Pica. a .u . I . 0 v 7 .LL .thk and rtv U a II. ’9. mew t 1 k l-o i M fi “ 'o. Io! ’ It... ~ 3 e}... . a s“. ‘1.» Ft ‘t\v 09¢: Mtktq Rand” a. .0 Q . u‘ to Q tht .0...- irl. all... fl ., x I . "J '\.c ‘A‘ ’15.! ,0! .OU 9“? P'lI ‘80 fi I‘ 05 .1 if U‘. :5 .0 F‘ PD‘ I: la Gui-.014 “.1. n . IV I ‘5 ‘i ‘ l ‘ | I‘.’” ”1704‘. ‘ . . Q. ... d . .. wiL 5.! .l 5:. . {ab . I. o . c t. “. . :5! O 6|- . I ‘1 v .0.‘:. h . .‘t ~.a\‘. 'v‘v vt I.) MOLD.- 35' £00 -l'. l o ‘ t ‘. IQ. 0 I. Mr"... “I’m-L ‘rll . I .I-VYU “iii ”05"-. ‘lesvuu‘ .‘ l l" it p‘l‘l' w... " .,n. . "fifi 3’.‘ .‘ ~ .0. o . ‘0‘: .l I .l ‘,.-.u .1!» ‘0 ‘, .r‘ 0... co Hut} 0 by l. 9"). «3P7. “" ‘0... “‘ l . :9... v "1 '- .vor..h 0.1.... 0:... GUM!“ {Mb “ a . «fix-L \ . 9C. .‘I'O q . d r. SUV. Tn. O v.9 .(s we"! 73!. f-u t! 0!; vb . ‘o “Iv J. t... H???- “ f‘d D . :51... It ‘0.“ v .5 u .. J10.0I '14; . t .fl .. . H1: rs... . 4 ”A! PE”. .91» PIPE, til \ It. a \ ,‘III 11 ‘t luv-.50. . I “ H O b a. v 3.. a O ... .1" ‘F‘c... “‘0‘ I. 37' .3”! a. v .n J.‘ n It...» . mxnn. . o. "|00 b . .‘O-OD- Q (1...“ N {J .' In... a. o .35 «vtfl i .3 IV... I?! 2.731 a... n\ . f N‘. . vil- o. a “Oil! "91".. 0000.9». 41".. 5””. nt {.003 9 DO 9 .7 up...’ '4... 4.“ . Q ~ w I . c. on V .1 c 0"... dloo| P!“ .09.. 5 {kilo filt\ In"... 0.9“. w‘h. 9!... K.) I105... L A A. .43.. I 3. II... I . . IV... I... Dub! " Ono... n. ‘ Qt. 1. '0'! 5‘ M011: a o‘.‘ ‘ I!!! Al. ‘3. o: If to.“ O . .l '-| I‘ ..... .. .o I", II o M- o I O. F -‘k "“ . MU. 30.. 3 n .b‘ \u .1 0: a a“.\| \ . J L: 2 01V\ 5:-.. I 9.3... O ulv " I l‘l .. O I‘L .7400. “3. Hi 1 .“ '9‘ a r . . fl .. Q . .16.... ..q’h.. I: ‘ fl 'oll. I. .. "t c.6r'. .3: .o . it o. a ”(9.!” \VI ’5‘.“ ‘ O ‘." a II!"- IP \‘ H 1.0. Lh‘ J I ti I a 1/ .1. H i: TEE EFFECTIVENES W MEN'IIL PRACTICE USED DI CWUNCI‘IOI arm AUDIO-VISUAL AND VISllL PRACTICE IN 1113 mm W THE FCBEHMD mm II m B! Charlotte Grahun Knox 1N ABSMCT OF I WIS Submitted to Michigan Stat. University in partial fulfill.» of the roquircmnta for the dogs. of mm @1328 Department of Health, Physical Eduation, and Boa-cation 1968 Approved $0.2M Mid/012W Answer THE momma 01’ mm MOTICE [BE IN CONJUNG‘HCI um! lUDIQ-VISIIL AND VISLIL PRACTICE IN THE DEVELOP!“ OF THE MID IBIVE Ill mm ‘ By Chnrlotte Graham Knox 0 oh 111 The purpoee of this etw was to determine the relative effective- noes or mntal practice need in conjunction with audio and audio-flea]. instruction employing matched paire or eubjecte in the perfornnee of the forehand drive in tennis. WE! Results indicated that experimntal group A (the audio-dam mental practice group) improved 6.5 percent from the initial test to the final teat and experimental group B (the audio natal mono pom) declined -6.5 percent. Only one teat indicated that eigniticent reeulte occurred during the 31:: took experinntal period. A Paired t-Teet in- dicated that at the 95 percent level of confidence the man cheap in experimertal group B was eigzitcantly lees (t-2.06) than the Dan change in experimental group A. It was concluded that audio-visual prac- tice need in conjunction with mental wactioe was superior to audio need in conjunction with mntal practice under the conditions of the experi- mnt. THE EFFECTIVENESS OF MENTAL PRICTICE USED IN CQIJUNCTIQI HITH AUDIO-VISUAL AND VISUAL PRACTICE IN IRE DEVEIDMT 01’ BE FQLFHAND mm IN ENNIS By Charlotte Graham Knox AME Stbmitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillmnt of the requiremnte for the degee of EASE! 01"st Department of Health, Hweical Education, and Bea'eation 1968 Chapter I. II. III. IV. V. BIBIJGBLPHY APPEI‘IDICES I'lBLE (F CONTENTS IN'DthCTION.......... Purpose of the Stucv . 0 Need for the Study . . . . Definition of Terms . . Limitations of the Study KEVWOFLITEQTURE...... Comparison of Mental and Physical Practice. Combinations of Mental and musical Practice Mental Practice and Retention Mental Practice and Endurance mmosmocmms...... Selection of Subjects General Procedure . . Training Pragram e 0 Analysis of Data . . RESULTS...ooooooooo Analysis Of Data 0 e e e e e Questionnaire Analysis . . . . Discussion of Fifi-“83 e e e 0 summit, CONCLUSIONS, Summary Conclusions Mental Practice and Smoothness of Performance Effects of Mental Practice on the Boctr . Visual Aspect of Mental. Practice . . e Recconmendations for Further Research AND RECWTIONS 0...... 3’ ‘5 5:55 t3 Sow-sided? r wan-up H 3 881's 5 £35151 ‘61 N 0‘ CW1 IN'IRWUCTIGJ Man' 3 ability for acquiring new skills has a definite relationship to his effectiveness in establishing control over his enviroulnnt. It is this unique ability which has enabled him to adapt to the demnds of a changing environment. Investigations related to the develnpmnt of more efficient techniques for acquiring new skills have becom increas- ineg important as levels of achievement rise. In recent years a nunber of investigations including those of Eggleston (2.1.), Berry (15), swin- Rabson (19), Beattie (1.2), Waterland (53), Clark (A), Kelsey (13), Smith and Harrison (28), Whiteley (51), Egstrom (7), and Steel (31.) have shown the value of mental practice in the learning process. 2mg of the Study It is the purpose of this stncv to determim the relative effective- ness of mental practice used in conjunction with audio and audio-visual instruction employing matched pairs of subjects in the performnce of the forehand drive in tennis. flgeg 30: tm Stm Investigators have studied the various aspects of natal. practice, including the effectiveness of different combinations: of nental and physical practice, the role of nental practice in retention, the effect of mental practice on the body, and mam other variables which sign; facilitate or inhibit the amotmt of improvemnt to be gained from mental 2 practice. An important initial step, however, has received little of the investigators' attention. Chly one study has been conducted to W the type of instruction that would be neat productive in developing a motor skill, prior to the conceptualization session. Paul Surbln'g (36) investigated the effectiveness of mental practice conbimd with three variables of instruction: audio, visual, and audio-visual presentations of the forehand tennis drive. Among the variables of instruction, audio, used in conjunction with mental practice proved to be the most effective method for the development of the forehand drive. Another important step has also received little of the investig- tors' attention. Research has been undertaken to discover tln relation ‘ of individual difference variables to imavenent under mental pectice conditions. Although investigators have probed into the effects of abstract reasoning (Wilson, 52), games ability (Start, 31, Uhiteley, 51), imagery (Whiteley, 51, Start and Richardson. 33), intelligence (Perry, 15, Clark, a, Start, 29, 32, and whiteley. 5D, mechanical reasoning (Wilson, 52), motor ability (Whiteley, 51), sex (Perry, 15), and spatial relations (Wilson, 52) , only game ability, imaging ability and selective attention have shown a significant relation to the amount of gain from rental practice. In spite of the significance of these variables and the sub- sequent need to equate groups in order to make a valid comparison, no previous attenpt has been made to match subjects on any of these variables prior to participation in mental practice. kmtion 91 bgg Mental practice refers to ”the symbolic rehearsal of a plueical activity in the absence of any pose muscular movements" (16, p.97). is defined by Perry, mental practice is ". . . the repetition or rehearsal of the task 'in the mind's eye'" (15, p.69. Therefore when a gymnast stands with his eyes closed and "thinks” his way through the movement he is about to perform he is engaged in menta1.practice. limitations 9: tm Stugz Sapplg. This study is confined to ten matched pairs.of subjects selected from 106 women at Michigan State University. Teghnigues egg Progggures. There was no feasible way, other than limiting the study to a brief training period which was not practical in this investigation, of controlling mental practice outside of the train— ing sessions. It is recognized that the effectiveness of the coordinator of the testing and practice sessions and her attitude toward the experimental procedure my have an influence on the achievement and attitudes of the students. The questionnaire deve10ped for this study was used without being tested previously. This is a one-term.study with no provision for retention.testing. The study is of necessity limited by the validity and the inherent limitations of the tests used for matching purposes and the testing procedures employed. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE 0:; ' '80 Me 31 Pr t .Many investigators have compared the effectiveness of physical and mental practice in the acquisition or development of a motor skill. The first investigation concerned with mental practice was conducted in 1899 by W. G. Anderson (2). Anderson conducted several investigations in which gymnastic movements were thought of instead of practiced. He reported that gmnastic movements could be learned it the mind only was trained, without actual use of the muscles (2, p.278). Confirming statistical analysis was not presented. More recently Perry (15) utilizing elemntary school children, attempted to determine the relative efficiency of menta1.practioe and physical practice in tapping, card sorting, a peg board task, mdrror drawing, and digit substitution. He found significant improvemnt with either method and reported that the relative effectiveness varied with the task used. In the peg board task the menta1.practice method seemed to be more effective than actual practice. A basketball skill has often been utilized in investigations com- paring mental and physical practice. In 191.3, Vandell, Davis, and Clugston (39) reported on the learning of basketball throwing and dart throwing in a three week study including high school and college groups. Although the number of subjects was small, the consistency of the results prompted the investigators to conclude that sental practice was about as effective as physical practice under the conditions of the experiment. This investigation was verified by D. 14. Beattie (A2) with a larger nun- ber of subjects. Beattie not only obtained confirmation of the earlier study, but also found bilateral transfer from the preferred to the non- preferred hand. Clark (1.) made a comprehensive :3th of basketball free throwing as affected by mental practice and other selected variables, including arm strength and intelligence. The fifteen day study revealed that while both physical and mental practice led to significant improvements in per- formance in varsity, junior varsity, and novice youps, the novice youps were most successful in utilizing physical practice. Intelligence as measured by the Short Form of the California Mental Maturity Test was found to have no significant relationship. Start (32) in another has-- ketball study, investigated the role of intelligence and 1:3an practice in the development of the underarm free throw for groups of varying . ability. He found that significant improvement in shooting free throws was not significantly related to the initial score or to individml intelligence. Another avenue of investigation for comparing the two methods of practice has been throwing skills. Thinnlg (38) presented 36 college men with a ring toss experiment. The group that received In practice over a three week period showed no significant learning, whereas the physical practice group improved 137 percent and the nental practice group improved 36 percent. Whiteley (51) used a tennis ball throwing task involving school age boys to determine the relative valm of nan- tal and physical practice. Neither method proved superior. A study by Burns (13) employing 250 girls with ages ranging from junior his: through college, used the skill of dart throwing. This study reported that physical practice and a carbination of both types were superior to rental practice alone under the conditions of the experiment. Comb o c He t ct In addition to Burns (A3) many other investigators have studied the effects of combinations of physical and rental practice periods. Trussell (1.9) using a two hand-three ball Juggling task found no signi- ficant gains in learning to Juggle when a comparison was reds between physical and rental practice. The greatest improvement, however, oc- curred with five minutes of rental practice for six days followed by fourteen days of physical practice. The group which had only physical practice was the second best, followed by the group which had five min- utes of rental practice for fourteen days and then six days of physical practice. The all. mental practice group came in fourth place and the no practice group last. In a etucv by Riley and Riley and Start (18) four mups of fourteen and fifteen year old girls practiced quoit throw- ing for twelve days. The group which alternated days of rental and physical practice improved the most. The group which received six days of physical practice followed by six days of rental practice was second, followed by the group which received six days of mental practice then six days of physical practice. is a sidelight of his main investigation, Whiteley (51) studied the inproverent of four groups of twenty-three boys each, on a complex gruestic skill. The groups practiced for twenty minutes each for twelve days. The youp which alternated five minutes physical practice with five minutes rental practice improved the rest. Next care the group which 7 alternated ten minutes physical practice with ten minutes rental practice. The all pl'Usical practice aoup was in third place and the all rental. practice group was fourth. Ergstrom (7) gave physical performnoe tests to six aoups of twenty male university stuzlents each, on the first, seventh, and thirteenth day of his investigation. The aoup which alter- nated rental and physical practice gained the most but was not signifi- cantly better than the all phvsical practice aoup which came in second. He t t 0 Another effect of rental practice that has been investigated is its role in retention of motor learning. In a stucw of keyboard trials in piano, Rubin—Rabson (19) used three groups with three skilled pianists in each aoup. The group employing five physical practice trials follow- ed by a four minute rental practice period and then physical practice until the piece could be played with only one error, had significantly better retention one week later than either of the other two groups. While one of the other acups erployed physical practice until the piece could be played once with only one error, followed by four rdnutes of rental practice, the other aoup employed only physical practice. Sackett (22) also found that thinking through in verbal terms once a day in the interval between learning and relesrning a maze habit was beneficial to the retention of a mac habit after one week. WW Kelsey ()3) investigated the value of rental practice for increas- ing endurance, which he (hfined as "the ability to continue repeated muscular activity“ (13, p.l.7). Thirty-six college men conceptualised sit-ups for five minutes per day for twenty days. Althouai the muscular 8 endm'ance of the abdominal and thigh flsxnr m. increased significant- ly, the inproverent was relatively slight wbn compared with the results of the plmdcal practice amp. Another stay on the effect of .ntal practice on muscular endurance was conducted by Steel (31.) using four aoups of randomly selected school boys on a bench press task. This study also investigated the effect of cortinations of phydcal and un- tal practice. (he amp had rental practice, another no practice, an- other physical practice followed by five minutes of rental practice, and the fourth physical practice. Though the physical and mental. practice carbination amp aired 12.66 percent it was not simificantly stperior to the physical practice amp which gained 8.5!; percent. . Still otter investigators have investigated the effect of rental practice on smoothne es of performance . Water-land (50) We! a phylu- eal practice and a lental practice amp on a ten pin bowling skill. The musical practice amp was coached under standard conditions of instruc- tion, while the rental practice amp was intructed to close their eyes and imagine the kinesthetic “feel. of the bowling action before. deliver- ing each ball down the alley. Under these conditions the metal practice amp had a smother perforrence, as well. as increased velocity and man score. Another stew which could be included in this category was conduct- ed by Abeldray and Surkov (1). Using two amps with only two Jumpers in each group they fomd that high Jmpers who mm the detailed movements of their Juap before take-off showed superior movement to those who did not ewloy this procedure. E t t o t e B Mental practice has also been shown to have several effects on the body. For czarple, it increases muscular tension as shown by the electro- myoaaphical evidence of Jacobson (12) and Shaw (21., 25, and 26). Jacob- son has shown that an imagined movement (e.g. bending one arm), results in measurable action currents generated in the flexor muscle of the sane arm. These minimal muscular contractions occur always in the limb which is imagined as being moved and are not observable in the other linbs, or in the trunk, providing the subject has learned to relax completely. Shaw (25) reported an increase in muscular potentials in all muscle amps tested during the imaging of such tasks as squeezing a hand dyna- moreter, typing, singing, and playing a wind instrumnt. In another stucu, Shaw (26) had his subjects imagine lifting bars or varying might. He found that when the rental activity was increased by varying the size or the task or the amount of difficulty, muscular activity also increased. The evidence of Shaw (21.) and Jacobson (12) differs slightly in that Jacobson reported that his subjects, trained to relax, demonstrated action current potentials only in the muscles involved in the particular in- agined activity, while Shaw noted that localisation of the action ctr-rent potentials was not obtained in his stucn. Shaw theorized that "the dis- tribution of these action ctrrent potentials seems to indicate that dur- ing the revival of vestigal responses, one can expect to be present any muscular activity that accorpanied that original response" (25, p. 216). in earlier article by Freeman (8) on the spread of neuromuscular activity during rental work described a rethod for studying the activity of five muscle aoups in the human bow and presented certain patterns of mum-muscular "spread" which were found to occur under a nunber of experimental conditions. In addition to increasing muscular tension in the body, rental practice has also been reported to have caused actual body reverent. Schultz (1.7) asked his subjects to imagine that a string held in cm hand and weighted on the other end would swing from left to rigmt or for- ward and backward. Every subject who consistently thought of these move- ments actually produced them. The more vivid the imagination process, the more pronounced was the actual overt movements. A study by Arnold (3) on the effectiveness of waking suggestion on body sway also showed the influence of rental practice on bow moverent. Arnold (3) found that the amount of my increased with the vividness of the subject's imagery. A combination of visual and kinesthetio imagery was found to be rere effective than visual imagery alone. Investigations have also demonstrated that rental practice affects respiration, and the cortex. Short (27) found that during actual visual- isation, visual imagers breathed regularly and showed freqmnt blocking of Alpha rhythm. Verbal iregers, on the other hand, breathed irregularly with the Alpha rhythm persistent during the period of verbal imagery. ViguagI Amgt of Mental Pragtigg Several investigators have erphasised the visual aspect of instruc- tion in rental practice. Harby (1.1) utilized motion pictures to stimulate rental activity in his rental practice technique of a free throw skill. He varied the time span of his rental practice periods from seven to twenty-one days and found no gains in the four amps involved in the conceptualizing technique. Gerber (1.5) utilized a loop film of the under hand free throw, shown three times a session, to stimulate conceptulisa- tion of the skill for college men. in improverent was shown in skill. execution after fourteen days of metal practice. aupols (35) erployed a some what different mthod and found that previous observation of mirror drawing without actual retor performance facilitated later execution of the task. In his study the experilental gromhadtentrialswith the righthandonamirror drawing taskfollew- ed by observation of a partrer carrying out ten trials. This arrangemnt resulted in superior perforrence on the test trial compared with the con- trol group which had ten trials with the right hand only with no later opportunity for observation. Gagne (9) investigated the transfer of training to a rotor task following varying amounts of preliminary prac- tice on a pictured representation. Although no significant differences between the response scores of the different groups were found on the first ten trials of practice on the mtor task, significant differences did appear betwoen these learning scores as the learning continued. In _ general, the amount of transfer on the thirtieth trial of final learning increased directly with the amber of trials of preliminary practice. Smith and Harrison (28) investigated the effects of mtor, visual, reversed visual, rental and guided practice upon speed and accuracy of preferrence of a three hole punch board task. his subjects of the groups practiced according to their particular procedures for six periods of ten seconds, after an initial one minute trial. After each of the ten second practice periods, the subjects were required to read for ten seconds mking a total tire of two minutes. It was concluied that the rest significant over-all irproverent occurred under the untal practice and visual conditions. Sun-burg (36) investigated the effects of rental practice in conjunction with audio, vislel, and audio-visual instruction in the performance of the forehand drive in tennis. he coup engapd in rental practice showed significant improvement while those with just audio, visual, or audio-visual practice showed no significant impx'overent. Among the variables of instruction, audio in conjunction with mntal practice proved to be the most effective under the conditions of the ex- periment. CHLPTER III METHOD OF PROCEDURE Selection of Subjects Subjects for the study were female college students enrolled in physical education at Michigan State University. From 106 volunteers, ten matched pairs of subjects were selected on the basis of their scores on the Surburg adaptation of the Broer-Miller Tennis Test (36), the Iowa-Brace Test of Motor Educability (40) , and a modified version of the Gordon Test for Autonomy of Imagery (10) . no a dure The subjects were matched on the basis of their scores on the Ioaw-Brace Test of Motor Educability, a modified version of the Gordon That for Autonomy of Imagery, and the Surburg adaptation of the Broer- Miller Tennis Test which was administered to the subjects on two con- secutive days. (he rember of each pair of subjects was randomly assigned to the experimental group 1. Experimental group i was designated as the audio-visual rental practice group while experimental group B was des- ignated as the audio rental practice youp. The experimental youps trained according to their particular designation three times a week for a period of six weeks. Following the six week training program the Surburg adaptation of the Broer-Miller Tennis Test was again adrdnister- ed to both groups. A questionnaire was also administered to gain the opinions of the subjects. Tra mi 0 m Following the initial tests for matching purposes, the training program consisted of three practice sessions each week for a period of six weeks. Each group had the practice session divided into two parts: instructional and conceptual. During the instructional phase experirental group A (the audio-visual rental practice group) watched and listened to the forehand drive segnent of a sound film on tennis (1.0). Experimental group B (the audio mental practice group) listened to the sound portion of the film but did not actually view the film during the instructional phase of their practice sessions. During the second portion of each practice session the subjects in both experimental groups closed their eyes and conceptualized twenty-five times all of the movements involved in the execution of the forehand drive. To formalize the actual procedure the following instructions were read each group just prior to their con- ceptual practice: I want you to close your eyes and imagine yourself on a tennis court standing just behind the base line. When you have done this as well as you are able, try to rentally rehearse the routine of bouncing the ball, and then contacting it with the racket on your forehand side. Besides trying to see yourself also try to feel yourself go- ing through the routine. Try to see and feel yourself having your racket back, with your wrist firm and the head of the racket up. Try to see yourself stepping forward as you contact the ball so that your left foot is at the one o'clock position if you were stand- ing in the middle of a large clock. Continue the forward reverent with your whole body. Watch the ball as it clears the net and see where it lands on the court. Give the area near the Opposite base line your careful attention and in your next drive try to make any adjustments in your actions which you feel will cause the ball to just clear the net and land in that area. Count to yourself each tire that you contact the ball rentally until you have completed the entire reverent 25 times. Now close your eyes and quietly con- centrate. The subjects were instructed not to think about or to participate in tennis outside of the stuctv. Immediately following the last training session the subjects in both groups were administered the Surburg adaptation 15 of the Broer—Miller Tennis Test and a qrestionnaire (See Appendix A) . Analysis of Data A comparison of the initial and final scores of both experimental groups on the Surburg adaptation of the Broer-Miller Tennis Test was made by a t-Test, a Sign Test, a Chi Square Contigency Test and a faired t~Test with a two-sided alternative and a level of significance of 0.05. A questionnaire was also administered to obtain the opinions of the sub- jects on the teaching method used and to provide other pertinent informa- tion. CHAPTEI IV RESULTS W A paired t-Test (See Appendix C) indicated that at the 95 percent level of confidence the rean change in experimental group B (the audio mental practice group) was significantly less (t--2.06) than the mean change in emerirental group A (the audio-visual rental practice group). Neither experimental group, however, had a significant difference between mans at the .05 level between initial and final tests (See Appendix D and E). Experimental group A had a t score of v.25 and experimental group B had a t score of 0.00. Changes in the performance level from the initial test to the final test were as follows: experimental group A +6.5 percent and experimental group B -b.5 percent. A Chi Square Contigency Test indicated that during the six week‘ex- perimental period re change occurred which was significant at the .05 level (See Appendix F) . no t o A 8' Results of a questionnaire (See Appendix A and B) administered to both experimental groups just after their final test, indicated that five of the twenty subjects felt that they were rere successful when performing rentally than when performing plursically. Seventeen 17 reported confidence in mental practice as a factor in improving the fore- hand drive. No one indicated having problems with extraneous practice either natal or physical outside of the regular practice sessions. Four students, however, indicated that they found problems in prac- ticing mntally. Three of these four were in experimental group B (the audio mental practice group) and they also indicated that they found it difficult to concentrate on the type of presentation which their youp received prior to mental practice. Qiggussion of Fingggg These findings were not statistically significant because of the snail sampling and various methodological problems. It is interesting to note, however, the negative results found in experimental youp B between initial and final tests. In the research available concerning mental practice, only two other studies have indicated negative results. 'l‘russell (37) first cited an instance when mental practice did not effect an improvemnt in performance. The fact that her Juggling task was not familiar to the subjects was thought to be a variable. In 1965, Corbin (5) conducted a unique study using a wand juggling skill. as the criterion task. 0n the basis of his results he suggested that ". . . mental prac- tice can only be effective if subjects have experience in the task prior to their exposure in practicing mentally.(5, p.118). It my have been advantageous, therefore, to have established a minimun skill level as a criterion for selection previous to matching. Another aspect which must be considered is the fact that the subjects in experimntal group B did not have a clear concept of the task to benefit adequately from audio presentation alone. This is emphasized by Cratty (53) who stated that "Although ‘verbal instruction seems most important 18 during the initial stage of learning, its complexity should not exceed the comprehension limits of the learner. It seems best to keep verbal training to a minimal, especially in learning tasks containing rapid movements. . . A verbal demonstration may be copied. . . only to the extent to which the learner is able to identify with the presentation and see himself in the role of the performer" (53 , p.18). Another factor which could have aided in producing negative results was suggested by Cratty (53). He suggested that ”Mental rehearsal may be more facilitating in a task which remains in a stable visual field than one that does not” (53, p.216). They found no difference between groups whose time was occupied in sim;>le noninterfering mental and rotor tasks and a group that was permitted to nentally practice a locomotor maze performd while blindfolded. CHAPTEIV SUI'HARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECQIIMWTIONS W The purpose of this study was to compare the effectiveness of mental practice used in conjunction with audio and audio-visual instruction, em- ploying ten matched pairs of subjects, in the performance of the forehand tennis drive. The subjects, 106 volunteer female college students enroll- ed in Physical Education classes at Michigan State University, were mtched on the basis of’their scores on the Surburg adaptation of the Broer-Miller Tennis, the Iowa Brace Test ofNMotor Educability, and the Bette Test of Visual.Autonomy. Experimental group A was designated as the audio-visual mental practice group while experimental group B was designated as the (audio mental practice group. The experimental groups trained according to their particular designation three times a week for a period of six weeks. Each group had the practice session divided into two parts: in- structi onal and conceptual. Following the six week training program the Surburg adaptation of the BroeréMiller Tennis Test and a questionnaire was administered to both groups. Results indicated that experimental group A (the audio-visual mental.practice group) improved 6.5 percent from the initial test to the final.test and experimental.group B (the audio mental practice group) declined -6.5 percent. Only one test indicated.significant results. A Paired t-Test indicated that at the 95 percent level of confidence the 20 mean change in experinwntal group B was significantly less (t-2.06) than the mean change in experimental group A. W _ The conclusions which may be drawn from this stuly are of course limited to the specific task which was mdertalnsn and to the nature and conditions of the the subjects and procedure. within these limitations the statistical analysis of the experimental groups stpports the presenta- tion of the following conclusions: 1. Audio-visual practice used in conjunction with mental practice -was superior to audio used in conjunction with rental practice under the conditions of the experiment. 2. Audio used in conjunction with mntal practice did seem to cause a declim in performance between initial and final tests. 3. Further research seem warranted in the area of the type of in- struction that would be most productive in developing a Inter skill prior to the conceptmlization session. WW It is clear that better controlled investigations are needed to con- firm or refute the findings already obtained and to extend the knowledge of the type of instruction which is necessary prior to mental practice. For annals, additional research could be done in the follmdng areas: 1. Studies are needed which establish optimal rental practice pro- oedures. ’ 2. Further studies are required which establish individual differ- ence factors which my facilitate or inhibit the amunt of in- provenent to be gained from mental practice. 3. The imdiate and long range effect of different types of exper- ience prior to mental practice should be explored. 1.. Sttriies are required which establish the mture of the task which can be acquired through mental practice. BIBLICBHAPHY 311mm: W 3. 1+. 5. 7. 8. 9. Abelskaya, R. 3. and 3. ll. Surkov. "Further Devlopnts in Psychology in 0. 3. 3. Rn" W. 1021.72. 1959- Andersen, 3.6. "Studies in the Effects of Physical Training," m- W. 4:265-78. 1899- Arnold, H. B. "(h the Mechanism of Suggestion and Hypnosis," m o o . 1.1310748, 191.6. Clark, L. V. "Effect of Mental Practice on the Developent of a Ger- tun Honor Skill.” W. 31:560-569. 1960 Corbin, C. 8. "Effects of Mental Practice on Skill Develop-mt after Controlled hactice,” WW. 38:53h-538, 1967. Corbin, O. B. "The Effects of covert Rehearsal on the Developnt of t 00-pin later Ski-11." WW. 76:113- 50. 1967. Ergstrol, G. H. "Effect of an Equhasis on Conceptmlising 'Dedmiqms dun-ing Early learning of a Gross Motor Skill," W 1:11. 3581.7241, 196A. Freem, G. L. I"l'he Spread of Neuro-nuscular Activity dis-ing lhntal Work." 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I. UananShOd study reported by A. L. Richardson. "Abn- tal Practice: 1. A Review and Discussion," 33W. 38:95‘107, 1967e 50. Waterland, A. H. "The Effect of Mental Practice Combined with Kinse- thetic Perception? (Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1956). 51. Whiteley, G. F. "The Effect of Mental Rehearsal on the Acquisition of Motor Skill“ (Unpublished diploma in education dissertation, Ihiversity of Manchester, 1962). 52. Wilson, M. E. "The Relative Effect of Mental Practice and Physical Practice in Learning the Tennis Forehand and Backhand Drives" (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Iowa, 1960). 39058 53. Cratty. Bo J - Waning. Phfldelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1967. 51.. McCloy, c. H. and N. D. Young. Tests and Meagggmegtg g; Health _ u t n. New York: Appleton-Century—Ch'ofts, Inc., 195‘}, ppe87'9le APPENDICE BI . \ "omCt‘S Lem msuuc’uom M W30 \— W A . ' . .x 133 E‘ 1 A 3,1257"? \CH\G“‘\\ \Q” APPENDIX A REULTS 0F QUETIONNAIRE Experimntal Group A (Audio-visual bbntal Practice) 27 Please read the following qtestions carefully and place a check in the appropriate column. 1. 2. 3. l». 5. 6. Did you find any problems in practicing mentally? Did you practice physically outside of the regular practice sessions? Did you practice nentally outside of the regular practice sessions? Do you have confidence in mental practice as a factor in improving the forehand drive? Do you feel you were more successful when performing nentally than when performing physically? Did you find it difficult to concentrate on the presentation which your group received prior to nental practice? 293 1 pg 9 APPENDIX B RESULTS OF QUESTIONNAIRE Experimental Group B (Visual Mental Practice) Please read the following questions carefully and place a check in the appropriate colunn. 12s is 1. Did you find any problems in practicing mentally? 3 7 2. Did you practice physically outside of the regular practice sessions? - 10 3. Did you practice mentally outside of the regular practice sessions? - 10 1.. Do you have confidence in mental practice as a factor in improving the forehand drive? 8 2 5. Do you feel you were more successful when performing nentally than when performing physically? 2 8 6.. Did you find it difficult to concentrate on the presentation which your group received prior to to rental pactice? 3 7 29 APPENDIX C PAIRED t~TEBT The t-test of the hypothesis that the difference between the mean changes in two normal, dependent subpopulations is equal to, not greater than, or not less than some specified valm (5,) when nothing is known about the variance of the changes in the two subpopulations. Asstme: One bivariate norml population produced by matching prior to experimntal period, having bivariate normal subpo ulations produced by testing before (b) and retesting after (a the experi- mental period. To Test: Ho; 23155‘ 2; logo H z 3143‘ 4.50:0 Test Statistic: {3 EL- 6‘ ”$0 qrébfi—(aDy-t n: [(1,]! 1g aye-20203 0,322 Dial); " n—\) V Set:°L -.05 and fiend a) such that n-20 is necessary and sufficient. Draw: A bivariate random sample of n-20, Lo. 20 matched pairs of subjects. Obtain: an. 35 2 02:0 2 03:35.23 2 03.333 D,: . 3 5 is": O RSD: t with dM-l-20-1-19 (RR: Reject H, for t-2.0930 Comm: {1: 9:.35-0 * \llflflamshzas + HWZRE‘H’) 100(9) '3 “’33 235 2 I M- ~ : .‘n O \I 3.02.. .7 ’W " Conclude: Accept H. at the .05 level of significance. At the 95 per- cent level of confidence the nean change in group B was less than themchangeingroupA. 30 lPPENDIX D t-‘l‘e st The t-test of the hypothesis that the difference between the means (.5=H7;H) of two norm], dependent subpopulations is eqml to, not greater than, or not less than sone specified value (40) when nothing is known about the variance (fij’andof) of the two subpopulstions. Assuns: One bivariate normal s‘ population produced by retesting. X. and L bow £1. NOLAuf, ,T,“ The bivariate sample is random To Test: Ho; M1-H.’;.§°:o H‘: H1:M"7J°=O I? Test Statistic: x: 23-7, «so ‘3 n 2 on (2 p? nfl'nol) Set: 0‘ -.05 and B and e; such that n-lo is necessary and sufficient. Draw: A bivariate random sanple. of mm. Obtain: 75:15 RAE 2D~=3L275 20:35 RSD: t with df-n-l-10-1-9 Catt: Reject Ho for t-2.26. Compute: £6t8-r15-o .5‘ 5‘ PW twf'iwa’IA-nfis i—:——-—» ., .3; _ ,5 ._ 25, ‘°°‘°‘> W %o “MW“ 4176'?) ‘ ' ‘ioo Conclude: Accept H0 at the 95 percent level of confidence. The differ- ence between man's is not significant at the .05 level. 31 APPENDIX E t-TET The t-test of the hypothesis that the difference between'the means (,5 =91. H. ) of two normal, dependent subpopulations is equal to, not water than, or not less than sone specified value (A.,) when nothing is known- about the variance of the two subpopulations. Assume: One bivariate normal subpopulation produced by retesting. Y\Q(\A x1 50““ g N (M\ \H). UV?) “‘3’, The bivariate sample is random ‘4 To Test: “on Hf“. ;_ {30:0 $4.2 RVH. 7.30:0 Test Statistic: { .—. 71,—2er (n £13". 1103‘? i n'(n-I) Set: st -.05 and j3 and 4 such that n-lo is necessary and sufficient. Draw: A bivariate random sample of n-lo . Obtain: Y; u.% 71: H3 2b*=a88 20:0 880: t with df=n-1=lO—1'9 ORR: Reject H. for t-2.26 Compute: _u,8-u.8-q 0 0 *3 «0 (2381'0 2 “ng2“ r ‘00 9) J, <10¢:- Conclude: Accept H. at the 95 percent level of confidence. The differ- ence between mane is not significant at the .05 level. 32 GIISQUAREOWET nnempwumw.Ifumtmrunimpuuustmntupumnnmanm- tween the proportions of "successes" (3:141) in two dependent bimonial subpopulations is eqml to, not greater than, or not less than the speci- rnmvtm-(s )unns..«n Asst-n: me bivariate binomial population produced by latching X. i [1" * (‘4'th ,uuhue P E‘seccces' J :TY LAEW H! TLT" ' where :C’cq'\3::~—}: 1:1" The bivariate binomial eenplei wt? ' "1" To Test: “0', 111. “350:0 ‘4‘.- “1’1L1SQ1'O “at Statistic: V's (n$\‘n.e)‘y M “”4“” Set: 4 -.05 and b and A such that n-20 is necessary and sufficient. Draw: A bivariate binomial random senile of n-20 (Main: 9'...” 9.:.o4 nun. n 2! n -\ n =3 1" |‘. 1.43 nSD: it" with df-l ORR: Reject H. for {$.36 A 3 4 «03 Qwu? B P Concludes percent level of confidence. During the six uek experimetel period no change oeeun-ed which was signi- ficant at the .05 level. — .“ Thesis Charlotte Graham Knox MdpAe ”'Tl'iifi\fi\j\\3i2\fij@\fififlijfififliflu\flflfijfififlfES