5 Schematic Diagram of the.Reseerch Problem . . . . . 13 Partial Correlations and Significance Probabilities: Independent Variables with Autonomy Score, "Contam- ination" Effects Controlled 35 "Maltiple-RegressienpDolcte” Coefficients for the F1" Independent vu1.b1.l o o e o o o o o o o o o 37 Distribution of Respondents: Autonomy by Age . . . . 48 Distribution of Respondents: Autonomy by Pandly Size 49 Distribution of Respondents: Autonomy by Physical utility O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 50 Distribution of Respondents: Autonomy by Formal Education....................51 Distribution of Respondents: Autonomy by Mass Media Use 31ml. CCrr.1.t!.M .n m. vui.b1.. o o o e o e o e 54 Basic Supplementary Statistics on the Variables . . 55 Supplementary Statistics: Correlation and Milt iple Regression.Analyses O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 56 Analysis of Variance: Multiple Correlation Coefficients .MRAEDCICtC.oeooeoooeoooooeooo57 Inter-item Correlations on the Mass Media Use Index 58 Inter-item Correlations on the Autonomy Scale . . . 59 Selected Items and Interscale Correlations: Smith and lnkeles o-M Scale 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 60 iv 52,53 I. INTRODUCTION: THE PROBLEM OF SOCIAL CHANGE AM) DEVELOPMENT The problem of social change and development is increasingly coming to be recognised as perhaps the single greatest concern of the contemporary sociologist or social psychologist. From the standpoint of substantive issues, there is perhaps no single area of study which finds more crucial expression in the events and experiences of our times. Whether one cites the struggles of minority Americans in the contemporary United States or the struggles of the devo10ping nations in the inter- national market, one is citing an instance of the attempt to effect, implement, or to adapt to change. The frustrations, successes, orders and disorders of our time can all be viewed in the dynamics of the change process. The recent history of the world, and in fact all of human history, may be viewed as the record of a continuous attempt on the part of man to adjust to the changing demands of a changing world. In this light the experience of social systems--such as nations, states, govern- ments, and industrial organisations--of groupings--such as racial ethnic and kinship groupings--and of individual men, is the same: it is the experience of change. Conceived broadly in this manner, the problem of change is the reverse of the coin of the classical problem of social order and stability. In the intellectual history of sociology, the problem of change thus has one of the richest heritages imaginable, stemming from the ancients to the social philosophy of the seventeenth, eighteenth, and early nineteenth centuries, to the more-recent founders and contemporary intellectual greats of the discipline of sociology. While it is not the intention here to attempt to relate or review that tradition in depth, it is well to recognise that such a tradition exists and to place the problem of change in the central current of intellectual history where it belongs. Modern scholars are becoming increasingly aware of the intellectual tradition which exists, but a full catalogue of the contributions has by no means been fully realised. Etsioni and Etsioni, for example, include excerpts from the works of Spencer, Comte, Spengler, Toynboe, Marx, Engels, Weber, and Toonniom.as examples of ”classical" theories of social change (a). More recently, however, Gouldner has demonstrated that the issue of social change as a motivation to social theorising and as a focus of social theory dates back at least to the Hellenic world and to the philosophy of Plato and Socrates (6). Some further indication of the present day pervasive impact of social change as a focus of modern sociological theory is perhaps illustrated by the fact that Loomis and Loomis, in their text, Modern Social Theories, treat social change as a major concern of each of the theorists dealt with (lb). Also, the "PAS" model, developed by Loemis, is itself essentially a model articulating social change processes (15). To suggest that a major intellectual tradition hinges on the problem of change is by no means to characterise that tradition. As a topical area the field of social change finds an almost bewildering diversity of express ion in variegated contexts and situations. Perhaps the single most difficult. problem in the area is to arrive at theories which are capable of momingfully articulating the disparate elements in a change situation and then finding meaningful data to support or dis- prove hypotheses which may be derived from such theories. In a discipline such as sociology, which may meaningfully focus on my number of diversified sisplo or aggregate units, the problem is especially acute. The selection of the most relevant units from a theoretical and practical standpoint is crucial. Often that selection is the most imertant step in the development of theoretical models relevant to the change process. The purpose of this thesis at a general level is to shed some light on the process of social change, exploring aspects of what is felt to be the single most inortaiu: unit which may be chosen for study: the self in the social system. The most immediately pertinent theoretical stance is the symbolic inter- actionist tradition of social psychology which assumes the primacy of the social system and which assumes the self to be a social object constructed through social interaction in the referent social system.* Uhile the emphasis of the symbolic interactionist literature is on recess, there is no centra- diction with a research focus which must necessarily isolate 35:535. It is often through the analysis of successive states that process is best evidenced and understood, and the necessities of empirical research often dictate such an analysis. However, there are several linkages which must be explained in order to properly understand research which isolates states in the pers- pective of a model which assumes the role of process to be of greatest importance. These linkages take the form of certain assumptions and preconditions ehich.will be touched on briefly and hopefully be more adequately explained as the model which will be employed is expanded. The research to be reported here focuses on only a very limited aspect of the problem which is posed.. our basic concern is with one aspect of the social system, which in accordance with the symbolic interactionist position of Kuhn and MtPartland.among others, is understood to be an attitudinal system (9). The component configuration which demands our attention is the attitude toward self which we have labeled the ”autonomy-heteronomy” di- mension. Basically this dimension attempts to isolate the degree *Por further examination of the sumbolic interactionist tradition of social psychology, see: Mania and Moltsor, Sngolic Interaction (l6), and Rose, Human Behavior and Social Processes (22). ‘to which the "self" functions to the person as an object of concieto reference. It refers to a concept of self which is identified by the individual either as a distinct entity or possession of the person--(i.e.) "autonomy” or a concept of self which is rooted in the supports of the familiar social mv ironment-( i .e .) "heteronomy ." ‘ Underlying this perspective on the self is the assumption that it is possible to predict on the basis of certain social structural characteristics, whether the autonomous or the heteronomous self system is more likely to function. The basis for this assumption is the idea that the autonomous self system is more flexible and therefore more compatible with the demands of the modern socio-economic systems. The autonomous self system will consequently be found more frequently as a result of contact with environments which may be considered “modern" such as industrialised, urban environments://In/con- treat, the heteronomous self system will be found more frequently in environments which may be considered "traditional," such as the rural village social system. The strength of the autonomous-heteronomous component is thought to vary directly with a set of variables which are referred to in this study as "instrumental social structural investment" variables. In a change orientation these variables would be any variables which are instrumental in facilitating or hindering participation in modern social systems as opposed to traditional social systems. Thus, two broad classes of instrumental social structural variables must be considered: "associative" variables and "dissociative" variables. The change conception or the modernization process conception which it thus fosters, is seen to be essentially a process of physical and psychic mobility involving the dissociation of self from traditional systems and the association of self with social systems of a more modern orientation. The data used in the study were provided by a recent survey conducted by Haisanen and Durlak in Costa Rica (30). The sample employed in this design consists of 760 Costa Rican male heads of households from fourteen villages in the Province of San Jose and in the Canton of Peres Zeledon. The primary objective of the study is to test the structural correlates of the autonomy-heteronomy dimension of self. The goal of the :msearch is the prediction of the autonomy-heteronomy dimension from selected social structural variables conceived as social investment variables and dissociative experiences. The concepts and theoretical model used in this research are compatible with a broad range of sociological and social psychological thought. Certainly there is much precedent in the sociological literature for the ranking of social systems according to the traditionalism-modernity criterion. Toennie's "Gemeinschaft" and "Gesollschaft" dichotomy, Redfield's "folk- urban" continuum, and Becker's "sacred-secular” societies are among the classic examples from sociology which come readily to mind.* There are, however, few models which meaningfully equate such characteristics of the social system with the wacteristics of the operating attitudinal systems of the members of the systems. The model which will be presented here is one of those few models which attempts to provide such an equation. While the research which is reported in this thesis can in no way be considered a comprehensive test of the model which underpins the study, it is hoped that the findings will contribute in some small way to a furthering of the understanding of the social processes at work. It is furthermore hoped that the particular context in which the theoretical model is presented in this paper will contribute meaningfully as an illustration of the directions and feel to which it is felt our theoretical considerations should be oriented. Especially with the advent of the concept of planned change and planned deveIOpment, there is a critical need for information about all aspects of the problem of change at various levels of analysis. It is also especially important that studies of limited scope such as the present one be built from models which *For a more complete description of such conceptualise- tions and of the contributions of various outstanding social scientists to them, see the Introduction to Ferdinand Toennie's Community and Society-aceminschaft and Gesellschaft, Charles P. Loomis, translator and editor, (27). are capable of expansion and extension to a more comprehensive conception of the processes at work. The usefulness of the support which may thus be lent to our more limited suppositions and hypotheses, about the realities of social life, is thus dgnificantly increased. II. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The Change MOdel In spite of the considerable intellectual heritage which surrounds the problem of social change, it is nevertheless true that there are few theories of change and modernisation which are truly "social psychological" in the sense of focusing simultaneously on the social system and the individual actor in the given system. While inroads in the direction of such theories have been made by authors such as Hagen (8), Lerner (13), McClelland (l7), and Rogers (21), McClelland's observation about much sociological work in the field remains true. He says: lynch sociological thinking to date] has never really seriously attempted to bridge the gap between idealised 'pattern variables' as 'tools of analysis' and social norms as present in the minds of men (17: p. 17). In fact, most of the sociological theories which are available are at best partial and outstanding of empirical proof; However, McClelland's criticism should not be confined to sociology alone. A brief review of the literature on modernisation leads one to believe that McClelland's observation is equally applicable to the works of economists, political scientists, psychologists, and interdisciplinarians in the field. By and large, the 10 theoretical and empirical efforts which focus on the moderni- sation process are guilty of bias and overemphasis on either system of individual, or some component of one or the other.* By focusing simultaneously on the social system and the attitudinal systems individual actors involved, it is believed that the model presented here surmounts McClelland's criticism. The concern is not only with a configuration of variable attributes of a social system but with their correlates "present in the minds of men." The model stems from the thought and research of Frederick B. Waisanen, which is in the tradition of research represented by Lerner's work on the influence of the 'mass.media" and "psychic mobility" in the modernisation process (13), Rogers' study of the "adoption process" (21) and Smith and Inkeles' work on attitudinal modernity.(26).** ‘waisanen's work shares a *For an expanded critique of certain of the weaknesses of the literature see: Robert E. Krebs, "The Need for a Sociological Theory of Personality in Modernisation and Change Research,” working paper (mimeo). Michigan.State University, 1968. Available on request, from the author. **The sources for the presentation of the model in this thesis are working papers and empirical studies authored by Professor Waisanen and private consultations with him. {At the present time, there is no single source in which the model is completely outlined, although such a source will be forthcoming (Frederick B. wgiggngn, "Actor-Social System Relationships and the Moderni- sation Process." Preliminary draft of a presentation made at the Carnegie Seminar, Indiana University, April, 1968. Currently in publication process. 11 similarity of conceptualization with these efforts, and the processes of physical and psychic mobility, mass media use, innovation and adoption, as well as their attitudinal compon- entq,are incorporated into the model. McClelland's work on ”n-achievement levels" and Hagen's emposition on the "innovative" or "creative” personality are also relevant in the sense that these works share certain of the assumptions basic to the symbolic interactionism of social psychology which asserts the interdependence of social structure and personality structure.(17;8) The flexibility which is inherent in the structure of the model makes it possible to characterise the conceptualization of the change process at several different levels. The process may be viewed in the context of idea diffusion and innovation, in the identification of actors with social systems of modernity and their alienation from traditional systems, or as an actual physical outmovement of actors from traditional systems to participation in systems of modernity. Actually none of these processes is exclusive,and the multiplicity of factors which may be combined to effect change within this single framework is one of the virtues of the model. Basically, the model presents us with an actor in a social system of reference and identification. The degree to which the actor identifies with the system is seen to be influenced by four variables. These are the input variables of Eigg.and participation and the component variables of rank and esteem. 12 These four variables are seen as forming a matrix which is identified as "role-circumscription." It is this factor, the degree of role-circumscription in a particular social system, which is seen as crucial in determining the extent to which the actor is receptive to change. Stated most simply, the greater the amount of role-circumscription with reference to a particular actor, the less likely is that actor to perceive alternative modes of behavior, to evaluate alternative modes of behavior favorably once perceived, or to incorporate alternative modes of behavior into his lifeways. In the case of modernisation, two social systems are posited. The actor of interest is the actor whose referent social system is the "traditional" or "less modern" social system, such as the isolated rural village. The second social system is the system which may be considered "modern” or "more modern" such as the industrial urban center. what is of interest in the explanation of the modernisation process is what happens when the actor encounters the modes of behavior of the second (more modern) social system. Does he perceive these modes of behavior as alternatives available to him? Does he perceive such alternatives in conflict with his accustomed ways? Does his perception lead him to affirm more vigorously his identification with the traditional ways, or does his perception lead the actor to adjust and accomodate to new modes of living? 13 To answer these questions, a second set of variables is hypothesised as being relevant. This set of variables is termed the "dissociative experiences,” and functions instru- mentally to weaken the actor's identification with the traditional system by preparing him for more effective communication with units of more modern social systems. The most formidable of these dissociative experiences is believed to be formal education on the basis of certain evidence in studies by Waisanen and Durlak (32), and Waisanen and Briones (1). Other formidable dissociative experiences are the contacts produced by the physical mobility of the actor and the contacts pro- duced by the "psychic mobility" or mass media use of the actors. These dissociative experiences result in increased identification with the social system of modernity, which is manifested in modern cognitions and value orientations on the part of the actor. To the extent which an actor's attitudinal system re- flects these more modern cognitions and values, we may consider him "modern" and assume that he will be amenable to the behavioral modes of modernity. In turn, the greater the incidence of such actors in a social system, the more receptive will that system be to the innovations of modernity, the more rapidly will change be assimilated as it is introduced, and the more pervasive will be the impact of change on the system. While the foregoing statements present the elements of the model, the variables remain expressed at an abstract and simplified 14 level. A partial conceptual mapping of the elements of the model appears in Table I., but some further clarification may be gained by reviewing certain considerations leading to the development of the current model. In this regard a more precise specification of the intersystemic and interpersonal dimensions which may be considered should emerge also. In a working paper, Haisanen began a preliminary exploration of certain facets of his model by attacking the problem of "control variables" in sociology (28). He asks the question: "What do the control variables control?" and suggests that though "age," "sex,” ”martial status," ”education," ”income," and ”occupation" have traditionally played a significant role in analytical schemes of control, they lack theoretically relevant specification of their phenomenal referents. In the case of upward social mobility, the process under consideration in the paper (and not incompatible with the sodernisation process we are attempting to understand), Vaisanen suggests that there are at least the following focix (I) what variables function instrumentally to increase commitment to the normative structure of a given social system; and (2) what variables function instru- mentally to increase the likelihood or enable the possibility of identification with another social system (which can also read alienation from the first)? He suggests at this point that the process is relevant not only to the phenomenon of upward social mobility, but also to a more general phenomenon 15 wcnuaoeoa eeeaa~o cameras» asuucluoc E02922 Ismzouflazmaa HDA<> 2 «8—8ng0 25—8.. «me :u_. coau.o.u_uc.ee .Ham mmozuaemmxm guasgmmun .: flame nus: coau.o_uauc.e.v zoafiamommaau mood do Humane .u .eues wens—05 no: one Gone: "asuneucoo Econ—cams: c— oca naeumouoee e5. 3:ng Essa-“s: .mi lemme 7. s\‘ Or at \. ,7: [m «we Nu moao< e.o.»m deacon , cue—vex cue: .r. «I . .. .. a. . ,1./ III: f!!! 11\\ \ i f... has 2 mos outshone . ,..// sea—aeo- aeoaenza.u. "eye so. as noose-.. .. :08: , mesa \\ceauea.oauuaa 3 u see-me deacon aeeeauaueue ‘aawefih '«ulaufl'l 0‘ no no} < a Mafia. 16 of modernisation and urbanisation, to the dynamics of social unrest and rebellion, to the question of stability (and the entrapment of self in a social system) or change (with self- autonomy and the recognition of the possibility of self-enhancement through personal effort). Two facets of the problem are proposed. First, the structural facet is presented as an array of “investment" variables with possible indicators. In this frame of reference Haisanan notes: . . . Role behavior varies at least along the following dimensions: (1) Role circumscription (or role rigidisz). Role behavior is differentially limited; the bounds of adventure are more extensive, by example, for males than for females. Similarly, the role behavior of Negroes is circumscribed (at least in some social systems) much more severely than the role behavior of whites. The same variable may limit the area of "full participation" of any person wearing badges of physical or mental atypicality. (2) Role investmen . Time and energy input of persons are at the heart of social system maintenance. The larger the stake in a system by time and energy, the less likely that a person will either (I) move out, via instrumental routes, or (2) be spun out by fortuitous circumstances. The prime indicator of this investment variable would appear to be age. (3) Role interdependence. As involvement of a person in sub-systems of any larger system increases, the tendency for the person to be social psychologically 'locked' in the larger system increases. While marital status is one of the more apparent indicators of this variable, membership in formal and informal organisations, friendship cliques, family size and its genealogical extension might be others. (4) Ebgmative conceptual rigidisz. Behavior in a social system presents variation in role rigidity 17 as indicated above, but there is rigidity as well in behavior which is appropriate for a given role as perceived by the actor. The married female, already restricted positionally, can be further restricted by adherence to 'articles of faith,’ i.e. doctrine of dogma. The issue here touches ideology or belief systems, and can relate to religiosity or political ideological commitment, as two more apparent indicators (28: pp .3,!.). The second facet is the "instrumental” facet which enables dissociation from one system and identification with another. The apparent indicators which are mentioned are education and mobility which are specified as follows: (1) Degree of prgparation for effective communication with units of another social spatem. In the present illustrative case, education would be an indicator of the conceptual and behavioral skills which not only increase the likelihood of interaction with A-systemfl members, but will as well increase the likelihood that these members (and the normative structure of the A-system) will be seen as important attractive and relevant, thus facilitating the process of mobility.** (2) Degree of communication with units of another social slatem. Communication can vary along a dimension of relative "impersonality" (as via the mass media) to that which is more personal as in face-to-face conversation. To the degree that mobility is an indicator of this variable, then, the indicator may have two facets: (1) physical out-movement of a B-member to contact with the A-actor within the A-system, and the converse: (2) 'psychic mobility' as in mass media use.(28: p. 4) Basically the working paper provides the mold for the casting of this research and the theoretical guide and justification in *Read: "system of modernity.” **R°ad: "process of modernisation." 18 the selection of variables for analysis. The focus here is, of course, modernization, but the problems are identically conceived. However, the emphasis on role terminology in the working paper may cause confusion or consternation to some and therefore some additional statements are extended. While thinking in role theoretical terms has obviously contributed to the deveIOpment of Professor Waisanen's model, the terminology of role theory is not essential to the presenta- tion at hand. The "social role" is a hypothetical construct which is extremely useful in naming complexes of behaviors which usually routinely and repetitively occupy the individual in social interaction, and therefore are significant in the understanding of his behavior. The behavior which is conceptually designated as "role" behavior is especially important because of the input of time and energy which is required on the part of the actor. Yet, the ”role" and the ”role set" require phenomenal specification and once such phenomenal specification is accomplished, the terminology may be extraneous. In a very practical sense, whether one refers to a factor which has proven predictive power as a "role," or by some other name, has no impact on the predictive power of the factor. It may, however, affect the ease and efficacy of the theoretical understanding of the phenomenon. In brief, the point is that the role theoretical cast of this framework is optional. The value of the role theo- retical cast is evident in Professor Haisanen's working paper, 19 but the role terminology should not be a source of confusion. For the present application, it is not necessary to involve oneself in the nuances of semantics and debate characteristic of conventional role theory. The role terminology may be thought of as a theoretical notation, useful in characterising behavior, but the mention of "role" should not confuse the fact that the central concern is for the actor in the social system. The "role" is merely a theoretical characteristic or set of lehaviors which is attributable to the actor. In simplified form, the problem which occupies our concern is mapped in Table II. The Table is essentially an outline of the research problem. TABLE II Schematic Diagram of the Research Problem 531 ANY VILLAGE 332 Urban CENTER 7 (Less Modern) ' (More Modern) arital famil ‘ a e tatus size sex older rried largeTemala PSYCHIC MOBIL m: : (identification FORMAL IanucmxouJ of self with 552 20 Our concern is with the actor in the less modern social system. Rural villagers are the actors to be studied, and the factors of age, family size, physical mobility, psychic mobility, and formal education constitute the independent variables to be explored. These variables will be presented briefly, and though the theoretical justification for their use should by now be evident, a brief reiteration of their theoretical referents is presented. Inde ndent Variabl suStructural Investment Variables. The following variables are conceived as social invest- ment variables, which would theoretically function to maintain the self in the traditional social system. (1) 5‘3. .Age in this framework refers to the time in a social system. Thus, age is seen to be an input variable of time and energy. The greater this investment of time and energy, in a traditional social system, the less likely is the actor to perceive, evaluate favorably, and adopt,cognitions, values, and attitudes,which identify him with the social system of modernity. (2) Family Size. This variable may be thought of as referring to the factors of role circumscription and role inter- dependence. The larger the family sise, the greater are the responsibilities and demands of family maintenance and support. and the less available are the opportunities for contacts with 21 the social system of modernity which are likely to produce modern cognitions, values, and attitudes. The larger the family, the greater is the tendency for the actor to be social psychologically locked in the family subsystem of the larger traditional society and the less likely is the actor to perceive, evaluate favorably, and reflect the cognitions, attitudes, and values of the modern social system. While other independent structural and investment variables might also have been included on the basis of the theoretical conception which has been presented, there are methodological reasons for their exclusion. These variables include sex, marital status, and place of residence,and the reasons for their exclusion will be presented in the treatment of methodology. Independent Variables: Instrumental Dissociative Experiences. (3) Formal Education. The experience of formal education not only prepares the actor for more effective communication with the social system of modernity. It would seem also to serve as a direct agency of socialization of the more modern system. Formal education would seem to affect the actor in a sense of "psychic mobility" similar to the phenomenon associated with mass media use. Education would seem also to prepare the actor for more effective media use and therefore directly facilitate the psychic mobility process. Thus, it is expected that formal education will prove a powerful predictor of 22 attitudinal modernity. As the number of years of formal education increases, the degree of identification of the actor with the social system of modernity should also increase as reflected in modern cognitions, values, and attitudes. (4) Mass Media Use. As the use of mass media increases, the phenomenon of "psychic mobility” becomes evidenced in a stronger identification with the social system of modernity as reflected by modern cognitions, values, and attitudes on the part of the actor. (5) Physical Mobiligz. In this case the resident of the rural village travels to the urban center. As the frequency of contacts with the system of modernity increase, the incidence of modern cognitions, values, and attitudes on the part of the village actor is likely to also increase. Dependent Variable: Modernityy-Self-autonggz. The term modernity can have numerous phenomenal referents. As Inkeles and Smith point out: As used to describe a society, 'modern' generally means a national state characterised by a complex of traits including urbanisation, high levels of education, industrialisation, extensive mechaniza- tion, high rates of social mobility and the like. when applied to individuals, it refers to a set of attitudes, values, and ways of feeling and acting, presumably generated by or required for effective participation in modern society (26: pa 353)a Conceived as a set of attitudes, values, and ways of feeling 23 and acting, individual modernity is a flexible configuration. Numerous combinations and permutations of :ttitudes and social objects may be thought of as defining the trait modernity. Inkeles and Smith report a series of formats which may be thought of as indicators of individual modernity. Their overall conceptualization is not incompatible with the assumptions which have underlined the individual modernity concept represented in this study. They tell us: Basically we assumed that modernity would emerge - a complex but coherent set of psychic dispositions manifested in general qualities such as a sense of efficacy, readiness for new experience, and interest in planning, linked in turn to certain dispositions to act in institutional relations--as in being an active citizen, valuing science, maintaining one's autonomy in kinship matters, and accepting birth control. As indicated above, we assumed these personal qualities would be the end product of certain early and late socialization experiences, such as education, urban experience, and work in modern organizations such as the factory (26: Pc 355)e lnkeles' and Smith's research led them to develop several pools of attitudinal items and to refine these pools empirically to a series of measures which vary in length and in the degree of refinement of the factors. As the factors become more potently distilled in the "short form" instrument which is developed, they move closer toward the factor of self-autonomy which we have adopted as our attitudinal measure of modernity. The author's report that the short form becomes heavily weighted in the direction of what Parson's calls "instrumental activism." The 24 important component factors are ”efficacy," "Openness to new experience," and "birth control attitudes."* The "instrumental activism" element may be as easily interpreted as a self-autonomy element 2 with a concomitant influence or "efficacy" orientation. The items which Inkeles and Smith use,and the empirical support which they bring to bear for their attitudinal measure, would seem to give at least a rough empirical and theoretical support to the justification of the use of the self-autonomy factor as an indicator of modernity or as a psychic disposition which reflects modern cognitions, values, and attitudes. The scale of autonomy used in this paper has items which may be similarly viewed in the light of an "instrumental activism" influence loading, which may be seen by reviewing the items as they are presented in the discussion of methodology and Appendier. of this paper. In.Waisanen's conceptualization, the explanation of the dependent variable can be interpreted from the following words: The consequence of higher preparation (education) is knowledgeability; the consequence of greater communication with units of the A-system** is cosmopolitanism. Knowledgeability and cosmOpol- itanism can then converge to produce an attitudinal *The Smith and Inkeles' items and inter-scale correlations are reproduced in Table XVI, Appendix III of this paper. **NA-system" should be read; system of modernity for the current case. B-system may be read as the system of "tra- dition." 25 system involving perceived autonomy of self and an influence orientation which leads to identification with the A and significant involvement at an occupa- tional level. In corcrast, movement toward the instrumental facet is least likely to occur in the case of the older, married, "fundamentalist” female. These indicators produce a syndrome of investment which produces an attitude system in which self is subordinate to social system,where she accepts "things as they are," where there is a calculus of perceived interdepen- dence ("others here need me") and a da-emphasis of the "material world." The fuller social psychological consequences may be entrapment, with security and affect orientation, leading to identification with B and (resigned) involvement in lower status occupa- tions (work, a "job") consonant with the identification (28: pp. 5,6)e* Thus, in brief, the person who evidences the attributes which should facilitate participation in the social system of modernity should also evidence a self-orientation characterised by autonomy. The autonomy orientation to self is an instrumental calculus which allows the person to perceive possibilities for self enhancement by his own efforts, which involves a feeling of efficacy, of influence, of aspiration and of willingness to ccept the risks of independence. The person whose social attributes tend to entrap him social psychologically in the traditional social system is more likely to demonstrate a self-orientation which is termed "heter- onomy." Heteronomy indicates a calculus of subordination of *The material is taken from the mobility example, therefore the occupational factor does not necessarily apply in our present consideration of the modernization example. 26 self to the social system, of interdependence in the social system, of security and affect as opposed to influence and risk orientation, and of powerlessness or meaninglessness with regard to one's ability to control the circumstances of his life. hypotheses On the basis of the foregoing theoretical framework, the following general hypotheses were derived. Accompanying empirical hypotheses are also enumerated. GH 1: AGE IS INVERSELY RELATED TO AUTONOMY. EH 1: As age increases, the incidence of autonomy decreases. GH 2: FAMILY SIZE IS INVERSELY RELATED TO AUTONOMY. EH 2: As the size of the family increases, the incidence of autonomy decreases. GH 3: FORMAL EDUCATION IS DIRECTLY RELATED TO AUTONOMY. EH 3: As the number of years of formal education increases, the incidence of autonomy increases. GH 4: MASS MEDIA USE IS DIRECTLY RELATED TO AUTONOMY. EH 4: As the use of media increases, the incidence of autonomy increases. GH 5: PHYSICAL MOBILITY IS DIRECTLK'RELATED T0 AUTONOMY. EH 5: As physical mobility increases, autonomy increases. III. METHODOLOGY Data Collection and Sample The data which are used to test the hypotheses in this research are drawn from a larger study by Waisanen and Durlak, The Impact of Communication on Rural Development: An Investigation in Costa Rica (30). The design of the larger study is experimental and called for pro-treatment and post-treatment interviews with all heads of households in fourteen selected villages in the Province of San Jose and in the Canton of Perez Zeledon, outside of the city of San Jose.* The villages may be characterised as in "transitional" stages of development, but predominantly reflect a "less modern", or "traditional", mode of life than the urban center of San Jose. The sample included in this study consists of 760 post- treatment interviews of male heads of households. The final inter- viewing took place in November and December of 1965, after a preliminary interview schedule had been pretested.** Although the original sample includes information gathered from both male and *For a more complete description of the national and regional setting, see, Waisanen and Durlak, pp. 15-21 and pp. 23-25. **For a more detailed description of the interviewing pro- cedures and sample, see, Waisanen and Durlak, pp. 22-42. 27 28 and female respondents, the number of female respondents was judged too small to allow for meaningful comparisons on a sex variable. Female subjects were therefore dropped from the sample used in this research, and sex was deleted as a variable for study. The data were coded beginning December, 1965, and were punched on IBM cards and verified. The data were ready for analysis in January, 1967. The cards used in this analysis are taken from a master deck which included certain refined indices and receded information. Explanation of special codes and indices will be treated in our discussion of the operation- alization of the variables. Indgpendent Variables--"Structural, Investment Variables". (1) App. Each subject was asked to report his age at his last birthday in years. Responses were coded in the exact number of years in two columns of the data cards. For purposes of analysis, the subjects (whose ages ranged from 17 to 87 years) were grouped into categories such as "20-29," "30-39," and so on. A convenient index was formed by using the first punch of the two punched columns identifying the exact number of years. Thus subjects whose age was"l7-l9"were coded "1," "20-29” years coded "2,” "30-39" years coded ”3," and so on. (2) Family Size. Each subject was asked a series of questions which ascertained not only the size of the family, but the kinship or relationship of individual family members to the 29 head of the household, and the age, education, and literacy of such members. The size of family was punched in two columns, indicating the exact number of members of the family living in the household. Family sizes ranged from "l" to "21", but the incidence of households with one membero-the unmarried segment-- was so small (9 subjects in all) as to preclude consideration of marital status as a social investment variable. It was decided that probably no significant additional variance could be explained by an independent test of the predictive capabilities of marital status as a variable. Independent Variables-~Instrumental, Dissociative Variables*. (3) Formal Education. Information was gathered on the number of years of formal education each subject had received. This information was coded and punched on cards as the exact number of years of school completed, ranging from "zero” or no formal education to "eleven" years, which represents the most formal education completed by any of the subjects in the sample. (4) Mass Media Use. The mass media use variable used in the present research is treated as a single item. Actually the indicator as used here is a sub-index of a larger scale of "Media Use," which includes information on use of radio, movies, *For a complete description of the questions and codes, see Appendix V., this paper. 30 television, newSpapers, and magazines.* The items which are incor- porated into the component instrument related to use of newSpapers and magazines. Information was gathered by asking the subjects: "Do you read newspapers (magazines?) How many times a week (month?)". If the response to the former question was no, the alternative question was posed in an attempt to control for literacy as an effect on information seeking: "Are newSpapers (magazines) read to you by others? How many times per week (month?)". Responses were coded as a sum of the number of times per week newspapers were read by the subject or to the subject and the number of times per month magazines were read by the subject or to the subject. The result was a scale from 0 to 14 points, indicating frequency of use. (5) Physical Mobility. The information on physical mobility was gathered by asking subjects: "How many times a year do you go to San Jose?" Again, reSponses were coded according to fre- quency of visits to the urban center. Dependent Variable--Autonomy (6) The dependent variable was treated as a single item response for purposes of convenience and efficiency of analysis. The autonomy variable was coded as a single item on the master data deck which was available for the present use, and to treat separate- ly each of the five items which compose the larger autonomy variable *Inter-item correlations on the mass media index are present- ed in Appendix IV. 31 would have involved analytical complications since recoding procedures had intervened and since the original data decks could not have been as readily procured.* The five items on which responses were coded to form the single autonomy-heteronomy item were: "Which is more important to you" 1) "To be liked by others? or to be successful in your work?" 2) "To be similar to other people you know? or to be different from other peOple you know?" 3) "To have many friends? or to have a lot of influence?" 4) "To visit friends regularly? or to read a newspaper regularly?" 5) "To earn enough money to live as long as you have your friends? or to earn more.money, even if it means losing some friends?" The questions are thought to have face validity in tapping the components of: (1) "effect" versus "achievement" orientation: (2) "self-assimilation" or "self-acceptance" versus "self-differ- entiation” or "self-enhancement" orientation; (3) "security” versus ”influence" orientation; (4) "sociability" versus "instrumental information seeking" orientation; and (5) "secure subsistence" versus "risk-aspiration" orientation. The configuration of "being liked," "being similar," "having many friends," "visiting," and ”earning enough money to live," is thought to reflect the attitudinal pattern of the self which is generated by, rooted in, and maintained by the less-modern, traditional social system of the village, or *Inter-item correlations on the autonomy index are presented in Appendix IV. 32 the "heteronomous" self-system. Each such reaponse was numerically coded "one" to yield a minimum score of'five‘on the autonomy scale, or the "heteronomy" pole of the continuum. The confiruration of "being successful in work," "being different," "having influ- ence," "reading," and "earning more money", is thought to reflect the "achievement," "enhancement," "influence," "information," and "risk-aspiration" orientations required by the self which is to function successfully in the face of the less-personal, modern achievement-oriented, technical, industrial society. Each such response was coded numerically "three" to yield a maximum value on the autonomy scale of "fifteen," or the "autonomy" pole of the continuum. Non-committal "depends" responses were coded numerically as "two," indicating an attitude which is not necessarily "rooted" in either the modern or the traditional social system, and therefore is thought to indicate a self which is "transitional" between the "heteronomous" and "autonomous" self systems. Analysis Program Prior to analysis, frequency distributions, means, and standard deviations for all variables were obtained. These fre- quency counts presented a first view of the data, enabled corrections of illegal codes, and provided a rough check on more complex Operations which were performed by the computer. Transformations of extreme codes which might spuriously affect correlation values had been previously performed.* *For an account of the transformation procedure, see Waisanen and Durlak (30: p. Eff). 33 The techniques which were chosen for analysis of the data were rank order and partial correlation and multiple regression techniques performed on a least squares principle. All calculations reported in this thesis were programmed for and performed by a Control Data Corporation "3600" computer at Michigan State University. Since the choice of any analysis and techniques for any particular research problem is fraught with difficulties, the final decision is usually a compromise between finding an efficient means to answer the central problems of the research and using a procedure which is justified given the type and precision of the data. The techniques of partial correlation and multiple regression require certain assumptions about the data for their interpretation, so results must be interpreted with caution. However, given the exploratory nature of the research and the interest in finding predictors for further tests, the advantages of the techniques chosen seem to outweigh the difficulties. Included in our findings are a number of basic statistics and a number of supplementary statistics which may be interpreted as measures of association between the dependent variable and the set of independent variables. Those supplementary statistics which are not directly dealt with in our report of the findings have been included in Appendix III. The reader who is so motivated is encouraged to review the Appendix. IV. RESULTS AND FINDINGS Partial Correlations The coefficient of partial correlation measures the degree of association between variable x and variable Y with other variables "held constant" or "controlled." The statistic represents an ttempt to minimize the possibility that a correlation between two variables is "spurious"--that is, that their common dependence is a function of a third variable or set of variables. By example, a simple correlation between age and autonomy could well be high, but be drastically reduced after the "contaminating effect" of education is taken into account. The degree of association may be dramatically reduced if not eliminted altogether. The results of the partial correlation analysis between the independent variables and the autonomy score are reported in Table III. For purposes of comparison, a matrix of simple correla- tions may be found in Table X, Appendix III. Table III demonstrates a statistically significant relation- ship between the dependent variable of autonomy and the independent variables of family size, age, education, and mass media use. The independent variable of physical mobility is not statistically significant to an acceptable level of .05 or .01. Also, the 34 35 direction of the correlationbetween family size and autonomy, and between TABLE III Partial Correlations and Significance Probabilities: Independent Variables with Autonomy Score, Contamina- tion Effects Controlled Variable Name Partial Correlation Significance Probability Mobility 0.028 0.446 Family Size 0.082 0.022 Age 0.071 0.047 Formal Education 0.121 0.001 Mass Media Use 0.120 0.001 autonomy and age,is not as hypothesized. Weak but significant positive correlations are noted. Summary statements about these data follow. (1) Physical Mobility is perhaps the most provocative finding listed in Table III. Though the partial correlation between physical mobility and autonomy is not significant, the simple correlation between mobility and autonomy reported in Table X (Appendix III) shows one of the stronger associations. The reduction in this relationship in the partial correlation measure would appear to suggest that the association is a function of one of the variables being controlled. Looking further at the data in Table X, it appears that mass media use might well be the variable whh:h produces this effect. Not only does media use show a strong simple correlation with autonomy, it shows a 36 simple correlation of almost .4 with physical mobility. A second variable which shows strong possibilities of a "con- tamination" effect in the simple correlation between mobility and autonomy is education. This leads to speculative possibilities which will be mentioned. However, on the basis of the data in Table III., hypothesis "five" is not supported. (2) Family Size shows a very weak but statistically significant partial correlation with autonomy. However, the direction of the relationship is positive, and the inverse relationship predicted in hypothesis ”two" is not borne out. The fact that there is very little reduction in the size of the simple correlation compared to the partial, suggests that little of the association between family size and autonomy can be explained as a function of the other variables in our predictive team. (3) Ag: shows the weakest, but still statistically significant, partial correlation with autonomy. However, as in the case of family size the direction of this relationship is not as predicted. Hypothesis "one" is therefore not supported. (4) Formal Education shows the strongest relationship to autonomy among the variables selected for analysis. The strength of this relationship was expected and hypothesis "three" is supported. (5) Media Use demonstrates a relationship to autonomy similar in strength and significance to formal education. The 37 strength of the simple correlation is somewhat reduced when the effects of the other variables are controlled in the cal- culation of the partials. However, the partial correlation lends support to hypothesis "four.” Multiple Regression Analysis In Stepwise Multiple Regression, one begins with X number of variables pooled into a team of multiple predictors of the dependent variable. Each of the independent variables is then examined to determine whether its deletion will result in a significant reduction of the predictive power of the team. One variable at a time is deleted, and a new least squares equation calculated, until only those variables remain which cannot be deleted without a significant reduction in the predictive power of the team. These variables may then be considered the most parsimonious predictors of the dependent var- iable, relative to the variables with which one originally started. The results of the Stepwise Multiple Regression analysis are presented in Table IV. Discussion with reference to each of the members of the team of independent variables follows. TABLE IV "Multiple Regression Delete" Coefficients for the Five Independent Variables Variable Name Rineletes Mobility 0.063 Family Size 0.058 Ass 0.059 Formal Education 0.050 Mass Media Use 0.050 38 Table IV shows that the variable "mobility" may be deleted from the team of independent variables with no signifi- cant loss in the predictive power of the remaining variables with reference to autonomy. Physical mobility becomes the first candidate for deletion. The second candidate for deletion is Age. It is followed by Family Size which is the third candidate for deletion. Variables which cannot be deleted without a significant reduction in the predictive power of the team are Formal Educa- tion and Mass Media Use. Education and Media Use emerge as the most parsimonious predictors of autonomy. The effects of deletion on the overall analysis of variance statistics are reported in Table XIII, Appendix III. V. SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION The findings allow us to state that in the population under study the following hypotheses are supported: GH 3: FORMmL EDUCATION IS DIRECTLY RELATED T0.AUTONOMY. GH 4: MEDIA USE IS DIRECTLY RELATED TO AUTONOMY. Apparently, the model which disposes us to view education and media use as "dissociative experiences" for the person in the traditional social system is correct with regard to these factors. Inasmuch as autonomy is an indicator of identification with the social system of modernity, the model may be considered to be supported. The same cannot be said to be true of physical mobility. Significant support is not lent to the hypothesis that physical mobility is directly associated with autonomy. Rather, it appears that the greatest part of the association between physical mobility and autonomy is a function of the variables of mass media use and education. This suggests a relationship between media use and mobility, and between education and mobility, which might be fruitfully explored in further research. With regard to the nature of the association between age and autonomy, and between family size and autonomy, our hypotheses 39 40 were not supported. The direct relationship of these variables, in contrast to the hypothesized inverse correlations, would appear to indicate possibilities which we have ignored in our conceptualiza- tion. For example, it may be that something in the pattern of family relations in the larger family is responsible for pro- ducing self-attitudes which are parallel to attitudes we take as indicators of the autonomous self-structure. It is possible that the constant presence of other persons in the larger family produces a preference for the solitary activity of reading a newspaper, I opposed to behavior which is gregarious such as visiting friends. This line of speculation also raises questions about possible weaknesses in the overall design of the research which should be mentioned. Outstanding are the problems of 1) the validity of the autonomy scale and, 2) the related problems of attitudinal research in general. It is possible that the factor which has been called autonomy does not in fact reflect what it is intended to reflect. The assumption is made that the questions constructed to tap the self- autenomy component have face validity. However, there is nothing to guarantee that the assumption is correct and that the responses are indeed reflective of possession of an autonomous self. Also, it should be noted that the formulation of the theoretical construct of self-autonomy is tentative and partial. As our notions about the nature and operation of self-autonomy become more refined, it may become necessary to construct an instrument which differs 41 considerably from the five-item measure employed here. The related problem of most attitudinal research in general is expressed in the assumption that an attitude reflects a dis- position to act. In the specific case, itis also expressed in the assumption that autonomy reflects attitudinal modernity. There is simply no reliable empirical information which reports the extent to which attitudes and concrete actions are related. In the data as presented here, there is similarly a lack of information on the concrete ways in which the possession of an autonomous self will result in a person's effective participation and assimilation into the social system of modernity. In what behaviors will the person's "modernity" be expressed as a result of his "autonomy?" It would appear that some behavioral test would be in order in future research to overcome such limitations. As the research stands, extreme caution is required in interpreting the findings. Recognizing the limitations in interpretation, education and mass media use do conform to our expectations with regard to autonomy as it has been defined in this study. Beyond that, only future research can be encouraged to shed light on the processes which are thought to be occurring. B I BL IOGRAP HY (l) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (ll) (12) (13) BIBLIOGRAPHY Briones, Guillermo, and Haisanen, F.B. "Educational Aspire. tions, Modernization, and Urban Integration," revised version (mimeo) of a paper read at the Annual Meetings of the American Sociological Association, Miami Beach, 1966. Burns, Tom, and Saul, S.B., eds. Social Theory and Economic Change. London: Tavistock, 1967. Cantril, Hadley. ‘The Pattern of Human Concerns. New Brunswick, NcJe: Rut‘grs, 1965e Etzioni,.Amitai, and Eva, eds. Social Chggge: Sources, Patterns and Consgguences. New York: Basic Books, 1964. Finklo,.Jason L., and Gable, Richard H., eds. Political DeveIOpment and Social Change. New York: Wiley, 1966. Gouldner, Alvin H. Enter Plato. New York: Basic Books, 1966. Gander-Frank, Andre. "The Sociology of Development and the Underdevelopment of Sociology," Catalyst: 3, Summer, 1967, pp. 20.73o Hagen, Everett E. 0n.the Theory of Social Change. Home- wood, Illinois: Dorsey, 1962. Kuhn, Manford H., and McPartland, Thomas S. "An Empirical Investigation of Selquttitudes," American Sociological RQVICw: XIX, 1964’ ppc 68-78e Kunkel, John H. "Psychological Factors in the Analysis of Economic DeveIOpment," Journal of Social Issues: 19, January, 1963’ pp. 68-870 . "Values and Behavior in Economic DeveIOpment," Economic Development and Cultural Changg: 13, April, 1965, pp. 257-277. Lerner, Daniel, ed. The Human Meaning of the Social Sciences. New York: World-Meridian, 1959. Lerner, Denial. The Passigg of TraditionalTSociety: Modernizing the Middle East. Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1958. 42 (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (27) 43 Loomis, Charles P. and Zona K. Modern Social Theories: Selected American Writers. Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand, 1961, 1965. Loomis, Charles P. Social Systems: Essays on Their Persistence and Chan‘s. Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand, 1960. Mania, Jere-e G., and Meltzer, Bernard N. Symbolic Interaction: AJReader in Social Psychology. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1967. McClelland, David C. The Achieving Sociegy. New York: The Free Press, 1961. Moore, Wilbert E. Social Chnn‘e. Englevood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1963. Pye, Lucian.w., ed. Commnnications and Political Development. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1963. Ridker, Ronald G. "Discontent and Economic Growth," Eggnomic Develgpment and Cultural Change: 11, 1962, pp. 1-15e Rogers, Everett M. Diffusion of Innovations. New York: The Free Press, 1961. Rose, Arnold M., ed. Human Behavior and Social Processes: An Interactionist Approach. Boston: Houghton Miflin, 1962. Smelser, Neil J. The Sociolo‘y of Economic Life. Engleuood CliffS, NeJe: Frantic. H.11’ 1963a , ed. Readings in Economic Sociolo‘y. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1965. Smelser, Neil J., and Lipset, S.M., eds. Social Structure and Mobility in Economic Develonment. Chicago: Aldine, 1966. Smith, David Horton, and Inkeles, Alex. "The O-M Scale: A Comparative Socio-Psychological Measure of Individual Modernity," Sociometgy: 29, December, 1966, pp. 353-377. Toennies, Ferdinand. Community and Society: Gemeinsghaft and Gesellgchaft. Charles P. Loomis,E:d.-trans. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1957. 44 (28) Haisanen, F.B. "Control Variables or Indicators? Some Preliminary Comments," working paper (mimeo). East Lansing: Michigan State University, 1966. (29) Waisanen, F.B. "Stability, "Alienation and Change," Sociological Quarterly: 4, Winter, 1963, pp. 18-31. (30) Haisanen, F.B., and Durlak, Jerome T. The Impact of Connnnication on.Rura1 Development: An Investigation in Costa Rica. UNESCO, 1967. (31) . A Survey of Attitudes Related to Costa Rican Population Dynamics. Costa Rica: Programs Interamericano de Informacion Pepular, 1966. (32) . "Mass Media Use, Information Source Evaluation, and Perceptions of Self and Nation," revised version (aimeo) of a paper read at the Annual Meetings of the American Socio- logical Association, Miami Beach, 1966. (33) Wrong, Dennis H. "Human Nature and the Perspective of Sociology," Social Research: 30, Autumn, 1963, pp. 300-318. (34) Zollschan, George K., and Hirsch, Walter, eds. Ennlorations in Social Change. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1964. APPENDIX I Descriptive Data: Distributions and Percentages on Selected Variables 45 Distributions and Percentages for each of the following variables: Autonomy Number of Subjects Percentage 5 229 30.1 6 10 1.3 7 224 29.5 8 16 2.1 9 158 20.8 10 10 1.3 11 75 9.9 12 3 .4 13 32 4.2 14 - - 15 3 .4 Totals 760 100.00% Mobility Number of Subjects Percentage 0 298 39.2 1 227 29.9 2 109 14.3 3 76 10.0 4 19 2.5 5 7 .9 6 10 1.3 7 14 1.8 Totals 760 100.00% 46 Family Size Number of Subjects Percentage 1 9 1.2 2 52 6.8 3 65 8.6 4 79 10.5 5 82 10.7 6 104 13.7 7 89 11.7 8 66 8.7 9 54 7.1 10 68 8.9 11 32 4.2 12 21 2.8 13 15 2.0 14 9 1.2 15 5 .7 16 5 .7 17 2 .3 18 1 .1 20 1 .1 21 1 .1 Totals 760 100.00% Age in Years Number of Subjects Percentage 17-19 6 .8 20-29 153 20.1 30-39 224 29.5 40-49 145 19.1 60-69 73 9.6 70-79 34 4.5 80-87 6 .8 Totals 760 100.00% 47 Formal Education Number of Subjects Percentage 0 161 21.2 1 61 8.0 2 118 15.5 3 167 22.0 4 134 17.6 5 44 5.8 6 61 8.0 7 4 .5 8 4 .5 9 1 .1 10 3 .4 11 2 .2 Totals 760 100.00% Mass Media Use Number of Subjects Percentage 0 384 50.5 1 117 15.4 2 75 9.9 3 49 6.4 4 25 3.3 5 16 2.1 6 10 1.3 7 37 4.9 8 14 1.8 9 11 1.4 10 4 .5 11 9 1.2 12 4 .5 l3 1 .1 14 4 .5 Totals 760 100.00% APPENDIX II Descriptive Data: Distributions of Subjects on the Dependent Variable by the Independent Variables [“2484 e. 2e oi ES 12 93 Tom a. v1 48 oo~ o e. as o_~ ass a- and o .H-uoa Q. 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APPENDIX V Interview Schedule and Field Code* *Source: UNESCO Study Questionnaire (translated from Spanish--June, 1966). See: Waisanen and Durlak, The Impact of Communication (an. cit.), p. 81. 61 Self Autonomy: Code* No. 80 Which is most important to you? 1 a to be liked by To be liked by others? or to others be successful in your work? 2 - to be success- Depends, don't know. On what? ful in your work 3 - depends, don't know 9 - no information NOTE: Try by all possible means that the respondents answers with "1” or "2," avoiding that way answers with "depends" or "don't know." Code No. 80a To be similar to other peeple ' you know 1 - to be similar to -or- other people To be different from other 2 - to be different people you know? from other people 3 - depends, don't know 9 - no information Code No. 80b To have many friends 1 - to have many friends '03- 2 - to.have a lot To have lots of influence Of influence 3 - depends, don't know 9 - no information No. 80c To visit friends regularly 0 - not applicable -or- 1 - to visit 2 a to read a news- To read a newSpaper regularly paper ' 3 - depends, don't know 9 - no information *Responses were recorded as follows: "1" - "1" original code "2" - depends "3" - "2" original code 62 Self Autonony: (continued) No. 80d To earn enough money to live, as long as you have your friends .or. To earn more money, even if it means losing some friends Code 0 - “fiat—applicable l - to earn enough money as long as you have friends 2 - to earn more money even if it means losing friends 3 - depends, don't know 9 - no information Physical Mobility: No. 50 How many times a year do you go to San.Jose? Code none once twice 3 to 5 times 6 to 8 times 9 to 11 times 12 to 15 times 16 to 20 times NOUIkUNl-‘O I I I I I I I I Family Size No. 23a Number of members of the family (living in the same Code exact number of members punched household)? in 2 columns. Code em _ exact number of No. 23c What was your age on your last years punched birthday? in 2 columns Formal Education "What was the last grade or year you completed in school? Code exact number or grade punched in 2 columns Mass Media Use No. 31 Do you read newspapers? Code 1 - yes (go to 31a) 2 II no (go to 311)) 9 - no information 63 Mass Media Use (continued) No. 31a How many times a week? OdouL‘UNi-IO 229.: not applicable time or less times times times times times times no information NOUIbUNI-i No. 31b Is the newspaper read to you by others? unwell-no Code not applicable yes (go to 31¢) no (go to 32) don't know no information No. 31c How many times a week? OQNOUIbUND-io Code not applicable time times times times times times times don't know no information NOML‘WNH No. 32 Do you read magazines? ONO-I! Code yes (go to 32a) no (go to 32b) no information No. 32a How many times a month? OONOUbUNF‘O Code none time times times times times times times don't know no information Nov-euro:— 64 Mass Media Use (continued) 0 - not applicable No. 32b If answer is "no," ask: 1 - yes Are magazines read to you by others? 2 - no 9 a no information