A STUDY OF COMMUNICATOR’S TELECASTING AGRICULTURAL MESSAGES AND THEIR WARM, COLD PERSONALITY QUALITIES Thesis for H1. Dogma of M. A. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY James Paxton Marshall 1957 O. w ov—v:¢’°H.—~uvoooc mam *HES'S LIBRARY Michigan State University A STUDY OF CONLUNICATOR'S TELECASTING AGRICULTURAL MESSAGES AND THEIR WARM, COLD ERSONALITY QUALITIES By James Paxton Marshall AN ABSTRACT Submitted to the College of Communication Arts of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of General Communication Art 1957 Approved ;%;;{;//Ji2éfifiié%;25£:;,y¢\_,, James Paxton Marshall The purpose of this study was to select and test an objective method of selecting communicators; and to determine audience attitude toward, and learning from, the selected communicators. The theoretical formulation was based upon work of other investigators who have studied the personality quality "warm-cold." These studies indicate that temperament charac- teristics are important in the individuals perception of another person as "warm" or "cold." Two hypotheses were developed from the theoretical formulation: (1) the audience members would perceive the degree of the personality quality "warm-cold" possessed by the selected communicators and would rank them as possessing this quality via a discriminating instrument in the same order as the instrument used to select them; (2) the audience would evaluate the communicator perceived as "warm" most pos- itively, and learning by the audience members would correlate positively with this evaluation. The Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey_was selected as the objective instrument to test. This instrument was ad- ministered to 14 advanced speech students. Four communica- tors were selected from this group on the basis of their scores and profiles on the temperament traits in the cluster isolated for study. The communicators were arbitrarily designated James Paxton Marshall "warm" when possessing high trait scores and "cold" when pos- sessing low trait scores, and are referred to by numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, representing "warm" to "cold" respectively. Two messages equated for length, difficulty, human interest, and lack of message interest were presented for kinescope recording by each communicator. These kinescopes were viewed by 8 audiences, four containing 140 college stu- dents, and four containing 85 students of Stockbridge Commun- ity High School, Stockbridge, Michigan. Each audience viewed two communicators; each one presenting a different message. The attitudes expressed by the subjects were evalu- ated via a 3 scale semantic differential. The cloze pro- cedure was used as a measure of learning. The hypotheses were not supported. The communicators were consistently evaluated as "warm” in 4, 2, 3, 1 order regardless of audience, message, or position. Communicators 4 and 2 were perceived and evaluated as possessing signifi- " than communicators cantly more of a personality quality "warm 5 and l. The audiences did learn from the messages and the com- municators at different levels; but the differences were not statistically significant. When asked to designate one of two communicators viewed "cold" audience members always designated that commun- g. hhen k, icator who received the most negative attitude ratin audience attitudes were of equal intensity members were unable to designate one communicator "cold." James Paxton Marshall It is concluded that a personality quality exists which audiences perceive and verbally describe as "warm-cold." The term "warm" being indicative of positive attitudes and "cold" indicative of negative attitudes. Before conclusions concerning the temperament pro- files of communicators perceived as "warm" are reached, fur- ther research is required. A STU’Y OF COMFUNICATOR'S TSLBCASTING AGRICULTURAL NJSSAGBS AND THflIR WARM, COLD PJRSOKALITY QUALITIJS BY James Paxton Marshall A THESIS Submitted to the College of Communication Arts of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTSR OF ARTS Department of General Communication Art 1957 (\ Ch." Ku u‘: ‘33 /.//,’V" .-'.’/.L,/)/ ACKNOWLJDGBNENTS The writer is particularly indebted to the four communicators who were the principals for this thesis. Obviously without their cooperation this study would not exist. Dr. Paul J. Deutschmann must receive special acknowledgement as director of this thesis, and patiently fulfilling the dual role of adviser and disciplinarian. The writer wishes to express his thanks to Mr. Stanley Andrews, Executive Director, of the National Project in Agricultural Communication for extending financial assistance via a graduate assistantship; and to Dr, John M. Parsey, Research Director, for the Project, who has enlightened me on many facets of communication, education, and research. To name each of the many other persons asso- ciated with the conduct of this study is impractical. However, appreciation is expressed to Dr. Jack M. Bain, Dr. David C. Ralph, Major James Haney, and Mr. Donovan Cronkhite for permission to use groups under their direction as sources of viewing subjects. 11 AC KN OVJL :J DGIL: Mia NT 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 LIST OF Chapter I. II. III. IV. V. TABLES O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O II‘PPRODUCTIOEJ o o o o o o o o o o c o o o o o o o 0 Statement of Problem Definition of terms Limitations Imposed Justification of the Study Sources and Materials Plan of Organization RELATED RhflsjiilAIQCH . O O O O O O O O O O C O C O O O Perceiving Others Perceiving the Source Television Studies Summary TIIEORETIC ALL FOIILIDIJATION o o o o o o o o o o o o o o DESIGI‘I A.I‘ID FROG EDURE o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 Selecting the Communicator via a Standardized Instrument Preparing and selecting the messages Producing the KinescoPes Pre-testing the Audience Learning and Communicator Evaluation Instruments Obtaining the Audiences Design Procedures Summary H.33ULTS AIJD Al‘IALYSIS o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o EXpressed Attitudes Audience Learning Correlation of Attitude and Learning Summary iii Page ii 42 55 72 Chapter VI. INTERPRLTATION AND DISCUSSION. . . . . . . . . . . Interpretation The Selected Test Instrument The "Warm-Cold" Continuum and Audience Attitudes Audience Learning Learning and Attitude Personality -- Characteristics and Traits Discussion VII. CONCLUSIONS. 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I APPEl‘II’IX A. o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o APP:3NDIX B O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O AIJPJIGDIX C C O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O AI)P._‘:IJDIX D o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o BIBLIOGRAENHY. O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 iv Page 93 106 108 114 126 144 149 Table 1. 2. 5. 4. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 15. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. LIST OF TABLES Choice of Fitting Characteristics Experiment IX .... Choice of Fitting Characteristics Experiment IXa ... Choice of Fitting Characteristics .................. Temperament Traits and Associated Characteristics .. Rank-correlation of Temperament Traits Expressed by sample or COH’JILunicatOI'S 00.00.000.00000000ooooooo Temperament Profiles of "Warm-Cold" Traits of Selected Communicators ............................. Message Difficulty and Interest Scores ............. Communicator, Program Presentation Sequence ........ Mean Attitude Score of Audiences ................... Mean Evaluative Dimension Scores of High School 811d COllege Audiences ......OCOOOO......OOOOOOO0.... Attitudes Expressed by Audiences on Individual Evaluative Dimension Scales ........................ Audience Attitude Intensity Evaluative Dimension and the Percent of Audience Designating a Commun- icator "COld" 0.0.0.0...00.0.0000.........OOOOOOOOOO Relative Attitude Range and Designation of Communicator as "Cold" ............................. Audience Group Evaluative Attitude Scores and Designation of Communicator as "Cold" .............. Statistical Differences in Attitude Expressed Toward Communicators; Composite Audiences .......... Average Audience Learning .......................... Average Audience Learning Score .................... Average Audience Learning Score .................... V Page l2 15 46 50 56 58 61 69 75 75 76 78 79 81 82 85 86 87 Table Page 19. Product-Moment Correlation: Learning and Attitude Scores All Communicators, All Subjects..... 89 20. Correlation Composite Audience Learning and Avaluative Attitude Scores: Hog and Dairy leessage ......OOOOO.........OOOOOOO0.0.0.000...0.... 90 21. Correlation Group Audience Learning and Evalua- tive Attitude Scores: Hog and Dairy Message ....... 91 vi INTRODUCTION Tim success of a television program is determined by the favorable audience response it receives and maintains. This response indicates that the communication process has been satisfactorily consummated. To obtain this result, a program must present either a communicator, or a message, or both, with which the audience achieves a "commonness." That is, this program.message must convey "a bit of informa ation, an idea, or an attitude"1 to the audience; the audi- ence members, in turn, accept the program message, because they are favorable towards it, or because it emanates from this particular source. To a much greater degree than in other media, audi-1 ence acceptance of a television message is dependent upon its acceptance of the communicator, too. The communicator in this medium is not only a message source, but is virtualIy an integral part of the message. In this respect, televisidn is unique among the mass media, for it alone permits simul-r taneous—-and full--audience response to the communicator as; well as to the message, at the instant of delivery. . lWilbur Schramm, "How Communication Works," The Pro- cess and Effects of Mass Communications, ed. Wilbur Schramm, TUniversity of Illinois Press, Urbana, Illinois, 1954), p. 3. -1- 2 However, all television programs do not depend upon the communicator-message combination to an equal extent. One who observes or studies the media will recognize many gradations and combinations of the communicator-message team. For example, some agricultural programs are probably more successful because of their message than because of the com- municator. Agricultural service type programs covering com- modity and livestock markets, weather reports, etc., may be cited as an example. These programs are aimed directly at audience interests. The communicator is often simply the message conveyor. In such circumstances he may have little or no effect upon its acceptance. At the same time, many agricultural programs are not as clearly linked to immediate audience interests. One way to characterize these is to note that they are more diffi- cult for audiences to understand. In general, programs may be conceived as varying in difficulty from those that require a minimum mental interpretative effort to receive to those that require a maximum mental and physical effort to receive, interpret, and apply. The communicator tends to become a more important part of the communicator-message team as the difficult and of the continuum is approached with agricul- tural programs-~or any other kind. There is a continuous demand from the television in- dustry for producers of agricultural programsto increase the size of their audience; that is, to obtain a "common- ness" with more individuals. At the same time there is also 3 a desire on the part of producers of television programs for agriculture to convey messages about subject matters that are difficult, or not of compelling and immediate interest to the audience. If the audience becomes too small, the television industry solves the problem by eliminating the offending program. To prevent this the agricultural pregram producers have some alternatives. One is to make such changes in the messages as are possible within the limits of their goals. Another is to change the communicator, seeking to get those individuals whose personal effectiveness will "carry the message" despite its difficulty or lack of immediate in- terest. Statement of the Problem Since the success of a television program is deter- mined, in part, by how the audience accepts or rejects the communicator, it is desirable that some criteria for pre- selecting the communicator be established. One criterion is "personality" as subjectively evaluated by the producer or station operator. This is normally a procedure reserved for a small sample of critical eyes. Quite often audiences have not agreed with the selection. This has been particularly true when the communicator's responsibility was to reach a minority group-~such as the agricultural audience. But, what other criteria or method of establishing them are there by which to evaluate communicators? Do suc- cessful communicators possess particular personality pat- terns that may be objectively determined? Does the audience 4 respond to intangible aspects of personality they perceive? The answers to these questions are not known even though much research in television, and communication generally, has been completed. It is the purpose of this study to test an objective means of selecting a communicator; to determine how the audi- ence evaluates the selected communicators' personality qual- ities when they are viewed via television; and to determine the effect of differences in communicators upon audience learning. The complexity of the human personality makes it im- perative to limit the extent of this individual evaluation. Therefore, the scope of this study is limited to the "warm- cold" concept of personality qualities studied by Asch,2 and supported by additional empirical work. Definition of terms: l. Personality-—Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those .psychological systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment.3 2. "Warm"--an individual who tends to be stable in interests and moods, optimistic, composed, cheerful, altruistic, tolerant, respectful, and sincere. 5. "Cold"--an individual who tends to be un- stable in interests and moods, pessimistic, ZS, E. Asch, "Forming Impressions of Personality," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, XLI (September, 1946), pp. 258—290. 3G. 3. Allport, Personality, A Psychological Inter- pretation, (New York, Henry Holt and Company, 1957), p. 48. gloomy, excitable, egotistic, intolerant, dominant, contemptful, and insincere. Limitations Imposed This study is limited by the following direct design factors and methodological procedures. 1. The messages were of restricted agricul- tural tOpics, and were judged to have minimal message interest. 2. Lecture was selected as a method of pre- senting the messages to eliminate any support the communicator might receive from other methods of presentation. 3. The sample from which the communicators were selected was extremely small and in- troduces a severe limitation upon the StUdyo 4. Audiences viewing programs, evaluating the communicators, and demonstrating their learning included only college and high school students. Justification of the Study A research prOject investigating the communication process, if properly designed, has intrinsic merit. Though a universal process, communication has undergone relatively little experimental study. Therefore, any results obtained by investigating a minute facet of this complex process may help establish communication theory. Further, even if no clear-cut results are obtained, information about design and procedural problems might aid other investigators. This study is unique in the research concerning the communication process. Many studies have been concerned 6 with reactions of people to verbal cues of personality. Like- wise, many studies of how people perceive others by pictures, in person, and other means have been reported. However, no study has been reported of the ability of people to recognize "warm-cold" personality qualities established by an objective criterion and their effect-~or lack of it--upon audience learning in a television-type situation. Every research study is distinctive, because no other one uses exactly the same subjects, methods, or procedures. Therefore, to replicate a study exactly is impossible, How- ever, the exactness with which a study is described and ex- ecuted makes relative replication possible. Later studies following these original procedures and producing corres- ponding results then can serve to broaden the base for appli- cation and support of the original study. This study is distinctive, for it opens a new area of investigation, and simultaneously can support previous studies relating to television. Sources and Materials This thesis is of necessity developed from several areas of knowledge. Background materials were drawn from literature relating to the mass communication process, psy- chological literature of personality (particularly Asch's works relating to "warm-cold" personality qualities), and literature relating to television. Two groups of subjects represent the source of data. 7 The first includes 14 speech students from whom the communi- cators were selected. The second contained 140 college, and 85 high school students who were divided into eight audiences. A standardized test, the Guilford-Zimmerman Tempera- ment Survey, was selected as the instrument to differentiate between "warm" and "cold" communicators. Agricultural re- search and information publications were background materials for the test messages. The communicator evaluating instru- ment was the semantic differential, developed by Osgood.4 The cloze procedure, a method developed by Taylor,5 was se- lected to measure learning. Plan of Organization The reader will find previous research relating to the problem in Chapter II. Included are studies of the per- ception of "warm-cold" personality qualities, work relating to the effect of source upon the message, and relevant re- search in television. The theoretical formulation of this study, and the statement of the hypotheses are found in Chapter III. In Chapter IV the design and method are explained. Chapter V 4Charles E. Osgood, Rgport on Levelopment and Appli- cation of the Semantic Differential, (Institute of Communi- cations Research and Department of Psychology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, not dated), 58 pages. (mimeo- graphed) 5Wilson L. Taylor, The Cloze Procedure: How It Pre- dicts Comprehension and Intelligence of Military Personnel, ITechnical Memorandum Number 15, Urbana, Illinois: Division of Communication, University of Illinois, 1953). 8 contains the data obtained from the execution of the study and its analysis. It is followed by the interpretation and discussion in Chapter VI. The conclusions are located in Chapter VII. Complete references to all works cited are located in the bibliography. COpies of the messages, the evaluating instruments, and other materials pertinent to the conduct of this study are in the appendices. CHAPTER II RELATED RESEARCH It is the purpose of this chapter to present the knowledge contributed by others applicable to this study. Perceiving Others Arguments have flown thick and fast for many years over what perception actually is, what it is caused by, and how it functions. An authority defines perception as: The reaction to one set of stimulus-objects that correctly separates it from another set is all we need. That reaction is the perception. ... summed up by saying that a perception can be regarded as nothing more or less than a discriminatory response. Arnheim in this theory of expression suggests: In its proper biological context, perception appears as the means by which the organism obtains information about the friendly, hostile, or other- wise relevant environment force to which it must react.2 These reactions have been the object of study for decades. Scientist and layman alike have investigated the lFloyd H. Allport, Theories of Perception and the Concept of Structure, (New York, John Wiley and Sons, 1955), p. 53. 2Rudolf Arnheim, "The Gestalt Theory of Expression," Psychological Review, LVI (May, 1949), p. 170. -9- 10 response of one individual to another. Darwin's5 treatise on this topic contains many case histories of personality reaction, and also photograihs of persons expressing various emotions. This book is representative of the method used for many modern studies of personality perception--with the use of pictures. This is quite understandable, for studies of perception require receiving responses to a specific set of stimuli from a number of subjects, and photographs offer this methodological control. Conflict continues among psychologists as to how people perceive others. Kohler, an eminent Gestalt theorist, writes: I do not think that the language of others is our main cue, in the sense that the content of it might be taken as a description of their subjective experiences, and we ascribe to this pomposity or modesty, friendli- ness or coldness, without their telling us a single word about such traits. In a foreign country, we ap- preciate to a great extent that others are 'provoca— tive' or 'kind', though we may be absolutely unable to understand their language. Where we do understand their words, their manner of talking is often a better cue, and we trust it more than the content of their talks. Also a certain kind of silence occasionally tells us more about others than any number of words could reveal in the same direction.* Asch, also of the Gestalt school further developed the concepts of Kohler. In contrast to the personal intan- gible factor as expressed by Kohler, he used descriptive 5Charles Darwin, The Exppession of the Emotions in Man and Animals, (New York, D. Appleton and Company, 1873), 574 pages. 4W. Kohler, Gestalt Psychology, (New York, Liver- wright Publishing Corporation, 1929), p. 234-255. 11 words to enable evaluating subjects to perceive a hypothet- ical personality. By this procedure the theory was subjected to empirical test within a relatively limited context--defin— itive language. An extensive series of experiments were com- pleted. In the first, 90 subjects were exposed to a hypothet- ical individual wno was described as, "intelligent-skillful --industrious--E33m¢-determined--practical--cautious."5 Their perception of this individual deviated significantly from 79 other subjects who were exposed to the identical des- cription except "warm" was replaced by "cold." All the sub- jects were asked to select from a series of 18 characteristics those they expected the hypothetical individuals to possess. The distinct separation between the characteristics selected by the two groups encouraged Asch to continue his investiga- tion. In succeeding experiments the terms "polite," "blunt," and others, were substituted for "warm" and "cold." The tendency to polarize the perception of the hypothetical per- sonalities disappeared. These results led to the conclusion, "that a change in a peripheral trait produces a weaker effect upon the total impression than does a change in a central trait."6 A series of lO experiments were conducmed, and the conclusion of the earlier experiments was modified: 5Asch, op. cit., p. 262. 6Ibid, p. 266. 12 It can now be seen that the central character- istics, while imposing direction upon the total impression were themselves affected by the sur- frounding characteristics. The difference the central quality "warm-cold" pro- duces in mentally perceived individuals is readily observed in Tables I and II. Table I resulted from "intelligent-- skillful--warm" and "intelligent--skillful--cold" descrip- tions.8 TMEEI CHOICE OF FITTING CHARACTQRISTICS EXPEfiIMQNT IX (Percentages) Warm Cold Warm Cold (N=22) (N=55) (N=22) (N=55). l. generous 100 12 10.. humane 100 17 2. wise 95 11 ll. good-looking 95 57 5. happy 100 10 12. persistent 78 97 4. good-natured 100 8 15. serious 68 97 5. humorous 100 l2 l4. restrained 41 97 6. sociable 100 9 15. altruistic 91 5 7. popular 100 6 l6. imaginative 95 9 8. reliable 100 87 17. strong 74 87 9. important 68 54 18. honest 100 81 Table 11 contains the results from a simple "warm" and "cold" description of an individual received by Asch.9 Even though Asch worked with descriptive words, his works suggest that one perceives an individual personality by associating various characteristics in clusters, and not as isolated traits. This result raises questions about the 71bid, p. 276. 91bid, p. 277. 8Ibid. l. 2. 5. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. ll. 12. 15 TABLE II CHOICE OF FITTING CHARACTERISTICS EXPJHINBHT IXa (Percentages) Warm Cold Warm Cold (N222) (N=55) (N=22) (N=55) emotional 100 12 unemotional O 88 practical 4O 75 theoretical 6O 27 optimistic 95 17 pessimistic 5 85 informal 95 O formal 5 100 cheerful 100 18 sad 0 82 short 91 8 tall 9 92 modest 86 9 proud 14 91 imaginative 95 28 unimaginative 5 72 thin 15 95 stout 85 7 intelligent 81 96 unintelligent l9 4 brave 91 74 cowardly 9 26 pale 15 97 ruddy 85 5 validity of the concept that traits are atomistic and can be isolated statistically or otherwise. The subjects were asked after each experiment to ex- plain in writing how they peroxived the described individual. Summarizing the assimptions that appear to effect the exper- imental subjects' formulation of personality, Asch writes: It is equally far from the observed facts to de- scribe the process as forming a homogenous, undiffer- entiated 'general impression.‘ The unity perceived by the observer contains groups the parts of which are in more intimate connection with each other than they are with parts of other groupings... If we may assume that the situation observed cor- responds to this view, an important conclusion follows for method, namely, that we can study characteristics of persons wi8hout an exhaustive knowledge of the en- tire person. Two particularly promising experiments conducted by lOIbid, p. 285. l4 Asch were replicated by Mensch and Wishner.11 The results affirmed the previous conclusion, namely, certain traits-- particularly m'warm" and "cold"-—tend to represent a central quality. Other traits were observed to vacilliate between peripheral and central qualities, their location depending upon the context in which they were perceived. Therefore, how one weighs the descriptive qualities presented and in- terprets their interaction affects the formation of their impression. This team concluded: ...the present evidence supports the view that the formation of an impression is a function of (per- ceived trait) interaction which produces an organized total impression.12 Aware of the errors accumulating in these studies of personality by verbal description, Kellyl:5 experimented with student reaction to a stimulus individual. He studied the "warm-cold" variable by means of a verbal introduction given before the arrival of a guest lecturer. In one instance he was introduced as "warm"--and in the other as "cold." Fol- lowing the lecture and the lecturer's departure, subjects were presented a prepared list of qualities, and were asked to indicate their impresSions of the stimulus individual. 11Ivan N. Mensch, and Julius Wishner, "Forming Im- pressions of Personality," Journal of Personality, XVI (Jan- uary, 1947), pp. 188-191. 12Ibid, p. 191. 15Harold H. Kelly, "The Warm-Cold Variable in First Impressions," Journal of Personality, XVIII (June, 1950), pp 0 451-439 0 15 The results corroborated the preceding work. These student subjects used many of the same descriptive words to describe their impressions of the stimulus individual as had been reported in other studies. The same students were subsequently given an oppor- tunity to interact with the stimulus individual in this ex- periment. Kelly noted the first impression given the stu- dents, that is, "warm" or "cold" impression, influenced their behavior toward the stimulus individual. The students with a favorable impression "tended to interact" with the stimulus individual more than those who had gained an unfavorable im- pression.l4 15 who Credence was lent to this finding by Dailey found that personality impressions based upon partial infor- mation were not effectively reorganized when additional in- forhation was provided about the hypothetical individual. That is, a tendency to fix opinions occurs when premature judgments are forced. Asch, who had conducted further study of the organi- zation of personality impressions, had also reached this con- clusion. Following the completion of a long series of stud- ies, he concluded; the order of presenting words describing hypothetical individuals to subjects exerts an effect upon the characteristics described later. Thus, this suggests 14Ibid, p. 439. 15C. A. Dailey, "Some Factors Influencing the Accur- acy of Understanding Personality," (unpublisned, Ph.D. dis- sertation, Univ. of Mich., Ann Arbor, Mich., 1951), p. 154. 16 that the original impression created by descriptive words tends to have stability.16 The knowledge accumulated by the scholars conducting these investigations of personality perception show clearly that "warm" and "cold" are two, of perhaps other, central personality qualities. then the subjects were faced with a particular description they tended to react dichotomously. It may be said that the reactions were virtually polarized. It is concluded that Kohler's concept of personality impression has been supported by these studies. If these conditions exist when internal perceptions are verbalized, will the same thing occur when persons are perceived visually? Perceiving The Source We shall now turn from the studies of perception of individual personality to the perception of the communicator as an information source. Everybody knows that in perceiving or responding to any stimulus, besides the external factors, in- ternal factors play an important part. ... The words of a person with whom we are ac- quainted or the pronouncements of a person who has prestige in our eyes, are experienced against the whole background of our relationship to that per- SOHO A statement of this type is logical when we scrutinize 16S.E. Asch, Social Psychology, (New York, Prentice- Hall, 1952), p. 446. ' l7M. Sherif, "An Experimental Study of Stereotypes," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, XXIX (January- March, 1955), pp. 571-575. 17 individual lives and experiences. It follows, then, that every member of a television program audience will perceive the message and the communicator differently. Further, that prestige does not necessarily produce a positive reaction within individuals. Though the audience members may per- ceive the source in minutely differing contexts, generally the mass media establish a "commonness." An early study of the effect created by the message source was conducted at Columbia University with two classes of graduate students who were specializing in sociology. These classes were administered the standardized test, "So- cial Beliefs and Attitudes of American Educators." The ex- perimental class students were provided a specified list of reference readings, including Walter Lippman's Public Qpin- 122, and required to complete them within the next 50 days. At that time the standardized test was repeated; but answers to all the questions were provided. Subjects were told the answers were from 10 leading--actually hypothetical--educators, and the answers given represented 98 percent agreement among these people. This time they were to mark those answers with which they disagreed. The results clearly demonstrated some attitudes were easily and suddenly changed by altering the prestige element --leading educators answering the questions. Subjects who read intensively were less affected by the prestige element than the control group. More positive reactions to prestige were obtained from the liberal than the conservative subjects. 18 Attitudes related to peripheral interests-~foreign nations and so forth--were changed more than those of vested inter- ests.18 f19 who A complementary study was conducted by Sheri selected 12 passages from a single author and gave these passages to student subjects with a list of 12 authors' names. Repeating this procedure with three different groups using the same techniques, but with new materials, he found that subjects matched the names of authors and passages with- out regard for the intrinsic merit of the passage. Authors which subjects recognized as prestige persons were associated with passages the subjects rated highest and vice versa. These results demonstrate that, "prestige-suggestion or stereotype plays a considerable part in people's judgment."g) An extensive study of prestige effects upon 99 edu- cated but unemployed persons is reported by Lorge.2l The preliminary step in this study required the subjects to rank a list of well known political figures, organizations, and publications in the order they personally regarded them as valid sources of information. This ranking was used as the 18Claude E. Arnett, Helen H. Davidson, and Hallet N. LeWis, "Prestige as a Factor in Attitude Change," Sociology Social Research, XVI (September-October, 1959), pp. 49-55. lgSherif, Op. cit. zolbid, p o 574 0 21Irving Lorge, "Prestige, Suggestion, Attitude," Journal of Social Psychology, VII (November, 1956), p. 586- 402. l9 measure of source prestige. Several days later the subjects were given a series of political-economic quotes to evaluate on a five-point agree—disagree scale, and asked to select the author of each from two given--one correct. Following a lapse of 50 days the same series of quotes were presented, with the correct author, and the five point agree-disagree scale repeated. Changes in attitude occurred among the subjects when the quotes and their authors were perceived as implying "positive prestige, positive suggestion, (and) positive at- titude, or by confirming reaction in the subject(s)." Fur- thermore, attitude changes occurred more readily when posi- tive aspects of regard were utilized than negative. Lorge concludes: "Opinions were changed in the direction of agree- Building upon the former studies Lewisz5 used polit- ical slogans and manipulated them to view the effects of prestige. The design was similar to that used by Lorge. These subjects did not cnange their original ranking of the slogans to any extent when confronted with standards of polit- ical conflict or agreement. Subjects simply rejected politi— cal standards conflicting with their own regardless of source. Liberals were found to shift their attitudes, more readily 221pm, p. 402. 23H. B. Lewis, "Studies on the Principles of Judg- ment and Attitudes: The Operation of 'Prestige Suggestion'," Journal of Social ngchology, XIV (August, 1941), pp. 229—256. 20 than radicals, away from the prestige sources when conflic- ting circumstances existed. A conflict in these studies was perceived by Asch, who hypothesized that prestige effects, to be consistent, must not be affected by the message content. The data ob- tained by Lorge24 in the study nearly 20 years earlier were re-analyzed. The hypothesis was not supported. "There was a trend E23 to shift one's evaluation of statements, which was at least as strong as the tendency to change evaluation."25 How an individual perceives the intent of a message also influences its effectiveness. Hovland, et al,26 report this fact from a study of an army orientation film. Soldiers' were asked to complete an open-ended question following their exposure to the film, Why We Fight. The answers received concerning the intent of this film separated into three sub- groups; manipulative, those perceiving the film as propa- ganda; ambiguous, and informative. The effectiveness of this film was determined by a before and after test to measure learning. The film was least effective for those persons who perceived it as a manipulative source. The effectiveness in- creased as a more positive approach was taken to the film 24Lorge, op. cit. 25S. E. Asch, "The Doctrine of Suggestion, Prestige, and Imitation in Social Psychology," Psychological Review, LV (September, 1948), pp. 250-276. 260. I. Hovland, A. A. Lumsdaine, F. D. Sheffield, Experiments in Mass Communications, (Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press, 1949), pp. 101-105. 21 with a consistent increase in learning through each sub-group with the greatest effectiveness resulting in those individ- uals who had a high school education or higher, and who per- ceived it as an informational source. These and other studies have culminated in the source credibility study by Hovland and Weiss?r7 Simulated mass communication conditions were built into this experiment. The investigators selected eight sources--four trustworthy and four untrustworthy. A series of four articles were pre- pared in two versions in a manner that the same facts could lead to the conclusions attributed to the sources indicated. For example, an article on television effects upon movie theaters was credited to Fortune, the trustworthy source, and a widely syndicated well-known movie-gossip columnist the un- trustworthy source. The students were administered the ex- perimental materials in a class situation by a "visiting professor." Questionnaires Were administered immediately after the students completed reading the booklets containing the experimental materials. The investigators conclude: The immediate reaction to the 'fairness' of the presentation and the'justifiability' of the conclusion drawn by the communication is significantly affected by both the subject's initial position on the issue and his evaluation of the trustworthiness of the source. Identical communications were regarded as being 'justified' in their conclusions in 71.7 percent of the cases when presented by a high credibility 27C. I. Hovland, and W. Weiss, "The Influence of Source Credibility on Communication Effectiveness," Public Qpinion Quarterly, XV (Winter, 1951), pp. 655-650. 22 source to the subjects who initially held the same opinion as advocated by the communicator, but were considered 'justified' in only 36.7 percent of the cases when presented by a low credibility source to the subjects who initially held an opinion at vari- ance with that advocated by the communicatorvg8 Factual information was learned and retained equally well, from both sources, imrediately, and over a 4-week per- iod. Opinions were immediately and significantly changed in the direction advocated by the trustworthy source. how- ever, in 50 days the subjects decreased the extent of their agreement with the trustworthy source and increased their agreement with the untrustworthy source until the two at- tained equal status. This phenomena is referred to as the "sleeper effect," and is apparently obtained because the subject tends to remember the information gained in the message, but forgets the message source. The results of this experiment contrast with those of the prestige studies. The shifts of opinion caused by the prestige of the source were attributed to reinforcement of an original positive attitude. The opinion shifts creating the "sleeper effect" are assumed to result from the original rejection of the untrustworthy source; followed by a subsequent forgetting of the source, but a retention of the message. The ability to remember the information is apparently equal for the positive and negative sources. ZBIbid, p. 650. 25 The "sleeper effect" was also produced by Weiss29 in a study of student opinions toward messages concerning the effects of cigarettes. The messages were true-false state- ments, and the student subjects were expected to determine their accuracy, and be able to repeat the information When presented the message in different patterns. Immediate and three-week opinion changes did not produce the "sleeper ef- fect," but when subjects were tested at six weeks the "sleeper effect" was present. To test the validity of the "sleeper effect" theory, Kelman and Hovland30 conducted another experiment. High school students were exposed to one especially prepared recorded radio program presented by three communicators. The message theme expressed a position of leniency for ju- venile delinquents. The positive role was represented by an experienced authority and judge. The neutral role was portrayed by a man supposedly selected from the program audience, and the negative a like individual, but one who had violated the law several times and took this position for his own interests. Four classes of students were exposed to the posi- tive source and four to the negative source. Two classes 29Walter Weiss, "A 'Sleeper Effect' in Opinion Change," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, XLVIII (April, 19557, pp. 173-180. 50H. C. Kelman, and C. . Hovland, "'Heinstatement' of the Communicator in Delayed Measurement of Opinion Change," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, XLVIII (September, 1955), pp. 527-555. 24 were exposed to the neutral source. The positive and nega- tive sources shifted the opinions of the students as Hov- land and Weiss had observed earlier. An opinion scale ad- ministered three weeks later to half the classes found the "sleeper effect" functioning. The remaining classes were exposed to the communicator's introduction, but not the message, before repeating the opinion scale. They did not show the "sleeper effect," but maintained their original pattern. The neutral source did not change opinions as a result of this experiment. Learning declined approximately equally for all groups.51 The foregoing studies have demonstrated the same phenomena. That is, people tend to shift attitudes towards a source which they perceive positively. In addition the studies of Hovland, et al, of the "sleeper effect" illus- trate that initial attitude is affected directly as a func- tion of perceiving the source positively or negatively. Building upon the studies reviewed, and others, Tannenbaum5 hypothesized: The amount of attitude change toward the con- cept in the direction of the assertion is directly proportional to the degree of favorableness of the original attitude toward the source.... The amount of the attitude change toward the source in a favorable direction is directly proportional to the degree of favorableness of the original attitude slIbid, p. 555. 32Percy H. Tannenbaum, "Initial Attitude Toward Source and Concept as Factors in Attitude Change Through Communication," Public Opinion Quarterly, XX (Summer, 1956), p. 4150 25 toward the concept when the assertion is favorable, but is inversely proportional when the assertion is unfavorable. Three source-concept combinations of especially pre- pared written material in favorable and unfavorable versions, with two filler messages reproduced in standard newqu>er type, were used to test the hypotheses on 405 undergraduate psychology students. The attitude shifts were determined by a semantic differential instrument. Before attitude tests were followed five weeks later by the source-concept messages and an immediate after test. Tannenbaum concludes: "A major finding is that the susceptibility to change is inversely proportional to the intensity of the initial attitude.":”:5 The studies of "prestige" and "source credibility" represent the same thing with different labels; namely, people shift attitudes relative to their initial positive or nega- tive perceptions of communicators and communication sources. It is interesting to note that Hovland found factual mate- rial was learned equally well from sources perceived nega- tively as well as positively. However, the instrument—-four multiple choice questions for each message--permits questions concerning the sensitivity of his measuring instrument to be raised about this finding. Despite Hovland's findings it seems reasonable to hy- pothesize that communicators who obtain a measure of "prestige" and who are perceived as "warm" personalities will produce 35Ibid, p. 425. 26 greater learning than communicators perceived as "cold" per~ sonalities. For here a reinforcement of positive attitudes should occur and support the "warm" individual by maintain- ing the attention of viewers. But, for the "cold" individual attitudes are Counteracted and thus attention probably de- clines as a result. Television Studies Television research expanded with the commercial de- velopment of the industry following World War II. That this would occur was inevitable for many aspects of program methods, audiences, and effects demanded answers that the new medium might increase its impact. During the gestation period, the new industry broad- cast and telecast many programs simultaneously. This pro- vided a cushioning device for the industry, and offered a transition period for the public. Goldberg54 conducted a study of student attitudes toward these opposing facets of a commercial simulcast. The students participating were asked to indicate their attitude via a five-point scale. Those who viewed the program via television reported a more favorable attitude than those who listened via radio. It was readily apparent from audience response that some program types used in the new medium were more effec- tive than others. A study of audience attitudes toward the 54H. D. Goldberg, "Liking and Retention of A Simul- cast," Public Opinion Quarterly, XIV (Spring, 1950), p. 142. 27 lecture, discussion, and drama as programming methods was conducted by Hard.55 The messages conveyed horticultural information. The audiences viewing the programs returned definitely unfavor- able attitudes for the lecture method of presenting informa- tion. There were no discernable differences in attitudes toward the drama or discussion programs. Brandon,56 sub- stituting the interview, instead of the drama, conducted a similar analysis of program methods. This intensive study also reported audience attitudes were unfavorable to the lecture. Jorgenson's57 analysis of newscasting methods using a newscaster alone, still pictures with the newscaster off camera, and films with the newscaster narrating, shows that audiences are more favorably disposed to the newscaster alone. The films used contained some pictures of Senator McCarthy, and this may have produced a bias in the study. Possibly in this instance the message effect is a function 350. Gustav Hard, "An Evaluation of Techniques for Presentation of Horticultural Topics Through the Medium of Television," (unpublished Master's thesis, Michigan State College, East Lansing, Michigan, 1952), 49 pages. 36James RodgerBrandon, "The Relative Effectiveness of Lecture, Interview, and Discussion Methods of Presenting Factual Information by Television," (unpublished Ph.D. dis- sertation, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, 1955), 225 pages. 57Erling S. Jorgenson, "The Relative Effectiveness of Three Methods of Television Newscasting," (unpublished, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Eisconsin, Madison, Wis— consin, 1955), 191 pages. of what is being conveyed, rather than how, or by whom. A pilot study of closed-circuit television has been conducted at Pennsylvania State University.58 The project investigated student acceptance and teaching effectiveness of this form of instruction. Classes in chemistry, psy- chology, and marriage were instructed simultaneously by con- ventional procedures and closed-circuit television for one semester. Students in all the classes and courses learned information material equally well. Students in television groups accepted this new method of instruction, but their attitudes were "neutral or slightly negative."59 An intensive study conducted at Camp Gordon, Georgia, found that some types of materials are taught more effec- tively by television than by classroom instruction. These were materials that required "simple rote learning" or the learning of object relationships.4O Normally these materials were more adaptable to television's electronic devices-- superimposures and close-ups. Several companies of basic infantry recruits were subjects for this study. These re- cruits were administered the Army Area I aptitude test. 38C. R. Carpenter, and L. P. Greenhill, "An Inves- tigation of Closed-Circuit Television for Teaching University Course, (Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Penn- sylvania, 1955), 102 pages. 391515, p. 1. 40J. H. Kanner, R. P. Runyon, and O. Desiderato, "Television in Army Training," (Human Resources Research Office, Technical Report, Number 14, The George Washington University, flashington, D. C., 1954), p. 29. 29 Dividing the recruits into high and low aptitude groups at the median score the analysis showed that low aptitude sub- jects learned relatively more from television instruction than the high aptitude subjects. The investigators suggeSt this result probably occurred because the testing instrument discriminated less accurately among the high aptitude sub- jects41 who approached the maximum of the instrument initially. In his second investigation Hard42 attempted to deter- mine the Optimum number of new scientific horticultural terms the audience could assimilate in a given period. When these terms were used in the message at the rate of one per minute in exposure periods of 15, 19, and 24 minutes duration, no differential effects resulted. Learning by the students when expressed as-a ratio of words and time was consistent for all groups. These studies represent a relatively minor sample of the accumulated data demonstrating that learning occurs as a result of persons viewing programs in a specific situation. ROst institutional empirical studies have included as a cor— 45 44 45 4" 47 48 ollary the measurement of learning. 0 41Ibid, p. 25. 42C. Gustav Hard, "An Adaption of a Course for Tele- vision Teaching of Horticulture," (unpublished Ph.D. disser- tation, Michigan State College, East Lansing, Michigan, 1954), 109 pages. 45Goldbern op. cit. 44Hard, op. cit. 45Brandon, op. cit. 46Jorgenson, op. cit. 47R. M. Allen, "Quartermaster Command Educational Television Study," (Quartermaster School, Fort Lee, Virginia, 50 Several major studies have demonstrated that learning also occurs when the audience views programs in the home. An outstanding one of this type was designed by Belson,49 who studied the British Broadcasting Company's series "Bon Voy- age." This series was designed to convey simple messages about Paris, France, and teach a few French words to the viewers that would be useful on a trip to Paris. This unique study obtained as subjects, persons who viewed the programs under home conditions without knowledge that they might be selected to participate in an analysis of the program. A sample of approximately 100 viewers and 125 non-viewers par- ticipated in the evaluating sessions. Critical analysis of the data indicate approximately 11 percent of the total mes- sage was effectively retained by the viewing audience. How- ever, attitudes were affected negatively, as many subjects reported their known ignorance of French was developed by this series, and this would tend to inhibit their journeying to Paris. 50 ' Shimberg, experimented with the Red Cross Home 1954, 16 pages. 48For a comprehensive survey of the work in educa- tional television see Hideya Kumata, An Inventory of Instruc- tional Television Research, (Educational Television and Radio Center, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1956). 49William A. Belson, "Learning and Attitude Changes Resulting from Viewing a Television Series, 'Bon Voyage,'" The British Journal of Psychology, XXVI (Part 1, 1956), pp. 51-58. 5OBenjamin Shimberg, "Effectiveness of Television in Teaching Home Nursing," (Education Testing Service, Prince- ton, New Jersey, 1955), p. 30. 51 Nursing course effects when televised as compared with class- room instruction, and found them of equal effectiveness. The two courses were conducted concurrently in two cit as. The television series enrolled 587 persons and the classroom series 282 persons. However, when the courses were completed only 45 percent of the television group completed, while 85 percent of the classroom group did so. Although much less personal trouble was involved for those viewing the tele- vision lessons than the classroom the author attributes the results to this very factor. That is, social pressures forced the classroom enrollees to complete. Students enrolled in a psychology telecourse presented by Iowa State College learned equally as well and made grades comparable to those students receiving classroom instruc- tion.51 In this instance, 54 of the 56 persons enrolled in the course to receive college credit completed. Many television programs present informational mate- rials to the audience that are more complex than the "simple rote learning" type. An example are programs giving instruc- tion in clothing construction. Probably the first extensive analysis of the effectiveness of a clothing program was con- ducted in hashington, D. 0.52 A sample of 251 women were 51R. W. Husband, "Television Versus Classroom for Learning General Psychology," American Psychologists, VI (May, 1954), p. 82. 52Meredith C. Wilson, and Edward O. Moe, "Effective- ness of Television in Teaching Sewing Practices," (Extension Service Circular, 466, United States Dapartment of Agricul- ture, Washington, D. C., 1951), p. 5. 52 randomly selected for personal interviews from an original group of approximately 950 who requested a bulletin on dress- making--offercd over television. The data from this 11 pro- gram.series indicates that, "the younger women, the women with college training, those who did the most sewing, and those who possessed the highest sewing skill, did make slightly more use of the new knowledge acquired than other groups."55 This suggests that though the message was effec- tive with all groups, those persons viewing the programs who were originally more highly trained benefited the most from this series. Williams54 has demonstrated that methods of success- fully presenting a clothing program to the intended audience do not all occur in the studio before the camera. With a pre-promotion of the experimental program series she obtained over 1,800 requests for additional information on clothing. From these persons 455 homemakers were randomly selected to form four eXperimental groups. Group A received no supple- mentary aids to the programs; Group B received instructional materials; Group C received identical material plus personal instruction when requested from the local Home Agent; and Group D received all the materials of Groups A, B, and C plus personal program reminder cards.55 The subjects in the 53Ibid, p. 2. 54Elsie K. Williams, "Effectiveness of Television as a Teaching Medium for Clothing Instruction," (unpublished Master's thesis, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa, 1955), 149 pages. 55Ibid, p. 14 55 original sample were personally interviewed following the ten program series. It was found that promotion and viewing were positively correlated. eighty percent of the subjects in Group D viewed all 10 programs as contrasted with 70 percent of Group C, 50 percent of Group B, and 45 percent of Group A.56 The ability to identify clothing construction terms and pattern parts was also positively correlated with promotion and viewing. Thus, a supplement to instruction programs may be found in personal program promotion via instructional aids and promotional materials. The use of especially produced and telecast programs for in-class viewing by part-time vocational agricultural 57 The students and in- students has been examined by King. structors of 10 vocational agriculture departments cooperated in this study. Approximately one-half of the programs in the 56 program series--presented weekly from September to June-- were not viewed by any subject in the study. The materials presented by the programs were obtainable from other sources; therefore, learning directly attributable to the programs was difficult to measure. Generally the findings from these case- studies suggest the students participating objected to the content of the programs, the method of presentation, and their use in the class-room situation. 56Ibid, p. 75. 57Charles Edward King, "A Case-Study of the Evaluation and Use of Special Television Programs as an Instructional Aid in Vocational Agriculture," (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, College of dducation, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 1955), 550 pages. 54 Of course, all empirical studies of television have not been of method and results. Among the many studies of other aspects of television is one by McKune.58 This dis- sertation, though evaluating a series of programs, clearly describes and defines the role of administration in solving problems of inter-institutional responsibility for educa- tional purposes. An analysis of 9 stations' local public service pro- gramming between January 1, and June 50, 1955, is reported by Williams.59 During the period examined those television stations operated by corporate enterprises provided more local public service programming than family owned stations. The problem of providing local groups with time was very com- monly solved by having them appear on programs directed to the rural audience.60 Many accomplishments have been credited to television, even the ability to sooth the mentally ill.61 A controlled study resulted from the first observations of television's 58Lawrence E. McKune, "Some Problems in Writing Pro- duction, and Evaluation of Television Pnagrams for In-class Viewing," (unpublished, Ph.D. dissertation, Iowa State Col- lege, Ames, Iowa, 1955), 264 pages. 593. W, Williams, "An Analysis of the Sustaining Local Public Service Programming of Selected Television Sta- tions," (unpublished, Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, 1955), 442 pages. GOIbid, p. 285. 61Gaither L. Martin, "The Effects of the Behavior Patterns and Activity Levels of the Mentally Ill," (unpub- lished Master's thesis, Department of Psychology, San Jose State College, San Jose, California, 1955), 75 pages. 55 effect upon mental patients. Preliminary conclusions of this study indicate that patients administered therapy via closed- circuit television in the areas of communication, interper- sonal relationships, and socialization demonstrate signifi- cant improvements.62 An intensive analysis of the effects of the 1952 political conventions was conducted by Lang.65 The relation- ship between viewers' perspectives and the telecast perspec— tives obtained from the interviews with a quota sample of viewers from Chicagp's South Side and accurate monitoring of the actual events telecast resulted in these conclusions: People certainly learned--though at different levels--about the mechanics of a convention. Interest was aroused in the viewers by the event itself... ...our data have indicated that viewers avoided contrary communication (to their prejudice and be- lief) when confronted with it; that telecasts did extend the horizons of viewers insofar as they 'met' some new people; but, for the most part, prior opin- ions of people on issues were rationalized and rein- forced.6 An analysis of MacArthur Day in Uhicago, a widely publicized event as viewed at the scene and via television 62Gaither L. Martin, and Charles Over, "Therapy by Television," Audio-Visual Communication Review, IV (Spring, 1956), p0 1300 65Gladys E. Lang, "A Study of Politics on Video: Content, Viewers, and Definitions of the 1952 Conventions," (unpublished, Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Sociology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, 1954), 546 pages. 64Ibid, p. 508. 56 is reported.65 Thirty-one persons were used to collect data for the study. These persons acted as observers at the scene and monitors of the telecast event. Personal interviews were conducted at the scene of the events, and each person parti- cipating prepared a written report giving his impression of the event. These were studied and analyzed by content anal- ysis. The accuracy of the statement "the 'camera does not lie'"66 is questionable when the reports are interpreted. The monitors of television viewed the event as a tremendous public welcome. Those who were at the scene did not observe this phenomena. These differences between the scene inter- pretations and monitor observations may be explained in part by three factors available to the medium: technological bias, the selection of camera shots by operating personnel; struc- ture of the event provided by the commentator; and reciprocal effects of the medium upon the principals created by the staging procedures.67 There is little doubt that the analysis of religious programming: its audiences, its programs, and their composite effects represents the most comprehensive study of a specific program area completed to date.68 'After conducting intensive 65Kurt Lang, and Gladys E. Lang, "Unique Perspective of Television and Its Effect: A Pilot Study," American Sociological Review, XVII (February, 1955), pp. 5-12. 66Ibid, p. 10. 57Ibid, p. 12. 68E. C. Parker, D. w. Barry, and D. w. Smythe, The Television-Radio Audience and Religion, (New York, Harper Brothers, 1955), 464 pages. 37 personal interviews in a 5 percent randomly selected sample of the homes in New Haven, Connecticut--5,559 interviews completed--plus similar interviews with all the clergy of that city, depth interviews with 59 families (conducted by the principals of the study), and an analysis of the question- naires returned by the principals of network religious pro- grams the investigators concluded: that is a dynamic composite of religion, race, cul- ture, and class. Jach member of the potential au- dience occupies a position--often changing-~in this matrix. This position influences his attitudes to- ward a communication and interpretation of content of messages received via television.b Mass communication is a part of a social matrix ( This conclusion implies the message is all important and must be prepared to fit a broad audience. But, in ref- I erence to the selection of potential communicators the in— vestigators conclude: The 'magic' of radio and television is not the kind of magic that rubs off on the amateur performer, and it contains nothing to add appeal or interest to the clergyman who cannot inspire peOple in person or in the pulpit.... As a general principle, therefore, if religious agencies wish to use the media to reach a large audience with a message, they would be well advised to select for their spokesmen those persons, clerical or lay, with a demonstrated capacity for capturing the interest and imag$nation of variegated audiences without these media. Of course, the reader will be aware that certain ma- jor portions of research literature have not been examined. Among these are audience surveys of who views, when, why, and how, and literature relating to the preparation of com- mercial messages. However, these are outside the scope of 59Ib1d, p. 596. 7OIbid, p. 402. 58 the problem. The literature reviewed has dealt with aspects of our problem: presentation methods, results of program- ming to captive and casual audiences, television effective- ness in other than direct entertainment and educational roles, and the effects of the medium and the communicator. Summary Scientific investigation provides benefits to man by the isolation of facts. Discovery of relationships between or among these facts increases the effectiveness of a given effort. In this review of literature an attempt has been made to relate and apply the results of a wide variety of studies. The studies reviewed have been in three areas that are particularly pertinent to the problem. Perceiving people: The subjects studied in the "warm- cold" experiments reacted in a specific and predictable pat- tern when they heard a hypothetical person verbally described as "warm" or "cold". On the basis of these verbal cues the subjects structured descriptions of hypothetical persons dif- ferently for "warm" than "cold" cues. These structural des- criptions indicate that such a thing as a perceived "warm" and "cold" personality exists. This is supported by the study of how people react to an actual person when they receive ap- propriate verbal cues. From these observations it follows that humans in observing each other receive subliminal and other cues which they interpret and classify as characteristics of "warm" or 59 "cold" personality. these qualities have importance for the communication process as the individual receiving the verbal message "warm" is apparently pre-conditioned psychologically to perceive the described person in a specific and favorable manner. In interpreting the "warm-cold" studies the question remains unanswered whether people will react in a similar manner to a person who designates himself as a "warm" or "cold" person, and when they do react if these reactions will correlate with this designation. Perceiving the source: The studies of message source and effect include findings that are divisible into primary and secondary types. The primary findings are those appli- cable to all communication situations, while the secondary findings are useful, but perhaps not as universally appli- cable. The primary findings show that the attitudes of people are not shifted only as a result of the message being valid or meritorious, but also because the receiver associates him- self positively with the source. The effectiveness of an untrustworthy source is initially dampened when it is per- ceived negatively, but in the long-run attitudes toward the source become as favorable as toward the source originally perceived positively. The secondary findings indicate that attitudes of liberal political tendency are shifted more readily and easily than those of conservatives. The shifts in attitude that 40 occur as a result of perceiving a source and a prestige com- municator positively are consistently positive. A source that is originally perceived negatively should not be rein- stated if favorable attitudes concerning the message deliv- ered are desired in the long-run. Finally, the "sleeper effect" an unexplained phenomena affects negative attitudes in the long-run and they return to a point of approximate equality with the positive attitudes. These facts interact, as Tannenbaum has demonstrated, and must be associated with skill to obtain the maximum re- sults from an individual or series of communications. These are particularly important in television where the audience size is determined in part by the positive perception of the communicator. Television: The studies of television reviewed clear- ly establish that it is an effective method of communicating. However, the efficiency of the medium is determined primarily by the situation in which the audience receives the message it conveys. For instance, it has an efficiency equal to that of the classroom instructor when viewed by captive audiences, but when telecasts are made to the total audience the nature of the medium, and of the audience, lowers its efficiency. The evidence presented indicates the medium is not as effi- cient as the classroom situation because of certain social reinforcement patterns that accrue to the benefit of class- room instruction. The findings show that people learn as efficiently 41 from one method of presentation available to the medium as another, but their attitude towards the lecture as a method is unfavorable. There is also an indication that certain materials are presented more effectively, and learned more efficiently, by television than classroom instruction. These types of material have usually been adapted to the more complex electronic devices available to the mediump-close-ups and super-imposures. As a method of communicating either to closed-circuit captive audiences, or the total audience, television has produced many effects upon the receiver that have not been adequately explained. For instance the role of the commun- icator who directs his message to a special segement of the audience but receives the acclaim of the total audience is seen_as one of increasing importance. Researchers who have investigated this phenomena note that people who do not satis- factorily meet the test of moving people in large or small groups probably will not be effective communicators when using the mass media. Where these individuals appear on television the question may be raised concerning the audience response to their personality qualities, particularly when they appear as individuals without supporting elements. CHAPTER III TEJORETICAL FORMULATION The empirical evidence reviewed in the preceding chapter, includes three facts particularly pertinent to the theoretical formulation supporting this study. First, peo- ple perceive significant differences to exist between people who are verbally described as having a "warm" quality in combination with other qualities and those described as pos- sessing a "cold" quality in the same combination. Second, the attitudes of people, who perceive a message or a message source, tend to shift as a ratio of their initial attitude towards the message and the present source of that message, and not necessarily in the direction advocated by the com- munication. Third, people learn material conveyed by tele- vision as well as they do from face-to-face instruction. In addition to this evidence one can observe that some communicators in the television industry using unortho- dox procedures have received favorable audience response. Whatever their procedures some people are more effective communicators than others. The prOblem is why this one and not that one? A theory is based on observed facts. Observed facts lead to other theories. If the facts observed above are -42- 43 congruent, we may develop a theoretical formulation which yields an objective method of selecting communicators. We find the effects of a communicator are deter- mined by the attitude and response of his audience. This is particularly true of television where the message is con- veyed instantaneously and must be perceived at the instant of delivery. To maintain the audience, the message, the communicator, or both, must normally be perceived favorably. If at least one of these conditions does not exist, there is probably a limited and unresponsive audience. When this condition occurs, the communicator cannot complete the com- munication process, and his efficiency and effectiveness tends towards zero. The efficiency of a communicator is difficult to measure. But we may arbitrarily define part of it as_the percentage of the conveyed message that is perceived by the viewing audience. The effectiveness of a communicator might be determined by the product of efficiency and the audience size. A communicator may be more efficient but may not necessarily increase the size of his audience. If the come municator is perceived favorably, his effectiveness increases both as a consequence of an expanding audience and/or the increased impact of his message. The over-all communication process will be enhanced if an effective communicator can be chosen by an objective method which takes into account the factors that make for effectiveness. When we review the studies by Asch, it seems logical to assume that people do make distinctions among people they 44 perceive "in the flesh" in the same fashion as among those they perceive from descriptions. Because this occurs, they make distinctions among professional communicators even as they do among other individuals. The medium of television permits these distinctive responses to occur more than any other medium because it conveys more cues about the person- ality of the telecast individual than other media. The responses resulting from these perceptions, coupled with the attitude toward the message conveyed, determine the audience size of television. A single fact dominates the findings of the studies of television. That is, when other things are held constant- people learn material conveyed by this medium as readily as they do in classroom instruction. Thus, we must conclude that the medium itself is not a barrier to the establishment of a "commonness." But, what about the communicator who is more effi- cient and effective, does he lose this quality on television? This problem has not been studied empirically. However, among the ranks of the many communicators using television, a few have demonstrated extraordinary effectiveness. Some have attained this success who directed their messages ini- tially to a special audience segment. Other effective comp municators directed their original program.to the mass audi- ence. Some present their message with minimum supporting personnel or equipment. Yet the audience perceived these communicator-message teams favorably and the audience sizes increased. 45 The problem of selecting communicators objectively becomes one of determining what people perceive in other people and assuming that they perceive the same factors in communicators. Is it a simple awe and respect for their knowledge, their skill, their dress, or some other factors yet unknown? What happens when the communicator's knowl- edge of his subject is limited? When we select communica- tors objectively to convey identical messages, with rela- tively equal skill, have them appear in similar dress, and use the same method of presentation, will the audience re- spond to one of these unknown factors? What happens when the variable among communicators is a composite of tempera- ment traits ranging along a continuum from "warm" to "cold?" Will there be a consistent difference in the way peeple per- ceive these communicators? A re-examination of the studies by xsch suggests this difference will be perceived in communicators as they vary from "warm" to "cold." A critical analysis of the characteristics people used to describe individuals intern- ally perceived as "intelligent--skillful--w§£m" and "intel- ligent--skillful--gglg" is presented in Table I, page 12. When combined with those characteristics describing persons described as "warm" or "cold," presented in Table II, page 15, these descriptive characteristics separate into 4 groups, Table III, page 46. The first and largest group contains characteristics of temperament. In the second group are 6 characteristics 46 TABLE III CHOICE OF FITTING CHARACTJRISTICSa (percentages) ($223) Temperament (giég) IOO generous I12 100 happy 10 100 good-natured 8 100 humorous 12 100 sociable 9 100 popular 6 100 cheerfulb 18 100 emotionalb 12 95 optimisticb 17 100 humane 17 95 imaginative 9 95 imaginativeC 28 91 altruistic 5 86 modestb 9 78 persistent 97 68 serious 97 41 restrained 97 Character 100 reliable 87 68 important 54 100 honest 81 4O practicalb 75 81 intelligentb 96 91 brave 74 Features 95 good-looking 57 74 stro 87 91 short 8 15 thinb 95 15 paleb 97 Manner 95 informal O aComposite of Asch's results from experiment IX and IXa; see Tables I and II, pages 12 and 15. bThese characteristics are from Table II, page 15. 0This characteristic appears in both tables. 47 descriptive of character. The third group is composed of items describing physical features. The single term in the fourth gnaup describes manner. The first fourteen temperament characteristics in- dicate that people perceive "warm" and "cold" persons as polar opposites-~as approaching the extremes of a continuum. In the remaining three, a dichotomy occurs suggesting direc- tion, but not with the clarity of the first 14 characteristics. The second group contains two characteristics on which.peOple were undecided When perceiving others. These are practical and important. Where a relatively low percentage of subjects are willing to mace a decision. We must conclude that these items are not clearly definitive, but that the character of an individual described in this fashion is rela- tively high for both the "warm" and the "cold" individual. The third and fourth groups are characteristics of feature and manner. When we select a communicator objectively, these characteristics will not be examined. One should not be surprised to find that character- istics of temperament and character are used by people to describe others they perceive. When we examine the major per- sonality variable-~adjustment, attitudes, interests, charac- ter, temperament1---the reason is obvious. A person would find it very difficult to perceive the adjustment of an individual to his environment unless he re- 1Robert L. Thorndike, and Elizabeth Hagen, Measurement EEd Evaluation in Psychology and Education, (John Wiley, New York, 1955), p. 24. 48 ceived extensive cues from the individual in q1estion. Like- wise, the attitudes of an individual cannot be easily assessed. This becomes particularly true When an individual conveys a message that does not clearly contain attitudinal components. The message an individual conveys may represent his interest in cattle, airplanes, or ships if we permit him.to select his own. But, when we present him with a.message to convey he probably will not completely reflect his interests. Thus, unless people receive additional messages and information from other sources about the individual perceived than those con- veyed by Asch they would not describe the personality varia- bles of adjustment, attitude, or interests. The variables temperament and character do contain characteristics that are generally distinct. The character of an individual is normally determined by clothing and man- ner when other reference cues are not available. In an exper- iment it is possible to equate one of these--clothing. The personality variable temperament we cannot elim- inate nor control. This we must measure to the best of our ability and accept as the independent variable of "warm" and "cold" personalities. The problem becomes one of securing an instrument that will objectively determine the degree of "warm" and "cold" possessed by the individuals in a group of potential communicators. This must be accomplished by an instrument that shows a relationship to the findings of Asch, and Which is also a reliable instrument. Several standardized instruments are availdale to 49 measure the personality variables. One directly applicable to temperament measurement is the Guilford-Zimmerman Temper- ament Survey,2’ 5’ 4' 5’ 6’ 7 which is authoritatively des- cribed as a reliable instrument. zoscard K. Euros, "The Guilford—Zimmerman Temperament Survey," The Fourth Mental Measurements Yearbook,(The Gryphon Press, Highland Park, NewIUersey, 1955L pp. 47-50. 3William Stephenson, University of Chicago, writes of this instrument, "The reliability with which each of the traits is assessed is shown to be of the order .80; and their intercorrelations are as the authors say 'gratifyingly low.'" He discusses the variable temperament further, "Temperament traits, after all, are in the happy position of being such as perhaps correspond to our behavior as observed by others--when we are 229’ we feel it, and aloe others can see it in our de- meanors. But when we save a life and are called brave by ob- servers, we might feel in fact quite frightened and horrified and certainly not brave-feeling. There are those who wish to look at personality (and everything else) from the 'internal frame of reference,‘ and others who look at it only from the 'external frame:' temperament traits probably look the same both ways, or imply the same." (Oscar K. Buros, Ibid, p. 49.) 4Appraising this instrument Neil Van Stunberg, Re- search Psychologist, Personnel Section, the Adjutant General's Office, Department of the Army, says, "The Survey gives a very favorable impression of a well-rounded, carefully worked out method of evaluating an important portion of the total person- ality. It is easy to administer and to score, and if the in- terpretation of the obtained measures is difficult it is a function of the complexity of personalities rather than a function of the Survey." (Oscar K. Euros, Ibid, p. 49.) 5Writing in the same volume Laurence F. Shaffer con- ceives the Surve , "As the outstanding omnibus instrument based primarily on factor analysis, the Surve will have use- fulness for screening, rapid evaluation and research." (Oscar K. Buros, Ibid, p. 50.) 6Anne Anastasi criticizes the instrument in this man- ner, "In many respects, the Guilford inventories-~and especially the latest composite form--represent progress in personality test construction. One of the chief remaining weaknesses ... is to be found in insufficient empirical validation. The re- liabilities of the separate factor scores on the latest inven- tory range from .75 to .85. High reliabilities would of course be desirable for the differential interpretation of individual 50 The ten traits measured by the Survey are: emotional stability, objectivity, sociability, personal relations, mas- culinity, ascendance, general activity, restraint, friendli- ness, and thoughtfulness. After examining the positive and negative qualities associated with the traits (see Appendix A, Table I, for the positive and negative qualities the authors of the Survey suggest associate with each trait) it is ob- vious that the 17 "warm—cold" characteristics associate with only a few of the traits, Table IV. TABLE IV EMPBRAMENT TRAITS AND ASSOCIATED CHARACTERISTICS Emotional stability ........ emotional, optimistic Objectivity ................ altruistic, modest Sociability ................ sociable, popular Personal relations ......... . . . . . . . . . . . Masculinity ................ . . . . . . . . . . . Ascendance ................. . . . . . . . . . . . General activity ........... . . . . . . . . . . . Restraint .................. persistent, serious, restrained Friendliness ............... generous, happy, good- natured, cheerful, humorous Thoughtfulness ............. humane, imaginative profiles." (Psychological Testing, Macmillan Company, New York, 1954, p. 557.) r7Thorndike, and Hagen, op. cit., p. 587. 51 When we study Table IV, we see that the traits emo- tional stability, objectivity, sociability, friendliness, and thoughtfulness, are probably associated with a person per- ceived as possessing the personality quality "warm". There- fore, we should expect to find that communicators who have high scores in these traits when perceived by an audience will be rated as possessing the personality quality "warm." In addition to these high scores the individual selected by this objective measure and assigned "warm" may have, but not nec- essarily so, a lower score on the trait restraint than the individual selected as "cold." It follows, of course, that the individual assigned "cold" will have lavtrait scores. From these observations it seems reasonable to assume that people perceive in others a series of characteristics, many of which are congruent with certain temperament traits. This group of traits is apparently a cluster organized in such a way that in some individuals it tends to subdue the remaining temperament qualities. The degree to which a,perb son is perceived as having more or less of these character- istics determines his position along the "warm-cold" continuum. It seems logical, therefore, to argue that among the many attributes possessed by the successful communicator the personality quality "warm" is of primary importance. Theo- retically this qualityb-"warm"--is both measurable and per- ceivable. Iherefore, ifwe rigidly control the elements that normally support a communicator appearing on television, the viewing audience will perceive the degree to which a commun- icator possesses the quality "warm-cold," and respond to them 52 positively (warm) or negatively (cold). It follows, that the communicator most positively perceived on the "warm-cold" con- tinuum will be evaluated more favorably by the audience. The audience members will, in turn, perceive and learn more of the message conveyed by that communicator. If this theoretical formulation is correct and valid, the following hypotheses will be substantiated: l. The people forming the audience will perceive the degree of the personality quality "warm- cold" possessed by the communicators appearing on television, and will rank the communicators in the same order on the discriminating instru- ment as the instrument used to select them. 2. The audience will evaluate the communicator with the "warm" personality qualities more positively, and the learning of the audience members will correlate positively with the audience evaluation of the communicators. CHAPTER IV DESIGN AND PROCEDURE In this chapter the problem design and procedure and the procedure of collecting the data are described with suf- ficient accuracy and clarity to permit replication of the study. The overall design contained five major sub-areas. These were: (1) selecting the communicators via a standard- ized instrument, (2) preparing and selecting the messages, (5) producing the kinescopes, (4) pre-testing the instruments of communicator evaluation and audience learning, and (5) ob- taining the audiences. These sub-areas are described before presenting the overall design. Following the design, the data collecting procedures are described. Selecting the communicators via a standardized instru- gggfi: The first decision required selecting a source of po- tential communicators. Of all the sources possible two were accessible--students of agriculture and students of speech-- each with its assets and debits. Selecting agriculture stu- dents as a source of communicators provided a means of equating subject matter knowledge of the message content, and assuming the risk of sacrificing the ability to equate skill of deliv- ery. Selecting speech students as a source of communicators -55- 54 meant equating skill of delivery and sacrificing subject matter knowledge. The decision: obtain students in speech classes as the source of communicators, because the variable, skill of delivery, would be more readily perceived and could affect the audience reaction to a communicator more than his unfamil- iarity with the subject. The first decision was actually a prerequisite to the major question: Would the Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey (the Survey) be an acceptable instrument to discriminate "warm-cold" personality qualities? Prior to obtaining a class of students, five criteria guiding the choice of an instru- ment were established. First, the instrument must demon- strate that the traits theoretically representing "warm-cold" were present in the subjects. Second, interdependent--the cluster-~traits must be observable by a statistical test-- rank correlation. Third, only those temperament qualities with intercorrelations in excess of .80 were to form the studied cluster. Fourth, the instrument must indicate that communicators were present with profile scores sufficiently separated to indicate that the limits of the "warm-cold" con- tinuum would be approached within the limit of the discrims inating instrument. Fifth, to observe the discriminating ability of the instrument, and the perceptive ability of the audience, four communicators would be selected. These come municators selected would be designated: 1, "warm" -- by having the highest scores in the traits on the interacting cluster; 2. "warm-cold" -- by the second highest scores; 3p 5. "cold-warm" -- by next to lowest scores; and, 4. "cold"j\ -- by lowest scores in cluster. This assured the extremes of "warm-cold" were present within the discriminating limits of the instrument. The professor instructing Speech 506 obtained permis- sion of the students to give one hour of their class time to this study. The Survey was administered to the 14 students-- of a possible 17--present at 10 a.m., May 9, 1956, in room 121 of the Auditorium. The students had not received information concerning the nature of the study until this time. The fol- lowing introduction was read by the investigator: Good morning -- I wish to thank each of you for your permission to use this hour of your time. Later, you may be requested to give a few more minutes to this study. I am presently interested in determining the temperament profiles of the student who continues courses in public speaking until he attains the level of ability which you have achieved. So that a record is available for you, in case you are individually interested in your profile, please obtain your number upon completion of the test from Dr. ..... Ybu may take this number with your class number to the Counseling Center and ask for Mrs. ..... who will give you the information concern- ing your profile. Please give a definite answer to each question in the test booklet you will receive, and do not mark any with a question mark. Please give the answer as it applies to you personally-~truthfully. I am not interested in you as individuals, but just as profiles on a chart. Thank you. The Survey_materials were immediately distributed. No further instructions were necessary as these appeared on the front of each Survey booklet. Every student completed the 500 question Survey within the 50 minute class period. 56 The Survey answer sheets were scored immediately, by the writer, at the Counseling Center. The profile scores of all the subjects are located in Appendix A, Table II. After careful scrutiny the data were subjected to the statistical test of rank correlation. A cluster of traits was present in the individuals tested and appeared in the data, Table V. TABLE V RANK-CORRELATION OF TAMPERAMENT TRAITS QXPRESSED BY SAMPLE OF COMICUNICATORSa E O S P M A G R F T E x .84 .50 .47 .51 .61 .10 .55 .95 -.25 0 x .55 .59 .55 .67 .55 .61 .85 ..26 S x .50 .06 .50 .66 .05 .11 -.55 P x .68 .54 .16 .51 .51 -.65 M x .40 -.25 .69 .42 .02 A x .40 .55 .60 -.05 G x .02 .15 -.16 R x .48 .16 F x -.46 T x aThe traits are referred to by letter in all succeed- ing tables for brevity. The key: E - emotional stability A - ascendance O - objectivity G - general activity S - sociability R - restraint P - personal relations F - friendliness M - masculinity T - thoughtfulness In Table V, one can see that the interacting traits 57 were emotional stability, objectivity, and friendliness. To answer the question concerning their appearance as a cluster it was necessary to return to the theoretical formulation and the established criteria. In the theoretical formulation, five traits-—emotional stability, objectivity, sociability, friendliness, and thought- fulness--were expected to interact to a relatively high degree. 0ne--restraint--was expected to interact but the direction of the profile would reverse. The criteria established that the traits must be demonstrated as present, have intercorrelations in excess of .80 for acceptance, and indicate a wide range of communicator temperaments available. A primary question raised was whether a sufficient number of traits were intercorrelating at .80 to represent an acceptable cluster? The trait thoughtfulness would probably never correlate positively at the prescribed level with the other five traits. The traits restraint and sociability re- mained for consideration. The former had been perceived by people as relatively high in both "warm" and "cold" person- alities; but this was not true for our sample of communica- tors. The possibility of selecting communicators with a wide range of scores on restraint was good. Sociability scores were relatively high and a distinction did not occur to any extent among the subjects. However, the trait personal rela- tions--one not considered in the theoretical formulation--did have a wide range of scores available which separated well, and in the correct pattern. 58 The decision: Accept the Guilfordeimmerman Temper- ament Survey as the discriminating instrument, and choose the communicators from the initial sample. The theoretical pat- tern was modified by this decision. Only the traits, emo- tional stability, objectivity, and friendliness would actually represent the "warm-cold" cluster. If the hypotheses were substantiated, the traits, personal relations, restraint, and thoughtfulness would.be accepted as associated with the "warm- cold" cluster, because they fulfilled the fourth criterion. One should note that thoughtful scores reverse the normal and eXpected pattern for the communicators selected. That is, the "warm" individual is low and the "cold" individual is high in this trait. The profile scores of the cluster and associ- ated traits of the four communicators selected, and used, from the class of speech students appear in Table VI. TABLE VI TEAPERAMENT PROFILES OF "WARM-COLD" TRAITS OF SELECTED COMMUNICATORSa Traits Communicator l 2 5 4 Emotional stability Objectivity Friendliness Personal Relations 59-“)me consumed (DOIrbUIUI CDUIIOMCA Thoughtfulness aFor complete profiles of these and all other commun- icators in sample, see Appendix A, Table II. 59 The communicators are always referred to by number in the remainder of this report. They may be perceived as: l. "warm" with the highest profile scores in the cluster of traits; 2. as intermediate, but more "warm" than "cold;" 5. as intermediate, but less "warm" than"cold;" and, 4. "cold" with the lowest profile scores in the cluster of traits. Prepgring and selecting the messages: The messages were a critical variable. To control these their content-- agricultural information--their difficulty, and their inter- est were standardized. To control a major variable, interest, five messages- were prepared from which two were selected for use in the communication. The first message prepared concerned the cost of raising children, and was based on an article from the Journal of Farm Economics.1 The second, third, and fourth were on the subjects of dairy feed costs,2 hog prices,5 1James D. Tarver, "Costs of Rearing and Educating Farm Children," Journal of Farm Economics, XXXVIII (February, 20. R. Hoglund, E. J. Benne, L. v. Nelson, and e. F. Huffman, "Forage Quality and Protein Feeding of Dairy Cows," Michigan State University Quarterly Bulletin, XXVI (March, 19567—Pp. 413-430. 5Harold Riley, What Is The Most Profitable Weight To Market Hogs? (Extension Bulletin 521, Michigan State College Cooperative Extension Service, East Lansing, Michigan, 1955, 11 pages. 60 and the elm bark beetle4 respectively, and were prepared from literature published by Michigan State University. In the fifth, eggs were the subject and the materials were obtained from the office of Marketing Information for Consumers.5 To control the difficulty and human interest the mes- sages were equated by the Flesch6 formula. A comparison of their Flesch scores is presented in Table VII, page 61. One major variable remained uncontrolled--message in- terest. To solve this the messages were reproduced and 15 packets containing the 5 messages were assembled with 5 copies of the interest evaluating scale, which consisted of five, five-point interest scales, ranging from "very interesting" to "no interest." Return envelopes were attached to the packets. The 15 completed packets were distributed to selected groups, where they were randomly circulated. The selected groups in- cluded speech instructors, journalism instructors, agricul- tural economists, information specialists, and consumer in- formation personnel. In all, 25 replies were received from the message interest survey. 4F. C. Strong, R. L. Janes, and W. F. Morofsky, Dutch Elm Disease Control, (Extension Folder F-l95, Michigan State College, Cooperative Extension Service, East Lansing, Michi- gan, 1955). 5L. B. Darrah, and E. M. Moore, Egg Merchandising Studies in Supermarkets, V. Transparent Egngartons, (Cornell University, College of agriculture, Agriculture Extension Leaflet 1012, April, 1956), 9 pages. (A progress report.) 6Rudolf Flesch, The Art of Readable Writing, (New York, Harper and Brothers, 1949), 257 pages. 61 TABLE VII MESSAGE DIFFICULTY AND INTEREST SCORES W Message number 1 2 5 4 , 5 Number of words 521 518 514 501 505 Number of sentences 50 52 50 29 50 Average sentence length 16.5 16.2 17.1 17.2 16.8 Number of syllables 715 702 685 695 701 Average number of syl- lables per 100 words 157 155 155 159 156 Flesch reading ease score 12 23.3. as m 22 Number of personal words 51 55 56 25 55. Number of personal sentences 9 l5 14 10 10 Percent of personal words 6.0 6.6 7 5 6.5 Percent of personal sentences 50 4O 47 54 55 Flesch.human interest score 51 57 4O 50 54 The replies were tabulated and messages selected for use by weighing the interest evaluating scale from +2 for "very interesting" to -2 for "no interest." The interest scores were: +22 for message 1; -22 for message 2; -17 for message 5; +12 for message 4; -12 for message 5. The complete results of the interest evaluating scale is located in Appen- dix B, Table I. The decision: Use the "dairy" and "hog" messages, numbers 2 and 5 respectively, in the study as they were desig- nated least interesting. This choice was made to eliminate any 62 'support the communicators might receive from a message that was interesting. (Messages 1, 4 and 5 are located in Appen- dix B, messages 2 and 5 are located in Appendix D.) Producing the kinescopes: Twp weeks before the pro- grams were kinescoped the four communicators who were selected were requested to participate in presenting the programs by their professor. Each accepted. Unfortunately, the individ- ual selected for the number 1 position joined the Marine Corps before the kinescopes could be made, therefore, a sub- stitution was necessary. After examining the remaining pro- files, a second communicator was chosen who accepted, and he was designated number 1, (see Appendix A, Table II for com- parative profile scores). Fortunately, a satisfactory spread remained between the originally selected communicators number 2 and number 4, Table VI, page 58. The first time the writer and the selected communi- cators met personally was June 8, 1956, at 1:50 p.m. in Studio A of WKAR-TV. This was the day the kinescopes were made, and the temperature hovered in the 90's outside. In the studio it was somewhat hotter. For this reason, the come municators were permitted to make the kinescopes while wearing short sleeved shirts without ties. Before appearing on cams era--not one had done so before--each received copies of the messages and was permitted to read and/or recite them privately in a room provided for that purpose. To assist in presenting the messages on camera, prompt cards with 2 inch high letters were prepared. When these were held beside the camera by 65 studio assistants, the communicators could see the message and were forced to look directly at the camera. A gray cycloramic curtain provided background for the communicators. The only other objects in the camera view, ex- cept the communicator, were a desk, a chair, and a lectern placed 4 feet to the right of the desk. The only instructions given the communicators were: (1) they could move around the studio at will, and (2) they could sit on the desk top but not in the chair. The director gave all instructions and had complete charge of the studio. After processing the kinescopes were reviewed by an expert committee who judged them satisfactory to use in the study. Pre-testipg the audience learning and the communicator evaluation instruments: The hypotheses required the develop- ment of two instruments: (1) to measure the audience learn- ing, and (2) an instrument to permit audience evaluation of the communicator. In the first two problems required solu- tion: (1) to select an instrument with sufficient sensitivity to measure the learning from the relatively short message with validity, and (2) to select an instrument sufficiently short to permit the audience to complete four tests in one hour. The cloze procedure, originally conceived as a readability formula, and later demonstrated as an effective test of learn- ing, promised to fulfill these requirements. This was selec- ted as the first instrument to develop. The first step in cloze procedure: 64 ...is to 'mutilate' all samples. This is done by choosing a mechanical system of deleting the same number of words from each; words are either 'counted out'--every fifth one, for example, might be deleted --or they are selected by use of a table d“ random numbers. The mutilated passages are then mimeographed, or otherwise reproduced with all missing words replaced by standardized blanks. Subjects are asked to 'cloze up the gaps' in the passages by guessing the identi- ties of the missing words and writing their guesses in the corresponding blanks. Each time a subject correctly guesses a missing word, he scores one point; his 'cloze score' for any particular passage is simply the total number of missing words that he guesses correctly.7 A series of four instruments were developed using the entire message as the testing instrument. An original stan-. dard of removing one-fifth the message by both mechanical or random deletion presented two problems when tested: (1) time, each required 20 to 50 minutes to complete, and (2) information, it appeared that in these particular messages that too few meaningful words were removed. After lengthy discussion an instrument was constructed in an effort to overcome these problems, but yet use the cloze technique. This procedure removed every fifth five letter word mechani- cally from the message. In pre-testing, the difficulty of this latter instrument was higher than the preceding ones but it proved as efficient as the former instruments, and people could complete the 40 blanks when tested in an acceptable length of time-~10 minutes. Five more words were stricken from the dairy than the hog message. 7Wilson L. Taylor, "Recent Developments in the Use of 'Cloze Procedure," Journalism Quarterly, XXXIII (Winter, 1956) p. 430 A 65 An instrument developed by Osgood8 was selected to ob- tain an audience evaluation of the communicator. It is simple to use, and has reliabilities in the .80-.85 range. A subject is required to indicate his reaction to a concept by placing an g on a line. In this instance, the problem was determining the subject's reaction to the concept of the hog and dairy speaker even though they were different individuals in the study. The instrument aipeared to a subject like this: Speaker pleasant ___;JK_: : : : : unpleasant The word dairy, or hog, preceded speaker, and referred to the communicator—-the concept--presenting the message on these subjects. Thus, the term hog speaker or dairy speaker was the concept. The term "pleasant-unpleasant" and others were selected from those isolated by Osgood,9 as being associa- ted with the three dimensions of a concept. By placing an E along the scale the subject indicated his attitude toward the concept. The meaning of a concept is regarded as its location in a multidimensional space, and attitude toward that concept is its projection on one of the dimensions of meaning-~the evaluative.lo To obtain an indication of whether or not the strength or activity dimension were Operating if the evaluative dimension 8Osgood, op. cit. 9Ibid. loTannenbaum, op. cit., p. 416. 66 of the concept did not operate two scales were included in the instrument for each of these dimensions. The evaluative di- mension represented the basic instrument and contained three scales. The terms selected for the evaluative dimension were "pleasant—unpleasant," "good-bad," and "friendly-unfriendly." The term "warm-cold" was not used as it was the purpose of the three evaluative scales to indicate the subjects reaction to the "warm-cold" personality qualities of the communicator; and to introduce this term as a scale did not seem appropriate as one of the principle efforts was to determine the effect of the "warm-cold" personality when pre-conditioning terms were not used. The purpose of the semantic differential was to vali- date the Guilford-Zimwerman Temperament Survey. If the sub- jects evaluated the speakers in the same pattern as the Survey a reasonable amount of certainty would exist that it--the n n - ll Survey-~did distinguish warm-cold personality qualities. There was included following the semantic differential a ques- tion: "Which speaker do you think is a cold impersonal indi- vidual?" The purpose of this question was to provide a check on the face validity of the evaluative scale as a measure of "warmth." If the attitudes expressed on the evaluative 1lIf the subjects evaluate the communicators the same as the Survey it is significant at the .05 level of confidence by rank correlation. (Sidney Seigel, Nonparametric Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1956, p. 284.) 67 instrument were supported by the answers to this question they probably both measured in the same area. The combined cloze and semantic differential tests were finally pre-tested by a class of speech students who viewed the kinescopes August 20, 1956. The procedure used and results obtained were satisfactory, and the instruments were accepted. Copies of the test instruments are located in Appen- dix C. Obtaining the audiences: The criterion establishing the audience size was the problem of statistical analysis. Thus, the first audience to view the program required at least 50 persons, or a total of 120. Several efforts to obtain rural people for audiences were made without success. Arrangements were made with the Lansing Volunteers of America, Incorpor- ated, to present the programs to elderly persons--65 years and over-—that assembled monthly under the auspices of this organization. On the nights of September 18 and 19, 1956 those persons present were divided into audiences to view the program sequences. These subjects were unable to complete enough of the test instruments to use in the study. Finally, two sources of student subjects were obtained. The Speech Department of the University furnished 145 students who donated 1 hour of their time to View a program sequence. To obtain this number, several of the programs were repeated. In addition the authorities of the Stockbridge Community School, Stockbridge, Michigan, granted permission for 85 stu- dents--three vocational agriculture classes, and one soci- ology class--to View the programs. 68 Design The independent variable of this study was the tem- perament quality "warm-cold." To isolate this quality the design required controlling the method of selecting the comp municators, the message subject, the message difficulty and interest Laval, the method of presentation, securing satis- factory instruments to discriminate among the communicators, and finally, the pattern in which the audience would view the programs and evaluate the communicators. The programs were presented in a relatively simple pattern. This was possible because order effect of message and learning, or evaluation of the communicator, were not being studied. It was impractical to investigate order ef- fect as the required tests permitted a single audience to view but two speakers at one sitting, and a second evaluating session with the same students could not be arranged. To prevent an inflation of the E‘in calculation and produce bias- ing effects thereby the data were analyzed by separate speeches. The types of audiences, high school and college, are analyzed as a composite audience and as individual audiences. The pre- sentation pattern used is given in Table VIII, page 69. The pattern for collecting data used here was appro- priate because the state of knowledge concerning the problem did not justify a more complete statistical design. It was felt that preliminary investigation might demonstrate the need for a more complex design on the basis of the present design. 69 TABLE VIII COMMUNICATOR, PROGRAM PRESENTATION SEQUENCEa Messa' s Communicator ge 1 2 5 4 H08 Aa Bb Cc Dd Dairy Dd Aa Bb Cc aCollege audiences are referred to by upper case let- ters and high school audiences by lower case. This method of identification is used throughout the remainder of this report. Procedures Each audience received the same directions and mate- rials in the standard procedure used to collect the data. The principal variation from this procedure was the distance the projectionist was required to set the 16 millimeter movie pro- jector from the screen on Which the kinescopes were viewed by the audience. This distance varied from 50 feet for the col- 1ege audience to 16 feet for the high school audience. The difference was a result of space limitations in which to place the equipment in the high school classroom. The problem of obtaining approximately 50 persons for each condition was solved by accumulating subjects in small groups, viewing the same sequence of communicators, until 50 or more persons viewed that particular sequence. To obtain the required number of college students in each audience, l4 viewing and evaluating sessions were held in room 49 of the Auditorium between October 10, and November 15, 1956. These groups varied in size from 1 to 58 persons, but generally 70 about a dozen male and female subjects were present. The writer conducted each session. After the group of subjects were seated and the class hour started the sub- jects were introduced first to the writer, then to the study procedure: We wish to thank you for giving this hour of your time. Shortly you will be shown two kinescopes Of tele- vision programs. We are interested in your ability to retain information from the messages the speakers who appear in the prOgram present. To obtain this information we ask that you complete four forms (held up in a fan shape). Please note the colors are different--green, yellow, pink and white. You will receive the green form first, (held up) and have 11 minutes to complete this one. (A. little extra time was permitted for the first test to permit the subject to familiarize himself with the in- structions and method of cloze procedure.) Please fol- low the instructions wnich appear on the front sheet. After you have completed the green form the first kine- scope will be shown. Then you will receive the yellow form (held up). For this one, only 10 minutes will be allowed for completion. Next you will receive the pink form (held up) which follows the same procedure, but contains a different mes- sage. TO complete this you will have 10 minutes. The second kinesc0pe will then be shown. The last thing we ask of you is to complete the white form (held up). Please work rapidly as you fill in the blanks con- tained in the various forms. These are copies of the messages you will hear presented via the kinesc0pes. We expect to complete the entire session within 55 minutes. I should like to call your attention, especially, to the instructions preceding the last page of the yel- low and white form. (Open one and show, then turn the page to the semantic differential.) You are requested to place an x along each of the 7 scales you see here to indicate your attitude toward the speaker. The green form containing the cloze test Of the hog message was distributed immediately. Normally an individual 71 asked a question concerning the procedure and these were an- swered individually. by rigidly controlling the time limita- tions, the sessions were completed within 55-58 minutes, de- pending upon the size of the group present. Summary In this Chapter the sub-areas, the design, the pro- cedure of the problem are described. The sub-areas included the selection of the communicators, preparing the messages, making the kinescopes, pre-testing the evaluating instruments, and obtaining the audiences. The study was designed to select by objective means- communicators who theoretically possessed the "warm" and "cold" personality qualities. Likewise, the control procedures were designed to evaluate these qualities in the communicators. Throughout the design and data-collecting procedures the at— tempt was made to eliminate from the study pertinent extran— eous factors. The communicators were not introduced, and the subjects did not receive a preconditioning message. Potential prestige factors involving clothing were held at a.minimum level by having the communicators appear in similar dress. The messages were controlled for difficulty and interest. The individual subject participating in the study was, therefore, able to respond within the limits of the control to the indi- vidual communicator, as he personally perceived him as a "warm" or "cold" individual. However, this act occurred without any knowledge on his part. CHAPTER V RESULTS AND ANALYSIS The 225 subjects participating in the study were di- vided into eight audiences-~four college and four high school, The college audiences are referred to as g, E, g, and D and contained 58, 54, 57, and 51 subjects respectively; high school audiences are referred to as g, R, g, and g and contained 22, 19, 28 and 16 subjects respectively. High school audience 2 was a sociology class Of girls. jach Of the other high school classes were boys in Vocational Agriculture. College audiences represent a heterogeneous group. Compilation of data did not begin until all the audi- ences viewed the programs. The first step consisted of assem- bling and transferring raw data, with the aid of a coding system, from the original forms to a set of master sheets. This made subsequent work simpler. It is the purpose of this chapter to present the re- sults of the arithmetical and statistical computations. The attitudes expressed by the audiences are presented first, fol- lowed by audience learning, and then the correlations between attitude scores and learning scores. Each area gives first the results from the composite audience, that is Ag, then the audiences are subdivided into individual audiences, that is -72- 75 {g and g, for complete analysis. Expressed Attitudes The three evaluative semantic differential scales are composited to obtain an individual attitude score. The scale for the evaluative dimension ranges from 5 (positive attitude) to 21 (negative attitude), and similarly from 2 to 14 for the strength and activity dimensions. The aidience attitudes expressed toward four commun- icators varied from a score of 6.77 to 12.57, for communicators 4 and 1 respectively, when viewed in that order in the same sequence, Table IX. TABLE IX MEAN ATTITUDE SCORE 0F AUDIENCES Attitude Communicator Scale 1 2 5 4 Evaluative Hog message 11.06 8.66 10.60 6.85 Dairy message 12.57 10.57 11.55 6.77 Strength Hog message 7.04 6.69 7.41 7.52 Dairy message 6.59 8.77 5.86 7.86 Activity Hog message 7.52 7.50 7.97 7.15 Dairy message 7.17 7.98 7.52 7.50 This table shows the attitudes expressed by the audi- ences consistently ranked the communicators as having "warm" personality qualities in 4, 2, 5, 1 order. This ranking occurs without regard for audience or message. It also shows that 74 every communicator, with the exception of communicator 4 who is for all practical purposes equally evaluated, received a higher-~or more "cold"--rating when presenting the dairy mes- sage. This suggests that more favorable attitudes are ex- pressed toward communicators, or individuals, when immediate comparison is not possible. Table IX also shows that only the evaluative dimen- sion of the semantic differential proved a consistent instru- ment for audience evaluation of the communicators. The strength scale fluctuates from one message to aiother indicating that position may have been a factor in evaluating the strength of a communicator. Activity scores are neutral. These results indicate the scales were not accurate for the measurement ex- pected or the perceived differences between the communicators were insufficient to produce positive or negative response. Further analysis Of these concept dimensions will not be in— cluded. The mean scores for the individual scales obtained for the strength and activity dimension are located in Appen- dix D, Tables I and II. When we examine the expressed attitude scores for the different audience group we find a high degree of agreement existing between the group ranking and the overall ranking, Table X, page 75. An examination of this table shows that a perfect agreement exists among the audiences in ranking com- municator 4 most positively, or "warm." Communicator 2 receives three scores for second place, with communicators 1 and 5 re- ceiving the least agreement as to position. Further examina- tion of Table X, clearly indicates that high school students 75 TABLE X MEAN EVALUATIVE DIPENSION SCCRJS OF HIGH SCHOOL AND COLLEGE AUDIENCES Communicators d Au ience 1 2 5 4 Hog Message College A B C D 11.28 9.25 11.18 7.90 High School a b c d 8.77 7.60 10.05 5.12 Dairy Message College D A B C 15.45 11.15 15.75 6.67 High School d a b c 11.00 8.95 7.10 7.05 express more positive attitudes than college students. Gen- erally, the communicators received a more negative rating from both groups when they gave the dairy message. The ex- ception, with the college audience 9, is when communicator 4 is viewed giving the dairy message, and with the high school audience 2 viewing communicator 5 giving the hog message. Audience 2, all girls, expressed attitudes more nearly like those of the college audience. For a compari- son of attitude scores expressed on each scale by the audi- ences see Table XI, page 76. Here the reader will note that audience 2 perceived communicators 5 and 4 as more unpleasant than the college audiences. These differences were also 76 .m..p «M moo:OfiUSm pomomfioo Om; whoa Hoonom mm“: on» can» .w paw n .poBOH> maOpwoacaEEoo on» go Mofipwsaw>o hams» CH o>aumMofl mace hapGOpmHmdoo mm; mHAHm Hoonom Smfin mo pomOQEoo o moaoapsw pomp coon Op mmwpmoacpofi ma pr hHUSOHQHGS Hm.m 50.0 Hm.m mm.m Hm.m w¢.¢ Hm.m mn.n hHUQOHhm Own b&.¢ mH.m mm.m mm.m mm.m Om.¢ mm.m mo.¢ poow pzdmwOHQCS m®.n Hm.¢ wmm.m NO.N mm.H om.¢ ¢O.m m®.n pcmmwoam omwmmoz madam maeeoawanz om.H mn.m oa.n mo.e mm.a Hm.m em.m me.m haeemawa ems mm.a mn.n am.n V ma.e es.m ma.n em.n Ha.m eooe pewmaoadcs mo.a mm.m aa>.n em.n 00.6 co.» mowm ea.e pqamamam owwmmoz mom a a o o p m a a doonoaps< < OHmOm meHBm AHQZH zo mHozmHmbfi Nm QMmmmmmxm meDBHBB< HN mqm<9 77 found in the strength and activity scales, (see Appendix D, Tables I and II). Normally an instrument and subjects are more effi- cient and accurate in evaluating the extreme rather than the mean condition. In Tables IX and X we find that attitude toward the communicator who is perceived as most "warm" changes little as a function of position or audience. While the other communicators receive different ratings from different audi- ences, Table X. This observation suggests: (1) that audi- ence attitude toward communicator 4 is such that this indivi- dual is perceived as approaching the "warm" end of the "warm- cold" continuum while the other communicators probably repre- sent the mean of the continuum without a clearly "cold" indi- vidual among them; (2) that a communicator who is to appear on television with another individual and who may be perceived as "cold," or negatively, should be given first position as the attitudes of the audience will not be as extreme as when immediate comparison is possible between a communicator per- ceived positively followed by one who is perceived negatively. To check the validity of the evaluative dimension of the semantic differential the audience members were asked to choose between the two communicators viewed. Their response to the question, "Which speaker do you think is a cold im- personal individual?" represented their designation of a comp municator as "cold." Two boxes were provided for checking their replies--one for the "hog speaker" and one for the "dairy speaker." It is true that this instrument is not as 78 sensitive as the semantic differential with its three scales of seven intervals each, but it has face validity, and it is a simple device for checking the validity1 of the basic in- strument. The response to the validating question, Table XII indicates the semantic differential is a valid instrument for TABLE XII AUDIENCE ATTITUDE IN’EYSITY EVALUATIVE DIHENSION AND THE PERCENT OF AUDIENCE DESIGNATING A COMMUNICATOR "COLD" Message Communicatora Hog Dairy Attitude "Cold" Attitude "Cold". 4 6.85 51.2% 6.77 21.0% 2 8.66 55.5 10.57 50.0 5 10.60 79.0 11.55 64.7 1 11.06 50.0 12.57 68.0 8Ranked in order of "warm" evaluation. assessing audience ranking of communicators as "warm" or "cold" on the basis of their expressed attitudes. From this table we see that when the subjects were forced to make a choice between communicators the evaluative dimension of the semantic differ- ential has reliability, and a measure of validity. With one exception, communicator l for the hog message, as attitude to- l"Test validity is generally defined as the extent to which the test 'measures' what it is supposed to measure." (Dorothy C. Adkins, Construction and Analysis of Achievement Tests, Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C., 1947, p. 148. 79 ward a communicator becomes more favorable, that is expres- sions of "warmth," the percentage of audience members desig- nating him a "cold" individual decline. As a group the audience members were incapable Of designating one communicator "cold" when their expressed at- titudes were relatively equal by cardinal measurement. The effects of this disparity in attitude when measured by as sensitive an instrument as the semantic differential is demon- strated in Table XIII. TABLE XIIIa RELATIVE ATTITUDE RANGE AND DESIGNATION or COMMUNICATOR AS "COLD" -‘—‘—‘ - — l H Audience Aa Bb Cc Dd Audience size 60 55 65 47 Audience N making decision 58 48 62 45 Communicator sequence 1-2 2-5 5-4 4-1 Hog message Percent "cold" 50 55.5 79 51.2 Evaluative atti- tude intensity 11.06 8.66 10.60 6.85 Dairy message Percent "cold" 50 64.7 21.0 68.8 Evaluative atti- tude intensity 10.57 11.55 6.77 12.57 P level by sign test -- .01 .01 .01 aRead this table so communicator sequence 1 - 2 gives information for communicator 1 on hog message and communicator 2 on dairy message, for audience Aa, etc. 80 When one examines Table XIII he finds that attitude intensity, that is an attitude beyond a certain scale inter- val, is not associated with the audience designation Of a communicator as "cold;" but, the designation Of "cold" is asso- ciated with the range between expressed attitudes without re- gard for position along the attitude scale. That is, the greater the actual range of attitudes expressed, the greater the percentage of the audience who designates the communica- tor receiving the higher attitude scores (more negative) as "cold." This occurs even though the expressed attitude in- tensity in one position is not as great as that expressed to- wards the same communicator in another position. This obser- vation implies that "warm" and "cold" are not actually extremes of a definite continuum, but are a function of range in atti- tudes resulting from the way one perceives a communicator, or an individual. For example, audience 53 viewed communicator l and 2 and expressed relatively equal attitudes. “hen they were asked to designate a communicator as "cold" the overall audience divided equally. but, when communicators 2 and 5 were viewed by audience BR the expressed audience attitude intensities were sufficiently separated that 28.6 percent more audience members designated communicator 5 a "cold" individual. Similar effects of differences in attitude intensity occur in audiences 93 and 2g. The findings discussed above are repeated when the audiences are analyzed as separate groups, Table XIV, page 81. In Table XIV one reversal, audience A, and a tie, 81 TABLE XIV AUDIENCE GROUP EVALUATIVE ATTITUDE SCORES AND DESIGNATION 0F CON UNICATOR AS "COLD" Audience Group and Communicator Sequence N designating 1 - 2 2 - 5 5 - 4 4 - 1 speaker "cold" College audi- encea A B C D Hog speaker 17 (11.28) 8 (9.25) 52 (11.18) 11 (7.90) Dairy speaker 18 (11.15) 22 (15.75 2 (6.67) 18 (15.45) No decision 1 4 5 2 High School audience a b c d Hog speaker 10 (8.77) 9 (7.60) 16 (10.05) 5 (5.12) Dairy speaker 12 (8.95) 9 (7.10) 12 (7.05) 15 (11.00) NO decision 1 aRead each communicator sequence and audience; commun- icator 1, audience 5, l7 designations "cold" attitude rating 11.28; communicator 2, audience 5, l8 designations "cold," etc. audience b, prevents a perfect correlation between expressed audience attitudes and audience designation of the communica- tors as "cold." However, the number of ranks that exist are sufficient to indicate at the .01 level of confidence2 that negative or more intense attitudes are associated with "cold." Thus we have a reinforcement of the Observations from Table XIII. The inability of audiences who express practically ZSeigel, op. cit. 82 equal mean attitudes to designate one of the two communica- tors viewed "cold" holds even when the size Of the audience is sma11--audience b deciding between communicators 2 and 5. The reinforcement provided to the evaluative dimension demon- strates that the audiences were capable of making this des- ignation when attitude range increased. This support indi- cates that "cold" is a connotative word, and is associated with negative attitudes expressed toward the personality qualities possessed by an individual. The differences in attitude expressed toward the com- municators are statistically significant. The established level for acceptance of differences is arbitrarily established at the .01 level of confidence. The significance Of differ- ences calculated by the 3 test5 are presented in Table XV. a . r a TAI‘JLL XV STATISTICAL DIELERENCES IN ATTITUDE EXPRDSSE“ TOWARD COMMUNICATORS : COMPOSITE AUDIENCDS r - Hog Message Dairy Message Communi- ' Communi- cator 4 2 5 1 cator 4 2 5 l 4 x 2.56b 5.67 5.59 4 x 5.61 6.10 9.79 2 x 2.92 5.21 2 x -- 5.02 5 x -- 5 x -- 1 x 1 x aCommunicators ranked in order of "warm" evaluation. bAll D.F = 40 2.55 significant .05 level 2.70 sig- nificant .01 level. 3Wilfrid J. Dixon, and Frank J. Massey, Jr., Introduc- tion to Stazistical analysis, (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1951, p. 105) o 85 Table XV shows that the critical difference between communicator 4 and communicator 2, perceived by the audiences as "warm" and "warm-cold" respectively, does not attain the .01 level of confidence. The .05 level attained is an indi- cation of a trend of difference which is later established between communicator 4 and communicator 2 in the dairy mes- sage. As would be expected significant differences are ob- served between communicator 4 and 5, and 4 and l, as the range Of attitudes increase between these communicators. It follows that a significant difference existing between communicators 4 and 2 would also be associated with these differences be- tween communicator 4 and the remaining communicators. These statistical differences in attitude and the previous observa-' tions indicate that comrunicators 4 and 2 were perceived as possessing personality qualities different from those of com- municators 5 and l, and that communicator 4 very likely pos- sessed more of a personality quality called "warm" than com- municator 2. The audience reactions to the communicators therefore do not support the first hypothesis. The communicatOrs were ranked by the audience as possessing "warm-cold" personality qualities in the order 4, 2, 5, l as opposed to the communi- cators self-ranking via the Survey of l, 2, 5, 4. muestions may be raised particularly about the ability of the Survey to measure the temperament trait friendliness in an individual. A re-examination of Table VI, page 58, shows that communica- tor 4 had the lowest friendliness score, yet when the semantic 84 differential scale is re-examined, Table XI, page 76, we find that communicator 4 consistently received the most positive or highest rating of friendliness. One must conclude that the cluster of temperament traits studied were not those asso- ciated with the personality quality "warm-cold," or other traits not correlating with the cluster studied interact to influence audience perceptions. The magnitude of audience reaction toward the communicators selected for study shows that the personality quality "warm-cold" exists, at least as a stereotype for positive and negative reactions; but the instrument selected did not quantify this quality accurately for audience perceptions. Audience Learning The differences between each subject's pre- and post- test Cloze scores represented the measure of leaniing. These difference scores ranged from —2 to +18 words with practi- cally all the negative Cloze scores appearing from the dairy messa e. This suggests the limits of testing effort were exceeded for a few subjects, and should not be considered a reflection on the instrument. When tested by the sign test4 a significant-—.Ol level of confidence-~number of subjects received positive cloze scores. Since words were removed from the hog message and from the dairy message it is necessary to transform scores into 4Siegel, op. cit., p. 68. 85 ' percentages for comparability. (For the hog message each word represents 2.77 percent of the possible maximum score, and for the dairy message 2.45 percent.) As the reader would expect the college audience group learned more cloze words from the messages than the high school audience group. The average college subject learned 7.62 cloze words from the hog message, and 6.55 cloze words from the dairy message, while the average high school audi- ence subject learned 4.81 words from each message. Learning in the audiences varied between a high of 21.77 percent from the hog message, and com unicator 5, by audience 93 and a low of 12.59 percent for audience £3 from communicator 2, giving the dairy message, Table XVI. TABLE XVI AVERAGE AUDIEECE LJARNING (cloze score)a Communicator 1 2 5 4 Hog message Audience Aa Bb Cc Dd Words learned 5.56 5.45 7.86 6.78 Percent 14.84 15.04 21.77 18.78 Dairy message Audience Dd Aa Bb Cc Words learned 6.54 5.10 6.04 6.15 Percent 15.10 12.59 14.67 14.94 Average learning 15.22 15.71 18.22 16.68 aThe percent of the message learned is calculated by multiplying the cloze score for the hog message by 2.77, and cloze score for the dairy message by 2.45. These factors were required because an unequal number of five letter words were removed from the messages to prepare the cloze tests. 86 On first analysis Table XVI would indicate that dif- ferences exist between the communicators efficiency if we assume the different audiences learned equally. Actually this is an artifact resulting from: (1) differences in value of words learned from the messages, and (2) differences in I audience ability to learn. The 3 test of significant differ- ences shows that these created differences are significant at the .01 level of confidence between communicator 5 and com- municators 1 and 2 for the hog message. (See Appendix D, ’ Table III.) ‘ The differences existing between the audiences ability to learn cloze words from the communication may be seen in' Table XVII and Table XVIII. TABLE XVII AVJfiAGB AUDIEECE LJARNIAG SCORE (Hog Message) .Audience, N l Cgmmunicagor 4 A 58 6.51 B 54 , 5.54 C 57 -ELEE D 31 8.22 .a 22 5.72 b 19 5.05 ° 28 5.95 d 16 4.00 87 TABLd XVIII AvanAGE AUDIENCE LEARNIKG SCORE (Dairy Message) .—_‘-7V— _ Audience N 1 Cgmmunicagor 4 A. 58 5.54 B 54 6.47 C 57 6.85 D 51 1:61. ' a 22 4.68 b 19 5:26 c 28 5.25 d 16 5.75 It is of particular interest to observe the audience learning associated with communicator 5, in Q. We cannot tell, of course, but the higher learning score of audience Q and also 3 may be due in part to communicator 5. The dif- ference inlg may also be attributed to the fact that the mem- bers of this audience were high school girls. At the outset of this section mention was made of the difference in average Learning of cloze words between college and high school audiences, namely that college audiences learned less from the dairy message than the hog message while high sChool audiences learned equally on the average from both messages. A scrutiny of.the above tables shows that this de- cline in learning by college audiences is primarily caused by . audience 9 and its different response to communicators 5 and 4. 88 The greatest decline in learning among the high school audi- ences is also in audience 3 between communicators 5 and 4. Learning increases and decreases among other audiences and communicators, but not with the magnitude observed in these subjects. It is unreasonable to assume that differences in learning ability fluctuate this rapidly. Studies of perception have found that tension and learning are associated. If intensity of attitudes and designation of a communicator as a "cold" individual are associated with tension, and it seems reasonable to assume they are, learning may increase as we observe here in the short run situation. It is reasonable to suggest that when a communicator who follows another who has produced these conditions of tension is perceived positively audience mem- bers relax and learning declines.5 Audience learning of cloze words ranks the communi- cators 5, 4, 2, l for the hog message and 1, 4, 5, 2, for the dairy'message. Communicator 5 produced sufficient learning to rank second in learning preduced in three of thefour audi- ence groups. This suggests that some correlation may exist between the positive perception of a communicator and his ability to effectively transmit the message. Thus, we find that expressed audience attitudes ranked the communicators 4, 2, 5, 1 and audience learning from the 586e especially the study of J. S. Bruner, and Leo Postman, "Tension and Tension Release as Organizing Factors in Perception," Journal of Personality, XV (June, 1947) pp. 500- 508. 89 messages conveyed by the communicators ranked them 5, 4, 1, 2 in average learning produced. Correlation of Attitude and Learning The relationship between the attitude expressed by the audience members and their learning of cloze words was determined by product-moment correlation. The X_axis ranged from 1 to 21 corresponding to the range of learning scores of #2 to +18 respectively. The X axis ranged from 5 -- positive -- to 21 -- negative -- for the evaluative dimension, and from 2 to 14 for the strength and activity dimensions. A negative correlation indicates high learning and the expres- sion of positive attitudes, and a positive correlation indi- cates low learning and the expression of negative attitudes. The first computations were made including all of the subjects, all the communicators, the separate messages. These may be examined in Table XIX where the reader will find that TABLE XIX PRODUCT-MOMENT CORRELATION: EARNING AND ATTITUDE SCORES ALL CONNUNICATORS, ALL SUBJECTS (N 225) Attitude Message Dimension Hog Dairy Evaluative .050 .082 Strength .088 .045 Activity .102 -.074 that the correlations for the overall analysis were not signif- icantly greater than zero. An‘fl of 225 subjects requires a 9O correlation of .15 for significance at the .05 level. Further analysis of learning and attitude relation- ships indicates the magnitude of composite and individual audience correlations are dampened in the overall analysis. The correlations for the composite audiences are presented in Table XX. The higher correlations of audience fig and 93 ap- proach but do not attain the .05 level of confidence. TABLE XX CORRELATION COMPOSITJ AUDIQNCE LSARNING AND EVALUATIVE ATTITUDE SCORES: HOG AND DAIRY MESSAGE Audience 1 200mmunic§tor 4 Aa -.05 -.25a Bb -.07 -.08a Co _.21 .05a Dd -.07a .12 aCorrelations of dairy message. The pattern observed in Table XX predominates in the correlations of the individual audiences, (see Appendix B, Table IV). However, when the audiences are divided by groups, that is, college and high school, we see that college students who expressed negative attitudes towards the communicators pre- senting the hog message learned fewer cloze words, Table XXI. There are indications of a relationship between the initial attitude of college students and their learning. This is suggested by the-40 correlation of the college students' 91 TABLE XXI CORR£LATION GROUP AUDIJNCB LJARHIHG AID BVALUATIVE ATTITUDE scones: HOG AND DAIRY rsssaes Message Audience College High School Hog -.40 .09 Dairy -.05 -.08 learning and attitude scores. This correlation is significant at the .01 level; the reader is reminded a negative correla- tion indicates favorable attitudes and high learning. However, as the correlation that exists for the hog message is not sup- ported by the dairy message we cannot conclude that a signif- icant association exists between the learning of college stu- dents and the attitude they express toward the communicators. Summary The arithmetical and statistical analysis of the data have been presented in this chapter. The attitudes expressed by the audiences on the semantic differential evaluative di- mension indicate that communicators 4 and 2 were perceived as significantly different from communicators 5 and l. A trend in the findings indicate that communicator 4 possessed more of a personality quality "warm" than communicator 2. In rank- ing the communicators the audiences did not rank them as pre- designated 1, 2, 5, 4, but ranked them as possessing the per- sonality quality "warm" in 4, 2, 5, 1 order. When answering a forced choice question requiring the 92 designation of one of the two communicators viewed in a se- quence as "cold" the audiences consistently supported their expressed attitudes, and designated the communicator "cold" who received the audience expression of negative attitudes. An expression of attitudes by the audience of equal intensity toward the two communicators perceived in a sequence is asso- ciated with an inability of the audiences to designate one of the two communicators viewed in this situation as "cold." A hypothesized difference in communicator efficiency did not occur. Although comhunicator 4 produced a consistent level of learning in tnose audiences viewing him--ranking second highest consistently--than communicators 2, 5 and l, the results indicate the efficiency of communicators possess- ing relatively equal skill and transmitting a given message over television is equal when the message is transmitted to a captive audience. The correlations between learning scores and expressed attitudes were not significant for the composite or the indi- vidual audiences. An unexplained exception is observed in the correlation between learning score and expressed attitude for the college audience toward the hog communicator message team. CHAPTER VI INTERPRJTATION AND DISCUSSIOI 4.; At this point we may View the study in retrospect. The purpose of this study was to test an objective means of selecting communicators; to determine how the audience eval- uated the personality qualities of the selected communicators when they were perceived via television; and to determine the effect of the communicators upon audience learning. The theoretical formulation required the substantia- tion of two hypotheses: (l) audience members would perceive the degree of the personality quality "warm-cold" possessed by the selected communicators, and their expressed attitudes would rank the communicators via the discriminating instrument as they ranked themselves via the instrument selected to mea- sure this quality; (2) audiences would learn more from the communicator perceived as "warm" and less from the one per- ceived as "cold," and audience learning would correlate pos- itively with the expression of positive attitudes toward the communicator. We now know that the hypotheses were not sub- stantiated; but, that consistent findings resulted. The role of this chapter is to interpret and discuss these findings. -95— 94 Interpretation The interpretation will be presented in five areas: (1) the selected test instrument (Guilford-Zimmerman Temper- ament Survey--the Survey); (2) the "warm-cold" continuum and audience attitudes; (5) audience learning; (4) learning and attitudes; and (5) personality characteristics and traits. The selected test instrument: The principal problem confronting this study was selecting an instrument that mea- sured the temperament characteristics that Asch found subjects associating with the personality quality "warm." Ihe Surve , which purports to measure the temperament traits independent- ly, was accepted when the traits emotional stability, objec- tivity, and friendliness intercorrelated at an acceptable level in the group of communicators to which it was adminis- tered; and when these traits were found to have an acceptable range of scores assuring that a difference did exist between the communicators to be selected on the basis of their trait scores. The speech students in the class obtained were chosen by subjectively self-administering the Survey. Therefore, the answers received to the Survey questions were subjective self- evaluation responses to an objective instrument. These eval- uations were accepted as honestly offered as there were no reasons to doubt the student's integrity. Actually the answers given represented a student's perception of himself, and his perception of others perceiving him. The internalized and Verbalized perceptions reported by the speech students dis- 95 agreed with the audience perceptions of the selected commun- icators as measured by their expressed attitudes. The communicators described themselves with the aid of the Survey. Then the audience subjects were asked to per- ceive and evaluate the communicators through pristine eyes. Of course, this did not occur. The attitudes expressed by the audience subjects were the result of comparisons between externally and internally perceived communicators. These were three-way comparisons; between the communicator actually perceived presenting the message, all other communicators the audience subjects had perceived previously, and a hypotheti- cal communicator possessing the attributes implied by the ‘ positive polar adjectives used for the semantic differential scales. The method of isolating the "warm-cold" personality quality selected was either inaccurate, or the characteris- tics perceived by the subjects of Asch and used in this study were not the principal ones audience subjects use to distin- guish and quantify the quality "warm-cold" when they perceive persons or communicators for a short period without receiving pre-conditioning messages, either by personal association or from a secondary source--verbal cues. The differences observed, in the communicators self-ranking and the audience ranking, suggest the indeterminate results may be associated with both areas. For example, communicator 4 who received a score of 2 for the trait friendliness by the Survey was arbitrarily des- ignated "cold." Yet this communicator consistently received 96 the most positive rating on the friendly scale of the seman- tic differential, and was consistently perceived as a "warm" individual. Referring to Appendix A, Table I, we find the profiles of communicator 1, who was substituted, and commun- icator 2, originally chosen, intersect that of communicator 4 only on the trait thoughtfulness. 1iherefore, if the mea- sured differences exist that were indicated by the profiles communicators, or individuals, who are perceived as “warm" may have relatively low scores on most temperament traits, and the descriptions of Asch's subjects of a "warm" individual may be based to a greater extent on another group of charac- teristics perceived by them, but not included in this study. For a discussion of these areas see Table III, pages 45-47. When we compare the audience evaluation of communi- cators via the semantic differential and the support received for this instrument from audience responses to a forced choice question the evidence is such that one concludes: the seman- tic differential evaluative dimension has a measure of valid- ity as an instrument to evaluate and designate communicators, or individuals, "warm" or "cold." The difference in ranking of communicators via the Survey and via the semantic differ- ential indicate that the Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey is not a reliable instrument for differentiating among commun- icators as "warm" and "cold" and raises questions concerning its validity in measuring certain traits.l .. ...” 1Anastasi raises the question of validity in her com- ments concerning this instrument. (Anastasi, op. cit.) 97 The "warm-cold" continuum and audience attitudes: Theoretically the "warm-cold" continuum has an indeterminate end. However in any situation where it is studied the limits of the continuum are restricted by the evaluating subjects' experience in interpersonal relations and their internal per- cepts. Thus, at some point on the positive--also on the neg- ative--dimension of the continuum evaluating subjects become incapable of making a decision concerning the differences in the characteristics of communflzators, or individuals, per- ceived and evaluated "warm;" just as they are incapable of designating communicators "cold" when their expressed attitudes are relatively equal at any point on the continuum. Until this impasse is obtained in the audience we cannot assume the limits of the "warm-cold" continuum for that aidience are clearly defined. Therefore, we must interpret the audience reactions to communicator 4 as indicating that he approaches the limits of the "warm-cold" continuum and not assume that this limit is actually attained. The consistency of the audience response via the semantic differential supported by their responses to a ques- tion forcing their designation of a communicator as "cold" irdicates with reasonable validity that "cold" is associated with the expression of negative attitudes, without regard for the intensity of attitude expressed toward the communicator perceived negatively. For example, the audiences of this study were consistently incapable of designating a single com- municator "cold" when expressed attitudes were practically 98 equal. This occurred for audiences A and g who viewed com- municators l and 2 in that sequence. Yet audiences readily designated one communicator "cold" as expressed attitudes separated on the continuum without regard for the intensity of attitude expressed toward the communicators compared. The observations of Asch,2 and Mensch and Wishner,3 support the findings of this study. That is, "warm" and "cold" represent a central personality quality about which people perceiving communicators, or individuals, are cap- able of expressing the impressions they form. I“urthermore, it is demonstrated that audience attitudes are significantly correlated with audience response to designations of commun- 1 icators as "warm' or "cold." Audience learning: The audiences were able to learn cloze words from the messages. This supported the findings of many previous studies that audience members learn from messages conveyed by the medium of television.4 Moreover, high school audiences learning scores were lower on the ave- rage than those of college audiences. This is probably a result of differences in average subject ability in the sep- arate audience groups and of increased educational experience of college students. The class of high school girls were found to have an average learning score higher than those of 23. E. Asch, "Forming Impressions of Personality," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, XLI (September, 1946), pp. 258-290. 5Mensch and Wishner, Op. cit. +————— 4Kumata, op. cit. 99 boys in vocational agriculture. Though the sample is small it suggests that a difference exists in the ability of the two groups to learn. The data did not support the hypothesis that a com- municator perceived as "warm" had increased efficiency. A critical appraisal of this lack of relationship suggests that learning by members of a captive audience is not a function of who communicates the message when the message is controlled; but, is a function of the level of education and inherent ability of the audience members. Learning and attitude: The learning scores of the 225 subjects participating did not correlate at a level indicating a significant association with their expressed attitudes. Thus, the findings of this study of communicators as a source and audience attitudes toward that source support those of Hovlands. That is, the learning of material transmitted in a message is not associated with attitudes expressed toward the source when that message is attended to by the individuals of a captive audience. Hovland used printed materials and made pre— and post-test observations of attitudes as compared to the use of verbal messages and post-test of attitudes in this study. However, the findings of this study are that attitudes expressed toward an anonymous source are not associated with learning by individuals in the captive audience situation. The ability of students to learn equally well from 5Hovland, op. cit. lOO closed-circuit television and classroom instruction is well established. However, several of these studies have indi- cated that attitudes expressed toward this method of instruc- tion tend to be negative.6’ 7 This trend is indicated by the college audiences, (see Table XXI, page 91). The negative attitudes expressed toward this method of instruction may be associated with the subjects' precept comparisons of commun- icators mentioned in the discussion of the "warm-cold" con- tinuum above. Particularly important in the data is the indication that individuals who possess equal communicating skill and transmit a given message by a relatively standard method . (making allowances for individual nuances) are equally effi- cient communicators. There has been much speculation among professional educators concerning the need for them to become at the minimum quasi-professional television performers. It would appear that such mediations are useless when telecast- ing to a closed-circuit audience for the purposes of trans- mitting informational material. Simultaneously one must be cognizant that attitudes expressed by the total audience toward a communicator are important in increasing the effectiveness of a communication effort. We cannot tell at what point on the evaluative 6Carpenter and Greenhill, op. cit. p. 54. 7Thomas C. Pollock, Oscar Cargill, James Loomis, and Harvey Zorbaugh, Closed-Circuit Television as a Medium of In- struction, 1955-1956, TNew York University, New York, 1956, p. 22). lOl dimension attitudes become sufficiently negative in the audi- ences studied to cause them to turn to other sources for in- formation, or change their imiediate endeavors at leisure and learning to methods other than television. However, arbi- trarily establishing the mid-point of the evaluative attitude scale as representing the point of total audience loss, we find that communicators l and 5 giving the dairy message would have an effectiveness of zero when viewed by an audience of college students, Table XIV. When we consider the factors of method and message interest built into this study it is obvious that the effec- tiveness of a communicator appearing on television is inexo- rably associated with the audiences' expression of positive attitudes toward that communicator. As television is a com- petitive medium the total audience of any communicator-~pro- fessional or non-professional--appearing regularly on Open- circuit television is a function of the positive attitudes expressed toward that communicator and/or the message con- veyed. Given a controlled message and method of presentation it is apparent that a communicator perceived "warm" will main- tain a larger audience than one perceived "cold." Personality—-characteristics and traits: The subjects of Asch associated 29 characteristics with the personality quality "warm-cold" which.were divided into four groups, (see Table III, page 46). The group relating to temperament qual- ‘ities was selected for study and use for evaluating communica- tors as "warm" or "cold" individuals. It is quite possible 102 that the audiences would have ranked the communicators selected in the same order if the single term in the group manner, that is, formal-informal, had been substituted for "warm-cold." In the communication situation studied the audiences did not receive pre-conditioning messages. After viewing the communicators a relatively short period they were asked to evaluate the communicators. Probably the best basis for judg- ments which the subjects participating had for evaluating the communicators perceived as "warm-cold" were their perceptions of their manner--formal-informal. Kohler8 writes: "Where we do not understand their words, their manner of talking is of- ten a better cue, ..." and it is highly possible that this concept is as important in evaluating individuals including communicators, in our own society, as that of other societies to which Kohler referred. An examination of all the temperament traits and com- ment on their relationship to the attitudes expressed toward the communicator is not within the scope of this study. How— ever, it is interesting to note that the trait scores for general activity are perfectly (positively) correlated with the "warm-cold" ranking of the communicators. This corres- ponds to a caution to all television communicators that move- ments be minimized. Such an observation may represent a spurious finding as it did not appear on the activity scale. Conversely, the association may exist in fact and our scale 8Kohler, op. cit. 105 lacked sufficient sensitivity to detect the difference in ac— tivity that was present in the communicators. Communicators 4 and 2 were perceived as possessing the greatest amount of a personality quality "warm" in that order. Communicator 4 ranked lowest, and communicator 2 next to lowest, on the trait masculinity. In fact, communicator 4 rated himself 9 on this trait. We have here two traits asso- ciate with preferred feminine habits, that is, low activity, and a lack of masculine interests. Though generalizing from this finding is hazardous possibly the border between mascu- linity and femininity is such for the successful professional television communicator that they possess this trait pattern. If they do their success may be due, in part, to the ability to be psychologically perceived as representing both sides of a personality simultaneously, and receive positive responses from both male and female audience members. Further research must answer this hypothesis. Discussion We observe in this study the ability of communicators to convey an identical message with equal efficiency. This implies that in circumstances where controlled messages are used--or where messages are of a relatively constant type as in agricultural service programming, news, and so forth--the communicator is simply the instrument of conveyance and of relatively little importance to the message when interest in that message dominates the communication situation. In these 104 situations a communicators' effectiveness is high though his efficiency is constant with that of an infinite number of other communicators, and the communication process is effi- cient. When messages of a constant type are being transmitted communicators are not expendables in the industry, because one is as effective as another. While in situations where mes- sage interest does not dominate they are expendables. It does not follow, however, that the effectiveness of a communicator is always associated with the message conveyed. Sven though everyone of our audiences learned regardless of the attitude expressed toward the communicator in the normal television communicating situation the attitude scales indi- cate that the audiences of some communicators approached zero. Given a captive audience this may be of no consequence. But, in a normal situation message interest provides at best a semi- captive audience, and at some point the expressed attitudes dominate message interest and the communicator becomes the critical factor in furthering the message reception. Research on captive audiences cannot answer a major question relating to the link between attitudes and the com- municator-message team, that is, when does one dominate the other. The point along a constant attitude scale where atti- tude dominates interest--to learn or attend-~must be relative- ly consistent for major demographic groups. Locating these points, or a single point as the case might be, by analysis of a real television communication situation would contribute importantly to communication theory. 105 From such research the effectiveness of communicators and their position on the "warm-cold" continuum for specific types of messages may be clearly established. If the "warm- cold" quality is synonymous with the single characteristic associated with manner--formal-informal--the im ediately ef- fective communicator will be identified more readily and com- munication effectiveness shall be increased. 4. CHAPTER VII CONCLUSIONS The television audience perceives, evaluates, and responds to a personality quality that exists which is verbally described as "warm-cold." The audience responses to "cold" show clearly that this quality is associated with negative attitudes--and that "warm" is associated with positive at- titudes--expressed toward the communicator perceived. The responses to this quality are not indicative of a correla- tion between the communicators' perception of his temper- ament traits and audience perceptions. A difference in efficiency between communicators does not exist wnen skill of delivery, method of presentation, and message are relatively constant. Moreover, communicator efficiency is not associated with the attitudes expressed toward the communicators by the subjects of this study. The individual subjects of a captive television audience learn from messages presented via this medium. A rela- tionship exists between the educational level of audiences and their ability to learn. A relationship did not exist between the amount learned from a message and the attitude expressed toward the communica- tor. -1ca- 6. 7. 107 The evaluative dimension of the semantic differential is a reliable instrument for measuring audience expressions of their perceptions of "warmth" or "coldness" in a com- municator. The strength and activity scales used in this study were not reliable instruments. Either these dimen- sions were not associated with the personality quality observed or were not sufficiently sensitive to detect the existing differences. The cloze test is an acceptable instrument to measure learning in audiences and it discriminates effectively between levels of ability between audiences. The guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey as used in this study was not a reliable instrument for differentiating the degree of "warm—cold" possessed by the selected com- municators when appearing on television, when compared to the ability of audiences to perceive this quality in the selected communicators. However, subsequent experiments may show another cluster of traits is possessed by com- municators who are perceived "warm." APPBN DIX A TABLE I POSITIVL AND ICEGAT HIV oUALITIL" S OF‘ 3h JRAHEIT TRAITS ASTR ‘D BY GUIIFORD—Z IHLT d-.AN TZ‘P HAMJNT SURVJY Positive Negative Lmotional Stability Evenness of moods, inter- ests, and energy Optimism; cheerfulness Composure Feeling in good health / Fluctuation of moods, interests, and energy Pessimism, gloominess Perseveration of ideas and moods Daydreaming Excitability Feeling in ill health Feelings of guilt, loneliness, or worry Objectivity Be ing "thickskinned" \ \ Having man friends and ac- qu‘Elintances Hypersensitive Egoism; self-centeredness Suspiciousness; fancying of hostility Having ideas of reference Getting into trouble Sociability Few friends and acquaintances -109- 110 TABLE I - Continued Positive Negative Sociability Entering into conversations Liking social activities Seeking social contacts Seeking limelight Refraining from conversations Disliking social activities Avoiding social contacts Shyness Avoiding limelight Personal relations Tolerance of people Faith in social institu- tions iypercriticalness of people; faultfinding habits Criticalness of institutions SuSpicioushess of others Self-pity Masculinity ‘ Interest in masculine ac- tivities and vocations Not easily disgusted Hardboiled Resistant to fear Ihihibition of emotional expressions ILittle interest in clothes and styles Interest in feminine activities and vocations Easily disgusted Sympathetic Fearful Romantic interests Lmotional expressiveness Much interest in clothes and styles Dislike of vermin lll TABLE I - Continued Positive Negative Ascendance Self defense Submissiveness Leadership habits Speaking with individuals Speaking in public Persuading others Being conspicuous Bluffing Habits of following Hesitation to speaking Hesitation to speaking Avoiding conspicuousness General Rapid pace of activities Lnerg ; vitality Keeping in motion Production efficiency Liking for speed Hurrying Quickness of action Enthusiasm; liveliness \ Activity Slow and deliberate pace Fatiguability Pausing to rest Low production efficiency Liking for slow pace Taking time Slowness of action Restraint Serious-mindedness Deliberate PeI'sistent effort Self-control \ Happy-go-lucky, carefree Impulsive Excitment loving 112 TABLE I - Continued Positive Negative Friendliness Toleration of hostile action Belligerence; readiness to fight Hostility; resentment Desire to dominate Acceptance of domination Resistance to domination Respect for others Contempt for others Thoughtfulness Reflectiveness; medita- tiveness Observing behavior in others Interested in things Interested in overt activity PhilOSOphically inclined Observing of self Nental poise Mental disconcertedness 113 .oomE who; momoomoQHx who come one so oanmaww>w one; m Lon m ponHon mw :Eamez mm m #0985: pooamm o» hpwmmoooc mm; pH .mzfla .ooosooag one; moooomocHx one maomon maoo ocmHma esp ooGHOn pop .QOpwowcszfioo :Eam3= can we oopooaom haamcamfiao mm; ma honfidz .mcomwhwmfioo oafigoao one .oaoom pHmpp .oaoom prOp hp ompooaom who; whoponCSEEoo oxen .mofisq mo ohzmoaomfio emu noonpwa QODmOHCSEEoo one mQHpooaom ooppHEpoo pflmfiomcwmaw mane .xoon oaoooh mHQ CH maths: pso©5pm can mo omonp on onommoaaoo washes: omega mmmao on» wquosocoo mommomoam one km ooaonadq who; mpoofim oaoom Ho>p5m ones w n m H aooao wcfiocoomoo =Ehws= mo moonwoo mnHmmommoo mm Umpooaom an on me om on He He oe oe as we we we we prpoa s e a a m m e m e m e m m e mmoanaphwsosa e m m e m e e n m 0H m e a m mmocHHecmea o e s n e e m e e m m m m m peasapmmm m e e m m s e o m e m s m m spH>Hpoe Hmaocoe m o s s m m m e e e e s m s ooqmeqoome m e e m e e m m s m o m e n aquHHsommz n a m e m m e m e m m e. m m mcoHpmHmu Hasomaom m m a m OH o e H m s e m m m epHHHQwHoom m m m a m m m n e a m m m m th>Hpoohno m e m e m m m H e a n m e a spHHHnmpm Hmeoapose Hm m m nH mH m HH s OH eH mH SH 0 m maonfisz uncoopm pamhe pnofiwaomsoe fins/mam BEGEAHZHAHZBB ZfiammmEHfinflmObQHDC ESE QmmflBmHmflzafi mBZHQDPm mowimm mo mEHHmomm BZflE mmmzfle HH-mqm ‘ »‘ .- l‘ \ ‘ ‘ ‘ .. . 1.. . - . . ‘ 5,1 . _ . I . . o * ' ‘ I ’ ' ' 0‘ ( I . u ..A' I. ' . "L .I ‘ ' . . I I ~ .\ . R l v . IA - ' I V. I - .... . ’ . . . . _ . . ' I ... ' - . u ‘ A < _‘ . . - ' . 0 I- . .. . _- . -. . . ‘ I O . ‘ ‘ ‘ . I , . v . . . .- a ’ ‘ I , . | . . , .. l v I . _‘ .. . ‘( i.» . I! l ‘ _ .p c' I' I ' k A ’ I o - . . ‘ ' .U I I ' . . . . . I ' V y . . t '~ I ~ ' . . \ . I .l . 134 TNSTRUCTIONS ON THE NEXT PAGE YOU WILL FIND A SET OF SCALES THAT LOOK LIKE THIS: PROFESSORS RICH :mm :.__,,_ :,_,_._ :._,..,.. :__..I...: ...... 3...... :POOR WE WOULD LIKE FOR YOU TO EXPRESS YOURSELF ABOUT THE IMPRESSIONS THIS SPEAKER HAS MADE. THE SCALES YOU WILL USE ARE DESIGNED TO REPRESENT THE DQEQEQN AND TEENSITY OF THESE IMPRESSIONS. FOR EXAMPLE: YOU MAY THINK PROFESSORS ARE "RICH", THEN'MARK LIKE THIS: RICH :.....X.. L..- LL--- 1.-.-.. :m........h:...... :._,_W:POOR OR YOU MAY THINK THAT PROFESSORS ARE "POOR", THEN MARK LIKE THIS: RICH :.,,.__.. L-..“ a...“ :,._..,... Kw. :........ ° .X...:POOR OR YOU MAY THINK THAT PROFESSORS HAVE A BETTER THAN AVERAGE INCOME BUT.ARE NOT "RICH", THEN MARK LIKE THIS: RICHL. ...... L... :L:W:,W,:mw :m:POOR PLEASE MARK EACH SCALE WITH YOUR IMPRESSIONS OF THE SPEAKER AS AN INVIVIDUAL. DO NOT CONSIDER THE SUBJECT MATTER OR DELIVERY. ‘PLEASE_.S _CARE IN READING EACH OF THE SCALES AND PLACING YOUR MARK ‘0 .. .0 ‘C '- DO PLEASANT : : HOG SPEAKER SLOW ° : '_ STRONG ° : .. GOOD 3. : . ACTIVE : ., ....= DELICATE :O-....-... :. . FRIENDLY hm... : ’-".'-D um. ago-...... 0 2 O O n . anon-u. - to .n- . at u.- . ...-u C O O I . I 0-! I.- . ~ I.“ . ~ .- I . ......" O O z 0 I . a «not. 0 . o 0.. hour ~‘ 000 . 0 .I r- . O z 0 - . ~~Ctmu . '1-1 u-ur no." u. . r u in : .........: UNPLEASANT 3 ”...... :FAST . , ,:_WM:BAD .. . :.....,,._:PASSIVE .. , : :RUGGED .- ..... .' :....-...-.:UNFRI ENDLY 135 .5 Q. P1375 JEISIG'N'HEREmm 1 55 PLEASE READ THE INSTRUCTIONS YOU ARE HELPING WITH AN EXPERIMENT. PLEASE DO YOUR BEST ON THE PAGES THAT FOLLOW. YOUR ASSIGNMENT IS TO PLACE THE ORIGINAL WORDS IN THE BLANKS THAT ARE FOUND IN THE ARTICLE THAT FOLLOWS. FOR EXAMPLE: SOMEONE WILL WIN THE PRESIDENTIAL THIS NOVEMBER. IN THE BLANK YOU MIGHT WRITE ANY NUMBER OF WORDS. HOWEVER, ONLY THREE WORDS MAKE SENSE, THESE ARE CAMPAIGN, RACE, AND ELECTION. FOR THESE ONLY ELECTION IS CORRECT. WORDS ARE NOT TO BE PLACED ON THE DOTTED LINES. NOW TURN THE PAGE AND ATTEMT‘TO PLACE THE CORRECT WORD IN EACH OF THE BLANKS AS YOU THINK THE AUTHOR INTENDED, 137 HELLO AS YOU WERE milkin8.,THIS MORNING DID PROFITS ENTER YOUR MIND . . . . . OR WERE YOU TOO BUSY FEEDING ..Ei.&k2:£££9§.§FEEDS? AS A DAIRYMAN, I'M SURE, YOU'RE INTERESTED IN Prof its THAT OLD COW OF YOURS AT THE END OF THE STRING SHE'S A MEMBER OF THE FAMILY, ISN'T SHE? BUT COULDN'T YOU TREAT HER BETTER? MAYBE IF YOU FED HER BETTER, those PROFITS YOU WERE WORRYING ABOUT WOUID increase . JUST RECENTLY, A STUDY WAS CONEPIEI‘ED AT MICHIGAN... state UNIVER- SITY THAT SHOWS THE AVERAGE MICHIGAN .-..QEA...I.:Y_...- FARMER CAN REDUCE HIS FEED COSTS PER ONE HUNDRED pounds OF MILK, AS MUCHAS TWENTY-FIVE PERCENT. HOW? SIMPLY BY IMPROVING forage QUALITY. ABOUT IT. JUST TAKE THREE FACTORS WHICH YOU control .....FORAGE STANDS CUTTING DATE .....HARVESTING Amstorage . IMPROVE THESE AND IMPROVE YOUR PROFITS. AS A ...31.‘.9..1.<1.R...L.......m., DAIRYMEN HAVE DONE LITTLE ABOUT FORAGE qu.a.].:Lty....... . MOST OF THEM KNOW WHAT To DO, BUT DON'T DO IT. THEY SHOULD TEST SOIL, LIME AND FERTILIZE. WELL AND USE ADAPTED VARIETIES. FOR MANYdairym FARMERS, JUST GETTING A GOOD STAND FOR THE FIRST YEAR IS $3329.11? BUT YOU, BEING BETTER THAN AVERAGE, HAVE TROUBLE1 aintainmf AN EXCELLENT STAND. OUR STUDY SHOWS THAT IF YOU WILL.t0PdI’933 YOUR FORAGE EACH SPRING AND NOT PASTURE DURING THE month _OF SEPTEMBER YOU CAN EXTEND THE LIFE OF AN EXCELLENT STAND three , FOUR, OR EVEN FIVE YEARS. - .0 I “ r... . ;"7‘ '7; .. _ ..- K . . . .: ' I -.a ,< . .; - ‘:; , ‘ ' A v-o. ._ I t ' v ' r ‘ o . u ‘ . . ~o.. ' I . . "3"" I ‘3 . v - . . . . n a ’0‘! " . . . I . I .‘ '- ‘ na- . . v o . ' flu . I - . v: . A— "f' l. . 2.. '3. Y I . \~ ‘ .- . T." u '. .- l ‘1" I I q .‘ . . "3 j 11', I . , . . _ u I 1}), ~ . . . .- . .. ..~ b ~l ¢ ... 0'. II ”at fv C., . -C £.. .. .- _ -7 ll ',- 2158 I'M SURE YOU KNOW THAT EXCELLENT FORAGE STANDS ARE ONLY THE START. YOU CAN CUT AT THE wrong TIME AND LOSE PLENTY. CUTTING BY THE CALEN- DAR IS A GOOD RULE OF THUMB. TRY TO CUT ALL forabe, BEFORE JUNE TWENTIETH. THIS IS CONSIDERED EARLY OUT, AND ..-.filfl 33’3 “......” CONTAINS THE HIGHEST AMOUNT OF PROTEINS. doesn't MAKE A LOT OF DIFFERENCE IF IT'S HAY OR SILAGE, BUT CUT EARLY AND PROFIT. THIS studYHAS FOUND NO REALLY NEW HARVESTING METHOD .. . . .. BUT, THEY DID. diapover SOMETHING ABOUT THIS PROBLE/I OF JUNE RAINS. TO reduce THE RISK MAKING SILAGE IS A GOOD PRACTICE, THEY SAY. THOSE WHO MADE THE E.Lud1............ SUGGEST YOU USE CARE AND TRY NOT TO HAVE YOUR SILAGE STORED WITH A MOISTURE WELSH; ......... HIGHER THAN SIXTY-EIGHT PERCENT. IT MAKES A higher QUALITY PRODUCT. OF COURSE, IF YOU DON'T HAVE SILAGEPPace, YOU HAVE TO MAKE HAY. THE BARN DRIERS WILL PRESERVE MORE PROTEIN FOR YOU IN HAY THAN ANY OTHER me.tho.d............. . . HARM DRIERS HELP YOU TO PRODUCE A PRODUCT WHICH THE weather ......... CANNOT EQUAL. SOME DAY, IN THE NOT TOO DISTANT FUTURE, YOU dilrymen , AND OTHER FEEDERS MAY HAVE THE USE OF LABORATORIES TO TEST THE NUTRIENT value OF YOUR FEEDS. WHEN THIS HAPPENS, YOU CAN BE SURE YOUR GOOD QUALITY FORAGES ARE REQYEAEBSYOU ALL OF THE PROTEIN YOUR LIVESTOCK NEED. YOU'LL BE AMAZED AT THE Profit _YOU CAN MAKE BY PRODUCING EXCELLENT FORAGE STANDS AND through BETTER HARVESTING AND STORAGE. MAY BE YOUR share OF THE EIGHT MILLION DOLLARS SPENT FOR Protein IN MICHIGAN EACH YEAR WOULD GIVE THE SIFE A NEW HAT, PAINT THE HOUSE, AND HELP PAY THE ...mOr.EEag§.-.............. THANK YOU AND GOOD DAY. ....~ 5 159 PLEASE SIGN HERE ""1 PLEASE READ THE INSTRUCTIONS YOU HAVE JUST HEARD THE SPEAKER PRESENT THE ARTICLE THAT YOU READ A FEW MOMENTS AGO. WILL YOU PLEASE FILL THE CORRECT WORD IN THE CORRECT BLANK AGAIN. 14o HELLO . AS YOU WERE milking THIS MORNING DID PROFITS ENTER YOUR MIND OR WERE YOU TOO BUSY FF.EDING..h1ghe.pr1O.OmEEDS? AS A DAIRYMAN, I'M SURE, YOU'RE INTERESTED IprItoi‘itamnm. THAT OLD COW OF YOURS AT THE END OF THE STRING SHE'S A MEMBER OF THE FAMILY, ISN'T SHE? BUT COULDN'T YOU TREAT HER BE'I‘I'ER? MAYBE IF YOU FED HER BETTER, those PROFITS YOU WERE WORRYING ABOUT WOUID increase . JUST RECENTLY, A STUDY WAS COMPLETED AT MICHIGAN. state UNIVER- SITY THAT SHOWS THE AVERAGE MICHIGAN “3.92.511..- FARMER CAN REDUCE HIS FEED COSTS PER ONE HUNDRED Pounds OF MILK, AS MUCH AS TWENTY-FIVE PERCENT. HOW? SIMPLY BY IMPROVING forage QUALITY. THE REALLY GOOD PART ABOUT THIS FINDING IS THAT YOU CAN DO something ABOUT IT. JUST TAKE THREE FACTORS WHICH YOU-..9..9E.P.E9.;...... . . . .FORAGE STANDS . CUTTING DATE .HARVESTING ANDStOI'aqe . IMPROVE THESE AND IMPROVE YOUR PROFITS. As A .-.ET.OED........--W-, DAIRYMEN HAVE DONE LITTLE ABOUT FORAGE Quanta. ..... . MOST OF THEM KNOW WHAT TO DO, BUT DON'T DO IT. THEY SHOULD TEST SOIL, LIME AND FERTILIZE. WELL AND USE ADAPTED VARIETIES. FOR MANY,......daiJ:y......-.......... FARMERS, JUST GETTING A GOOD STAND FOR THE FIRST YEAR ISEILLLOMJA: BUT YOU, BEING BETTER THAN AVERAGE, HAVE TROUBLEnaint ainilengN EXCELLENT STAND. OUR STUDY SHOWS THAT IF YOU WILL, topdress YOUR FORAGE EACH SPRING AND NOT PASTURE DURING THE month "OF SEPTEMBER YOU CAN EXTEND THE LIFE OF AN EXCELLENT STAND three , FOUR, OR EVEN FIVE YEARS. ' I... ‘ O l ... s t 1" I" .. o '.' 141 I 'M SURE YOU KNOH THAT EXCELLENT FORAGE STANDS ARE ONLY THE START. YOU CAN OUT AT THE ”wrong TIME AND LOSE PLENTY. CUTTING BY THE CALEN- DAR IS A GOOD RULE OF THUMB. TRY TO CUT ALL forage , BEFORE JUNE TWENTIETH. THIS IS CONSIDERED EARLY CUI‘, AND -QWPIYS- CONTAINS THE HIGHEST AMOUNT OF PROTEINS. doesn't , MAKE A LOT OF DIFFERENCE IF IT'S HAY OR SILAGE, BUT CUT EARLY AND PROFIT. __._ ~— — ~71 THIS-...§.12L1..C1X.WHAS FOUND NO REALLY NEw PERVESTING METHOD .. .. .. BUT, THEY DID. ..diHGOMHE SOMETHING ABOUT THIS PROBLEM OF JUNE RAINS. TO “135,114.99... THE RISK MAKING SILAGE IS A GOOD PRACTICE, THEY SAY. THOSE WHO MADE THE HF ...s.t.udy............. SUGGEST YOU USE ARE AND TRY NOT TO HAVE YOUR SILAGE STORED WITH A MOISTURE c.9nt.e.nt......,fflGHER THAN SIXTY-EIGHT PERCENT. IT MAKES A higher QUALITY PRODUCT. OF COURSE, IF YOU DON'T HAVE SILAGE -..-fip.a.Q.e...........-., YOU HAVE TO MAKE HAY. THE BARN DRIERS WILL PRESERVE MORE PROTEIN FOR YOU IN HAY THAN ANY OTHER ....me.thod........... . . BLTRM DRIERS HELP YOU TO PRODUCE A PRODUCT WHICH THE EQHEEEH.........CANNOT EQUAL. SOME DAY, IN THE NOT TOO DISTANT FUTURE, YOU dalI’Xmen , AND OTHER FEEDERS MAY HAVE THE USE OF LABORATORIES TO TEST THE NUTRIENT value OF YOUR FEEDS. WHEN THIS HAPPENS, YOU CAN BE SURE YOUR GOOD QUALITY FORAGES ARE E.I:QY.J-...§§LI}8..YOU ALL OF THE PROTEIN YOUR LIVESTOCK NEED. YOU'LL BE AMAZED AT THE profit- YOU CAN M'KE BY PRODUCING EXCELLENT FORAGE STANDS AND ..LbTO.MEh.-.- BETTER HARVESTING AND STORAGE. WTY BE YOUR Share OF THE EIGHT MILLION DOLLARS SPENT FOR DTQEPAEWIN MICHIGAN EACH YEAR WOULD GIVE THE SIFE A NEW HAT, PAINT THE HOUSE, AND HELP PAY THETmortgage...”......... THANK YOU AND GOOD DAY. 142 INSTBTCTI_0N_.8_ ON THE NEXT PAGE YOU WILL FIND A SET OF SCALES THAT LOOK LIKE THIS: fin“! -u—W—— - RICH: : : : :._....-:I......:..,.,...:POOR Qmum -noo'I-~.I ~01” Wm- WE WOULD LIKE FOR YOU TO EXPRESS YOURSELF ABOUT THE IMPRESSIONS THIS SPEAKER HAS MADE. THE SCALES YOU WILL USE ARE DESIGNED TO REPRESENT THE 43' DIRECTION AND INEEESITX OF THESE IMPRESSIONS. FOR EXAMPLE: YOU MAY THINK PROFESSORS ARE "RICH", THEN MARK LIKE THIS: RICH 1.2;. 1...... 1.....- :.__...... :.,..._,,,.. 2...... :m.....:POOR OR YOU MAY THINK THAT PROFESSORS ARE "POOR", THEN MARK LIKE THIS: RICH a...” :........ :___..~ a..-” :I--. :.....- : .Xm :POOR OR YOU MAY THINK THAT PROFESSORS HAVE A BETTER THAN AVERAGE INCOME BUT ARE NOT "RICH", THEN MARK LIKE THIS: RICH :........, L.-.” LIL. L-..” : ...... : ...... :_,_,_,, :POOR PLEASE MARK EACH SCALE. WITH YOUR IMPRESSIONS OF THE SPEAKER AS AN INVIVIDUAL. DO NOT CONSIDER THE SUBJECT MATTER OR DELIVERY. ELEE‘EUSE CARE IN WINGLEAQELQELTEECAEES AND PLACINQJQHBA’IABK 145 D. LIKY SPllxI" 3R UNFRI LIDLY:__:__:__:__:__:___: gli‘IngIFDLY leGG J‘. : z : : z : :__:‘-‘ ELICATE PASSIVE : : : : : :____:___:.10TIVE BAP : : : : : :___:___:GOOD .51 L]: : : : : : : : : STi‘OI‘I‘IG —— FAST : : : z : : :____: SLO?! UNBL. 4.3- .NT: : :___: :__: : :BLQASANT GIL-LR ONLY ONE BOX T‘stLOJ: 'z'IZ’ICH Stal-JTJJR DO YOU TRIP-1K IS .1 COL“ 11'1le ,SONAL Ir-T'I‘IIZEUAL? II"G 373.4313 EMIRY SthKER [j I] THANK YOU F OR YOUR COOF‘JLATION o‘-~.¢ “an... 000‘ ~‘u ...—v 0.. o I-c'o ’---.~o~ ..--o .-.. 0-. I u . . . A. . o I ‘ . .. o C. o 0 ~. I p n I.-. .- ‘a- APPENDIX D 145 ®>Hmmmm NH.¢ Ob.n mm.m ©H.N Mb.m mn.¢ mm.m NO.¢ ®>Hpom pmww Noom mm.n N¢.¢ wm.¢ ab.w Hm.m WH.¢ OH.¢ Roam owwmmoz mgawm o>Hmmam Hm.H ma.n mp.n om.¢ Hm.m m>.m mp.m m>.n opfipom pmmM N®.w ¢©.¢ no.¢ mm.m mw.¢ mw.¢ Nb.m ob.n 30am ommmmma mom @ Q o o D m w < ooGoHUS¢ emacm mfldHQZH 20 meHaHQD< ND Dmmmfimgmm mMQDBHBB< 146 mb.n am.m mm.m wa.¢ m.w pm.n cmmmsn (N OQQOHH®U ma.m Hm. xmoa om.n mv.¢ H>.m m¢.w wm.w 40.4 mm.m om.w mcoapm omwmmmz hmfima QPmOHng Hm.n om.n m>.m mm.n n>.¢ oo.n mm.m mm.m wommSp gum; mm.m mm.m mm.n mm.¢ oo.n HH.n mm.n Hp.¢ mcogpm omwmmez mom c a o o n m a .< ooCoHUS< oamom mflqmom :OHmZflEHQ NBH>HBU¢ QHQEH zo mmoZflHQD< Mm flmmHImXfl mJQDBHBB< HH flqm<8 147 TABLE III DIF‘JRSNCJS IN LEAREIEG PRODUCJEPBY CONFUKICATORS E Hog Message Dairy Message Communi- Communi- a cator 1 2 5 4 cator l 2 5 4 I 1 x -- 3.88a 2.02 1 x 1.70 -- -- 2 x 5.95 2.28 2 x 2.06 1.75 3 x -- 5 x -- 4 x 4 x aD.F. = 40; t 1.65 significant .10 level; t 2.55 significant .01 level. 148 TABLE IV CORRELATION INDIVIDUAL AUDIEKCE LQAMNING AND EVALUATIVE ATTITUDE SCOhBS: HOG AND DAIRY MASSAGE Audience Communicator l 2 5 4 Hog Message College A B C D -.45 -.26 +.24 -.03 High School a b c d +021 “002 +010 ”055 College A B C D +015 -008 -008 -001 High School a b c d +.52 -.08 +.13 ~108 BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOKS Adkins, Dorothy C., Construction and Analysis of Achievement Tests, Washington, D. 0.: Superintendent of Documents, 1947. Allport, Floyd H., Theories of Perception and the Concept of Structure, New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1955. Allport, G. W., Personality: A Psychological Interpretation, New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1957. Anastasi, Anne, Psychological Testing, New York: Macmillan Company, 1954. Asch, Solomon E., Social Psychology, New York: Prentice- Hall, 1952. Buros, Oscar K., The Fourth Mental Measurements Yearbook, Highland Park, New Jersey: The Gryphon Press, 1955. Darwin, Charles, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, London: Murray, 1872. Dixon, Wilfrid J. and Massey, Frank J., Jr., Introduction to Statistical Analysis, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1951. Flesch, Rudolf, The Art of Readable Writing, New York: Harper and Brothers, 1949. Hovland, C. 1., Lumsdaine, A. A., and Sheffield, F. D., Ex- periments in Mass Communication, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1949. Kohler, w., Gestalt Psychology, New York: Liverwright Corp., 1929. Parker, E. C., Barry, D. N., and Smythe, D. W., The Tele- vision - Radio Audience and Religion, New York: Harper and Brothers, 1955. Schramm, Wilbur, ed., The Process and Effects of Mass Commun- ications, Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1954. -149- 150 Seigel, Sidney, Nonparametric Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1956. Thorndike, Robert L., and Hagen, Elizabeth, Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education, New York: John Wiley, 1955. Articles and Periodicals Arnett, Claude 3., Davidson, Helen H., and Lewis, Hallett N., "Prestige as a Factor in Attitude Change," Sociology f Social Research, XVI (September-October, 1951), 49-55. ‘ Arnheim, Rudolf, "The Gestalt Theory of Expression," Psycho- logical Review, LVI (May, 1949), 170. Asch, S. D., "Forming Impressions of Personality," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, XLI (September, 1946), p 258-290. E Asch, S. H., "The Doctrine of Suggestion, Prestige, and Imi- tation in Social Psychology," Psychological Review, LV (September, 1948), 250-276. Belson, William A., "Learning and Attitude Changes Resulting From Viewing a Television Series 'Bon Voyage,'" The British Journal of Psychology, XXXI (February, 1956), 51-58 0 Bruner, J. S., and Postman, Leo, "Tension and Tension Release As Organizing Factors in Perception," Journal of Per- sonality, XV (June, 1947), 500-508. Goldberg, H. D., "Liking and Retention of a Simulcast," Public Opinion Quarterly, XIV (Spring, 1950), 141-142. Horlung, C. R., Benne, E. J., and Nelson, L. V., "Forage Quality and Protein Feeding of Dairy Cows, Michi an State University Quarterly Bulletin, XXVI (March, 1956), 413-450 0 Hovland, C. I., and Weiss, N., "The Influence of Source Cred- ibility on Communication Effectiveness," Public Opinion Quarterly, XV (Winter, 1951), 655-650. Husband, R. W., "Television Versus Classroom for Learning General Psychology," American Psychologists, VI (May, 1954), 181-185. Kelman, H. C., and Hovland, C. I., "'Reinstatement' of the Communicator in Delayed Measurement of Opinion Change," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, XLVIII (Sept. 19557, 527-555. 151 Kelly, H. H., "The Warm-Cold Variable in First Impressions of Persons," Journal of Personality, XVIII (June, 1950), 451-459. Lang, Kurt, and Lang, C. E., "Unique Perspective of Tele- vision and Its Effect: A Pilot Study," american Socio- logical Review, XVIII (February, 1955), 5-12. Lewis, H. 3., "Studies in the Principles of Judgment and Atti- tudes" : IV, The Operation of "Prestige Suggestion," Journal of Social Psychology, XIV (August, 1941), 229- 256. Lorge, Irving, "Prestige, Suggestion, Attitude,""Journa1 of Social Psychology, VII (November, 1956), 585-402. Martin, G. L., and Over, Charles, "Therapy By Television," Audio-Visual Communication Review, IV (Spring, 1956), 119-150. Mensh, Ivan N., and Wishner, Julius, "Forming Impressions of Personality," Journal of Personality, XVI (January, 1947), 188-191. Sherif, H., "An Experimental Study of Stereotypes," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, XXIX (January-March, 1955), 571-575. Tannenbaum, Percy H., "Initial Attitude Toward Source and Concept as Factors in Attitude Change Through Communi- cation," Public Opinion Quarterly, XX (Summer, 1956), 413‘425 0 Tarver, James D., "Costs of Rearing and Educating Farm Chil- dren," Journal of Farm Sconomics, XXXVIII, (February, 1955), 144-155. Taylor, Wilson L., "Recent Developments In the Use of 'Cloze Procedure'", Journalismwggartenly, XXXIII (Winter, 1956), 45. Weiss, Walter, "A 'Sleeper Effect' in Opinion Change," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, XLVIII (April, 1955), 175-180. Carpenter, C. R., and Greenhill, L. P., An Investigation of Closed-Circuit Television for Teaching University Classes, Instructional Research Project Number One, University Park, Pennsylvania, 1955. 152 Darrah, L. B., and Morre, E. M., Egg Merchandising Studies in Supermarkets, V. Transparent Cartons, Cornell Univer- sity, Agricultural Nxtension Leaflet 1012, April, 1956. Kanner, Joseph H., Runyon, Richard P., and Desiderato, Otello, Television in Army Training, Human Resources Research Office, Technical Report Number 14, The George Washing- ton University, 1954. Kumata, Hideya, An Inventory of Instructional Television Re- search, Edu;ational Television and Radio Center, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1956. Riley, Harold, What Is the Most Profitable Weight to Market Hogs? Extension Bulletin 521, Michigan State College, East Lansing, Michigan, 1955. Pollack, Thomas C., Cargill, Oscar, Loomis, James, and Zor- baugh, Harvey, Closed—Circuit Television as a Medium of Instruction 1955-56, New York University, New York, 1956. Strong, F. C., Janes, R. L., and Morofsky, W. F., Dutch Elm Disease Control, Extension Folder F-195, Michigan State College, East Lansing, Michigan, 1955. Taylor, Wilson L., The Cloze Procedure: How It Predicts Com- prehension and Intelligence of Military Personnel, Technical Memorandum Number 15, Urbana, Illinois: Uni- versity of Illinois, Division of Communications, 1955. Unpublished Material Allen, R. M., "Quartermaster Command Educational Television Study," Quartermaster School, Fort Lee, Virginia, 1954. (Mimeographed.) Brandon, James Rodgers, "The Relative Effectiveness of Lec- ture, Interview, and Discussion Methods of Presenting Factual Information by Television," Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1955. Dailey, C. A., "Some Factors Influencing the Accuracy of Understanding Personality," Unpublished Ph.D., disser- tation, University of Michigan, 1951. Hard, Ceceil C., "An Evaluation of Techniques for Presenta- tion of Horticultural Topics Through the Medium of Television," Unpublished Master's thesis, Michigan State College, 1952. Hard, Gustav C., "An Adaption of a Course for Television Teaching of Horticulture," Unpublished Ph.D. disserta- tion, Michigan State College, 1954. 155 Jorgenson, Erling S., "The Relative Effectiveness of Three Methods of Television Newscasting," Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1955. King, Charles E., "A Case-study of the Evaluation and Use of Special Television Programs as an Instructional Aid in Vocational Agriculture," Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Colkage of Education, Michigan State University, 1955. Lang, Gladys E., "A Study of Politics On Video: Content, Viewers, and Definitions of the 1952 Conventions," Un- published Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Sociology, University of Chicago, 1954. Martin, Gaither L., "The Effects of Television on the Behavior Patterns and Activity Levels of the Mentally Ill," Un-. published Master's thesis, Department of Psychology, San Jose State College, San Jose, California, 1955. McKune, Lawerence E., "Some Problems in Writing, Production, and Evaluation of Television Programs for In—class View- ing," Unpublished, Ph.D. dissertation, Iowa State Col- lege, 1955. Osgood, Charles E., "Report on Development and Application of the Semantic Differential," Institute of Communications Research and Department of Psychology, University of Illinois. (undated, mimeographed) Shimberg, Benjamin, "Effectiveness of Television in Teaching Home Nursing," Education Testing Service, Princeton, New Jersey, 1955. (mimeographed) Williams, Elsie K., "Effectiveness of Television as A Teaching Medium for Clothing Instruction," Unpublished Master's thesis, Iowa State College, 1955. Williams, W. W., "An Analysis of the Sustaining Local Public Service Programming of Selected Television Stations," Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1955. Wilson, Meredith C., and Moe, Edward 0., "Effectiveness of Television in Teaching Sewing Practices," Extension Cir- cular 466, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., 1951. Date Due hid] ) 53 ‘ JunSO ' Aug 3 '53 Aug 25 58 12 Jun 59 .’ - ‘mh-o Demco-293 ”'TITI'IM W W WM if