ABSTRACT LENGTH OF MARRIAGE AN D EDUCATIONAL LEVEL AS VARIABLES TO CATEGORIZE YOUNG HOMEMAK ER-MOTHERS FOR THE DIFFUSION OF HOME ECONOMICS- FAMILY LIVING INFORMATION by Carol C. Kurth This was a study to reseek variables to use in categorizing young homemaker- mothers in order to better communicate with them with education information and programs. Certain demographic variables have commonly been used in studies to group these women in order to learn about their characteristics and their problems or concerns. The two used in this study were length of marriage and educational level . These two test variables were used in relation to the three study concerns: most important concern listed; sources of information used to answer problems for these concerns; and usefulness of the information received. When a woman marries, she may or may not bring with her experiences or background that will help her with problem-solving relating to the marital and family situation . With these, she should be able to answer some of her own questions or problems about concerns she may acquire. Without these, she may seek information from different sources and rate these sources differently from the homemaker-mother with background or experience. A longer period of marriage might be an expected way of acquiring more background and experience. Carol C . Kurth Research and other studies indicated that new roles assumed after marriage bring needs for information about the roles--wife, housekeeper, mother. Com- munication studies also show different uses of types of information sources relating to experience, background and educational levels. A sample of I97 young homemaker-mothers in four Michigan counties was studied. These women were chosen from a group of young homemaker-mothers in a larger study of younger and older Michigan mothers conducted in April-May, I963. The study was conducted by the Institute for Extension Personnel Development of the Michigan Cooperative Extension Service at Michigan State University. All were mothers whose oldest child was three years or younger at the time of the original study. Since length of marriage and educational levels were the test variables, the sample was grouped according to number of years married and number of years of schooling. These were tested against most important concerns, sources used for reference or answers to these concerns, and usefulness of the information received. Demographic characteristics used to give a picture of the sample were: age, residence, nearness to friends and relatives and length of time in the community. The chi-square test for one sample was used to test the stated hypotheses. In order to see if length of marriage made a difference in concerns expressed by women in the sample, several hypotheses were tested. If a difference was found, it might be that this variable might be a way to categorize young mothers. The study assumed that the shorter the length of marriage, the more the concerns might be in housekeeping areas rather than any other. This hypothesis was not supported, possibly because the majority of the women listed children as their Carol C. Kurth most important concern. Since all in the sample were mothers, this answer might have been expected. Another group of hypotheses concerned sources of information women used for answers for concerns. The study assumed that those young homemaker-mothers married for a shorter period of time would use more interpersonal types of sources such as friends and relatives. Professionals might also be used more as they could be face-to-face sources. Because of the need for feedback or more detailed questioning or even personal relationships, the more newly married group might steer away from less interpersonal sources such as mass and general media or infor- mation from within herself. Results showed that there was no significant difference between those married longer or those married for a relatively short period of time in the sources used. Educational level might also lead people to different sources for information. Those with higher educational levels might be more able to draw information from within themselves or fr0m impersonal sources such as books, radio, television, etc. Test results showed little or no difference between those with a higher educational level and those with below high school level. Because judgment on usefulness of information for major concerns might be lacking in those married a shorter period of time or with lower educational level, hypotheses stated that usefulness in both instances would be rated lower. Results did not bear these hypotheses out. Throughout the study, hypotheses were related to the most important concern listed by the women studied. This concern was overwhelmingly "children" and since all were mothers, many for the first time, responses tended to reflect this maior concern and not any other variable. LENGTH OF MARRIAGE AND EDUCATIONAL LEVEL AS VARIABLES TO CATEGORIZE YOUNG HOMEMAKER-MOTHERS FOR THE DIFFUSION OF HOME ECONOMICS-FAMILY LIVING INFORMATION By Carol C. Kurth A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science Institute for Extension Personnel Development I 967 QI~ \) ‘5 ACK NOWLE DGME NTS The author is indebted to many people for their guidance, support and encouragement in completing this study. To Dr. Mason E. Miller, my academic and thesis advisor, for his continuous assistance, encouragement and understanding from the conception of the study to its completion. To Dr. Erwin Bettinghaus, committee member, for his direction and guidance during the course of the study. To Dr. Eugene F. Peisner, committee member, for his support during the final stages of the study . To Dr. Carl J. Couch, former Leader, Extension Communication Research, for his assistance and guidance at the beginning of the study and for providing statistical support and data. To Dr. James P. Beberrneyer, former Graduate Assistant in the Institute, for his advice and guidance in the statistical design and data analysis. To the Michigan State Family Living- Home Economics staff for their encour- agement and advice on the aspects pertinent for the Home Economics Extension program. To Mrs. Miriam Kelley, former Program Leader for the Home Economics- Family Program (Michigan State University) for her information on young homemaker studies and her encouragement and interest in this study. To the Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station which provided funds for data collection for the overall study. To my many friends and professional co-workers for their constant encourage- ment and support. To my husband for his understanding, help and advice during my master's degree program and throughout the course of this study. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .......................... . ii LIST OF TABLES ............................... vi LIST OF FIGURES ............................. . viii Chapter I. INTRODUCTION ...................... . I II . LITERATURE REVIEW ..................... . I2 Roles and Concerns Expressed for these Roles by Young Homemaker-Mothers ........... . 12 Length of marriage and maior concerns. . . . . 15 Information Sources and Their Use ............ l7 Length of marriage and information sources. . . I9 Participation in organizations .......... 29 Educational Level .................... 3i Educational level and information sources. . . . 32 Summary and Hypotheses ............... . 36 III . METHODOLOGY AND RESULTS ................ 38 General Study Design .................. 38 Main variables of concern in this study ..... 39 Test design .................. . 42 General characteristics of the test sample. . . 42 Concerns and information sources ........ 46 Results .......................... 49 IV. DISCUSSION .......................... 55 General Discussion .................. . 55 Discussion of Hypotheses Results ............. 58 Length of marriage and concerns ....... . 58 Length of marriage and information sources. . . 60 Length of marriage and usefulness of information gained ............. . 64 Years of education and information sources. . . 64 Years of education and usefulness of the information .................. 65 0 iv Page Chapter V. SUMMARY .......................... . 67 VI . IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .......... 69 Implications ....................... 69 Recommendations ................... . 7I REFERENCED BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................ 73 APPENDIX A: Sample Questionnaire Used for this Study ......... . 77 Table 10. II. I2. I3. I4. I5. LIST OF TABLES Frequencies of ages of respondents .............. Frequencies of residence of respondents ............. Frequencies of nearness of residence to parents of respondents .......................... Frequencies of length of time respondents have lived in the community .......................... Frequencies of number of years married ............ Frequencies of number of years of education ......... Frequencies of concerns mentioned as most important ...... Frequencies of sources of information used by respondents for most important concern ................. . Test of Hypothesis l--relationship between length of marriage and most important concern ............. . Test of Hypothesis 2a--relationship between length of marriage and interpersonal information sources ........ Test of Hypothesis 2b--relationship between length of marriage and professional information sources .......... Test of Hypothesis 3a--relationship between length of marriage and personal information sources .......... Test of Hypothesis 3b--relationship between length of marriage and media information sources ............. Test of Hypothesis 3c--relationship between length of marriage and both personal and impersonal information sources. . Test of Hypothesis 4--relationship between length of marriage and usefulness of information received for the major concern .......................... vi Page 43 43 45 45 48 50 50 SI 51 52 52 53 Table Page 16. Test of Hypothesis 5--relationship between educational level and both personal and impersonal information sources ............................ . 53 I7. Test of Hypothesis 6--relationship between educational level and usefulness of information received for the maior concern. . 54 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page I . Diagrammatic relationship expected between concerns listed, length of marriage and educational level. . ...... 4I 2 . Diagrammatic relationship expected between sources used for information, length of marriage and educational level ............................. 4l 3. Diagrammatic relationship expected between usefulness of information received, length of marriage and educational level ............................. 4] viii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The study of family relationships and the future of the American family is becoming more and more important. Many social scientists feel that the strong family is the key to survival as a democratic and successful society. Judson Landis (I 8) contends that few people are really mature enough for marriage and parenthood; that society must continue to expand its services to families in need; and that help to increase understanding through research on all aspects of marriage and child development must be available. Eleanor Luckey goes so far as to state that "The kind of education for family living that we have at this critical point in our history will largely determine the future course of all man- kind." (23) This is a startling concept, but perhaps one that will bear some thought. Social scientists, such as sociologists and psychologists, still consider the small or "individual" family a basic societal unit or institution. It is through this structure that children are generally physically and emotionally nurtured and fundamentally socialized. What makes for sound marital relationships, understanding of family functions to be performed and understanding development of offspring are some of the aspects of family life being studied at present. Speeches, symposiums, panels and various scientific research proiects consider the family's search for survival, family disintegration and changing family roles. For some time, adninistrators and teaching personnel of many family living agencies, educational and social, have expressed concerns about the "audiences" they are reaching or should reach with their family living and home economics information. One such audience is the "young or new homemaker" ' Since this woman re resents an im rtant member of a P p0 or "young mother.I starting family, she has become a person of research interest. Information about her concerns, characteristics, skills, experience and interests is necessary in order to better communicate with her. There is a need to be able to better categorize her meaningfully in the heterogenous group to which she belongs. This would facilitate working with this "audience" educa- tionally as a group rather than one at a time. A search for such a variable or variables is the purpose of this study . It is generally assumed that this woman has several functions, rather broad in our society today . She tends to manage the home and often directs the course of relationships within the family. She generally tends to be the performer of household tasks, a teacher of children, and in our present "demo- cratic" family, a help-mate in the decision-making processes. At the present time, nine out of ten women in the United States are married. Those entering the marital state now tend to be younger than those who married during the past 30 years. Approximately 50 percent of all brides today are under 20 years of age. The most popular age today is I8. The I960 U . S. Census states that 60 percent of the women in the United States between 20 and 24 years of age are married. (40) This means that there are many basic families starting with younger women at the helm . Many educational and social agencies are concerned with providing in- formation to women and fanilies that will help them understand family relation- ships, child development, today's market and skills or know-how needed for maintaining and managing a home. One such agency is the Cooperative Exten- sion Service, a public educational progran in each state provided through the Land- Grant College System. The professional home economists and others affiliated with this program do plan and provide programs to reach families in the state . However, concern over what this particular audience--the young homemaker-mother--is like and how she can be categorized becomes more and more important if help is to be given to educate for strong families of the future. The concern of those agencies imparting information for the family is to reach those not so inclined to use or be knowledgeable about the agency's services. It has been said that certain women are already using the "talents, information and facilities of helping 'expert organizations' and the only problem would seem to be to make sure helpful information is available to them at the time they are most likely to need it. " (26) This means a knowledge of family needs and concerns is needed. It is evident from studies of family life that different educational programs are needed for different stages of the family life cycle. "Each new stage in its (the family's) development brings on a new constellation and new dimensions of tasks for the family as well as for each of its members. chilies form in the marriage and early establishment of the newly married couple. They develop rapidly as husband and wife assume the additional roles as father and mother with the coming of the first child." (8) Since the young homemaker-mother is faced with changing roles as the stages of family development move along, it will be important to know what her concerns are and how she seeks help for these concerns. A large task is still to find a successful way to reach this woman. At the Golden Anniversary White House Conference of I960 on Family and Social Change, Mudd and Hill recom- mended that there be education for family life education at every stage of human development when people are at crucial points of maximum readiness for the teachable moment. (43) The new or young homemaker-mother would seem to be at one of these crucial points. She is ready for information to help her with con- cerns as she undertakes two and possibly three new roles. . .wife-housekeeper- mother. Many outside factors may play a part in the development of these concerns as societal changes tend to bring influences to bear on family attitudes and activi- ties. Today, the American family is changing faster than ever before as technical advances provide versatile equipment, new consumer goods, and wider communica- tions and tran5portation . These latter two factors tend to bring people closer together, individually or in a family unit in residence and relationships. Former role expectations, duties and responsibilities are no longer "set" or prescribed as they have been in the past. Changes began to occur as recently as 1890, "The Era of Emancipation for Women. " Women see many other ways of living besides their own. Their concerns are often the same as those living within their community or as their peer groups. Increased family, social, occupational and geographical mobility, employment of women outside the home, increased educational oppor- tunities and increases in family income levels may also have brought different types of concerns to the homemaker and her family. Information is needed to help this young woman carry out her roles she ac- quires when she marries. In general , the roles of wife-housekeeper and mother are still the predominant roles of the American woman. The rules for each may differ for each family and each individual, but the American woman still looks forward to marriage as her future commitment and the various prescribed roles of that social institution. Because of the variability in role performances and role expectations, this audience, as all other audiences, will exhibit different expressed concerns, dif- ferent demographic characteristics, and different ways of solving their problems, seeking information and making decisions. Much literature has been written and research undertaken to discover the effects of our rapidly changing ways of life on the family and its members. One reason for this research is for better understanding. Another is to discover the best ways to communicate with the family, for educational purposes, for gaining their participation in community affairs and activities and for family counseling. Know- led e about certain members' roles and the accom an in attitudes and concerns 9 P Y 9 would help in developing a sound and knowledgeable program in order to work with the family . This paper is concerned with the wife-housekeeper-mother member of this family . One family life study tells us that the role of wife in our culture requires more adiustment on the part of women than does the role of husband for males. (6) However, as with any point of view, you can find an opposing one. Russell Lee suggests that the "marital state is less natural for the male; his responsibilities greater; he contributes more and gets less out of marriage than the female."(20) When a woman marries, she adopts the role of wife. She will usually also become a housekeeper, if she has not already been one in a single status. Many or perhaps most will become mothers and hence assume a third new role. These three roles, plus others women may assume (working women, students, etc.) are played differently by the individuals concerned, of course, but they are not with- out their common problems and stresses in modern society . The patterns a woman may follow and the concerns she may have when she assumes these new roles can make interesting study . New behaviors may be ex- pected of her and they tend to be different from those her mother or grandnother followed. The young homemaker-mother of the present tends to be on her own. Her mother, even if capable, could not have trained her in techniques of the household as they are today or will be in the future. Because of the increased educational opportunities for both men and women, many women entering the marriage situation have completed more years of schooling than their mothers or grandnothers, but may not have had the training at home for the marital roles they will play . Interests in school activities, or other outside-the-home activities have kept them away from the home. In many cases, they have not had to help with household tasks or with the rearing of other children in the home. Because of new appliances and equipment for the home, the present-day young homemaker's tasks are different from those of years ago and they are con- stantly changing. Approximately 75 percent of the products on super-market shelves are new within the last ten years due to rapid changes in food technology. New developments in clothing and textiles bring a mass of confusing choices and labels. Styles in home furnishings and products for home building and decorating the home keep the homemaker constantly on her toes or hopelessly in the dark. Does she have concerns about buying for the home and where to get help for these concerns? Something new appears on the market every day and advertisers let her know about it through many media. Her financial concerns may be more con- fusing with fanily spending patterns differing and use of credit expanding. Since educational and social agencies are interested in helping this young starting homemaker find helpful information for her concerns or needs for answers to her questions in her roles, they must know what these problems are and discover what sources of information she already uses for these concerns. In this way, they might have a better way with which to communicate. One of the problems with such an educational program is that program planners or teachers geared to reaching a specific audience often use varying characteristics as criteria when describing this audience. It is known, of course, that large groups such as "dairy farmers, nurses, young homemakers," etc. contain very different personalities within the group. Many tend to be at different stages of growth, have different interests, attitudes, backgrounds and experiences and have different rates of acceptance for educational information simply because they are individuals. Most studies done on the young homemaker-mother group with whom we are concerned define the group differently, as may be necessary for individual research. For example, a program for dissemination of information to young homemakers in Nassau and Suffolk Counties in New York State in I963-64 defined this woman as "a single girl starting out in an apartment or away from her family or a young woman married less than three years. "(27) Evelyn Spindler in a study for Planning Nutrition Education Programs for Young Homemakers defined her loosely as "one who has some children of pre-school age. " (39) Dr. Alice Thorpe, at a Conference on the Young Homemaker at Michigan State University in November, I965, defined her as "a homemaker who has not established her homernaking practices." One of the most popular ways to categorize or describe these young women is by age. Eva Goble in her doctoral thesis on "The Participation of Young Home- makers in Group Learning Activities ," University of Chicago, I964, suggests that young homemakers may be described as "two groups, teens to early twenties and mid-twenties to thirties." (I I) A Wisconsin study on Family Living Education for Young Women suggests that the "under 25 years of age" is the group with whom we should be concerned in programs for the young homemaker-mother. (30) This list could be continued, but it is sufficient to say that this young homemaker- mother is usually described as under 25 years of age and in the beginning stages of her roles as wife-housekeeper-mother. It would seem that the young homemaker-mother, a relative novice to her roles, could benefit from general homemaking and family living information an agency could provide. Older homemaker-mothers not at this beginning stage probably have already set a pattern for these three roles and are either in or ready to begin another stage of the family life cycle--that of the empty nest and soon retirement. They have past experiences upon which to rely for their choices and decisions. They perhaps only need to be made aware of new products or tech- niques to enhance or add to those already acquired. They perhaps need help in adjusting to their changing circumstances. They may have ioined organizations or clubs through which they have also gained knowledge or information. How- ever, the young homemaker—mother does not tend to belong to formal organizations until her family cycle changes when her youngest child is in school or until she reaches the age of 30-35. (l7) Therefore, she may need other sources for informa- tion about her concerns. As previously stated, these young homemaker-mothers differ in characteristics and also in their various stages in the family life cycle. Some are starting a new home, while at the same time accepting a new role as mother. Studies show that I/3 to I/2 of the teenage girls marrying today are pregnant when married; they are also new to the role of wife and housekeeper. Others may have been wives IO or housekeepers for a longer period of time, still young in age, but new mothers; others are older, not married relatively long and are new mothers. Another group of young homemaker-mothers may have several pre-schoolers and be at varying ages, or have different lengths of marriage. Thus, it seems impossible to lump all "young homemaker-mothers" together and say that they are at the same point in the fanily life cycle and have the same concerns; show the same interests; and have the same lacks or knowledge in house- keeping and family skills. We need to find some variable or variables that might be applicable in describing this heterogenous group, not only for better research methods but also a clearer understanding of their concerns, sources of information for those con- cerns and perhaps a way of seeing how useful this information received may be. Length of marriage might be one variable that could be looked at. Since time and experience in a situation often bring solutions to problems or acquisition of information, it may be that this would be a variable along which to split this group of young homemaker-mothers as an information seeking and source exposure group. This study will use length of marriage as one variable to look at when seeking a categorization for this group of young homemaker-mothers. Since educational levels have risen and more and more women have achieved a higher level of education, sources of information used may currently be different from those used prior to this increased educational level. Learning studies tend to indicate that the higher the educational levels, the more different are the sources II of information used. This study will look at educational level attained as another variable that might bring agencies closer to understanding the information sources used by this group for help with their concerns. Expressed concerns of this young homemaker-mother group will be looked at to see iust what they tend to be. Information sources will be classed as inter- personal, personal and impersonal and will be discussed and related to length of marriage and educational level . The study will also see if the two variables studied have an effect on the usefulness of the information received. Through this research attempt, it may be possible to see if length of marriage and educational level as two variables categorizing this group of young homemaker- mothers are iustifiable ways to group them for better understmding and more effective communication for diffusing homemaking and family living information. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW The purpose of this section will be to discover and discuss through the review of literature available (I) types of concerns young homemaker-mothers express in their three main roles in the family situation; (2) information available on the sources they use for help with these concerns and usefulness of information received; (3) in- formation on adult education and media studies which show how educational levels may affect use of information sources and the "usefulness" of the information received. Through this review, an attempt will be made to seek new variables for use in categorizing the young homemaker-mother and to state hypotheses relating to this group's concerns and information habits. Roles and Concerns Expressed for these Roles by Young Homemaker-mothers Marriage brings many roles to play in the life of a woman. Role is a term much discussed and defined by social psychologists and behaviorists. Newcomb suggests that "The ways of behaving which are expected of an individual who occupies a certain position constitute a role. . .associated with that position." (28) Others, such as Linton, used the word "status" instead of "position," but agree 12 I3 that role is the dynamic portion of the concept, with status or position being the static portion. They go together. There is no meaning of one without the other. Linton also states that "role refers to the 'sum total' of the culture patterns associated with a particular status. It thus includes the attitudes, values and behavior ascribed by the society to any and all persons occupying this status. " (22) This study is interested in the particular roles of wife, housekeeper and mother. These are considered the traditional roles by our society. Each role tends to be prescribed or have a limited set of behaviors associated with it. With these expected behaviors come concerns and expressions about performing these roles adequately. Brayton, in discussing role perceptions of young homemakers suggests that a young homemaker would express enthusiasm for her role if she gladly accepts the homemaker role expected of her. She would not if her role conception differs from society's conception of her role--in particular what her family sees as her role. (3) This enthusiasm might lead to a seeking of information in order to improve her role satisfaction . Lack of enthusiasm might lead to carrying out her homemaker role without concern for increased knowledge or role improve- ment. This paper will assume for the purpose of this study that the young homemaker- mother accepts the three main roles she has undertaken and therefore wants information on how best to perform them . Brayton talks about role acceptance for optimal satisfaction in the homemaker role. Hurvitz discusses two other characteristics of roles that might help define actions within roles performed. I4 Marital roles link the individual as an actor to his family and the social structure. They have two characteristics, role performance and role expectations and they subsume a number of concrete and specific actions which are defined by the normative expectations of the group as determined by its social traditions. They may be ranked differently and components interpreted differently as a result of the individual experience of the spouses. (I 5) This suggests that although certain role prescriptions may be evident, actions within these prescribed role performances and expectations may differ because of the variabilities and experiences within individuals in the marital situation. This may lead us to different expressed concerns. Concerns will tend to become evident as the young homemaker-mother takes on the duties and responsibilities of the roles of wife, housekeeper and mother. Some of the concerns to look at are: husband-wife relationships, self-directed concerns, children and family, concerns about the home and housekeeping, fanily finances and community or world affairs. In order to limit concerns so we can look at those mentioned as most important, this study will use only the "maior concern" response as a variable. One of the major concerns of the young homemaker-mother will probably be in the home and housekeeping area. Setting up a household and developing skills for maintaining it become a maior area of performance and cause for concern . "Housekeeping is still the main occupation of American women. . ."(37:I) This is the housekeeper role a woman generally has to consider when she marries. Families ' Unless services need to reside and grow in a setting generally called a "home.' can be bought to maintain this home, the wife finds herself the activator for its upkeep and continuance. Even though she may have kept house for herself as a 15 single woman, worker or student or had done housekeeping tasks for her parents while growing up, marriage will bring an increased preoccupation with these tasks and their accompanying skills. Length of Marriage and Maior Concerns We are interested in looking at this variable, "length of marriage," to see how it relates significantly to the role concerns mentioned when young homemaker- mothers are asked about their maior concern . This study will suggest that even though many concerns are expressed by a sample of this young homemaker-mother group, those married for a shorter length of time will express more concerns in the housekeeper role than the other two main roles: wife and mother. One reason might be because of the multitude of skills, techniques, and product knowledge necessary to function successfully in this role. The young homemaker-mother, with less experience behind her, may need more help than others . With the trend toward earlier marriages at the present time, girls often enter marriage with inadequate experience or training in developing skills as housekeepers. Mother may not train the daughter because she has energy-saving equipment and therefore does not need the added help of her daughter. Another reason might be the increased education young girls are receiving. They are completing more years of schooling than their mothers and grandmothers and therefore are in school longer and involved with its activities and social sphere. This means they are not home to help produce for the family; the girl tends to be a consuming member of 16 the family. "Girls and young women have also found new activities to replace much of their former work as mother's helper. In 1890, most boys and girls left school at 14 years if not before. Today, however, three-quarters of the 16-17 year olds are still attending school ." (37:3) A study of Extension Club women in 35 states showed that an overwhelming majority of them did not feel that homemakers today are adequately training their daughters for future homemaking roles. (9) No reasons were cited in the study for this feeling. A study cited by Hillman that was done in 1954 showed that 41 percent of the young women interviewed felt that had they had more training and respon- sibility in general management functions in their parental home, it would not have been so difficult to adjust to home responsibilities at the time of marriage. (13) Inadequate home economics courses in school or non-participation in one or lack of interest in the mother's household tasks might add to the lack of knowledge in household matters. Several studies in Wisconsin indicate that young families express problems about budgets and finances, food preparation and laundry skills, but are not too aware that management is one of their problems. (30) In another study, some home- makers married not more than five years saw their major problem areas in manage- ment and decision-making, family relationships and care of children. (23) Young marrieds without children usually express concern over finances, particularly those married in the teenage group or student group. (12) 17 Therefore, we will assume that there is a major concern over the respon- sibilities of the housekeeper role. The shorter the length of marriage the more there will be concerns in the housekeeping-finance-management area than major concerns for family relationships and community and world affairs. Hypothesis 1: The shorter the length of marriage, the more housekeeping- management-finance concerns will be mentioned as major concerns compared with major concerns for family and community . Information Sources and Their Use Whether or not Hypothesis 1 is supported, sources of information for the major concern expressed need to be discovered and categorized in order to better communicate with the young homemaker-mother through the sources she uses. It may be that some young homemaker-mothers have concerns but do not seek information for them because they are satisfied with their chosen important role (among wife, mother and homemaker) and because of lack of strong interest in learning more about the role (11); because of existing attitudes about themselves and their capabilities; or because the major concern expressed is not a strong one but tends to be a general concern in everyday living. Many young homemaker-mothers do seek information about their expressed concerns. Lionberger suggests that "people want advice if they seek information from others. Some seek reinforcement for decisions already made."(21) Through research on the adoption process, knowledge has been gained about the process of seeking information from various sources, for information alone, for adoption of a new skill or practice, for reinforcement of decisions made and for evaluation. 18 The young homemaker-mother may seek information for any or all of these reasons. Mason notes that Festinger's dissonance theory suggests that you cannot necessarily assume that ad0ption terminates information seeking. "Information seeking, for example, might occur early in the adoption process, primarily for one to acquire (technical) information and again after the decision or adoption in order to reduce dissonance." (24) He suggests we should distinguish the types of information seeking that can occur: instrumental communications before adoption, information to im- plement a new idea or practice, information for support of the practice adopted or information to reduce dissonance that may occur from the fact a person has adopted a practice. It is suggested that perhaps more information may be sought for support of a new practice adopted than to acquire knowledge prior to adoption . Since all of these factors could be present as reasons for information seeking and since it may not always be necessary to know why information has been sought, this study is concerned only with the fact that information was sought or acquired for major concerns from various sources. These sources contain influentials, innovators or opinion leaders in one form or another. Since these are relatively synomonous terms, we might use Roger's definition of an "opinion leader," i.e. "Opinion leaders can be defined as those individuals to whom others turn for advice and information." (32) The need to find answers to specific questions or problems may be a reason why a certain or particular source is used for information over another source. 19 Hovland states: The motivation to seek and accept advice from credible sources seems to be increased considerably when the person is in a situation which requires finer discriminations than he is capable of or which demands specialized informa- tion not at his disposal. (14) For the purpose of study, these various information sources, opinion leaders or credible sources might be classified into four over-all categories: (1) Inter- personal sources such as relatives and friends (2) Professional sources such as physicians, home economists and ministers (3) Personal sources such as the home- maker herself and (4) Impersonal sources such as mass and specialized media. We then need to know which one or ones of these are used in relationship--as the young homemaker-mother progresses in the marital situation relation to her major expressed concerns . Length of Marriage and Information Sources A young homemaker-mother, new to the marriage situation, has much to learn and may seek information from sources different from those used by more experienced homemakers simply because of the nature of her situation. She may tend to seek information from those closest to her because of familiarity or trust in this source. She may need to be able to ask questions and receive answers or some feedback. Therefore, she might tend to use an interpersonal source rather than any other. Larson suggests that interpersonal relations have a reinforcement and a relay function which is giving new impetus to studies in diffusion. (19) A traditional source of information for homemakers has been, in our society, the fa'nily group, friends and neighbors--members of an informal group in the 20 community. When families were economic units and several generations lived within the fanin commune for production purposes, new homemakers had other females in the household to call upon for advice, information or training in skills. They also gained some experience in performing household tasks and perhaps in caring for smaller children in the family as the new homemaker was reared. Ideas and practices were shared. This was the "extended" family . The relatively recent trend toward the nuclear, individual, or independent family (a smaller basic familial group), prevented some of this familial closeness with more experienced female members of the family . Another trend that pre- vents family counseling is increasing mobility. Studies show that families are on the move. The most recent data show that one out of every five families moves each year. With this geographical mobility, kinship systems may be scattered and everyday ties with the family are apt to loosen. This is not to say that they are wed.05; 2—rail test. 43 TABLE I.--Age Ages Number Percentage 21 or under 35 17.8 22 to 23 54 27.4 24 to 26 54 27.4 27 to 30 35 17.8 Over 30 19 9.64 197 Residence Three divisions under residence were looked at: type of community, nearness to parents and length of time in the community. TABLE 2 .--Residence Description of Community Number Percentage Rural 49 24. 87 Village 34 17.26 Town 39 19. 80 Suburb 33 16 . 75 City 42 21 . 32 N=197 Almost 62 percent lived within a small community not classified as a city or as an urban fringe area. TABLE 3.--Nearness to Parents Parents' Location Number Percentage Wife's Parents' Location More than 100 mfles away 34 17.26 51 to 100 miles away 10 5.08 21 to 50 miles away 27 13.71 20 miles away or less 123 62.43 Deceased 3 1.52 N=197 Husband's Parents' Location More than 100 miles away 33 16.75 51 to 100 miles away 7 3.55 21 to 50 miles away 21 10.66 20 miles away or less 124 64.47 Deceased 9 4.57 N=197 Approximately 62 to 64 percent lived within 20 miles of both sets of parents or of one . TABLE 4.--Length of Time in the Community Years Number Percentage Less than three 79 40.1 Four to seven 53 26. 9 More than seven 65 33.0 N=197 These residence characteristics were included in the study design to see if there were any significances between residence responses and sources for information. 45 No significance was found between type of community, length of time in the com- munity and husband's parents' location. However, some significance was found between the wife's parents' location and information sources used .0 Length of Marriqg_e_ The largest percentage had been married three and one-half years to four and one- half years. TABLE 5.--Length of Marriage Years married Number Percentage .75-3.5 years 54 27.41 3.6-4.5 years 76 38.58 4.6-6.5 years 41 20.81 6.6 years or longer 26 13.2 N=197 Educational Level Over half (52.79 percent) had completed a high school educa- tion, coinciding with the census information that approximately 60 percent of today's young adults have at least a high school education. TABLE 6 .--Ed1cational Level Years of Schooling Number Percentage One-eight years 7 3.55 9-11 years 38 19.29 12 years 104 52.79 13 years and over 48 24.37 N=197 °x2=84.27 with d.f.=64; p>.05; 2-tail; (need 83.62 to reject). 46 Concerns and Information Sources In order to test the two independent variables against those relating to concerns and information sources stated in the hypotheses, some frequency data are mentioned here for clarification. The question relating to concerns with which we are involved in this study was: "What is your most important concern--that is, what troubles you most?" In general , the young homemaker-mothers mentioned child-oriented concerns. This variable "most important concern" was used since it seemed to express with- out probing, the concern foremost in the respondent's mind. Other concerns men- tioned in this manner were finances, themselves, the family, home and housekeeping , and husbands . TABLE 7.--Concerns Mentioned as Most Important Type Number Percentage Children 91 46.18 Finances 31 15.74 Family 20 10.15 Self 20 10.15 Home and Housekeeping 12 6.09 Husband 10 5.08 None 10 5.08 World Affairs 2 1.02 Other Relatives 1 .51 Community 0 None N=197 47 When questioned most specifically about these concerns, young mothers mentioned the following under each category . Children: Finances: Family: Self: Home and Housekeeping: Husband: World Affairs: Other Relatives: Community: behavior, general adjustment, safety, health. debts, making more money, paying bills, medical expenses, free to follow own de- sires, travel and recreation, budget. health, behavior, general welfare, happy and well-adjusted. health, behavior and adjustment, education, occupation, community integration, getting work done, keeping busy, time and financial restrictions. buying home, repairing furnishings, housework, sewing, clothing, selling house. health, behavior, education, occupation, spend time with family, cooperation and understanding . communism, morality, religion, farm legis- lation, welfare of the United States, peace. health and behavior. church, school, library, morality, community norms, development or improvement. You will note that there is a carry-over of several concerns in several of the categories such as health, education, behavior and adjustment. One might say that in general, these special concerns for the family are important to the young homemaker-mother . Since this study is interested in the source of information used for these major concerns listed, respondents were asked: "Where do you get advice or information to help you or to give you understanding of this concern of yours?" Their responses were categorized for coding purposes in the following way: 48 TABLE 8.--Sources of Information Type Number Percentage Immediate relatives 63 31 . 98 Professional 52 26 . 4 Other relatives, friends 29 14.72 Mass and special media 16 8.12 Nowhere 14 7. 11 No answer 12 6.09 Self 7 3.55 Religion 4 2 . 03 N=197 In order to see who the specific sources were within each category, the types of answers given for each category are listed: Immediate relatives: husband, mother, father, sister, brothers, family. Professional: doctor, minister, teacher, banker, special Other relatives and service, counselor, lawyer. friends: general discussion, other relatives, friends, co-worker, neighbor, employer . Mass and special media: books and reading, special interest organization, magazines, newspaper, study of object or discussion by salesman, pamphlets, television, mailed circulars, radio. Self: own judgment, experience. Religion: church, Bible, prayer. There was no ordering of these responses in each category . They are listed as they were mentioned. It might be that in another attempt to classify these answers, some of them could have been placed elsewhere according to other judgments. A "special interest organization" for example might have been headed by a professional and therefore be added to the "Professional" grouping. However, since the interviewer 49 did not probe for respondent's definitions, they were categorized in this manner. Usefulness This study also looked at the usefulness of the information received. Over 75 percent responded that they found the information very useful or of some use. The rest did not or did not answer this question: "How useful is this advice or information?" In this study, we are not really concerned with "length of marriage" or "educational level" in relation to a sEcific concern but rather to the young homemaker-mother's major expressed concern, whatever it may be. The data above show these concerns generally to be: children, finances, family and self, home and housekeeping, and husband. Results The relationship between the variable "length of marriage" and the concerns, sources of information and the usefulness of the information received was studied. Four main hypotheses were stated, with two of them sub-categorized. The following are the hypotheses and the resulting statistical analyses: Hypothesis 1: The shorter the length of marriage, the more hous ekeeping— management-finance concerns will be mentioned as major concerns compared with major concerns for family and community. 50 TABLE 9.-- Test of Hypothesis 1 j ._—— i 1 —‘ .4 $1 Length of Housekeeping Non- Housekeeping Self Total Marriage Management None .75-3.5 yrs. 13 33 8 54 3.6—-4.5 yrs. 17 51 8 76 4.6--6.5 yrs. 8 25 8 41 6.6 and over 5 15 6 26 Total 43 I24 30 197 x2=4.41 with d.f.=6; p>.05; 2-rail test. The hypothesis was not supported. Hypothesis 2a: The shorter the length of marriage, the greater the use of interpersonal information sources such as immediate relatives, other relatives, friends and neighbors will be. TABLE 10.--Test of Hypothesis 2a Length of Relatives, Other sources-- Total Marriage friends media, self, etc. .75-3.5 yrs. 29 25 54 3.6--4.5 yrs. 37 39 76 4.6--6.5 yrs. 17 24 41 6.6 yrs. and over 9 17 26 Total 92 105 197 x2=3.16 with d.f.=3; p>.05; 2-tail test. The hypothesis was rejected. 51 Hypothesis 2b: The shorter the length of marriage, the greater the use of professional information sources will be. TABLE 11 .--Test of Hypothesis 2b 47 J I I Length of Professional All Total Marriage Sources Others .75-3.5 yrs. 11 43 '54 3.6--4.5 yrs. 22 54 76 4.6--6.5 yrs. 12 29 41 6.6 yrs. and over 7 19 26 Total 52 145 197 x2=1.468 with d.f.=3; p) .05; 2-rail test. The hypothesis was rejected. Hypothesis 3a: The shorter the length of marriage, the fewer personal sources such as self or nowhere will be used for information. TABLE 12.--Test of Hypothesis 3a Length of Self- All Marriage Nowhere Others Total .75—3 .5 yrs. 7 47 54 3.6--4.5 yrs. 9 67 76 4.6--6.5 yrs. 5 36 41 6.6 yrs. and over 4 22 26 Total 25 172 197 x2=0.2312 with d.f.=3; p>.05; 2-tail test. The hypothesis was rejected. 52 Hypothesis 3b: The shorter the length of marriage, the less the use of mass or specialized media (television, radio, books, magazines, pamphlets, etc.) for information will be. TABLE 13.--Test of Hypothesis 3b Length of All All Marriage ' Media Others Total .75-3.5 yrs. 4 50 54 3.6--4.5 yrs. 5 71 76 4.6--6.5 yrs. 4 37 41 6.6 yrs. and over 3 23 26 Total 16 181 197 x2=0.8344 with d.f.=3; p) .05; 2-tail test. The hypothesis was rejected. Hypothesis 3c: The shorter the length of marriage, the less the use of both personal and impersonal sources for information will be. TABLE 14.--Test of Hypothesis 3c Length of Personal- All Total Marriage Impersonal Others .75-3 .5 yrs. 1 1 43 54 3.6--4.5 yrs. 14 62 76 4.6--6.5 yrs. 9 32 41 6.6 yrs. and over 7 19 26 Total 41 156 197 2 x =0.8936 with d.f.=3; p>.05; 2-tail test. The hypothesis was rejected. 53 Hypothesis 4: The shorter the length of marriage, the less useful the infor- mation received for the major concern will be judged. TABLE 15.--Test of Hypothesis 4 Length of Blank, little Some- Total Marriage or no use Very .75-3.5 yrs. 12 42 54 3.6--4.5 yrs. 15 61 76 4.6--6.5 yrs. 7 34 41 6.6 yrs. and over 5 21 26 Total 39 158 197 x2=0.397 with d.f.=3; p) .05,- 2-tail test. The hypothesis was rejected. The second independent variable tested was level of education. The variable was divided by classes designating high school or under and more than high school in order to have adequate cell expectancies. (41:107) Hypothesis 5: The higher the educational level, the greater the use of impersonal (mass and specialized media) and personal (self, nowhere, etc.) sources for information will be. TABLE 16.—-Test of Hypothesis 5 Years of Personal and All Schooling Impersonal Others Total 1-12 years 36 113 149 13 yrs. and over 16 32 48 Total 52 145 1 97 54 x2=1.555 with d.f. =1; p>.05; 2-tail test. The hypothesis was rejected. Hypothesis 6: The higher the educational level, the greater the usefulness of the information received for the major concern will be judged. TABLE 17. --Test of Hypothesis 6 Years of Blank, little Some- Total Schooling or none Very 1-12 yrs. 25 124 149 13 yrs. and over 14 34 48 Total 39 158 197 x2=3.5134 with d.f.=1; p) .05; 2-tail test. Correction for continuity was used for a closer approximation . x2=2.77215 with d.f.=1; p) .05; 2-tail test. The hypothesis was rejected. CHAPTER IV DISCUSSION In this section, the two variables tested-"length of marriage and years of education--will be discussed in relation to the results. Their relationship to the dependent variables: most important concern, sources of information for that concern, and usefulness of the information received will be interpreted. General Discussion Testing six main hypotheses was an attempt to seek new variables to use when planning programs and communications for that group labeled "young ' Because there is a current deliberate attempt to reach homemaker—mothers .' this audience by many social and educational agencies, we need to know all we can about their characteristics, their prime concerns, and the sources of informa- tion used to gain help or advice about these concerns. Past studies in this area have tended to group these homemaker-mothers by age. Those working with this audience have found great variance in stages of the marital situation, and differences in certain demographic characteristics. It would seem that to provide information at a time when it is most needed, it is necessary to know more than how old the recipient of this knowledge is. 55 56 Since "length of marriage'I seemed to indicate a development of experience and background upon which these homemaker-mothers can draw, this variable was used as an independent test variable in this study. None of the hypotheses tested using this variable as the test variable showed any difference between those married a shorter period of time as compared with those married longer, other than what might have occurred by chance in normal distribution. One serious drawback in this study was the use of a somewhat limited sample, since all respondents were mothers with pre-school children. Major concerns tend to be centered around these children and not other major concerns. In another sampling of young homemakers, classified in some way other than "mother whose oldest child is less than three years of age,‘I a study of this type might have found other "more important concerns" listed and therefore different sources used for in- formation about those concerns. For example, in studies of young newlyweds, finances are listed as a most important concern . (12) We might find that more "professionals" such as bankers, money managements specialists, etc . are used more than the friends this study indicated. Length of marriage as a test variable in this study may have been a good test variable to use. Since there was a wide variance in ages within the group of 197, it would have seemed that such a distinction as length of marriage would be more appropriate than age. However, there was a wide range of years married too. Since major concerns expressed and sources used related to pre-school children, this study indicated that there was no difference among mothers, no matter what their age or length of marriage. 57 It may also be that as research in adoption shows, people tend to use more interpersonal information sources for help in evaluating or adopting a new idea or practice. (33) This may have colored the data enough so the two classes of young homemaker-mothers were similar in their responses because of this common factor. This all seems to point to a more concentrated effort to reach people eye-to-eye and face-to- face for adoption of new skills and attitudes. All respondents were asked where they sought information for their major concern. We would have to assume in the light of results that they were already aware of various answers to their problems or expressions of concern. What they needed more was to get some- one else's opinion or advice more credible than themselves. Their "credible source" seemed to be those with whom they could talk and no difference was apparent among the mothers married for a shorter or longer period of time in relation to the sources to which they turned. Studies indicate that the more schooling or education a person has, the more able he is to understand and assimilate knowledge from impersonal sources such as readings, lectures, etc . and the more he is able to draw from inner resources. This sample showed no difference between those with higher and lower educational levels. One reason might be that so many other factors were relatively similar, such as all living near relatives or all being young mothers, that this variable did not show as a statistically significant difference. One question that might have been asked of these respondents and was not is, "Why did you use this source you mention for this concern?" If we knew this, it 58 might throw some light on why more mass media and professionals were not listed. We might find that one answer might be " Did not know information was available from this source.I Another answer might have been, "The information sought was ' We might also have not important enough to go too far for an answer or advice.I seen what does motivate seeking information since some of the young homemaker- mothers did seek help from the media, professionals and themselves. Knox's study of interests and adult education (17) indicates that people have to know what is available before they avail themselves of information or program participation. Lack of knowledge of such may have been one factor in the open end questions used in this study . The results of this particular study show that there was no significant dif- ference between those married longer or with higher educational levels than those married a shorter length of time or with less education. Discussion ofm potheses Results A specific discussion about the hypotheses results follows. This may help show in more detail why the hypotheses were rejected. Length of Marriage and Concerns Hypothesis 1: The shorter the length of marriage, the more housekeeping- management-finance concerns will be mentioned as major concerns compared with major concerns for family and community. The test result showed no significant difference between those married a short length of time and those married longer. Frequencies did indicate that those married less than four and one-half years did express housekeeping-finance concerns more 59 frequently than those married longer. The original Michigan study (25) sought certain information on young mothers only. Therefore, this was a sample which might be expected to cite family-oriented concerns as their most important concern, most particularly in the area of children. The studies of young homemakers cited in the literature review section indi- cated that young marrieds, mothers or not, do tend to list housekeeping and finance concerns. No research is available using the length of marriage as a test variable for this type of response. Although this study attempted to do so, the results ob- tained did not support the hypotheses. On the contrary, it shows there tends to be little difference among mothers as a group in relation to a major concern expressed. The study by Goble also tended to show that many newlyweds indicate they do not have expressed concerns over their housekeeping role. (11) One explanation was that they did not recognize this need since they overglamorized their role or felt they were adequate in it. Another indication in that study pointed to relation- ships with the husband and mother-in-law. It was suggested that because of them, a young homemaker would not admit needing help which might show these relatives that she was inadequate. This study did not seek out reasons for not indicating housekeeping as a concern. However, the data show that housekeeping is not a major concern mentioned. The author would suggest that although the study results here shown did not indicate that length of marriage and housekeeping concerns were significant, a different sampling of young homemakers might. Without the presence of children, more expressed concerns in other areas might be more apparent. Young mothers may also feel that an expression of concern over children would be the expected 60 response to a question asking them their "most important concern.‘' Length of Marriage and Information Sources Hypothesis 2a: The shorter the length of marriage, the greater the use of interpersonal information sources such as immediate relatives, other relatives, friends and neighbors will be. This hypothesis was rejected, a somewhat surprising result in the light of the demographic data about this sample. Frequencies showed that a majority of the sample lived within 20 miles of one or both sets of parents. This was not known before the data were run, and therefore could not be a basis for this hypothesis. It was, however, surprising that the chi-square result did not show more use of this group--that there was no difference in use of these sources by those married a shorter period of time that might not otherwise have occurred by chance. Frequencies did indicate that a higher percentage of those married less than 4—1/2 years did use family and friends more for information sources than those married longer. This of course, based on the demographic data available, may only be because of the nearness of relatives. In light of the present social and economic-geographical mobility trends, it was surprising that so many of the sample did live near relatives. Another factor that may have entered into the result of this test might be that since children tended to be the most important concern voiced, some of the respondents used enough other sources such as pediatricians and special media to color the result. Since several areas of child—centered concerns were mentioned (such as health), some might not be solved by discussing them with a relative or 61 friend, but rather a professional (doctor) thereby lowering frequencies observed for use of the "relatives-friends" group. Also, some of the young mothers had more than one child and might also have had enough experience within them- selves to not call upon others. Of course, the longer married, the more children might tend to be present and hence more inner resources or experience might have been available for information. Lack of inner resources may be why the frequen- cies did indicate those married a shorter period of time used the close-by relatives and friends. It was assumed that newly marrieds would seek sources that were interpersonal more than any other type of contact, because of the nature of the relationships. This evidently was not so, even with the proximity of such sources, although ten- dencies toward this direction could be seen . This assumption should have been more true with this particular sample than another where mobility had put distance between the family . Hypothesis 2b: The shorter the length of marriage, the greater the use of professional information sources will be. This hypothesis was also rejected, since no significant difference was evident in the chi-square result. Again, those frequencies indicating use of professionals were higher in the group married a shorter period of time, but not significantly so. Since the use of immediate relatives, friends and neighbors showed high frequencies but not high enough, this may have cut down the percentage using professionals for information sources for their most important concern . 62 Since children--their care and health--was listed as the most important concern, professionals such as the doctor might have been used. However, a regular visit to a pediatrician may not be considered "seeking information from a professional ." The variable "length of marriage'I did not provide a good test under the study circumstances. We can only assume that this sample, all young mothers, tended to throw off the sample differences. The sample used for this study may not have been aware of "professionals" in general as specific sources of information. Responses showed in the question- naires used for the total study that no one mentioned home economists or the Cooperative Extension Service, utility companies, etc. as sources for household or family relationship information, even though home economists were available in the communities or counties studied. Other professionals were listed as sources and from the nature of their occupation, must have been used for concerns with the family or family business (lawyers, ministers, etc.). It may be that homemaker- mothers tend only to seek professional help if the major concern is serious, not everyday. Day-to-day living and advice-seeking may be more interpersonal in simple everyday communications. Hypothesis 3a: The shorter the length of marriage, the fewer personal sources such as self or nowhere will be used for information. It was assumed that those married a shorter length of time would not have the inner resources and experience to draw upon for help or information and there- fore this hypothesis would be supported. Frequencies showed that both groups, those married less than 4—1/2 years and those married longer, tended to seek help from others, not from within themselves. Length of marriage evidently makes 63 no difference in the need for asking others for their opinions, their information or advice, as far as their major problem is concerned. Another sample without this predominant child-centered concern might show that experience does play an important factor in information-seeking, but it was not evident in this study. Hypothesis 3b: The shorter the length of marriage, the less the use of mass or specialized media (television, radio, books, magazines, pamphlets, etc.) for information will be. The assumption was that those married a shorter period of time would seek advice from others in a more interpersonal manner; that their limited experience might prevent them from using impersonal sources which allow no discussion, reinforcement or questioning and no feed-back . Even with all the media lumped together such as television, radio, newspapers, books, magazines and bulletins, the use of such sources was so small that the test was almost negligible. The test results must certainly indicate that young mothers as a whole tend to involve themselves with others in seeking information. However, "length of marriage" as a test variable was insignificant. Both those married a shorter period of time and those married longer seemed to use other more interpersonal sources. There was little or no difference between the two classes. If media are used for awareness but not especially for adoption of a new practice, it may be that this group was already aware of skills or attitudes but needed more interpersonal sources for accepting ideas as shown by existing studies in diffusion and communicating ideas . 64 Hypothesis 3c: The shorter the length of marriage, the less the use of both personal and impersonal sources for information will be. The hypothesis was rejected since there was no significant difference between the two classes of the sample . The assumption was again that greater use of inter- personal sources such as relatives and professionals would be used by those just starting out in the marriage situation. However, in this sample, there seemed to be no difference between the two classes. There is a great indication through- out that young homemaker—mothers seek advice from those they can talk to, however. Length of Marriage and Usefulness of Information Gained Hypothesis 4: The shorter the length of marriage, the less useful the infor- mation received for the major concern will be judged. The study assumed that with less experience with which to understand infor- mation gained, the respondents would judge them less useful. Those married longer, with more experience and inner resources to call upon for judgment would tend to rate the usefulness higher. The hypothesis was rejected since no significant dif- ference was evident between the two classes. The frequencies in cells also seemed to be about equal so we cannot assume that length of marriage is a variable to con- sider when evaluating usefulness of information sources. Years of Education and Information Sources Hypothesis 5: The higher the educational level, the greater the use of impersonal (mass and specialized media) and personal (self, nowhere, etc .) sources for information will be. Studies indicate that those with a higher educational level tend to make better use of the written word or other media or to be better able to assimilate 65 information and use it when necessary from within one's own resources. Therefore this study attempted to show that young homemaker-mothers with a higher educa- tional level would use such information sources more than those with less education. Since the chi-square result would not permit the author to accept this hypothesis, we would have to assume that there is no difference between those two classes other than what would occur by chance in sampling. This may indicate that for this particular kind of group, "young mothers," the family-oriented kinds of concerns throw data results off. The variable length of education made no difference in kinds of concerns mentioned and uses of infor- mation sources. The spread of educational levels was present, but seemed to make little difference. The large number of those with the somewhat comparable educa- tional level (high school graduates) may also have produced this statistical result. A more even grouping, such as approximately the same frequencies in each group, might indicate different findings. Years of Education and Usefulness of the Information Hypothesis 6: The higher the educational level, the greater the usefulness of the information received for the major concern will be judged. This study assumed, from results of other studies, that those with more schooling would be more apt to judge the usefulness of the information source used higher than those with less schooling. This hypothesis was rejected. Because acquisition of more knowledge might tend to promote better use of information gained, this assumption was stated. Results indicated no significant difference between the two classes of education in this sample. One reason might be the general tendency of all young 66 mothers, regardless of their educational level, to judge information sources useful so that there seemed to be no difference. It may be that when a young mother, no matter the amount of schooling, seeks information, she is able to use the information and therefore judge it useful. C HAPTER V SUMMARY This was a study attempting to reseek variables to use in categorizing young homemaker-mothers in order to better communicate with them with educa- tional information and programs. The two major test variables used for this attempt were: "length of marriage" and "level of education." Other variables were looked at also to give a picture of the types of concerns and information sources these young homemaker-mothers mentioned when questioned about them . The three variables used to test the major variables were: major expressed concern, source of information, and usefulness of the in- formation received. The hypotheses were stated to attempt to show that length of marriage could make a difference in the concerns that would be expressed, the sources for information used and the judging of the usefulness of this information . The author hypothesized that the shorter the length of marriage, the more the concern would be in the area of housekeeping and finance; that information sources would be of the interpersonal type where face-to-face communication would be possible; that there would be less use of the personal (self) or impersonal (media) informa- tion sources and that the information would not be judged very useful. Two more hypotheses were stated regarding the relationship between educa- tional level and information sources and usefulness of information. The hypotheses 67 68 were that the higher the educational level, the more use of personal (self) and impersonal (media) would be made and the more useful the information received would be judged. By means of a questionnaire, the characteristics of 197 young mothers in Michigan were obtained. Responses concerning stated hypotheses were noted and used for statistical testing. The chi-square test for one sample was used as the statistical test. All hypotheses were rejected, implying that the variables tested were not reliable categorizing variables in this study; that the sampling procedure and survey methods were in error; or that young mothers as a group are similar in expressing major concerns and information sources. As a result of this study, we cannot say that "length of marriage" and "level of education" are variables that can be used reliably for grouping young homemaker-mothers for diffusion of homemaking or family living information. CHAPTER VI IMPLICATIONS AN D REC OMMEN DATIONS This chapter will discuss some of the implications that might be drawn from this study and its results. Recommendations for further study or for use of these data will be suggested. Implications One major implication from this study is that given a group of young mothers with pre-school children, the major concern expressed will tend to be that related to children above all other concerns. Another implication evident is that a different method of sampling is neces- sary if "length of marriage" is to be a variable important in categorizing home- makers when programming or planning information. A different type of questioning may also be necessary if one is to draw out test results that are to be meaningful. It was evident that there was a lack of variability for testing along all kinds of dimensions. The sample was similar enough for non-significant results. It may be that all mothers express concern for children using relatively the some sources at different stages regardless of certain demographic characteristics. Results in this study tend tom that given a sanpling other than "new mothers", length of marriage may make a difference in expressed concerns and in sources of information used. This would have some use for agencies attempting 69 70 to provide beginning family living and homemaking information. Again, we may also have to assume that even those married a longer period of time need help with practices that either they have never developed or that are new and need clarification. Common sense may tell us that length of marriage and therefore experience does make a difference in acceptance of new ideas and in the seeking of information but the results in this study do not statistically prove it. Since all evidence from prior studies indicates that educational levels do make a difference in use of various information sources, one would have to assume that some other variable in this study has confused the statistical test. Certainly it is evident in the present study that the two classes used for chi-square compu- tations show no significant difference. Those agencies planning educational information and programs must be made aware of certain characteristics and entry behaviors of the audience they wish to serve such as the young homemaker or young mother. One problem has been noted. That is, that they must make sure that helpful information is available to the audi- ence at a time when they are most likely to need it. Q6) Since this study reinforced the premise that answers to specific concerns are sought, but no indication was given as to at what stage this is done, it may be im- portant to seek an answer to this question: "How critical does a concern or problem have to be before advice or answers are sought?" The questionnaire used in this study gives responses only to open-end questions, using answers that might be given without too much thought or attached importance. A better way to ask questions about concerns or problems may be needed or should have been used in the original 71 study. This study perhaps should have looked at specifically operationalized concerns rather than open answers. This study did help show that new mothers express concerns over children and use many sources for information about the expressed concern. Recommendations Agencies seeking information about reaching a young homemaker-mother audience should be aware of certain characteristics of this group. There is not much research on young mothers and their sources of information. Most is applied from results of surveys of a group called "young homemakers," some with children and without. Although a thoughtful study could be done with young mothers alone, most research limits assumptions because of a great variance in the roles and situations within the test sample used. This study attempted to draw out useful variables to use when planning programs or information for young mothers. However, the age range in the group may have limited results even though they were classed by age of the oldest child. It might be more meaningful if the sample not only was limited by age but also by length of marriage. Correlations or information about their previous experiences or background should also be tested since this may throw a different light on the results. Since frequencies did indicate some differences between groupings by length of marriage and educational levels, a further study might be done with another sample seeking more variability . 72 Also, since frequencies did indicate use of many sources for information, we should seek ways to provide sound information to those sources they do list. We should also find out if the advice sought was every-day or whether it was because of a crisis, deep concern, or immediate problem. Homemakers tend to chat with one another about daily happenings and information, but answers to the questionnaire may have been colored if homemakers felt that the expected answer was specifically for one concern or source or another, but not a specific one that was operationalized. Information on entry behaviors, past experiences or backgrounds, role acceptance or a rating of concerns mentioned and sources used should be in- corporated into a study of this type. Diffusion of information to starting families is important. New and better ways must be found to interest young homemakers and mothers in seeking and using reliable information if agencies are to provide helpful communications for them. 10. 11. BIBLIOGRAPHY Berelson, Bernard and Steiner, Gary A. Human Behavior, An Inventory of Scientific Findings. Harcourt, Brace, and WorlcC Inc., N.Y.fl964, p. 544. Berry, Jane and Epstein, Sandra. Continuing Education of Women; Needs, Aspirations and Plans. 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Gaines, Joan. "Survey of Women's Clubs Produces Important Findings ," Journal of Home Economics, Vol . 54, No. 6, June, 1962. Glenn, Hortense and Walters, James. " Feminine Stress in the 20th Century,' Journal of Home Economics, Vol. 58, No. 9, Nov., 1966, p. 704. Goble, Eva. "Young Homemakers and Extension," Journal of Cooperative 73 Extension, (based on unpublished thesis), Vol. II, No. 3, Fall, 1964, p. 138. I2. 13. 14. 15. I6. 17. I8. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 74 Herrman, Robert. "Economic Problems Confronting Teenage Newlyweds," Journal of Home Economics, Vol . 57, No. 2, Feb., 1965, pp. 93-97. Hillman, Christine. " Factors Influencing the Lives of a Group of Young Farm Families," Ohio State Experiment Station, Research Bulletin #750, Sept. , 1954. Hovland, Carl B. , Janis, Irving and Kelly, Harold H. Communication and Persuasion. Yale University Press, 1953, p. 39. Hurvitz, Nathan. "The Components of Marital Roles," Sociological Social Research, Vol. 45, No. 3, April, 1961, pp. 301-309. Johnstone, John W. C. Volunteers for Learning, Report No. 89, National Opinion Research Center, University of Ch_icago, 1963. Knox, Alan B. "Interests and Adult Education," Presentation at Nat'l . Workshop for State Leaders Home Economics Extension Progrcrns, Lincoln, Neb., March, 1964, p. 8. Landis, Judson. "The Family and Social Change," Man and Civilization: The Family's Search for Survival, Seymour Farber (ed). McGraw Hill, New York, 1966, pp. 173-181. Larson, Otto N . (University of Washington, Seattle) "The Social Effects of Mass Communication as a Research Problem," Sociological Methodology, Vol. 5, No. 1, 1960, pp. 23-42. Lee, Russell, V. "The Agony of Conforming: The Male Parent," Man and Civilization: The Fanily's Search for Survival, Seymour Farber (ed). McGraw Hill, New York, 1966, pp. 132-135. Lionberger, Herbert. Adoption of New Ideas and Practices. 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Henry Holt and Company, New York, 1953, pp. 106-107. Westley, Bruce H. and Severin, Werner J. "A Profile of the Daily News- paper Non-Reader," Journalism Quarterly, Vol. 41, No. 1, Winter, 1964. White House Conference (Golden Anniversary). "The Family and Social Change" for "The Nation's Children" by E. Ginsberg, Vol. 1, New York, Columbia U. Press, 1960, p. 104. Whyte, William. Organization Man. DoubleDay and Company, Inc., Garden City, N.Y.,W56. Wilkening, E. A. "The Communication of Ideas on Innovation in Agricul- ture," Studies of Innovation and of Communication to the Public, Vol. 11, Studies in the Utilization of Behavioral Science, Institute for Communication Research, Stanford Univ., Stmford, Calif., 1962, pp. 50, 52, 54, 55. 77 QUESTIONNAIRE USED IN THE STU DY OF MICHIGAN MOTHERS (Pages 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, I2, 13, and 14) Question 1. Question 2 . Question 3. Question 4. Question 5. Question 6. Question 7. Question 8. What is your most important concem--that is, what troubles you most? (PROBE FOR A SPECIFIC) Where do you get advice or information to help you or to give you understanding of this concern of yours? (PROBE FOR SPECIFICS--MOTHER, SISTER-lN-LAW, LADIES HOME JOURNAL, ANN LAN DERS, ETC.) How useful is this advice or information? very useful of some use of little use of no use Do you ever feel you would like more information or advice on this? Yes No (IF NO, GO TO QUESTION 11; IF YES, CONTINUE WITH NEXT QUESTION) Where or from whom do you think you might get additional information or advice? (GET SPECIFIC SOURCE IF POSSIBLE) What keeps you from getting additional advice or information? Given your choice, where would you prefer to get this kind of advice or information from? Why ? (IF QUESTION 7 IS COMPLETED, SKIP REST OF QUESTIONS) Would you like to get advice or information from someone or someplace about this? Yes No (IF NO, GO TO NEXT SECTION; IF YES, GO TO NEXT QUESTION) 78 Question 9. Where or from whom do you think you might get useful help on this? (GET SPECIFIC SOURCE IF POSSIBLE) Question 10. What keeps you from getting this advice or information? Question 11 . Given your choice, where would you prefer to get this kind of advice or information from? Why? Comments: What magazines do you read? None 1 . 6. 2 . 7. 3. 8. 4. 9. 5. 10. 11. Which magazine do you like most? Why? (PROBE FOR SPECIFIC) 12. Which magazine do you like next best? Why? (PROBE FOR SPECIFIC) 13. Which magazine do you like next best? Why? (PROBE FOR SPECIFIC) Which newspapers do you read? None I. 3. Which newspaper do you like most? Why? (PROBE FOR SPECIFIC) Which newspaper do you like next best? Why? (PROBE FOR SPECIFIC) 79 Do you receive any pamphlets or booklets? Yes No (If Yes) What type do you receive? A. B. How many books do you read in a year? None One Two to three Four to five Six or more Are you reading a book now? Yes No (If yes) What is its title? Kind of book (fiction, non-fiction) What television channels can you get? What are your favorite television shows? (LIST AS MANY AS THE INTERVIEWEE GIVES FREELY) 1. 6. 2. 7. 3. 8. 4. 9. 5. 10. What radio stations do you listen to? None 1. 6. 2. 7. 3. 8. 4. 9. 5. 10. lllllllllllllllllllllll||||||llllllllllllllNIH 293 031145 1374