M EDUCATEONAI.‘ IMPLICATIGNS
OF AN INDIVIDUAL LONGfTUDiNAL
CASE INVENTORY

Thesis ht tho Dogma ofi E4. D.
MCHIGAN STATE UNWERSETY‘
Robert Emma” Muffin
1956

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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

THE EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF AN
INDIVIDUAL LONGITUDINAL CASE INVENTORY

presented by

Robert Emmett Martin

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

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( ' ' degree in ___Z’€“"_- 42—1411

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THE EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF AN INDIVIDUAL

LONGITUDINAL CASE INVENTORY

By

Robert Emmett Martin

AN ABSTRACT

Submitted to the School for Advanced
Graduate Studies of Michigan State
University of Agriculture and
Applied Science in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for
the degree of

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

Department of Foundations

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AN.ABSTRACT ROBERT EMMETT MARTIN

The purpose of this study was to summarize the multiple
growth.data collected on one child over a period of time and
to point up by graphic and longitudinal methods interrelation—
ships which existed among his different aspects of growth and
development and, from the interpretation of these data, to
draw implications for educational practice Which would demon—
strate how data on an individual child might be helpful in
planning a program of instruction which would more realis-
tically meet the needs of the individual as well as point out
how the same technique may be used for each child in the
educational program.

Longitudinal growth data on this child were obtained
from the Child Development Laboratory of the Bureau of Research
and Services of the College of Education at Michigan State
University. The data covered the following four areas:

[1] Physical Development, [2] Mental Development, [3] Subject-
Matter Achievement, and [4] Personality, Aptitudes, and
Abilities. These data, collected over a period of twelve
years by the laboratory personnel, included actual measure—
ments of height and weight at frequent intervals, mental
ability tests, personality and interest inventories, periodic

anecdotal records of the individual's behavior throughout the

2
study, information from the school records, and interviews
with the boy's teachers and parents.

The Olson and Courtis techniques of interpretation of
growth data were used to discover the individual's patterns
of growth and'the interrelationships which existed among them.

From the analysis and interpretation of these data it
was concluded that the school did not provide the type of
learning eXperiences for the child which were consistent with
child growth and develOpment principles. It was assumed that
if the learning eXperiences planned for the individual had
been geared more nearly to his needs, interests, and abilities
positive changes might have been affected in his academic
achievement, as well as in his personal-social relations and
his attitudes, habits, and emotional adjustments.

Implications were drawn from this longitudinal case
inventory for individualizing the program of instruction for
the boy under study. An attempt was also made to show how
like data for children could contribute to the individualization
of the curriculum for each child in a group. Suggestions were
made in the areas of evaluation and testing, meeting individ-
ual interests and needs, personal-social relationships,
motivation for learning, and effective home-school relations.

This study was meant to be illustrative of how individ-

ual methods could be used to adapt the curriculum to the

learner.

THE EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF AN INDIVIDUAL
LONGITUDINAL CASE INVENTORY

By
Robert Emmett Martin

A THESIS

Submitted to the School for Advanced
Graduate Studies of Michigan State
University of Agriculture and
Applied Science in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for
the degree of

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

Department of Foundations

Year 1955

57Aa87Q97

5; A1 5‘5"

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The writer wishes to express his appreciation and
gratitude to all those who have assisted in making this study
possible; particularly to Dr. Cecil V. Millard and Dr. Arthur

R. DeLong for their critical interest and valuable guidance

throughout.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

LIST OF TABLES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1V

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . vi

CHAPTER

I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Statement of the Problem and Purposes of

the Study. . . . . 1

The Data and How They Were Gathered. . . . 6

The Multiple Approach to Child Study . . 9

The Longitudinal and Cross— Sectional Methods. 10

Significance of Starting Point . . . . . l3

Significance of Hate. . . . . . . . 15

Individual Patterns of Growth. . . .. . . 17

Normal Growth of the Individual . . . . . 19

II. GENERAL DEVELOPMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF DENTON 22

A. Physical Growth and Health Status . . . 22
B. Mental Ability . . . . . . . . . 28
C. Academic Learnings . . . . . . . . 37
D. Personal and Social Development. . . . 73
E. Home Environment. . . . . . . . . 86

III. INTERRELATIONS AS SHOWN BY GRAPHIC AND
LONGITUDINAL METHODS. O O O O O O O O 89

Per Cents of Development at Various
Chronological Ages. . . . . . . . . 9“

IV. INDIVIDUALIZING THE CLASSROOM PROCEDURES. . . 104

Restatement of the Problem. . . . . . . 104
Procedures Used. . . . . . . . . 10A
Findings of the Study . . . . . 105
Educational Implications of the Findings . . 106
BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

iii

Table
I.

II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.

VII.

VIII.
IX.

XI.

XII.

XIII.

XIV.

XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.

LIST OF TABLES
Page
Dentonls Accomplishment of Various DevelOpmental
Tasks as Compared with Norms Established by
Selected Authorities . . . . . . . . . 2h
Kuhlman-Anderson ResultS. . . . . . . . . 30
Denton's Stanford Test Results. . . . . . . 38
Denton's Reading Scores . . . . . . . . . 39
Deficiencies by Norm Comparison—«Average Reading. at

Denton's Arithmetic Scores . . . . . . . . A6

Deficiencies by Norm Comparisons--Average
Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . “9

Denton's Spelling Scores. . . . . . . . . 53

Spelling Acceleration-—Retardation by Norm
Comparison.. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . 56

Denton's Test Results in Social Studies, Science,
Language, and Literature . . . . . . . . 60

Social Studies Accelaration--Retardation by
Norm Comparison. .. .. . . . . . . . . 6”

Science Acceleration--Retardation by Norm
Comparison. . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Language Acceleration--Retardation by Norm
Comparison. . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Literature Acceleration-~Retardation by Norm
Comparison. . . . . . . . . . .. . . 65

Denton's Report Card Grades. . . . . . . . 72
Rating of Specific Personality Traits . . . . 74
Miscellaneous Personality Traits . . . . . . 77

Personal Adjustment--Emotional Characteristics . 80

iv

Table Page

XIX. Per Cents of Development of Various Growths
at Twelve-Month Intervals . . . . . . . 95

XX. Growth-Age Scores at Various Chronological
Ages [Computed From Age-Equivalent Equations]. 98

XXI. Comparison of Denton's Age at Adolescent Maturity
to Other Boys . . . . . . . . . . . 102

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page
1. Comparative Growth Curves . . . . . . . . 14
2. Comparison of Height and Weight . . . . . . 27

3. Comparison of Denton's Mental Age Curve and
Reading Curve with Curve of Norms . . . . . 29

4. Comparison of Denton's Reading Curve with Curve
of Norms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

5. Comparison of Denton's Arithmetic Curve with
Curve of Norms . . . . . . . . . . . “7

6. Comparison of Denton's Spelling Curve with
Curve of Norms . . . . . . . . . . . 54

7. Comparison of Denton's Achievements with Norms . 62

8. Denton's Total Achievement Pattern--Stanford
q‘eet8 O O O O O I O O O O O O I O 68

9. Denton's Average Academic and Mental Age Growth . 71
10. Maturity Curves of Various Growths . . . . . 96

ll. Organismic - Growth Age Curve . . . . . . . 99

vi

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

Statement 3; the Problem and Purposes g: the Study

 

Improving the instructional program is the persistent
problem with all schools. Since the broad aim of education
is to improve the quality of living in the school, the family,
and the community, the kind of program that exists, the variety
of experiences that are provided and the wide use of materials
and resources that are available, are very important. Up
until recently, educators have conceived improvement as a
matter of manipulating these exterior factors on the assumption
that content, methods, and materials are the crucial aspects
of learning. With the ever increasing research on the individ-
ual and how he grows and learns this concept has been modified.
More and more research has demonstrated that there is no magic
formula which will apply to all human beings everywhere. In
spite of the use of the best known techniques, the ever
increasing acquisition of knowledge, and the almost limitless
resources and materials, a corresponding degree of success on
the part of the learners has not been achieved.

Learning takes place within the individual. It is
dependent upon what he brings to the situation: his attitude,

habits, feelings, abilities, past experiences, interests,

2
needs, and a host of other conditioning factors.1 These can
not so easily be controlled. Within any group the range is
great and the multiplicity of the combinations of determinants
and their complexity approach infinity.2

Although the physical environment for two individuals
may be ostensibly the same, each individual perceives this
environment differently. If it is assumed that the individual
is himself part of his environment then he becomes an impor-
tant factor in the learning situation.

For the purposes of this study Denton is the case in
point. An attempt has been made to find out as much as
possible about this individual, not Just for the knowledge,
not Just to try to understand the boy, but most important to
discover ways in which this knowledge may be used to enrich
the environment for learning and to “tailor-make” the program
so that comparable individuals may benefit most from the expe-
riences which are provided for them and which they provide for
themselves. Any curriculum to be most effective must be so
determined.

Admittedly, no generalization can be made on the basis

of this one case. Furthermore, the writer on the basis of

 

1Arthur I. Gates, §£,gl., Educational ngcholo x (New
York: Macmillan, 1942), Chapter IX.

2Association for Supervision and Curriculum Deve10pment,
Guidance in the Curriculum, 1955 Yearbook (Washington, D. 0.:
National Education Association, 1955). pp. 50-51.

3
this one detailed study, does not intend to suggest an answer
to all the educational problems. What is intended is to
analyze these data and indicate a process or manner of approach
to some of the problems which exist and project some possible
ways for arriving at better solutions to these problems.
Neither is it assumed that the curriculum should be built for
one child, but rather that each child should be considered
carefully if Optimum learning for all is to be the goal.
Formal education in our society is a group process, and the
interaction among this group is vital to the ultimate ends of
education. Although this is not an attempt at curriculum con-
struction it implies a curriculum sufficiently flexible to be
adaptable to each child. It must be remembered that even
though individuals within a group have many differences, at
the same time there exist certain common elements. For example,
there is a wide range of abilithes, but within this range there
are many likenesses; interests differ but there are those
common to some in the group and often to many or most of the
individuals; needs vary but some are basic to all. It should
be repeated that it is not being inferred that a teacher with
thirty pupils should build thirty curricula, one for each child,
but that the curriculum be so enriched that each is able to
find himself within it-«meet his needs, follow his interests,

and approach more nearly his potential.

)4

The implications for educational practice included in
this study are not limited solely to data of this individual
study. These findings serve as a basis for discussion and as
an example from which to project the thesis but are tempered
necessarily by the present day literature in the field, and
the writer's experiences, observations, and philosophy of
education.

The purpose of this study, then, may be summarized as
follows:

1. To summarize the multiple growth data collected on
one child over a period of time.

2. To point up by graphic and longitudinal methods
inter-relationships which exist among the different aspects
of growth and development in the case of Denton.

3. To relate the longitudinal study of Denton to the
established norms and to discover if possible his individual
growth patterns.

A. To draw implications from this study for educational
practices, and to demonstrate how data on individual children
may be helpful in planning programs of instruction which would
more realistically meet the individual needs of children.

5. To suggest the kinds of data which are most helpful
in interpreting growth.

Chapter II deals with the general develOpmental character—

istics of Denton with reference to the established norms. The

5

following categories have been arbitrarily selected to allow

for a more workable organization: [1] Physical grOWth and
health status, [2] Mental Development, [3] Academic learnings,
[A] Personal and social development, [5] Home and family
environment, and [6] General school environment.

Chapter III attempts to show inter—relationships which
exist among the various aspects of Denton's growth. There
are presented graphically by means of both the Olson concept
of organismic age and the Courtis theory of cyclical growth.
Some attempt has been made to reconcile where possible this
case with the above hypotheses and to indicate patterns and
rate of growth as well as to predict future growth and
possible maxima.

Chapter IV is a consideration of implications of this
study for improvement of classroom practices. This includes
suggestions to teachers to help the child set realistic goals
which are consistent with his potential, his rate and pattern
of growth, as well as his needs and interests. There is no
deliberate attempt on the part of the writer totbe unduly
critical of present practices although many of the statements
which appear in this chapter may necessarily appear to be.
The emphasis is entirely upon change for better’educational

experiences for all children.

6
The Data and How They Were Gathered

Denton is one of a study of seventy individual children
which was begun on a COOperative basis by the Everett Elemen-
tary School and the Child Development Laboratory of the Bureau
of Research and Services, College of Education, Michigan
State University. This school was selected because of its
proximity to the university and for the reason that the students,
the curricular content, and the teaching methods were considered
typical for the State of Michigan.

The formal study was begun in the fall of 19A} when this
group of boys and girls entered kindergarten. It was carried
on in detail through the sixth grade of the elementary school.
The data for grades seven through eleven have been collected
somewhat informally since the studies were not continued in
detail through these years.3

The following are described as the major purposes.

1. Research to determine the relationship of the child's

growth and development to the school program.

2. ObserVation.of children as a part of a program for

training teachers to understand better the principles

of child growth and development.

 

3Some of these children continued their schooling in the
Everett high school. Twenty-two of them have at the time of
this study completed the eleventh grade. The staff of the
Child DevelOpment Laboratory and graduate students have col-
lected the information from records and interviews for the
secondary school years.

7

3. Service to the school and thus the child involved

in the program.

The studies have been carefully supervised by the Child
Development Staff of the University. The observations were
done by students being trained in these techniques. The
testing was done by graduate students and laboratory staff
members.

The research aspect of the study involved the recording,
processing, and interpreting of tests and measurements of the
twenty-two individuals for a period of twelve years. The
tests and measurements recorded by a trained graduate student
or a staff member covered four areas: [1] Physical.Development,
[2] Mental Development, [3] Subject-Matter Achievement, and
[h] Personality, Aptitudes, and Abilities.

Physical Development. Height and weight were recorded
regularly from the first month of kindergarten in l9b3 through
the last month of the sixth grade in 1950. Two measurements
were recorded in the eighth grade and one in the tenth.

Height and weight at birth plus early dentition and early
physical developmental tasks were recorded from the family's

and doctor's records.

 

“It is obvious that the validity of these data can
be questioned, but must be accepted as the most valid data
obtainable.

8

Mental Development. The Kuhlman-Anderson test Was

 

administered in the first, second, fourth (twice), fifth,
sixth, and eighth grades. It was processed in terms of
mental age, grade age, and I. Q. An individual test, the
Stanford-Binet, was administered in the seventh grade.

Subject-Matter Achievement. The Stanford Achievement

 

test was administered regularly through the elementary school.
Some other measures of achievement were also used. Samples
of work, teacher progress reports, and semester ratings may

be found in the individual's record file.

 

Personality, Aptitudes, and Agilities. The Millard
Personality Inventory was recorded by the teacher each year
from second through sixth grade. The Rorschach test, the
Thurstone Temperament Schedule, the Mooney Problem Check List,
the Differential Aptitude Tests, and the Kuder Preference
test were administered at the high school level.

In addition to the above, the following are included in
each child's file:

1. A yearly case inventory including information
relating to the following six areas:

A. General School Background
. Physical Growth and Health
. Mental Development

B
C
D. Academic Learnings
E. Personal and Social Deve10pment
F

. Home and Family Environment

9

2. Periodic anecdotal records of the individual's
behavior throughout the study.

3. Samples of the individual's work.

h. Photographs.

5. Recordings of unstructured interviews.

6. Information from the school records, including
health and attendance records.

7. Interpretations of the growth data both in terms
of organismic age as reported by Olson, and the law of growth

as reported by Courtis.

The Multiple Approach 3g Child Study

 

In the case of Denton an attempt has been made to
gather data about many factors which are significant to the
very complex processes of growing and learning. It is not
implied that these factors are separate and distinct. The
human organism does not grow and develop in a compartmental-
ized way. The child grows as a whole. In order to try to
arrive at some degree of understanding about grthh, some of
these factors which can be observed and measured are sorted
out for study. Many others might have been selected. An
attempt is made to find out some things about how eachflaspect
of growth relates to total growth, and to see if there

is a togetherness of growth as it proceeds toward maturity.

 

SStuart A. Courtis, "Maturation Units for Measurement
of Growth,'.§ghogl and Society, Vol. xxx (November 16, 1929).

10

It is not the purpose here to prove the relationship of these
aspects, but to use the available data to show whether or not
Denton conforms to this concept. »

The longitudinal study of an individual might be con-
cerned with the measurement of one aspect of growth over a
period of time. The multiple approach, however, in this case
has been used. Data have been collected and recorded about
many factors contributing to Denton's physical growth and his

increase in skill and complexity of function.

The Longitudinal and Crossegectional flgthggg

The testing programs which have grown so extensively
in the past three or four decades have furnished those who
are working in the field of education with worlds of data
about people from which valid generalizations can be made.
For example, in the areas of mental ability or I.Q., reading
and other academic achievements, physical grOWth, the develOp—
ment of motor skills, etc., data are available from which
normal curves can be constructed and against which individuals
and special groups can be measured.

This method, however, can and often does work a hardship
upon an individual since it ignores his uniQueness and does
not take into account the wide range which necessarily exists
within the data to contribute to its oversimplified conclusions.
Misuse of the results of these cross-sectional studies has
tended to cause confusion among such designations as "average,"

”normal," "exceptional,“ and “sub~normal,!

11

It has given credence to such misconceptions as "the
five-year-old child," ”third—grade reading," or "sixth grade
spelling." Instead of being conceived as reference points‘
or norms they too often have become in practice to be used as
goals or standards, and have become expectations for all
children.

The present movement toward wider use of the longitud-
inal method of study of the multiple aspects of the growth
and development of individuals does not ignore nor minimize
the importance of the cross-sectional approach.

The longitudinal method in dealing with individual
growth patterns helps those who work with boys and girls to
understand them in terms of their own abilities, skills,
interests, and developments rather than measuring them only
against the cross-sectional sampling. There is, of course,
some use of the norms, but they are not being used as a
standard for all. EXpectation and prediction become individ-
ualized rather than being based alone upon generalized measure-
ments which are not so effective when applied to specific
entities.

According to Olson:

The cross-sectional method is economical and rapid,
and it is possible to get data that can be summarized
in a brief period of time. The longitudinal method
is expensive and slow, and it takes many years to
accumulate data that will help trace the course of
deve10pment of individual children. The cross-

sectional method was very effective in showing the
individual differences that exist among children

12
with respect to any trait at any given age. It
tells little, however, about the individuality of
growth or change with time. The cross-sectional
method tends to minimize and conceal by an averaging—

out process the changes which may actually be very
dramatic . . . .

There is no real antagonism between longitudinal
and cross-sectional methods. Both are useful and
supplement one another; both have advantages and
limitations. A thorough knowledge6of both methods
permits more penetrating analyses.

Teachers generally are seeking more and more information
about the boys and girls with whom they are dealing. They
are no longer satisfied with only the objective test results,
but are becoming increasingly aware of the importance of such
factors as the family relations, cultural background, inter-
personal relations, attitudes, and values of the individual.
The techniques for gathering data such as illustrated in this
case of Denton are being used more commonly by teachers as
they feel the need for individualizing the program of
instruction. The professional teacher is no longer content
with the traditional approach which offers the same diet for
all appetites even though they differ widely both in degree
and kind.

When dealing with growth on a longitudinal basis, there
are certain parameters which need to be used and described;

namely, starting-point, rate, maxima. and growth pattern.

 

'1

6Willard 0. Olson, Chi;g DevelOpment (Boston: C. D.
Heath, 1949). pp. lu-15.

13

Significance g; Starting-Point

Actual starting point or incipiency is somewhat difficult
to determine. For purposes of physical measurements the
starting point is coincidental with conception. There are
those also who hold that certain predispositions are formed
prenatally from the mother's attitudes about pregnancy, her
acceptance of the situation and her calmness, serenity or
anxieties and fears. No one is able to discover exactly the
incipiency for the various developmental tasks.7 The point at
which a child takes his first steps might be considered the
incipiency for walking; when he says his first word, for
talking; or when he reaches a certain score on a reading test,
for reading. Olson and Hughes in their longitudinal studies
of reading achievement have for their purposes arbitrarily
adjudged a child to have learned to read when he has achieved
a reading age of eighty-fourmonths on the Gates Primary
Reading Test. For their studies this then becomes the incip-
iency or starting-point of the growth curve.

The dictionary defines incipiency as “very beginning,
early stage." As it relates to the Courtis technique it

assumes that the child emerges into a given cycle with certain

 

7Incipiency for many aspects of growth and development
could very logically be traced back to conception, and for
others, to birth.

lu
grthh already manifested. It accounts for growth already
made and provides a starting point for such growth under

consideration in a Specific cycle.

Equivalent
Growth Age

 

 

 

 

 

 

A B C
Chronological Age in Months

Fig. 1. Comparative Growth Curves

To illustrate the importance of the starting-point and
its relationship to the grOWth pattern, the three hypothetical
graphic illustrations shoWn above may be used. In these
figures z represents the norm or average while x and y represent
individual cases. In Figure 1-A, x and y have different
starting-points but approximately the same rate of growth. In
Figure l-B, x and y have approximately the same starting-point
but different rates. In Figure 1-C, x and y have different
starting-points, approximately the same rate, but different

maxima.

15

In Figure 1-A, x would be considered by many as a
faster grower than y since his level of achievement is higher.
On the basis of achievement alone, a teacher may be misled
without the additional information regarding incipiency and
rate of growth. The tendency is to treat x as though he were
achieving more than y when in reality they are achieving
identically in terms of amount; x is an early starter; y is a
late starter. With the portion of the data shown here it is
not possible to determine differences in maxima. These illus-
trations of comparative growth curves are not unusual examples
of actual cases.

Starting—point by itself is no measure of future grOWth.
When a child begins walking, talking, cutting teeth, or reading.
is not a valid basis on which to predict either rate or maxi—
mum of growth.

It is also important to note that all the cases shown
in these examples may be growing towards maturity at their
own individual rates, and, were this true, would be said to
be equally successful in the specific area of growth being

considered.

Significance 2; Rate

 

As has been shown in the discussion of starting-point,
rate is an important aspect in the longitudinal study of
growth and deveIOpment. According to OlsonB, ”Rate refers

to the amount of increment or increase in a structure or

 

8Olson,.9_p_. cit., p. h.

I

16
function in terms of units of time." Since this rate does
vary greatly from child to child, it becomes mandatory for
those dealing with children in the learning situation to have
this knowledge about each child in order that the expectations
which he sets for himself or are set for him, have realistic
value.

In order to establish rate, measurements in the areas
involved must be made periodically over a significant length
of time.

Height is a physical measure of growthivhich is least
likely to be affected environmentally. In using this measure-'
ment as a norm there is assumed to be a consistency of other
aspects of growth and deve10pment with physical growth. The
Courtis Technique, which interprets growth in generalized
units of per cents of maxima, is not dependent upon actual
magnitude of achievement. The judgments which are made in
terms of correlations are on this basis. For example, an
individual may be reaching his height maximum [100 per cent]
at a chronological age of 195 months, and at the same time
approaching mental maturity with a mental age of 250 months.
He may be short or tall, but percentage wise these two growth
curves would be coincidental at this point. In other words,
he grew at constant rates in both aspects of growth toward dif-

ferent maxima, both of which may be represented by 100 per cent.

17

Individual Patterns 2; Growth

With the longitudinal approach, as more and more data
are collected over a period of time and when these data are
summarized graphically or organized systematiCally in other
ways, certain trends of development begin to emerge. Certain
regular progressions of change become apparent. These are
referred to as patterns of growth.

In cross-sectional studies patterns are determined for
the sampling and these patterns are called the norms. When
plotted as curves, these are called "normal curves.” In some
of the graphs used in this study the individual's grOWth
curves are compared with the norm or average-~the pattern of
grOWth representing the total population. From these norms
it has been established that all children progress through
the same growth sequences. The average pattern, hoWever, does
not represent for the individual ”normal develOpment.F
According to Jenkins, Shacter, and Bauer:

A specific statement of what is "normal development"
at a particular age level is a dependable statement
only as it is correctly interpreted with understanding
that (1) individual children vary, each being like
only himself; (2) "normal“ means not a point on a
scale, but a range, extendin over a relatively wide
portion of a measure; and (3 “deveIOpment“ refers

not to physical growth alone, but to mental, social,
and emotional growth as well.

9Gladys Gardner Jenkins, Helen Shacter, and William
Bauer, These Are Your Children (Chicago: Scott, Foresman
and Company, 19537. p. 2 .

18

In this longitudinal study an attempt has been made to
discover the existing patterns of the physical growth and the
development in such areas as mental ability, social respon—
sibility, emotional adjustment, academic achievement, and
family relationships, as well as the interrelations amongthem.
Patterns in some of these areas [e.g., physical growth and
academic achievement] lend themselves to more or lessOEUective
measurement and can be demonstrated graphically. Patterns of
deve10pment in other areas such as those which deal with the
social and emotional are much more subjectively determined not
through exact measurement but by the use of descriptive data
collected by means of observational and interviewing tech—
niques. The techniques used in observation and interview, the
degree of skill of the persons gathering and recording the
data, and the interpretation placed upon the data by the sum-
marizer determine the validity of the data. As more data are
collected and recorded by carefully supervised students andtw'
trained staff members over a long period of time, individual
biases and inaccuracies tend to be minimized. The individual
pattern of development thus is not influenced by any single
observation, test, or judgment. The more accurately descriptive
and anecdotal material is the less susceptibleit is to misrep-
resentation and misinterpretation. Although anecdotal tech-
niques are admittedly subjective and open to question because

of the human factor,they do furnish evidence whichhasa certain

l9

validity in the case study approach in a variety of fields of
endeavor, e.g., medicine, social work, psychology, sociology,
and anthropology, as well as child growth and development.

In establishing patterns of growth physical measurements,
although subject to certain inaccuracies, are probably the
most reliable measurements. There are certain intangibles
occurring in the growth patterns which are used for interpre-
tation. For example, When health factors intervene to arrest
physical growth, certain behavioral changes may seem to occur.
Description of behavior which is significant in the judgment
of the professional observer may give understanding and insight
into concomitant variations in the growth patterns. This does
not necessarily assume a cause and effect relationship nor

that the changes arise from a common cause.

Normal Growth 9; the Individual

When cross-sectional data are used, the term normal
refers to a certain percentage Which falls within a determined
range above and below the mean or>average. An individual who
falls within this range whether it be in mental ability,
achievement in certain skills or abilities, or growth in
height or weight, is often described as normal or achieving
or growing normally. It must be noted, however, that this
evaluation is always in terms of the total sample. If each
child grows and learns according to a discoverable rate, and

in relationship to his individual starting-point,the judgment

20

as to his success cannot be made on the basis of group
established criteria. Being up to norm or below or above
norm would not be indicative of success if the individual's '
rate of growthlae either unknown or not considered.

What is being implied here is that norms can be estab-
lished for each individual when enough longitudinal data are
available to establish his patterns of grOWth. From these
patterns it may well be determined that some of those who are
above norm are retarded or not growing successfully according
to their pattern. Contrariwise it will most certainly be
found that many who are below the so-called norm seem to be
growing and learning successfully according to their own rates.
Much more accurate evaluation of present growth and prediction
of future growth becomes possible on the basis of these kinds
of data.

Normal growth is what is normal for the individual—-
abnormal refers to that which is inconsistent with his individ-
ual rate and pattern of grOWth.

Many of the implications this concept has for educational
practices become quite obvious. Millard sums it up in this way:

When single measurements of growth and achievement
are the only data available for study, it is easy for
teachers to fall into the error of considering one child
as superior or inferior to another. Data from a
single measurement are virtually useless in making
reliable interpretations.

Two girls with different reading scores may be
used to illustrate the point that growth is a very

complex process and does not lend itself to easy
interpretations. Case histories indicated that Girl 3

21

received "F's" in reading in both the first and second
grades. In grade three she was given "C's," in grades
four and five her marks were "B's" and finally in
grade six ”A's.” Girl A's marks followed a reverse
pattern. In terms of growth, each girl was found to
be following a rather precise sequence. This would
indicate consistent growth throughout all grades.
There was no change in the curves that would justify
shifting evaluations. The marks given by the teachers
had no correct interpretative values regarding the
growth of either. The facts are that Girl A started
her reading curve sufficiently early to seem superior,
whereas Girl B started so late as to be considered
dull. In regard to the maximum or real reading poten—
tiality, Girl B was definitely superior, but for

three years this potentiality was unrecognized.
Adequate measurement and an ensuing study of the
pattern would have singled But this child as having
high reading potentiality.l

 

10C. V. Hillard, Child Growth and Development in the
C.

Elementagy School Years (Boston: D. 'Heath. 1931YTEn 25.

CHAPTER II

GENERAL DEVELOPMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF DENTON
A; PhySical Growth and Health Status

1. Maternity and Infancy

Denton was born in a hospital with a doctor in attendance
on September 29, 1938. This was the mother's third pregnancy.
She visited the obstetrician regularly every month during this
time. Her pregnancy was normal except for a urinary disturb—
ance two weeks before the delivery. She was in labor forty-
eight hours before the birth as compared to thirteen hours for
the first child and seven hours for the second. The labor was
described as spastic. Some gas was used as anesthetic. The
birth was listed as two weeks premature although Denton's
weight [eight pounds, two ounces] would indicate a term birth.
He was nineteen inches long at birth. By the end of the
first month he weighed ten pounds, one ounce.

The mother had breast fed the first two children, but
claimed to have broken out with hives when she started nursing
Denton. He was put on a formula at the beginning of the second
month. The formula prescribed by the doctor was of low grade

milk until the age of four months to control his weight.

22

23

He was a good sleeper, sleeping twenty hours to the
third month, eighteen to the sixth, sixteen to the twelfth,
and twelve hours from the twenty-eighth to the thirty-sixth
month.

Denton's mother reports that he was trained for the.
toilet at two years. She started using rectal suppositories.
twice daily when he was two weeks old and "never had a soiled
diaper.” He was, however, a bed wetter until the age of sight
when his father “gave him a good Spanking and he never wet the
bed again.”

The developmental tasks which were accomplished at
indicated ages are shown in Table I.

The ages of accomplishment compare quite favorably
with the scales of Spock, Gesell, Watson and the publication
of the Children's Bureau. In fact Denton's performance in
each case cited represents the early end of the range given
by these authorities as the norms. Although his birth was
recorded as premature his early rate of grOWth was accelerated.
He increased in weight to the extent that dietary measures

were found necessary at the beginning of the second month.

24

TABLE I

DENTON'S ACCOMPLISHMENT OF VARIOUS DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS
AS COMPARED WITH NORMS ESTABLISHED
BY SELECTED AUTHORITIES

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

W
Age
Developmental Accomplishid Age Considered as Norm by Authority
Task by Denton Spockz Gesellj— Watson“ C.B.P.5
Discovering 2-3
hands 3 months months 12 wks
Discovering
feet h months
Sitting with
Support 5 months 16 wks
Sitting with- 7-9 7 6-8
out Support 6 months months 36 wks months months
7-1/2 6-12 8 7-9
Crawling months months no wks months months
Standing with 8-12 9-12
Support 7 months months months
Walking 12-15 15 lu—IS
Alone 12 months months months months
Cutting com- lsthalf
plete set of of third 20-30 30
milk teeth 2h months year months months
1Doctor's and Family's Records.
2Benjamin S ock, Baby and Child Care (New York: Pocket
3Arnold Gesell and Frances Ilg, Child Development (New

York:

Harpers, 1949), passim.

 

“Ernest H. Watson and George H. Lowrey, Growth and

Develo ment of Children.(Chicago:
19515, p. 127..

5

Year Book Publishers,

U.S., Children's Bureau, Dept. of Health, Education

and Welfare, Infant Care (Washington: U.S.Government Printing
Office, 1955). pp. us-53.

25

2. General Health Factors

Denton was rated by the teachers from grades one through
six on the Millard Revision 9; the McFarlane Adjustment
Inventory. In the area of Physical Efficiengy_and Health
‘gggggg there appears to be nothing unusual that would affect
Denton's school experiences or activities. He is described
as rather small-boned and of average build. He had the three-
day measles at the age of four, chicken pox at age seven,
rinngrm in the third grade, and tonsillitis in the second
and third grade. On the various items of the inventory he is
consistently rated ”normal," "good," "regular,” "sufficient,"
etc.,-~at the positive end of the continuum in all the factors
of general health.

The third gradeiieacher wrote, "Denton doesn't seem
sickly in any way, but perfectly healthy and normal." The
fourth grade teacher commented, ". . . average in height,
weight, and health."

At no time. according to this inventory is there any
mention of special physical defects or difficulties. It is
questionable as to just how much credence can be placed upon
the teacher ratings. There is a possibility that in rating
children by observation alone the tendency of the teacher
might be to select the mid-point of the continuum unless there
exists some defect too obvious to be overlooked. Since,

however, he was rated in detail on the inventory during each

26

of the school years and the records show nothing abnormal nor
indicate any general health problems, it may be assumed that

Denton's physical characteristics and abilities were at least
average and certainly satisfactory to his adjustment. It is

also important to note that on the Mooney Problem Check List,
Denton showed no particular concern about his personal health
other than underlining item No. 114 "Frequent Colds.“

Figure 2 represents the Olson graph of Denton's height
and weight in comparison with the norm for boys. It shows
that Denton was above the average in weight throughout and
with the exception of a short period around the age of seven,
he was also above average in height. Around the age of eight
there evidently occurred a spurt of upward growth without a
corresponding increase in weight. This is the only point
where proportionately his height increase was greater than
his weight increase. As can be observed in the figure, Denton,
With this exception, is somewhat heavy for his height. It
is noted several places in the record that he is "stocky."
This observation, however, is not borne out by the inter—
pretation of his Wetzel Grid.

The evaluation of Denton's physical fitness according
to the Wetzel Grid shows him advancing in height and weight
constantly through the normal channels with some deviations.
He drOps briefly into the lower normal channel around the

ages of six, nine, eleven,and thirteen and one—half. Toward

Growth
A86 27

th-

 

 

 

7o 4. : e ; a 1
70 so 90 100 110 120 130 1.

Age in Months

Fig. 2. Comparison of Height and Weight

28

his fifteenth year he drops slightly into the "fair" column
for a short period from which he returns to lower normal.
Something may well have happened here to affect his growth;
some illness or deprivation or possible Spurt in height.

Physical growth is an indication of other health factors.
If children are growing successfully, the chances are that {fmfi
they are in a reasonably healthy state. There is no doubt but
what size has an effect upon the child as a Whole. It makes

a difference if he is not large enough to participate in

 

certain activities or to handle himself when challenged by L
others. If a child is ill-proportioned, obese or too thin,

this is likely to affect his social and emotional adjustment.

Men who are too short and women Who are unusually tall sometimes

compensate in terms of personality. Fluctuations in weight

are common and attributable oftentimes to minor causes while

height is affected only by major factors and cannot so easily

be controlled.

‘gL Mgntal Ability
Denton Was tested for mental ability both by the school

and by the research staff. Figure 3 shows the results of
these graphically. It is quite significant to note that the
tests he was given in school graph almost identically with

the research project results. Table II shows his I.Q. ranging
from eighty-five to lO9--highest at the first grade level and

lowest at grades five and seven. In grade six he was scored

 

 

 

140 .L
Norm
_ .......... M.A.[Adm. by Research Staff]
_. ......... M.A,[Adm. by School]
+++++++++++ Reading Age
130 ‘
120
‘r
g +
a 110 . 42‘-
O
2:
C.
.H
o 100 .
u)
4
'3
2
:g 90-{
80 .
70

 

 

70 80 90 100 110 120 130 1&0
Chronological Age in Months

Fig. 3. Comparison of Denton's Mental Age Curve and
Reading Curve with Curve of Norms

 

 

30

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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“I,”

 

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3l
on the Kuhlman-Anderson eighty~nine by the child development
tester and ninety on the test taken in school. On the advanced
Otis group test given the same year his I. Q. Was 101.

In first grade Denton's I. Q. Was slightly above the
norm. On subsequent tests with the exception of one instance
his I.Q. shows a continuing increasing negative deviation.

It is interesting to speculate on the causes for this constant
loss in his intelligence quotient.

On Figure 3 the writer has superimposed the boy's reading
age. As is illustrated in this figure, he was only slightly
below the norm when tested initially in the second grade. He
remained somewhat below the norm but made good progress until
he was tested at age 115 months..at the end of grade four. He
showed practically no progress from the first month of that
grade but showed a spurt the following year towards the end
of the fifth grade.

There is evidence that in Denton's case his mental age
and reading age follow quite closely as the curves have been
plotted. Whether the mental age has influenced the reading
achievement or the lack of reading achievement has influenced
the mental ability test results or some other factor has in-
fluenced both, is an interesting question to raise. Since the
mental ability test used in this does depend somewhat on
reading, it is not unlikely that his lack of readingzability

has influenced these test scores.

 

 

 

 

32
Greenshieldsll, in a study underway at the time of this

writing at the Child Development Laboratory of the Bureau of
Research and Services at Michigan State University, has found
an interesting correlation between reading and intelligence
among a group of thirty-two sixth graders who have been tested
regularly for five years. The sixteen who have made at least :——j
average achievement in reading during these five years have {

varied not more than ten points in their I.Q.'s during this

-" D‘. “w

 

time. Those sixteen who have been designated as poor readers
because of their lack of achievement, have without exception
dropped in their I.Q. scores as many as forty points. It is
not safe to infer a causal relationship on the basis of these
data alone, but, nevertheless, it is significant for further
study.

Other factors that may have influenced Denton's I.Q.,
as shown by the test, may include his cultural background and
his lack of interest in school and testing activities as a
result of accumulating boredom throughout the elementary
school. Davis and Havighurstlz in their studies of social—
class influences on learning have demonstrated quite conclu-

sively the positive advantages for middle class children on

 

llCharles M. Greenshields, “The Relationship Between Con-
sistent I.Q. Scores, Decreasing I.Q. Scores, and Reading Scores
Compared on a Developmental Basis" (unpublished Master's thesis,
College of Education, Michigan State University, 1955), passim.

12Allison Davis and Robert Havighurst, Social-Clagg
Influence Upon Learning (Cambridge: Harvard University Press,

1935’, passim.

 

33

existing standardized tests for measuring mental ability.
Denton by their criteria would fit the loWer class description.

In estimating Denton's intelligence, his teachers have
responded in the following ways: Second grade teacher—~"I
believe Denton is a good average student." Third grade
teacher——"I feel Denton could do better. He doesn't seem F
dull and he is interested in his school work." Fourth grade
teacher-~"Quite slow but capable of doing 'B' work.“ Fifth

grade teacher--”Denton is below average intelligence."

 

The writer does not know whether teacher judgments were
influenced by the knowledge of the boy's I.Q. test results.

If these comments could be somehow superimposed upon Figure 3,
another correlation could possibly be made. The secdnd grade
teacher finds him "average," in the third grade he "doesn't
seem dull,” in the fourth is “quite slow," and by the fifth
grade the teacher calls him "below average in intelligence.”
without any knOWIedge of individual growth patterns, teachers
often make the mistake of misjudging a child with a slower
rate of growth.

This close correlation which is demonstrated between
his reading and mental age may be perfectly normal for Denton.
It does not mean that he is deteriorating mentally. It could
well demonstrate the principle that growth proceeds according
to the individual's rate and that this is evidence of Denton's

normal rate of growth both in reading and mental maturity. It

34
may also be true that there is a great deal of reading ability
reflected in his mental age since the tests of mental maturity
depend somewhat on reading ability. In the following chapter
this idea of interrelationships of all aspects of growth and
development Will be explored further.

The testing movement has probably been more concerned
with attempting to measure intelligence than with almost any
other aspect of the individual. It was thought that if the
mental capacity of a child could be discovered then somehow
teachers Would be able to set realistic expectations based
upon abilities. This theory was based upon the hypothesis
that the human organism is born with a potential that remains
constant throughout his life. By determining the elements of
intelligence and measuring these characteristics an intelli-
gent quotient could be established which would serve as a
basis for assessing this innate ability for each individual.

It may well be true that flhgt one is born with intel-
lectually is important, however, consensus among eduCators,
psychologists, and sociologists today is that the environmental
factors have great influence upon human growth and learning.
Deprivation over a period of time has been found to substan-
tially lower the intelligence quotient, while a rich,
challenging environment tends to enhance this quotient. The
emotional and physical may also contribute to the outcomes

of mental ability tests. It is difficult to isolate any part

35
of a human personality and test it accurately. The human
organism grows as a whole and the parts are so interrelated
that it becomes difficult to evaluate one without consideration
for the others. It is the total growth of the child that is
significant.

In interpreting intelligence one must not assume that
children with the same I.Q. have the same kind or amount of
intelligence. With the Kuhlman-Anderson test used in this
study a series of tests are given and the median or middle
score is used from which to compute the mental age. Two
children with the same mental age results may have differed
greatly on their accomplishment of all the various aspects of
intelligence tested. It would not, therefore, make sense for
a teacher to expect the same quality, quanity, or kind of
performance from individuals with the same I.Q. on any subject
matter or other area of activity.

This is in no way meant to minimize the importance of
I.Q. to growth and learning. Within certain limits it has
been found possible to measure intelligence and predict, also
within limits, probability of success in certain learning
activities. No fine lines of demarcation can be drawn, but
exceptional ability as well as mental deficiency can be dis-
covered. Within a range somewhere between these extremes are
those who may be called “normal.” By definition they consti-

tute the greater part of the population.

36

One of the great dangers of the use of the I.Q. stems
from the fact that any given test administered to an individ-
ual at a scecific time may not be a true evaluation of what
it is intended to measure. Teachers and administrators too
often have unjustly labelled children as being "dull normal,"
"borderline," or'mentally retarded"l on the basis of one test
alone without consideration for other factors which might have
influenced their scores.

13

Davis and Havighurst have particularly concerned
themselves with the hypothesis that schools and the expectations
they have for children as well as the experiences they afford '
them, are basically geared to the middle class culture with

the values and standards inherent in this culture, despite

the fact that the majority of the children are from the lower
class culture. They have sought to substantiate their
hypothesis by altering the vocabulary of the items on the

mental ability test to bring the concepts within the eXperience
of these children without changing the essence of the items
being tested. They called this "eliminating cultural bias

from mental tests." Lower class children on the whole had been
demonstrating I.Q.'s considerably lower than middle class
children. On this newly devised test, which does not, incid-
entally, penalize the middle class children, the I.Q.'s of the
two groups were found to be almost identical. This is not

inconsistent with the concept of intelligence since these tests,

which presume to test innate ability, assume that those tested

 

Ibid.

37

have had the same opportunities to learn the information and

skills needed to accomplish the test.
9; Academic Learnings

1. Interpretation of Achievement Test Results

During his elementary school years Denton was given
the Stanford Achievement test battery six times from second
through sixth grade. The battery consists of tests in reading,
spelling, language, literature, social science, science, and
arithmetic. The complete results of these tests are shown

in Table III.

2. Reading Achievement

Denton's scores in reading are presented in Table IV.
The table is arranged to make comparisons both with grade
levels and age equivalents. Denton was tested in November
of his second grade. Counting September as the first month
of the school year, this makes his grade placement at this
time 2.3. Since he was born the last of September in 1938,
his age at the time of this testing 7-1 or eighty-five months.
These two figures, grade equivalent 2.3 and age equivalent
eighty-five months, become then the norms for this first test.
It will be noted that Denton in paragraph meaning made a
score of eleven which when computed into grade level becomes
1.9 which would be interpreted to be .h [or four months]

below his norm. His age equivalent on this test is

38

TABLE III

DENTON'S STANFORD TEST RESULTS

 

 

Test

Month Given

 

 

 

 

 

NOV. May Oct. May Apr. Mar. May
Par. Meaning 11 12 28 29 #6 an as
Word Meaning 8 18 28 29 36 34 45
Ave. Reading 9 15 28 29 “1 39 4h.5
Lang. Usage -- -- 21 26 26 26 3h
Arith.Reasoning 13 23 26 30 Uh 55 52
Arith.Computation 1 20 29 39 48 58 59
Arith. Averages. 7 21.5 27.5 34.5 ”6 56.5 55.5
Literature -- ~- 27 30 30 39 35
Soc. Studies: I -- -- 28 30 51 49 #3
Soc. Studies: 11 -— —- 32 31 42 #1 38
Sec. Studies: Ave. -- -- 30 30.5 “6.5 45 “0.5
Science -- -— 26 28 26 36 28
Spelling 6 13 2H 30 37 b2 #6
Total: Ave. 7.8 17.2 27 30.2 38.6 142.4
Age in Months 85 91 108 115 126 .137 139
Grade 2 2 h b 5 6 6
Year h5- h5— b7- h7— WB- 49- #9-
A6 46 48 #8 H9 50 50

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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3

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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40

eighty-three months or two months below the norm of his age.
The rest of the table may be read in the same way, by sub-
tracting the equiValents from Denton's chronological ages and
from his grade placements at the times the tests were
administered.

Figure 4 shows the comparison of Denton's reading curve
with the curve of norms. He started out in second grade below
the norm and showed consistent good achievement through third
grade. During the fourth grade,between ages nine and ten, he
showed little achievement in reading. His greatest gain Was
made during the fifth grade. On the curve this line approx—
imates the rate of the norm-~it is practically parallel to it.
Denton was tested two months apart towards the end of grade
six. The first of these shows a marked loss in reading
achievement followed only two months later by a phenomonal
spurt which might bring into question the validity of the
test results. The score made in the first instance may be a
reflection of something other than reading achievement. Since
reading is the first test of the battery, Denton may not have
got a good start at the beginning of the testing period. His
total achievement on the battery does not reflect a corre—
sponding drOp in other subjects. It is not likely that in
two months Denton would have achieved the amount indicated on
the curve. If this were the case, a curve drawn ignoring this
score would probably be a more accurate representation of his

growth in reading achievement.

Stanford Reading Age Equivalents

 

   
 

1404

 

 

 

140v 41
1304 130—-
120. 120__
1 ,.--_
I
110+ 110- 1'
P-‘ I
100...... 100_ ’/’ ‘
ox ,”
903 Paragraph 9 X’
801 L 4 4 hieaniing . so '3. lordaMeafingi +
80 90 100 110 120 130 140 so 90 100 110 120 130 1L»:

 

 

     
  
 
 

 

4O
1 lb Norm
— - - - Denton
130 T.
120 it
I
I
110 4 _,
loo db-
90-w Average Reading
/
I ll Gradefi I I I
I I l
8014’?! 3L 1.” 15 i 5 +
80 90 100 110 120 130 140
Chronological Age in Months
Fig. 4. Comparison of Denton's Reading Curve with

.Curve of Norms.

42

It has been pointed out previously how closely Denton's
reading achievement correlates with his mental grOWth.A1though
he does not approach the norm in reading, he is achieving
consistently with his mental age. Since his rate is constant,
in a school situation Where this information was available to
the teacher, he would probably be considered as making
satisfactory progress in reading.

Teacher Evaluation. It is interesting to note that

 

despite his apparent deficiency in this area his teachers
have marked him "C” or average until sixth.grade when he
received a ”D." His growth curve shows just as satisfactory ‘
progress in grade six even though he continued to deviate
further below the norm.

In letters to the parents the first grade teacher rated
his reading fair. The second grade teacher stated, "Denton
is showing improvement in his reading;” the fourth grade
teacher, "He is trying harder in reading and I see some
improvement;' and the sixth grade teacher, "His attitudes
and attempts in reading are fine. He still has difficulty
interpreting silent reading exercises in any class." Despite
the fact that Denton showed his greatest achievement in
reading during the fifth grade, his teacher, if his marks and
the letters to the parents are an indication of her evaluation,
appears not to have taken account of this.

The first grade teacher showed her concerns about Denton's

reading with the following statements: "He has difficulty in

43
reading. He is in the second reading group. He is somewhat
lacking in basic reading skills."

The philosophy of the teacher and perhaps the school
which places such a high value on reading skills at this
early period in the child's school eXperience coupled with
the mother's over concern about this lack in first grade may
well have contributed to some of Denton's negative attitudes
about reading later on. All the data that are available,
particularly those in the area of mental maturity, and the
fact that boys mature more slowly than girls, would indicate
that Denton was being expected to read before he was ready.

Table V indicates the extent of Denton's deficiencies
when compared with the norms both in terms of grade and age
equivalents.

One might presume a discrepancy between Column Three
and Column Six which show differences in grade and age levels--
that Column Six which shows difference in months should be
twelve times Column Three, which shows difference in years.
This is eXplained by the fact that Denton is below the average
for his grade. Since his birthday falls on September 29,
he entered first grade at the age of five years and eleven
months. The Stanford Achievement norms are figured on the
basis of an entrance age of approximately two and one-half
months older than Denton. For this reason, the grade expec-

tations are greater for him than the expectations for his age.

an
As can readily be seen by this table, Denton progressively
improved in reading although Just as progressively he continued
to fall farther behind the norm expectations both for grade and
age. In spite of this at the end of the sixth grade he was
reading at “.7 grade level which, considering the normal range

found in any sixth grade, is not a bad reading achievement.

TABLE V
DEFICIENCIES BY NORM COMPARISON--AVERAGE READING

 

 

 

 

 

Gr d v 1s ts
$33.32? N... 1.2.1? Egg, N... Agieifiimffigggg
2 Nov. 2.3 1.8 -o.5 85 81.5 - 3.5
2 May 2.9 2.2 -o.7 91 86.5 - u.5
8 Oct. u,2 3.1 -1.1 108 98 -1o.o
b May ”.9 3.2 -l.7 115 99 -l6.0
5 Apr. 5.8 u.3 -1.5 126 111 -15.0
6 Mar. 6.7 u.1 -2.6 137 109 -26.0
6 May 6.9 4.7 -2.2 139 115.5 ‘ -23.5

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In this school the reading program consists of directed
teaching of reading as a subject, and almost complete reliance
upon text book materials from first through sixth grades. At
no time is there any indication in the data that Denton was
motivated to read according to his oWn interest. He was con-
sistently in one of the I'low“ reading groups throughout the

six years and perfectly aware of the fact. There was pressure

L15
on him both from the teachers and the mother to do better in
reading. It is questionable whether at any time Denton was
helped to feel the real values and Joys of reading. Reading
seems to havebeen a subject that one must ”pass" to please
the teacher and the parent so that promotion to the next grade
will be forthcoming. It is most interesting that in high
school on the student record form, Denton's answer to the
question "Do you enjoy reading?" was "Not at all.”

For purposes of evaluating Denton's reading growth
these longitudinal data become most important. The national
norms have little pertinence to the case of Denton. The
crucial factor is his own rate of growth and the consistency
with which he achieves according to this rate. The evidence
as presented here substantiates successful and adequate

reading achievement for Denton.

3. Arithmetic Achievement

Denton's arithmetic scores are presented in Table VI.
As in Table IV for reading, comparison is made both with
grade levels and age equivalents. He was tested seven times
from second through sixth grade--twice each in grades two,
four,.and six, and once in grade five. The table shows results
in reasoning and computation and the averages of these two.

Figure 5 shows the comparison of Denton's arithmetic
curve with the curve of norms. He was tested first in the

third month of the second grade and met the norm in reasoning,

/O
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Stanford Arithmetic Age Equivalents

 

140 r- “7 1w!—
/ , /
120 / lZQ- ’
F I I
l /
110 r— , 1m,— ,’
/ , /
/
100i? ""/ 10m- ”,
I". " /’
9O‘L / 90+
/ /
80<h Reasoning Bap / Computation
I
70 41 1 I. 3 1 4—4 70 4 1 a i .L a a

 

 

 

7O 8O 90 130 llO 120 130 1H0 7O 80 90 100 110 120 130 IM

 
      
   

 

 

 

 

140 AL
Norm
- - - - Eenton /
130 ‘r
/
b
120 -}
110 4*
100 d'
90 4
Average Arithmetic
80
Grades
«—!f— ~~~IL— !Le 4 F———-—~4
2 3 h 5 6
70 - J . . , ll .__
r l 1 ' r' *r 1* 'T
70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140

Chronological Age in Months

Fig. 5. Comparison of Denton's Arithmetic Curve
with Curve of Norms

us

was below it in computation and, of course, also below it in
average arithmetic--the average of reasoning and computation.
When tested six months later-~in May of the same grade—shewas
found to have made a gain of one full year in grade-- fromla7
to 2.7 and twelve and one-half months in arithmetic age. This
is the only incident of Denton's exceeding the norm duringhus
elementary school eXperience.

He was not tested in grade three, but in the second
month of grade four, seventeen months later, he showed a gain
in arithmetic age of only five and one—half months and a cor-
responding gain of .h in grade level. Tested seven months
later in the same grade he showed a gain of six and one-half
months in arithmetic age and .6 in grade equivalent. Denton's
achievement in arithmetic took a distinct upward spurt during
grades five and six. From May of grade five to April afgrade
six-- .9 in grade and eleven months in age-—he gained sixteen
months in age and 1.2 in grade equivalent. At this point in
sixth grade, he approached very closely to the norm. His
reasoning was a little below but his computation was coin-
cidental with the norm.

Denton's total arithmetic achievement during the ele—
mentary years was good. It followed his mental age quite
closely until fifth and sixth grades, and during these years
exceeded it to a substantial degree. In looking at his_total
achievement picture it will be found that he was by far more

successful in this area than any of the others.

“9

Table VII shows the extent of Denton's deficiencies

when compared with the norms for his grade placement and age

at the time of the tests.

Here, as in Table V for reading,

Denton's age being below the norm for his grade placement

causes his differences from the norms to be less foraage than

grade level.

This table demonstrates his divergence from the

norm and shows that he progressed consistently to the point

where he was only one-half year behind grade level in March

of grade six and only three months below the average for his

age at that point.

When tested two months later of the same

year he shows a loss in achievement which may be cuased by

some other factor rather than what it intends to measure. It

is not likely that he actually regressed almost half a year

in grade placement and three and one-half months in arithmetic

age in this short period of time.

TABLE VII

DEFICIENCIES BY NORM COMPARISONS--AVERAGE ARITHMETIC

 

 

 

Testi Grade Levels Age Equivalents

(Grade Norm Denton (gggié) Norm Denton (Mgfififia)
2 Nov. 2.3 1.7 -o.6 85 79.5 - 5.5
2 May 2.9 2.7 -O.2 91 92 + 1.0
9 Oct. 4.2 3.1 -l.l 108 97.5 ~10.5
9 May 9.9 3.? -1.2 115 10h .11.0
5 Apr. 5.8 4.8 -1.0 126 117.5 - 8.5
6 Mar. 6.? 6.2 -0.5 13? 134 - 3.0
6 May 6.9 6.0 -o.9 139 132.5 - 6.5

 

 

 

 

 

 

50

It is interesting to speculate as to just why Denton in
arithmetic should have exceeded to such a degree his apparent
capacity as measured by his mental age tests. He mentioned
it as the subject he most liked in grades three, four, and
five. He may have excelled in arithmetic because he liked it
or he may have liked it best because he found more successful
experiences with it than the other subjects.

Althougthenton made his greatest achievement in arith—
metic, his grades do not reflect this fact. He received a'fiN
and a "C” in grade one, two "C's" in grade two, "D+" in grade
three, "D” in grade four, "C+" in grade five,and "C-" in grade
six. Despite the fact that his rate of growth in arithmetic
was more rapid than his rate in the other academic subjects
during grades four, five, and six the teachers' marks do not
show him to be doing even satisfactory work in grade four and
no more than average in grades five and six. In grades three
and four his achievement results show him progressing at a
higher level and a faster rate in arithmetic than in reading,
yet the teachers on their marks rated him lower in arithmetic.

In letters to the parents, the first grade teacher
ranked him “Fair +" in numbers. The second grade teacher
remarked, "Denton is doing good work in numbers." The fourth
grade teacher wrote in October, “His arithmetic is good, but
he is sometimes careless about it and, therefore, gets some
wrong.“ In January of the same school year she stated, "I

think he has improved in his arithmetic. He still needs to

51
know his tables better." And in March she reported to the
parents, "He has improved in his arithmetic.“ There are no
records of any reports to the parents during his fifth and
sixth grades.

It is impossible to tell just what were Denton's math-
ematical concepts and how he was able to put them to work in
real meaningful situations. The program in this elementary
school is text-book and Work-book oriented. The fourth grade
teacher's greatest concern, as is reflected in the above
remark to the parents " . . . he is sometimes careless, and,
therefore, gets some wrong," is typical of the prevailing
philOBOphy in the teaching of arithmetic--the aim being to get
correct answers. This is what is measured both by the teacher
and by the achievement tests. If the answer is wrong, nothing
appears to have been achieved even though the boy might well
understand the concept and know the process for arrivingzit
the solution to a problem. Arithmetic is taught a certain
number of minutes each day to all the children in the class
without much consideration for the individual'saibilities,
needs, and interests. There is emphasis upon drill in number
manipulation to the detriment of gaining real insight and
understanding through seeking solutions to problems in every-
day living. There is little doubt but what Denton found
himself perfectly adequate to handle the mathematical problems
of living with which he was faced outside the school. In the

52

culture in which Denton lives, where money is figured closely
and values are well known to the whole family, it may be that
figuring and budgetingaire more realistic than in the middle
and upper class cultures. While reading may not be as much a
part of their everyday living, the mathematical concepts and
skills are possibly valued more highly since they affect their
lives more immediately.

An example of the classroom practice in grade five Was
noted by the observer. For a punishment ". . . the teacher
told the whole class that they must have ten arithmetic
problems done before they could go home! If this technique
of discipline was used very often, it would not be at all
surprising if the children would build up very bad attitudes

about the subject and its value to them.

a. Spelling Achievement

Denton was tested in spelling twice in the second grade,
twice in the fourth, once in the fifth, and twice in the sixth.
The results of these tests are represented in Table VIII With
the scores computed into both grade and age equivalents estab-
lished by the norms on the Stanford Achievement tests.

Figure 6 is the graphical representation of the age
equivalents of his scores compared with Denton's chronological
age. The figure shows Denton progressing steadily in spelling
throughout the elementary school. Through the second grade,
althoughlaelow the norm, he parallels the norm line which

53
indicates a lower starting point but a month's achievement

for each month between the two tests given during that year.

TABLE VIII
DENTON'S SPELLING SCORES

 

 

 

 

 

 

Grade Month C.A. Score Grade Equf::Ient Age Equivalent
2 Nov. 85 _ 6 1.6 79
2 May 91 13 2.1 85
4 Oct. 108 29 2.9 9n
M May 115 30 3.3 99
5 Apr. 126 37 3.9 107
6 Mar. 137 42 4.4 113
6 May 139 #6 “.8 11?

 

 

 

 

 

 

When next tested, in the second month of fourth grade, he has
shown a gradual veering aWay from the norm. During this year,
between the second month of the fourth grade and the retest at
the ninth month, he achieved at a slightly higher rateiwhich
continued through grade five until the test given the seventh
month of sixth grade where he shows a dip in his achievement
curve. When tested two months later, [at 6.9], however,‘this
dip in the curve is overcome by a four months gain over the
two months' period. This would bring into question the

reliability of the score on the previous test.

Stanford Spelling Age Equivalents

54

 

 

 

r—
Norm
- - - - Denton
140 r-
120 ”
I
I
I
I
110«L ./
I
[I
/
/
./
100 «.- , ’
/
/
/
/
/
90'? 1",
/
x'
/'
I’
I
80 {I— //
Grades
a ll hall all L. 14 L: 1
VI‘ 2 3 '9 53 ‘L
70 i A?* is 4% ‘t t r
70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140

Chronological Age in Months

Fig. 6. Comparison of Denton's Spelling Curve
with Curve of Norms

55

Although continually below the norm, Denton's progres-
sion of constant growth throughout the time of testing would
indicate satisfactory achievement for Denton during this'
period. It is quite consistent with the other areas of growth
and achievement which have previously been discussed in this
chapter.

As more data become available, it appears apparent that
there is a close correlation between the various areas of
Denton's academic achievement and his rate of mental maturity.
Each area so far has shown achievement progressing quite
adequately but below the norm, which is what should be eXpected
of Denton in terms of the data. Again it should be emphasized
that according to the growth concept, the individual norms
established for this case are being met.

Table IX shows Denton's retardation in grade ranging
from .7 of a year at grade two to 2.1 at grade six, and in
age from six months at grade two to twenty-two months at
grade six. This does not mean that he is becoming a poorer
speller but that he is proceeding at a slower rate toward a
lower maximum while consistently improving in ability to spell.

Teacher Evaluation. The teacher evaluations of Denton's
spelling as reflected in his yearly marks, show that he was
considered an I'average“ student. With the exception of the
first semester of grade two when he was marked "B” the rest
of the marks on his report card are 'Cfs'--'C-'s“ in grades

three and four, and "0+" in grade five.

56

TABLE IX

SPELLING ACCELERATION—-RETARDATION BY NORM COMPARISON,

 

_
__

 

 

 

 

 

Testin Grade Levels “F‘Age Equivalents
(Grade Diff. Diff.
Norm Denton (Years) Norm Denton (Months)
__ _ __~ -1- - _
2 Nov. 2.3 1.6 —0.7 85 79 - 6.0
2 May 2.9 2.1 -o.8 91 85 - 6.0
4 Oct. u.2 2.9 -1.3 108 9a -1u.o
4 May 4.9 3.3 -1.6 115 99 -16.o
5 Apr. 5.8 3.9 -1.9 126 107 -19.0
6 Mar. 6.7 h.u -2.3 137 113 «24.0 '
6 May 6.9 u.8 —2.1 139 117 -22.0
_ a: I.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The followingaire taken from the teachers' letters to

the parents: Second grade teacher: “. . . is doing good

work in spelling." Fourth grade teacher on reports in
October, January, and March: "He is trying hard in spelling
and I see some improvement;" and, "He does good work in

spelling;" and, "His spelling is still good.“ Sixth grade

teacher: 'He is showing good growth in spelling."
An anecdote by an.observer in grade four quotes Denton

as saying he likes spelling. In an interview in grade five,

however, Denton rates spelling as his “subject most “disliked.”
This was in spite of the fact that he received a “0-“ in

spelling in fourth grade,.and.a 'C+' in fifth. The following

57
observation recorded in grade five may give some indication
of the<3ause of his poor attitude towards this subject: "The
children came into the room, making a lot of noise. The~
teacher announced that they must take their seats or she would
give them a spelling test. Denton took his seat quickly and
started hisaarithmetic lesson." An area of learning used as
a threat for punishment would not ordinarily be associated
with positive attitudes.

Spelling is taught in this school pretty much by the
same methods and with similar materials as are used in most
schools throughout the country. Children are asked to learn
a certain number of words a week which constitute a graded
list of spelling words. The accompanying work-book supposedly
provides them with exercises which will familiarize them with
both the spelling and the meaning of the words.' Daily and
weekly tests are given,the result of which serve as a basis
for grading. Occasional Spell-downs and epelling games are
supposed to enliven their interest, but more than likely
serve as a motivation to those who already spell best and,
therefore, need it the least and tend to discourage further
those who do the poorest by giving them additional failing
experiences.

Little attempt has been made in this school to help
boys and girls to spell correctly those words which they want

and need to use. There is little evidence of opportunities

58
for creative writing eXperiences or other real opportunities
for using Spelling in functional situations.

The evaluation is based upon the ability to spell words
studied for the test. Whether or not real learning has taken
place-«learning which persists-«is seldom taken into con—
sideration.

Spelling was probably not considered very important to
Denton, at least beyond the level of pleasing the teacher.

It is part of the curriculum, must be taught according to the
school's established schedule, so must be endured with as
little pain as possible. The goals of spelling thus become _
vague, unrealistic, and deferred and the motivation becomes
almost wholly exterior and artificial.

The writer in visiting schools and talking with teachers
and children has found that dread of spelling is common to
both groups. Teachers feel it is most difficult to teach, and
more often than not report it to be their classes' poorest
subject, while children mention it more often than any other
subject as the one most disliked. It is too often identified
with the manual labor of writing a list of unrelated words
over and over again to learn them and then recOpying the ones
they miss ten or twenty—five times. This is not fun, nor is
it easy, nor is this the way to learn to spell. Unless positive
attitudes can be built and somehow children can be helped to
§g§l_a real personal need for accomplishing this skill, there

is little chance of improvement in the subject.

59

Denton probably did What most boys do—-get by with the
minimum amount of work without displeasing the teacher or
incurring her punishment. Outside of Spelling class when
other writing was required he tended to use only those words
he was certain he could epell correctly, since miSSpelled
Words must always be written many times over.

A teacher who places high value on Spelling can well
stifle all creative writing activities among her pupils, and
develop a distaste for the subject among the very ones she so

hopes to motivate.

5. Miscellaneous Achievements

The Stanford battery in addition toiesting for.achievement
in reading, arithmetic, and Spelling also tests socialttudies.
science, language, and literature. These four Will be given
consideration together. Denton was not tested in these areas
until the beginning of fourth.grade. He was‘tested again
towards the end of that year, once in the spring of fifth
grade, and twice in grade six. Scores, grade equivalents, and
age equivalents are shown in Table X.

These subjects are not considered crucial in the school
under discussion. That is, no one would likely be retained
in a grade if he failed to pass any one of them. The children
were not even tested on these until the fourth grade, and then
probably because they were included in the battery. Science

was taught neither as a subject nor incidentally during the

60

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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61
elementary years. Literature was covered in a small degree
with the materials in the reading classes, but outside of
that time Denton did not seem to be motivated to read much on
his own. Neither science nor literature was included as a
subject on the report card nor were they mentioned by the
teachers in their letters to the parents. Language and social
studies were taught as subjects and marked on the report card.
Social studies consisted of formal history and geography
taught from textbooks.

Figure 7 shows Denton's achievement in these four sub-
jects tested by the Stanford battery in comparison with the.
age norms.

In social studies Denton was almost a year below his
norm when tested in October of the fourth grade, and on the
second test, in May of the same school year, he showed almost
no achievement so fell farther below the norm. A year later
in the fifth grade he gained almost twenty months on the test’
which is deomonstrated by the rising line approaching the
norm. 0n the two tests in sixth grade he achieved lower
scores than in the fifth which shows his falling far below
the norm. This is not consistent with his mental age or
reading rates. It is difficult to eXplain just why he failed
not only to improve his performance but fell below the pre-
ceding test on both occasions. This may reflect a negative
attitude towards either the subject, or the test, or both.

On the other hand the fifth grade test that showed such

growth may have reflected recent learning which dhdnot persist.

Stanford Age Equivalents

62

Miscellaneous Achievements

Norm

 

------ Denton

1140 fr-

Science

120 l

I

100 1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

0 i” . L
100 120 1&0
lh0«+ Language Literature
120‘?
A
I / \
100 -- '. ’_‘_ -,/
/’h- --'-
Grades Grades
'_3_-'57-'75_-‘3-' 2 3 "tr"jr"‘g—'
° . i a .L TL 1. i a
O 100 120 140 O 100 120 111:0

Chronological Age in Months

Fig. 7. Comparison of Denton's Achievements with
Norms

63

His science and literature curves are almost identical,
showing very gradual growth in the fourth grade, little or no
achievement a year later in the fifth, and almost a year's
growth in a year's time when tested in March of the sixth
grade. In May of that year, two months later, both subjects
show a corresponding sharp dip in accomplishment.

On the language figure Denton shows very little growth,
starting below the norm in grade four, and progressively falling
farther below it through the first test of grade six and then
showing a sharp spurt on the final test.

As can be seen in Table X, Denton was considerably below
both grade-and agetequivalents throughout the three years of
testing. Tables XI, XII, XIII, and XIV show the extent of
these deficiencies.

The important aspect of these results is not that he is
below the norm for his grade and age, but that these achievements
are not consistent with his own growth pattern. In comparison
with his performance in the other areas handled in this chapter
he would not seem to have achieved according to the expectations
that could reasonably be held for him particularly in literature,
language, and science.

Eggsher Egaluagigg. Denton received marks on his report
card only in language and social studies; literature and
science were not graded. He received “C's" in fourth, fifth,
and sixth grades in language, and "B's" in fourth.and fifthin
social studies, but a ”D" in grade six--during the time he

showed such poor performance on theechievement tests.

6“

TABLE XI

SOCIAL STUDIES ACCELERATION--RETARDATION BY NORM COMPARISON

 

*-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

__, Grade Levels Age Equivalents

$33232? Norm Denton (ygiigj Norm P Denton (Mgfififig)
h Oct. “.2 3.3 -0.9 108 99.5 - 8.5
b May 4.9 3.“ -l.5 115 99.5 -15.5
5 Apr. 5.8 4.9 -0.9 126 119 - 7.0
6 Mar. 6.7 4.7 -2.0 137 116.5 —19.5
6 May 6.9 4.3 -2.6 139 111 -28.0

TABLE XII

SCIENCE ACCELERATION--RETARDATION BY NORM COMPARISON

 

 

Grade Levels

Age Equivalents

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

?33§32§'_§3}m Denton (giiig) Norm Denton (Eiiihsl—w
4 Oct..v 4.2 3.0 ~l.2 108 96 ~12 '

4 May 8.9 3.1 -l.8 115 98 -l7

5 Apr. 5.8 3.0 -2.8 126 96 -30

6 Mar. 6.7 3.8 -2.9 137 105 ~32

6 May 6.9 3.1 -3.8 139 98 -hl

 

65

TABLE XIII

LANGUAGE ACCELERATION-vRETARDATION BY NORM COMPARISON

 

 

Grade Levels

Age Equivalents

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

IgiszI Norm Denton (giggé) Norm Denton (agaihs)

IOct. u.2 2.6 -1.6 708' 92 -16 —

4 May “.9 3.0 -l.9 115 96 ~19

5 Apr. 5. 8 3.0 -2. 126 96 —3o

6 Mar. 6.? 3.0 -3.7 137 96 -A1

6 May 6.9 3.6 -3.3 139 103 -36
TABLE XIV

LITERATURE ACCELERATION--RETARDATION BY NORM COMPARISON

 

Grade Levels

Age Equivalents

 

 

?§:§dg Nhrm Denton (§é§§§) Norm Denton (figgigg)
a Oct. 4.2 3.0 -l.2 108 97 -11
a May “.9 3.3 -1.6 115 99 ~16
5 Apr. 5.8 3.3 -2.5 126 99 -27
6 Mar. 6.? “.1 -2.6 137 109 -28
6 May 6.9 3.7 -3.2 139 10“ ~35

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

66

In the letters to parents social studies was the only
one of these four to be mentioned. His first grade'teacher
reported social studies as "good" and the fourth grade teacher
wrote, "He has taken a definite interest in social studies.”

The following anecdotes written by observers arexworth
noting since they may give some clues to classroom procedures
and possible causes for Denton's apparent poor performance in

these subjects:

[Grade 5]--The teacher asked the class to sit up
straight and.get out their social studies books.
Denton straightened up but didn't get out his book.
He paid no attention When one of his classmates
was reading.

[Grade 6]--The teacher said, "Get out your social
studies books and you may have a few minutes to
prepare your lesson." She wrote the page number on
the board. Each child had to read a paragraph aloud.
Denton read very slowly and haltingly. Then he sat
quietly with his hand in front of his face. He

looked out at me through his fingers, examined a band-
aid on his finger and glanced at the clock.

[Grade 5]--In a penmanship and English class, Denton
was writing sentences in a workbook. The teacher
said, "Where do you use commas, Denton?" He sat
quietly with his hand over his mouth, looking
straight ahead and giving no answer.

[Grade 6]--The teacher asked, "If you have a singular
predicate, what does it mean, Denton?" Denton: “More
than one.“ The teacher called on someone else and
Denton sat quietly, scribbling on his desk with a
pencil.1

 

From the case inventory data.

67

These anecdotes were selected as typical of the kinds
of eXperiences the children were being given in both social
studies and language. All the evidence points to a total
diet of textbook assignments and recitation, and workbook
exercises that had little relationship to anything that Denton
really wanted or felt he needed. ”Where do you use commas,
Denton?" "If you have a singular predicate, what does it
mean, Denton?” ”Sit up straight and get out your social
studies books." "Each child had to read a paragraph aloud."
This probably is not the most efficient way to help children
gain language facility, think critically, solve realoproblems,
or gain insight into the crucial aspects of living in our
society. This is not the rich, exciting, challenging, satis-
fying kind of environment that is considered so essential to
learning.

The fact that Denton's rate of growth in these areas is
much slower than his rate of physical growth, mental maturity,
and reading and arithmetic achievement would indicate that

some exterior factor was affecting his achievements here.

6. The Total Achievement Picture
In order to take a complete look at Denton's academic
learnings in their relationships to each other, all the results
have been brought together in reference to age equivalents.

The seven subject matter results are shown in Figure 8.

Age Equivalents

68

 

 

 

 

 

1L“)? _,_,_._,_ Literature
----- Arithmetic
+ + + + + Spelling /\\
o o o o 0 Language ’
lBOi‘ Reading /
+-+-+-+—+ Social Studies /
. . . . . Science /
120?-
110w-
lOO.L
90--
80-“
Grades
3 .1 ! a! L__IF—_J |—————-—ll———?r—-J
70 l 2 L 3 l l l 5 J
' ' ‘ T f* ' '7 ‘Tz
7O 80 90 100 110 120 130 140

Chronological Age in Months

Fig. 8. Denton's Total Achievement Pattern--Stanford
Tests

69

At first glance this figure may seem to indicate that
the total picture is not very consistent with his growth pattern.
It should be pointed out, however, that the three subjects
which seem to fall so far behind his normal rate as indicated
in other areas, are literature, language, and science. In
these three his rate of growth was much slower than in the
other four subjects which show quite a close correlation. Up
until the testing at 115 months the achievements show a very
close grouping in results. At 115 months—-towards the end of
fourth grade-~the curves all come very close together. This
would indicate a consistency in Denton's growth pattern.
During the fifth grade quite a diaparity Can be noted. Dentonwa
achievement in arithmetic, spelling, reading, and social
studies continues to follow a successful rate of growth in a
predictable pattern along with his physical growth and mental
maturity.

It may be that some emotional factor entered the picture
at this time to upset his continued evidence of growth in these
other subjects.

Towards the end of fourth grade the observer wrote the
following:

Mrs. G--[the teacher] showed me Denton's marks and
said she had marked him high on everything because
she was going to go on with.the class and felt she
could help him more taking him with her than leaving
him, because it would take a new teacher several
weeks to know and understand him, and meanWhile he'd

be losing that time. She said she'd had a long talk
with him that day and told him that he was on trial

70
and he'd promised to do better and to work harder.
She said that Denton was the fourth lowest student
in the class but was capable of "B” work.15

Undoubtedly Denton entered fifth grade under a great
deal of pressure to succeedq although the evidence that exists
in the case inventory indicates that he was working according
to his own rate at nearly his capacity. The teacher had not
indicated any deficiencies on his report cards except possibly
in arithmetic in which he received a ”D” despite the fact that
his achievement was greater in this subject than in any of the
others.

Figure 9 represents Denton's average achievement growth.
Despite the fact of his lack of achievement in the three
mentioned subjects, Denton showed the most rapid rate of growth
in academic learnings between 115 and 126 months during the
fifth grade with a levelling off from 126 to 139 months during
the sixth grade. As is indicated in Figure 9 both his rate of
achievement and theaachievement itself correlate quite closely
with his mental age curve.

A teacher who knew the growth concept and who was ac-
quainted with the data available on Denton might have evaluated
him somewhat differently. Perhaps his achievement record has
suffered because of the lack of understanding on the part of
the teacher and consequently a misinterpretation of him to

the parents. It is quite obvious that Denton was never allowed

 

15From observers report in the case inventory.

Stanford Age Equivalent

71

 

 

 

 

 

140 l}
Norm
----- Total Achievement
--------- Mental Age
130 at
120 fi-
/
/
0 /_¢
110 Jr .///’
/'\. 0/0’
\ /
/ /
100 ~» I; ,/
0/. l”’
/ /
/
/
/
90 "" . /./ I /
/1I /
/' /
/' //
so -r /
Grades
L J I I J I I l J
* 2 ‘ ‘T" 7+ 5 6
70 .L a +— i f i f
70 80 90 100 110 120 130 1&0
Chronological Age in Months
Fig. 9. Denton's Average Academic and Mental Age

Growth

72
to feel that he was succeeding to any great degree. Teachers
so often refer to those children who are not "working up to
their capacities" without much knowledge of what those individ—
ual capacities are. Their judgments are usually based upon a
single mental age score or I.Q. which in itself is certainly
insufficient. As has been pointed out, total growth is the
result of so many complex factors and unless all of these are
considered in relation to the individual's development, valid
judgments cannot be made.

According to the teacher ratings on the McFarlane
Adjustment Inventory, Denton's progress in school was rated <
as "normal" in grade two, “slow" in grades three, four, and
five, and "normar'in grade six. These same teachers, however,
did not make these distinctions on his report cards. As may
be seen by Table XV, if "C" represents normal or average,
there is no evidence here of his being considered "slow“ in

grades three, four, and five.

TABLE XV
DENTON'S REPORT CARD GRADES

 

 

 

 

Year in School

Subjects 1 2 3 h 5 6
Arithmetic D C C C- D+ D C+ C-
Reading C C C C C- C— C D
Language-Grammar C B B C- C C- C+ C
Handwriting C B B B 0+ C+ C C
Spelling B C C- C- C+ C
Social Studies B B C C B B B D
Art C B B C 0+ C + B C
Music B A A- B A A A C

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

73

Q;_ Personal and Social Development

Personality is difficult to describe and impossible to
categorize by traits which are all inclusive and at the same
time mutually exclusive. For the purposes of this study it
can be defined as "the sum total or integration of all the
capacities of the individual in action."16

Judgments about his social development must necessarily
be made on the basis of the limited data which have been col-
lected concerning Denton's relationships with others. Prae-
tically all the data are confined to the school setting.

Most of the data on personal and social development
have been collected by means of teacher ratings on the Millard

revision of the McFarlane Adjustment Inventory and the observers'

and teachers' comments in the school observation notes.

1. Personal Habits and Traits
Table XVI shows the teachers' ratings of Denton in
grades two, three, four, five, and six for Specific personality
traits. It will be noted that the secondggrade teacher has
rated him average throughout. It would appear that she observed
him as an "average" rather than as a specific individual having

distinguishing characteristics. The third grade teacher’rated

 

160. V. Millard, Sghool and Child (East Lansing: Mich-
igan State University Press, l95hL p, 117,

74

TABLE XVI

RATING OF SPECIFIC PERSONALITY TRAITS

 

 

 

 

Grade Level Rating

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

General Trait Positive 1 2 .:§fu, 5 6 Negative

1. Attitude Confident 3 2 2 3 Inferior

2. Cleanliness Immaculate 3 3 2 l 2 Unclean

3. COOperation Habitual 3 3 1 l Lacking

h. Courtesy Habitual 3 2 2 l 3 Infrequent

5. Dependability Habitual 3 2 3 2 2 Infrequent

6. Disposition Calm 3 2 l 3 2 Irritable

7. Diaposition Happy 3 2 h 2 Unhappy

8. Disposition Kind 3 2 2 t2 Cruel

9. Disposition Optimistic 3 3 2 3 3 Pessimistic
10. Dominence Aggressive 3 3 3 2 Submissive
ll. Effort Industrious 3 4 h 3 Idle

12. Integrity Uniform 3 2 2 3 Lacking
l3. Judgment Rational 3 3 3 3 Irrational
1“. Leadership Conspicuous 3 3 M 4 Lacking
15. Morality Moral 3 1 l 2 Immoral
-16. Reliability Punctual 3 2 u 1 Tardy
17. Reliability Obedient 3 2 3 2 3 Disobedient
l8. Reliability Responsible 3 2 3 2 Irresponsible
19. Self-Control Stable 3 2 1 3 Unstable
20. Thrift

[Materials] Saving 3 3 Wasteful
21. Thrift [Time] Saving 3 3 wasteful
22. Summary No Code See Comments
Ratings: High-~~-l 2 3 A 5-—-—Low

him quits consistently as average and high average with the

exception of the highest rating in morality and a lower rating

75
on effort. From the point of view of the teacher he appeared
to be quite satisfactory in every reSpect.

The ratings of the fourth grade teacher show a greater
variance. She has rated him at the lower end of the five
point continuum in happiness, effort, leadership, and punctu-
ality, but at the very tOp in cooperation, calmness, and self—
control. In fifth grade this same teacher, according to her
judgment has found him greatly improved in many of the traits.
She gave him the highest rating in cleanliness, cooperation,
courtesy, morality, and punctuality. She has noted improve—
ment in dependability, happiness, effort, obedience, aggres-
siveness and responsibility, but somewhat lower in the traits
of confidence, calmness, optimism, integrity, and self-control.

It will be remembered that Denton remained with this
teacher for these two years and was conditioned to the fifth
grade by the teacher who progressed with the group. According
to her other reports she found him Quite difficult and exerted
a good deal of pressure upon him both directly and through her
reports to the parents. It was during this period that he
also showed a marked falling off in academic achievement.

0n the whole Denton, by these ratings, can be considered
to possess these specific personality traits in a positive
degree. A profile of the results would indicate a well-
adjusted boy with little deviation towards either extreme.
This conclusion is also supported by the follOWing exerpts

taken from the teachers' written reports to the parents:

76

Grade 1:

Denton has a good attitude toward his work and his
teacher. He assumes reSponsibilities.

Grade u, October:

He seems to be interested in all the things we do in
school, and he has a nice helpful attitude in the
room, and he gets on well with the group.

Grade U, January:
Denton seems interested in all the things we do . . .

Denton is always willing to help someone else out,
and is always courteous to the children in the group

and me.
Grade 4, March:
He has such a nice, helpful attitude in the room.
Grade 6:
Denton has lost much of the reserve that I mentioned
in the first report. He responds and volunteers
much more freely. He is quite blunt on occasion, 1,
but a pleasing smile and a sense of humor help a let. /
Table XVII, the teachers' ratings of miscellaneous
personality traits, shows Denton on the three point scale

to be “average; like other children" throughout.

2. Character Traits and Ideals
On the MeFarlane Inventory, Denton has been rated by
the teachers as a boy who was not unduly disturbed and one
who had good control of his emotions. He was obedient, well

disposed toward authority and accepted responsibility'readily

 

17From the case inventory data.

MISCELLANEOUS PERSONALITY TRAITS

77

TABLE XVII

 

 

‘Grade Level Rating

 

 

Positive One Two Three Four Five Six Negative
1. Honest 2 l 2 2 2 Steals, cheats
2. Truthful 2 2 2 2 Lies,decieves,
3. Courageous 2 2 2 2 003233i§
b. Loyal 2 l 2 2 Treacherous
5. Generous 2 2 2 Stingy
6. Happy 2 2 2 2 Mean
7. Kind 2 2 2 Unhappy
8. Thrifty 2 2 2 Spendthrift
9. Reasonable 2 2 2 Self-willed'
10. Considerate 2 2 2 Inconsiderate
ll. Unselfish 2 2 2 Selfish
12. Dependable 2 2 2 2 Irresponsible
13. Appreciative 2 l 2 2 Ungrateful
1h. Self-reliant 2 2 2 2 Dependent
15. Stable 2 2 2 Erratic
16. Cooperative 2 2 2 2 Uncooperative
17. Humble 2 2 2 2 2 Conceited
18. Tranquil 2 2 Easily upset
l9. Reverent 2 2 Disrespectful
20. Communicative 2 2 2 2 Too talky

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Rating Code:

l--High; toward positive end

2--Average; like other children

3--LOW; tOWard negative end

78
and eagerly. He Was well liked by his classmates, liked to
play, and had fun on the playground.

He was listed as "careful and neat with his materials,"
"tidy of things in his desk," and "took good care of others'
things.“ These comments reflect the values of the school and
the teachers and the great emphasis on neatness, orderliness,
and general submission to the wishes of authority.

He was ranked average in all of the following character
traits: honesty, truthfulness, courage, loyality, generosity,
happiness, kindness, thrift, reasonableness, consideration,
unselfishness, dependability, appreciation, self-reliance,
stability, c00perativeness, humility, tranquility, reverence,
and communicativeness. In none of these traits was he rated
at the extreme positive end of the continuum, nor was it ever
indicated that he had any deficiencies in his character. It
would appear that the teachers looked upon him as a satis-
factory, average pupil who caused them no trouble, and on the
other hand, who exerted very little leadership or diaplayed
unusual initiative. One teacher went so far as to state,
"Denton was the kind of a student that you hardly knew was
in your room until the end of the term when you had to mark
him. He was always quiet and never did anything out of

order."

79

3. Emotional Characteristics

Table XVIII is a summary of the teachers' comments on
Denton's emotional characteristics in his personal adjustment.
Of the five teachers who gave their reactions, there is a
great deal of agreement as to his outlook. Four of them
classified him as pleasant, three as confident, two as generous,
cheerful, happy, nice, good, mischievous, and possessing a
good sense of humor. He was mentioned once as being self—
reliant, kind, thoughtful, dreamy, ambitious, and obedient.
The only comments that might be construed as the least bit
negative in this area are "mischievous" and "dreamy." Without
question it may be said that the teachers considered Dentonis
outlook in general to be most positive.

In the category of "Negativism" only one teacher commented.
The fourth grade teacher found him to be sullen, moody, resentful,
and self-willed. In the column labeled “Anxiety," the second
grade teacher evaluated him as shy, while the fourth grade
teacher, [the only other one to make a comment], mentioned he
was sensitive and that he "holds grudges." They all found him
to be self-controlled or even-tempered and with the exception
again of the fourth grade teacher, who called him stolid and
unemotional, they agreed he smiled frequently or laughed easily.
The teachers considered him non-aggressive having Judged him
to be independent, sincere, a natural follower, self—assured,

submissive, and easily influenced. Under the heading of "Ego,“

80

 

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81
the second grade teacher saw him as reserved and aloof, the
third grade teacher as sensitive to What others think of him,
and the fourth grade teacher as conceited, seeking the spot—
light, and sensitive to what others think of him. He was not
rated in this area by the fifth and sixth grade teachers.

Again it becomes apparent that Denton had some difficulty
during his fourth grade eXperience. It is not certain as to
whether a change in his behavior resulted in the kind of
relationship he had with the teacher;or the attitude of the
teacher toward him resulted in a change in behavior pattern,
or whether some experiences outside the school were the cauSe
of his difficulties. Nevertheless, the fourth grade teacher's
evaluation of him academically, socially, or emotionally is
not consistent With the ratings of either the teachers who
preceded or succeeded her. We have no data that would support
either alternative. It may have resulted from a personality
clash, or from some problems that Denton was having at home
or in the community. Undoubtedly this year was not a happy
one for the boy. This is reflected in almost all aspects of
his growth with the exception of the physical.

From all the data that have been gathered it can be
concluded that with this exception Denton was a well adjusted
boy emotionally throughout his elementary school eXperiences.
He Was generally happy, pleasant, and even-tempered. Even
the fourth grade teacher reported to one of the observers,

”He is a quiet, thoughtful boy . . . . He never seems to

82
display much emotion. He seems very reserved . . . . He is
usually quiet and self-controlled. He seems to be too busy
watching and taking everything in to get excited."
According to the observer's record of an interview with
his fifth grade teacher:
Miss G—«said she had seen him angry only once since
she had had him in the room. That day he swore
violently at her and told her his Dad said she was
never to touch him or he Would come over and "tell
her off." She said she made him sit at her desk the
rest of the day and that she would not allow him to
take part in any activities. When school was over,
Denton came to her and said he was sorry and asked
her not to tell his mother. The teacher did have a

talk with Denton's mother. She gave Miss G—- ermis—
sion to epank him if he ever did that again.1

Since Miss G—~ was also Denton's teacher inggrade four,
it is likely that this event took place during the preceding
year. This one incident may have influenced her evaluation

of him in all of the areas of rating.

b. Social Development
The data which were available to make some assessment of
Denton's relationshipvvith others consist of the results of a
status inventory of social characteristics, anecdotal material
written by observers, and.items from the teachers' written

reports to the parents.

 

From observers report in case inventory.

83
The following status inventory was used in grades two
through five. It consisted of check—list items with a possible
frequency of four.
1. Makes advances to others
2. Makes friends easily~~l
. Socially minded
. A good mixer

. Wellvliked by class—-2

3
u
5
6. Has respect gg‘glgg§—-l
7. Likes to share With others

8 Has good time with others——3

9. Cooperative--3

10. Extrovert

ll. Friendly with all

12. Friendly with few

13. §a§_g_few chums-~1

14. Haughty, cold

15. Wide interests and many friends
16. Responds £9 advances--3

1?. Makes friends with difficulty
18. Indivigpglistic--l

19. Has few friends--2

20. Disliked by class

21. Avoided by class

22. Ridiculed by class

23. Persecuted by class

8h
24. Uncooperative
2 . Introvert
26. Egiendly with many-—2
27. Friendly with none
28. Exclusive-~few friends
29. Lonely—-would like friends
30. Narrow interest and few friends~-3

The underlined items followed by numbers indicating
frequencies are thosevvhich were checked by Denton's teachers.
It is just as important to note these items not checked as it
is to give value to those which were.

On the positive side are such items as, "Well liked by
class," ”Has respect of class," "Has good time with others,"
"Cooperative," "Responds to advances," and ”Friendly with
many.” At the same time other items checks were: ”Has few
friends" and "Narrow interests and few friends."

It would seem that he was well accepted by the group
and did have a few with whom he shared friendships. He‘was
considered neither as an extrovert nor an introvert. He Was
not disliked, avoided, ridiculed, nor persecuted by the class.
Neither is there any indication of his being a favorite of the
group. It might be concluded from this evidence that Denton
was reasonably well adjusted socially with his peers.

The following anecdotal records are indicative of

Denton's social relations:

85

Grade I. Denton has a pleasing personality, but is a
little shyzind reserved towards strangers, but not to
his playmates. He seems well liked by the class, and
the teacher. He has his own small play group of
associates.

Grade III. Denton has many friends, both boys and
girls.

Grade IV. He seems sincere, but reticent in making
new friends. He appears to be well-liked by his
schoolmates and teacher.

Mother 3g teacher-~She said Denton didn't seem
to have any real close friends.

Grade V. He seems shy with adults if anyone else
is around.

Grade VI. The class was playing "Charadcs." While
his group waited their turn, Denton played with the
others, punching and being punched by the other boys,
and laughing.

Denton talked to another boy in line. He hit
two of the boys on the head with a book and then they
smiled at each other.

Denton played on the merry-go-round with the
other boys and girls. He didn't want me to know
that he saw me there. He picked another boy up and
threw him off the merry-go-round. He threw a snow-
ball at me when I wasn't looking. Some of the boys
were teasing the girls by taking their scarves off.
Denton went over and Joined the fun.

The teacher was called out of the room. Denton
watched her and then turned to one of the girls.

He made faces and made exaggerated mouth movements
as though he were talking. He laughed and talked
with her after the teacher had returned to the room.
He reached over and wrote on her book. She shoved
him away. He laughed and wrote some more in his
book, then leaned over to her and asked her how to
spell a word.

. . . walked back to his seat, hitting one of
the boys on the head with his notebook as he passed
him.

The teacher suggested playing "Poor Pussy" and
the class was enthusiastic. Soon the child who was
"it" chose the teacher. The teacher went to Denton's
desk, knelt down with her headzand hands above the
desk. She said "Meow" and Denton couldn't even pat

86

her on the head. He Just put his head down on the
desk and laughed hard. He was "it" for awhile, then
finally get someone else to laugh. He seemed to be
enjoying the game immensely.

He talked for a minute to a girl near him, and
then went up to the waste basket. Another girl was
there, too, and she pushed him with her shoulder.

He made a move to hit her but missed.

The school held an assembly to distribute prizes
to the high salesmen in the magazine drive. Denton
walked in with two of his pals and sat with them, his
arm around one of th m. They laughed and talked and
punched each other.

These samplings from Denton's behavior patterns seem to
indicate a normal adjustment to his peer group consistent
with the data included in the status inventory of social
characteristics. Although considered shy and somewhat
reticent through the first five grades, in sixth grade he
appeared to be develOping much more of an outgoing personality,
and exhibited all the normal behavior characteristics of boys
at the stage of puberty. His relationships as described by
these anecdotes are both typical and wholesome in terms of

successful growth and development.

§*_ Home Environment

The data concerning Denton's home environment were

gathered from interviews with the mother by classroom teachers

and the visiting teachen and from reactions that Denton

exoressed to the teachers and observers.

L

19From observers' records in the case inventory
data.

‘87

On the Vholr it would appea” that Denton had a SatisfaC-
tory home life. According to the Warner social class structure20
his family would probably be classified as "upper—lower”.

The father was a service manager of a garage. The mother did
not work outside the home. They lived in an average type
neighborhood consisting of bungalow type houses. Denton had
sufficient play Space and equipment.

The mother and father were quite compatible and had made
a fairly normal adjustment to family life with only occasional
upsets in Spite of the difference of temperaments-~the father
was quick to flare up while the mother was quite calm and even
tempered. The father demanded a great deal of the mother's
time, and appeared to be somewhat jealous of her Women friends.
The mother admits that she is a different person when the
father is present. At these times she constantly was concerned
With preventing situations that would cause conflict between
the father and the others in the family.

Denton is the youngest of three children. His brother
is four years older and his sister seven. There was a normal
adjustment between Denton and his siblings despite the fact
that the father seemed to favor the brother and the mother

somewhat favored Denton. The parents held quite high standards

‘

20
W. L. Warner, 23. gl., Social Class in America
(Chicago: Science Research Associates, 19597,- passim.

88

for Denton in his school Work by comparing him with his sister
who was an honor student in college. School work was difficult
for Denton, and this extra pressure only added to his
frustrations.

There existed some tension between the parents over
their differences in philosophies of handling children. While
they both exerted What might be termed as strict discipline,
the father was quite inconsistent while the mother was much
more predictable and reasonable in her demands. Denton often
eXpressed affection tOWards his mother, and took reSpensibility
for helping her around the house. She Spent a great deal of
time playing with the children and seemed to enjoy them much
more than the father.

On the whole Denton seemed to have enjoyed a happy home
life and the family generally seemed to have eXperienced real

satisfactions as a family unit.

CHAPTER III

INTERRELATIONS AS SHOWN BY GRAPHIC
AND LONGITUDINAL METHODS

It will be the purpose of this chapter to utilize two
tested techniques of longitudinal study, apply them to the
data available on the case in question and show the inter-
relationships which exist and any differences or inconsis—
tencies of interpretations of the data which accrue from
these two methods.

The technique used throughout Chapter II is based upon
Olson's theory of "organismic age.‘21 In Olson's studies he
has used measurements.of height, weight, carpal, mental,
reading, grip, and dentition. These translated into age
equivalents and averaged at any selected chronological age
point give the organismic age of the individual.

In the study of Denton the measurements were not re-
corded in the areas of carpal bone development, grip, and
dentition. All the measurements available in describing
Denton's growth in Chapter II, however, were computed into

age equivalents and the Olsen technique was used to describe

21Olson, _p. cit.. p. 39.

89

90
the child's growth pattern and to show relationships and
inconsistencies in the various sepects of his growth.

According to Olson:

It has been demonstrated that the centeral tendency
of growth called organismic age tends to remain at

a very constant rate of change,irhile the part-growth
factors involved in the computation may vary widely.

This central tendency is illustrated in part in Denton's
case by by Figure 9 on page seventy-one showing the relation-
ship of his total achievement to his mental age. Although
there is a great deal of fluctuation among the factors of
achievement,23 nevertheless, the average of these factors do
remain constant and do correlate quite closely with the curve
representative of his growth toward mental maturity.

Interrelationships have also been shown between Denton's
height and weightzu and between his mental age and reading
achievement.25 Olson's studies which have been made over a
long period of time demonstrate quite conclusively that when
the organismic age for a child is calculated for successive

time intervals and the points are plotted and connected, much

stability and predictability in trend is revealed.

221bid.,p. no.
23566 Figure 8, Chapter II, p. 68.

zuSee Figure 2, Chapter II, p. 27.

ZSSee Figure 3, Chapter II, p. 29.

91
The Olsen technique uses norms as a basis for compar—
isons. This method is also conducive to establishing
individuals' rates of growth and although no maximum is
computed specifically, some indication of maturity can be

assumed within limits.

The second method used to describe deve10pmental inter-
relationships to be used in this study is the Courtis tech-
nique.26 Millard quite clearly describes this Courtis method

which he has tested over a period of many years.

Up to the present, Courtis alone has devised a method
for exact study of growth interrlationships. Starting
with the Gompertz curve he designed a technique .
whereby it is possible to resolve a natural-growth
curve into its various components or what he calls
"constants." The names given to these, respectively,
were maximum.rate.and incipiency or what might

roughly be called a correction, in the equation,

for growths which do not begin at the zero point.
Starting with log-logs of actual measures, a system

of units was derived which preserves the straight

line design of log-log values but eliminates the
awkwardness involved in their handling. The name
'isoohron' was given to this unit. By definition

it represents one per cent of the total time re-
quired to reach maturity in a given cycle of growth.
Since the equation reduces the picture of growth to

a straight-line basis, it is assumed that equal
growths are made for each unit of equal time. Courtis
has used this method extensively with a multiplicity
of types of growth data. In predicting maxima, in
pointing out and defining cyclic changes, and in
studying the effect of factors influencing gaowth,

he has achieved amazingly accurate results.

268. A. Courtis, Maturation Units and How to Use Them
(Ann Arbor, Michigan: Edwards Bros., 1950), pgssim.

27C. V. Millard, School and Child (East Lansing:
Michigan State University Press, 1935,. p. 165.

92
He further states:

The Courtis technique appears to offer the most
complete and exact method for studying growth inter—
relationships. It is superior to the inspectional
method and to the technique of norm comparison because
it can be applied to any series of performance measures
without necessarily geducing data to a common unit

such as grthh age.2

Olson has the following to say about the Courtis tech-
nique:29

The problem of describing growth through generalized
mathematical curves is an old one in the field of
general biology. Courtis has given intensive and
extensive study to the problem as applied to grOWth
of children. His general point of view is that it
is possible to describe all growth that occurs in

a particular cycle by a universal growth curve.

He distinguishes four general cycles: prenatal,
infancy, childhood, and adolescence.

Courtis has deve10ped units called 'isochrons'
to describe complex growth. An isochron is l per
cent of the total time from the incipiency to the
maturity of a change. Under this system, deve10p-
ments made in equal time are considered equal.

Courtis has used the isochronic technique ex-
tensively in predicting mature status, in revealing
cyclic changes which are obscured by mass data, and
in studying the effects of planned and accidental
perturbations. He has also applied the technique
in areas related to curriculum and method. For
example he has described growth in ability to spell
a particular word in successive years in school
populations, the influence of instruction in the
year when the word appears in the curriculum, and
the subsidence of growth to the original prediction
in subsequent years.

The chief use of the technique to date has been
as a research and analytic device. From the point
of view of the child as a whole there is the basic

28Ibid., p. 166.

29Olson, _p, cit., pp. 170-171.

93

assumption of some validity that a curve, even
though based on one set of data, will tend to
express an underlying growth rhythm which will also
find eXpression in other measures.

Nally and DeLong30 have highlighted the Courtis tech-
nique as the most scientific and valid method for predicting
growth.

The most encouraging of these studies were those
reported by Courtis whose evidence indicates that

he has discovered the law of growth. Time after
time he has reported predictions within an average
deviation of.1 2%. Courtis' success seems to be

due to a consideration of a combination of two
factors which are not generally considered together:
(1) He assumes that growth is cyclic in nature and
(2) He eXpresses growth data in terms of percentages

of development rather than in terms of either raw
scores or age scores.

The only printed adverse criticism of Courtis' method
was written by Meredith.31 Nally and DeLong have recently
quite thoroughly and convincingly negated this criticism.32

The Courtis technique is being used here because its
scientific approach to growth and its predictability of

measurement have been verified.

 

30
T. J. Nally and A. R. DeLong, Ag Appraisal gg‘g

Method 9; Predicting Growth (East Lansing: Child Development
Laboratory, Michigan State University, 1953), p. 1.

 

31 ’
H. V. Meredith The Rh¥thm 9; Physical Growth
Vol. XI, No. 3 (University of owa Stud es in Child Welfare.
1953), passim.

2
3 Nally and DeLong, _p. cit., pp. 3-4.

94

Per antslgf Development §£ Various

Chronological Ages

To show interrelations of the various developmental
phases per cents of development at different chronological
ages were computed at twelve-month intervals by using the
"score'I equations and divided by the sum of the cyclic maxima.
The result of the computation is called the "per cent of total
growth" at the specified age. These results are presented in
Table XIX. At the age of twelve months, for example, Denton
had achieved 38.66 per cent of his total height, 10.10 per
cent of his maximum weight, and 13.35 per cent of the maximum
mental age. These data are presented in graphical form in
Figure 10 and give a good picture of the relative progress of
these various growths, highlighting the likenesses and dif-
ferences in the maturational progress. It should be noted
that the height, weight, and mental-age curves are not
paralleled by the academic-age curve since the former three
curves begin at birth,and the.academic does not begin until
after the child starts to school. Hence the child starts to
grow academically later but progresses at a much higher rate.
This is well demonstrated in Figure 10 which shows Denton's
starting point at seventy-two months with the first academic
measurement and proceedinguat a rapid rate to become com-
parable to the per cent of total development in height, weight,
and mental age at 120 months, the point of approximately

seventy-five per cent of his total growth.

PER CENTS OF DEVELOPMENT OF VARIOU
AT TWELVE-MONTH INTERVALS

95

TABLE XIX

f GROWTHS

 

 

 

 

Chronological Age Aspect“ "eaaured
Height Weight Mental Academic

12 38.66 10.10 13.35

2h 87.93 15.55 23.07

36 55.52 20.67 33.b2 .

48 59.99 28.91 u3.07

60 62.73 F 28.14 51.18 . . .
72 68.u3 31.11 57.u2 1.1
84 66.27 34.87 62.21 15.33
96 69.11 38.58 65.57 80.88
108 72.66 83.03 67.99 61.11
120 75.98 u7.20 72.85 78.uu
132 79.36 51.6u 83.21 90.88
inn 83.80 59.39 91.85 96.66
156 88.7w 70.84 96.1u 98.66
168 92.93 81.68 98.21 99.55
180 95.86 89.u2 99.07 99.55
192 97.65 98.07 99.u2 99.55
20# 98.70 96.76 99.6“ 99.55

 

 

 

 

 

1The per cents were computed from score equations.
Although these results were geared to the data and meant
to be interpretive rather than predictive, it is interesting
to note the correlation with the actual measurements at 20”
months.

According to these computations, Denton's predicted
height at 20h months was 98.70 per cent of the predicted
maximum of 72 inches, or 71.06 inches. His actual height
at this age was 71.5 inches, a variation of only .#3 inches
or an error of + .6 per cent. His predicted weight at 208
months-~96.76 per cent of the predicted maximum of 148.5
Pounds--is 1h3.7 pounds. His actual measurement for weight
at this age was 150pounds--a difference of 6.3 pounds or an
error of +4.38 per cent. The prediction for maximum mental
age was based on only five measurements covering the two
cIcles of growth preceding adolescence. Since the adolescent
Cykzle could not be plotted, the maximum shown here for mental
388 was 1% months at the chronological age of 168 months.
bel'lton's measured mental age at 20 months was 187 months.

Per Cent of Total Deve10pment

H
O
O

75

50

25

96

 

 

1 Height
2 Mental
3 Weight
urAcademic
TL
.,. ' /
4
4- 2
3
Jr-
1 4 4— .L 1
o 48 96 1% 192 280

Chronological Age in Months

Fig. 10. Maturity Curves of Various Growths

97
The longitudinal method of growth study is predicated

upon the assumption that total deve10pment can be pictured
with reliable accuracy. More credence can be given when the
various growths are plotted separately as in Figure 10. It
is, however, sometimes useful to reduce the various growths
to a composite single curve to show total deve10pment. All
the data were reduced to age equivalents,and the equations
were computed for ages from twelve to 204 months. These are
shown in Table XX. As the chronological age progresses it
will be noted that the height and weight ages far outstrip
the mental and academic ages and influence the average of all
positively. If, however, total grOWth is to be used, the
deve10pmenta1 picture is best shown in this manner as in
Figure 11 which shows the developmental pattern of cyclic
growth. Over the past several decades a great deal of
speculation has arisen regarding the relationship between
physical and mental development and learning. It has been
assumed that such a relationship does exist, but Just what
level of physical and mental maturity is necessary for the
beginning of certain academic learnings has up to recent
times been a mere matter of speculation on the part of edu-
Gators. Millard poses the problem in the following way:

Stated specifically, the problem in this instance is

one of determining the amount of maturity of physical

and mental growth necessary for the beginning of

academic learning. This particular problem has a

relationship to so-called reading readiness, etc.,
and when solved gives a logic to the concept of

98

TABLE XX

GROWTH-AGE SCORES AT VARIOUS CHRONOLOGICAL AGES
[COMPUTED FROM AGE-EQUIVALENT EQUATIONS] '

 

 

Chrono- ’ Growth Ages
logical Average % of Average
Age Height Weight Mental Academic of All Development
12 9 3 18.7 . 10.2 6.07
24 23 12 32.3 . 22.4 13.34
36 44 27 46.8 . 32.2 23.36
48 59 47 60.3 . 55.4 33.01
60 68 61 71.6 . . 66.8 39.80
72 73 71 80.4 73 74.4 44.33
84 80 83 87.1 80 82.2 48.98
96 89 95 91.8 89 90.9 54.17
108 104 107 95.2 98 100.8 60.07
120 121 118 102.01 107 110.6 65.91
132 139 132 116.5 111 121.9 72.64
144 154 149 128.6 113 132.3 78.84
156 171 165 134.6 114 140.9 83.96
168 188 180 137.5 115 148.1 88.25
180 208 194 138.7 115 155.3 92.55
192 218. 204 139.2 115 159.4 94.99
204 221 213 139.5 115 161.9 96.48
Maxima 223.3 230 140 I 115 167.8 .....

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1Per cent of development computed by dividing the
average value by the average maximum.

3 192
p
C
0
E
C:
'“ 144
0
w
<
£2
‘i’
O 96
£4
E!)
48
o

99

- — - - Norm
Denton

 

 

L L J. l_
J I I 1 I“

 

0 48 96 144 192
Chronological Age in Months
Fig. 11. Organismic-Growth Age Curve

K x.

\
\
\
K
\,

lOO

readiness, thereby withdrawing it from the vague,
unrealistic category in which most reading eXperts
have placed it. To say that a child will read when
he has approximately 70 per cent of his total height,
35 per cent of his weight, 40 per cent of his ment_al
deveIOpment is much more authoritative than state—
ments that the child will learn when “he has adequate
experiences and sufficient physiological maturity."33

With further insight into this concept of growth as a
goal Nally has made a significant contribution. The purpose

of his study was:

. . . an attempt to determine with precision the
relationship between the achieved growth in height
and the beginning of growth in reading on the belief
that such a relationship, when once established will
enable the user, under constant conditions, to pre-
dict within fairly narrow limits the time at uhich a .
specific individual should be ready to read.v
Nally found that a relationship does exist between the
point of theoretiCally determined beginning reading and per—
centage of development in height within the pre-adolescent
cycle of growth. He also found that little relationship
exists between percentage of development in height and the
chronological age which reading theoretically begins.
For the boys in Nally's study the chronological age for
reading incipiency was 77.7 months, and the percentage of

deve10pment in height mean was 72.4 per cent.

 

33Millard, School an nd Child, op. cit., p. 170.

3”T. P.F.Na11y, "The Relationships Between Achieved
Growth in Height and the Beginning of Growth in Reading"
(unpublished Ph. D. thesis, Michigan State University, 1953),

P. 5.

 

101
Denton's chronological age at the beginning of his first
reading cycle was 66.5 months. At this are, however, he had
reached approximately 71 per cent of t.is development in heigh.
within the pre-adolescent cycle of growth. This conga rescuite
closely to the fi ndirgs in Mm ly' a study.
Busch35 and Stoltz and Stoltz

using dif erent techr iQues for interpretir g growth have both

,4.
:1
C?
o

D
(D
m
f )
O
H
(D
m
0
(D
53
cf

demonstrated that he ght precedes weight 1
cycle. As is shown in Figure 10, the interrelationshiptetweg;
Denton's hei ht and weight is consistent with th .ese findings.

n considering an individual's growth from his inci-

(I)

Th
piency, at his own rate towards his uniqu maximum according
to the cyclic concept, the proportion of growth at each cycle
becomes th in ports. .t factor. The early childho cycle
normally represents fifty per cent of the average total dev—
elopment; duri n2 the cr.ildhood cycle, seventy-five per cent
is reached, and 100 per cent is approached at the end of the
third or adolescent cycle. Denton at 84 months, the end of
the first cycle, had achieved 46.98 per cent of his average
deve10pment; at 132 months, the end of his second cycle,
72.64 per cent; and, 96.48 per cent at 234 months, the en: of

the adolescent cycle.

¥

35Reuben E. Husch, 'The Relationship Between Growth in

Height and -rowth in ‘vleight'I (unpublished Master's thesis.
vichigan State University, 1954), passim.

36H. R. Stoltz and L. M. Stoltz, The Somatic Develo::ent
.EE Adolescent Boys (New York: MacMillan,19511, passim.

102
The following table illustrates the great divergence
of chronological ages at which the ten boys of this study
reached the end of the third cycle or adolescent maturity as

compared with Denton.

TABLE XXI

COMPARISON OF DENTON'S AGE AT
ADOLESCENT MATURITY TO OTHER BOYS

 

 

 

Agpgaghof Denton Boys' Average Boys' Range
Height 240.9 241.6 208.4--298.3
Weight 235.2 247.8 224.6--285.3'
Mental 182.5 200.9 160.0--287.9
Reading 181.2 190.2 159.2--257.3
Average

Achievement 166.9 197.3 l66.9--276.2
Total Average 201.3 215.5 183.8a-281.0

 

 

 

 

In every aspect of grOWth, Denton matured earlier than
the other boys of this study. Denton's age of adolescent
maturity in weight, according to the computation, was 235.2
months as compared to the average for boys of this study of
247.8 months--a differential of twelve months. In height
maturity Denton was about a month younger and he reached
adolescent mental maturity about one and one-half years

earlier. In reading he was eight months earlier and almost

103
three years previous in average academic achievement. Denton
matured according to the total average of all the aspects ap-
proximately fourteen months earlier._

It must be kept in mind, however, that age of maturity
alone does not indicate either age of incipiency, rate of
growth, or amount of maximum. In other words, this early age
of adolescent maturity does not mean that Denton was taller,
heavier, or of higher I. Q., or that he excelled in reading
or other academic achievements. The emphasis must always be
upon the characteristics of the growth of the individual, and
it must never be overlooked that the growth of the whole
organism in all its aspects is the crucial consideration.

As has been emphasized over and over again, the atomistic
approach to the study of growth is unrealistic but nonethe-
less practical and necessary for gaining insight into the

total interrelated growth of the organism as a whole.

CHAPTER IV
INDIVIDUALIZING THE CLASSROOM PROCEDURES

Restatement pf the Problem

Through insights gained from the study of the data of
an individual longitudinal case inventory, the problem of
this paper is: to discover the methods and techniques which
will lend themselves to the individualization of the instruc-
tional program consistent with sound child growth and devel-
cpment principles, and the research in the area of how
learning takes place; and, to demonstrate how data on indi-
vidual children may be helpful in planning programs of
instruction which will more realistically meet the needs of

each child.

Procedures Used
In attacking this problem the writer has analyzed and
summarized all the available data on the individual by use
of tested techniques of child study to learn as much as
possible about the individual's patterns of growth and devel-
Opment physically, mentally, academically, socially, and
emotionally. An attempt was made to draw from these data

implications which appear to be significant in terms of the

problem stated.

104

 

105

Findings Q; the Study

 

1. Within the limitations of the techniques used a
degree of relationship was found to exist between Denton's
growth in height and weight, mental ability, arithmetic, and
reading. Only in weight and arithmetic did he closely
approach the height criteria.

2. There is no evidence to indicate that Denton's
home life was lacking in adequacy,supportiveness, or securitm

3. Denton's school eXperiences were based on the trad-
itional type course of study which Was text-book and subject-
matter oriented and consequently had little consideration for
the individual's interests, abilities, and needs.

4. Motivation for the learning activitiesixltheschool
was largely artificial and exterior, consisting of grades,
marks, promotions, rewards, and punishments, and which dhdnot
seem to affect Denton's achievement significantly.

5. Evaluation in the school program Was generally in
terms of group norms rather than in terms of the expectations
which would be considered more realistic for the individual.
The teachers' grades did not reflect Denton's growth patterns
as established by the achievement test results.

6. The major purposes of the school seemed to be in
terms of the acquisition of academic skills and knowledge.
Social growth, emotional adjustment, personality improvement,

health, and like areas of competencies were not stressed.

106
7. The school and home did not work closely together
to provide an environment which would contribute to the
optional growth and develooment of Denton.

8 Denton's classrooms were teacher-centered and the

program of instruction was determined by the teacher. There
is little evidence of teacher—pupil planning either in terms

of content or method.

Educational Implications 9; the Findings

As can be seen from the preceding chapters, a great deal
of data has been gather about one individual. Data Which in
themselves and separately may not be very significant, but.
when they are brought together as a whole over a long period
of time, demonstrate the emergence of certain definite growth
and deve10pmental patterns. From these patterns insight can
be gained into how one individual grows and develOpS toward
maturity. Further, when the various aspects of growth and
deve10pment are considered in respect to their dependence upon
each other and their relationships as they affect the total
growth of the individual, Judgments can be made as to the
factors which determine or influence change of the organism
in any direction.

It has been well demonstrated that severe deprivation
Will have a negative influence upon the total growth of any
organism. It follows that a rich full environment shodhdmake

a positive contribution to all sepects of growth.

107

The case of Denton was chosen because he seemed typical
of what teachers unscientifically label as average or normal.
At least it seemed apparent from the data that Denton~was not
among the group commonly called "deprived" nor the one which
is termed "highly-endowed" or "gifted" physically, socially,
emotionally, or mentally. It was the writer's feeling that
here was a boy who rather well represented the majority ofthe
boys in the schools who are doing "all right." Teachers and
observers have described him over and over again in every
phase of his growth and development as “normal“ or "average."
They have rated him consistently in the middle category
wherever a check list or rating was asked for. He was con—
sidered neither bright nor dull, over-enthusiastic nor list-
less, highly motivated nor disinterested. It is hoped for
this reason that Denton's case might be considered as some—
what representative, so that implications for educational
practices and procedures which will be drawn may be construed
as applicable in a degree to most children in a variety of
situations.

Providing for Individugl_2ifferences. Almost all
teachers recognize the fact of individual differences and
agree with the thesis that the program of instruction must be
geared to these differences, yet too often a common diet for
all prevails. In Denton's case study there is little or no

e‘vidence that any variation of the program was made to fit

108
his particular needs. Deepite all the evidence of research
in the area of individual differences and how they relate to
the way learning takes place, the assumption, as far as prac-
tice at least reveals, seems to be that all are expected to
flourish to the same degree in a common environment and with
like opportunities. Thesachool program has been set, grade
levels have been established, norms for chronological ages
have been determined and success or failure, promotion or
retardation have been based upon these hypothetical measures,
which may be totally unrealistic in terms of an individual
and his unique growth pattern.

If practice is to change to the extent that the in—
structional program of the school is to fit more nearly the
needs of the individual, and learning is to be achieved com—
measurate with the potential of each, then the discovery of
methods of assessing the eXpectations for the individuals and
groups of individuals becomes inherent. Observation alone
based upon subjective evaluation by the teacher is not only
unscientific but is highly unreliable as a basis for providing
the best learning environment.

Changes in educational practices come about slowly and
apparently with great difficulty. The traditional methods and
procedures seem to give teachers the greatest security while
‘Variations to any degree appear to threaten and.upset them.

Even where teachers are relatively free from the pressures of

109
minimum standards of grade level achievement, rigid daily
schedules, competitive marking systems, and the restrictions
of set grade placement and promotional policies, it dees not
necessarily follow that educational practices will change, or
that the program of instruction will be more creative, more
flexible or geared more eXpressly to the Specific needs,
interests, and abilities of the individuals or the groups of
individuals. Slavish dependence upon text materials and
teachers' manuals commercially produced which allegedly fit
the needs of all children everywhere at a given grade level,
is a definite deterrent to advancement towards the provision
for individual differences which is mandatory when considered
from the child deve10pment point of view. Where this practice
exists the curriculum, which is determined not locally but on
the basis of national norms or averages, is unrealistic and
non-functional in terms of the individuals involved. Even in
the subject-centered curriculum where achievement in the
various academic areas is the eXpressed goal, this mass
approach is wasteful, uneconomical, and inefficient. It limit;
and bores the more able, frustrates and defeats the less able,
wand runs the risk of not even interesting nor challenging
those who fall in the so-called average category who are sup-
posedly somewhere near the norm. They become totally depen-
‘1ent upon the teacher for making the decisions, setting the
3L1mits within which they can operate, and assuming the respon-
3ibility for the quality and extent of their learning experi-

en ces.

110

These teachers viewed the curriculum as a certain amount
or subject matter to be covered in a specific given time. Cer-
tain books must be read, workbooks had to be accomplished
according to schedule, graded word lists [perhaps totally
unrelated to the other aspects of learning] were to be memo-
rized for spelling. Arithmetic, geography, history, art,
music, language, literature, Spelling, writing, and reading
were dealt with as separate areas distinct and apart from
each other. A certain specified time was given to each during
the week, compartmentalizing to the extent that integration of
learning became next to impossible. The teachers often ex-
pressed concern about completing all the material--”getting
through the books by the end of the year.“ In situations like
these it is inevitable that individuality is lost sight of.
First grade is the place to learn to read so that the boys
and girls will be ready for second grade. Second gradetmcomes
a time and place to accomplish this much of these things so
they will be able to succeed in third grade and be ready for
fourth. The sixth grade is the place to get ready for Junior
high school where three years will be spent gaining competen-

tzies for successful achievement in high school. As they
advance through this continuum they are somehow expected to
become more alike when actually, because of the great range
yin any group of abilities, rate of growth, interests, eXperi-

el'lces, etc., they become more individual and the range in any

111

one aspect of growth or deve10pment becomes greater, and the
need for individualizing the instructional program becomes
more pressing.

Meeting Individual Interests and Needs. At a veryearly
age Denton eXpressed an interest in things mechanical. His
father had been a pilot in World War II, was engaged in flight
training following that, and throughout the years has been the
service manager in a rather large garage. On severaloccasions
the boy exhibited not only a continuing interest but Some
aptitude as well in this area. When the observer from the
Child DevelOpment Laboratory took him in her car to attend a
movie, he spent quite some time telling her what was wrong
with the motor of her car. He said he planned to be a pilot
and his plans now as a senior in high school include the air
force for his military service and perhaps electrical engi-
neering as a vocation.

At one period of his elementary schooling he also ex-
hibited quite a bit of interest in music.

Are there ways the teachers could have used these inter-
ests of Denton's to have enriched his learning experiences and
helped him to achieve some of his own immediate goals as well
as more adequately achieve the school's academic purposes?
Surely, if it can be assumed that certain of the skills that
are so greatly emphasized by the school are 392;; to learning,

then the content which is based upon the real concerns of a

112

child might become the focus for the acquisition of these
skills. Throughout his school eXperience he has eXpressed a
dislike for reading. He does not include reading in his lei-
sure time activities nor does he read unless it is required

of him. There is no record nor reference made to supplemen-
tary reading materials accessible in the classroom. Eachyear
the reading activities centered around the basic text of the
Specific grade level. Reading throughout the elementary years
was a subject to be taught and learned rather than to be used
and enjoyed. Although Denton achieved in reading and grew in
this competency at a rate consistent with the various other
aspects of his growth, since he did not reach the grade norms
he was always faced with the necessity of striving beyond his
capacity to accomplish the material at the grade level. It

is little wonder that reading always seemed difficult and de-
feating to him. It suands to reason that if he had been
helped to feel successful in this area and had been given many
opportunities to read materials at a level which he was able
to operate comfortably, that his attitude tOWards reading may
have been very different.

Materials, of course, must be made available. A library,
rich in resources consistent with the interests, needs, and
abilities of the boys and girls, is a must for every elemen-
tary school. This means that where it is possible a trained

librarian who knows both the materials and the children be

113

employed to implement the program. Classrooms can become
places where children are motivated to use attractively dis-
played books and materials both for enjoyment and the acqui-
sition of skills and knowledge. A reading corner with com-
fortable easy chairs where boys and girls can relax and enjoy
themselves does much to encourage them to engage in reading
activities. It is not impossible nor difficult to build up

a very adequate classroom library that will satisfy both the
interest and the reading level of each child in the room.
Where there is no school library other facilities may be used;
such as, the state, county, and local libraries as well asthe
home libraries of the boys and girls. History, geography,
science, literature, health, and all the other areas of the
curriculum can be enriched by a wide use of books, periodi-
cals, and audio-visual materials geared to the varying inter-
ests and abilities of the group. When they are all reading
and studying from different sources they have a variety of
information and ideas to share with the group. In this way
the slower reader has as much that is as important to contri—
bute as does the more gifted and the learning eXperiences are
greatly eXpanded for all. It is very probable that if Denton
had been given many successful and enjoyable eXperiences with
reading that his attitude tOWards reading would be very dif-
ferent from what it now is. Everyone enjoys those things he

Can do well including the child.

114

Teachers are often heard to state that meeting individ-
ual needs is next to impossible. With thirty or morechildren
in the room it is not practical to cater to each one and his
particular whims and fancies. Children's interests, they say,
are fleeting and transitory. What they seem to be consumed
with today, tomorrow they have forgotten. The job of the
teacher is to see that they get what they need and the as-
sumption is that the course of study fulfills those needs.

Granted that there is some basis for these statements,
that interests of boys and girls do change and that all cannot
be engaged in different and separate endeavors; hOWeVer, no
one who has worked with elementary school children would deny
that they have many interests in common. Departing from the
uniformity of the same curriculum, the same material, and
identical eXpectations for all does not mean that the other
extreme be adOpted or that the subject matter that is con-
sidered so important be abandoned. Denton, as has been
pointed out, displayed an intense interest in airplanes from
an early age. One of his hobbies was making model airplanes.
His father is a licensed pilot and evidently stimulated Denton's
interest in all aspects of flying. There is no way of knowing
for certain, but there is a good chance that if one of his
elementary teachers had capitalized on his interest that she
would have found quite a good sized group of her pupils--
particularly the boys--who would have been highly motivated

115

in this area. Around this center of interest could revolve
many activities that would further the subject matter goals.
Skills in reading, speaking, discussion, writing, Spelling,
arithmetic, etc., could be enhanced in a real, meaningful
situation. Creative eXperiences in writing, arts and crafts,
and dramatics could well be an integral part of their activ-
ities. Denton's father and other adults in the community
would have become valuable resources to the group. There were
many places in theairea that could have been visited on worth—
while field trips. With cooperative planning on the part of
the teacher and the group their interests might have grown
and broadened. Such areas as weather, astronomy, rockets,
jet-propulsion, aero-dynamics, electronics, geography, history,
and probably a host of'othersto intrigue, interest, and chal-
lenge their innate curiosity and desire to learn are closely
allied to this interest. It is difficult to imagine just to
what prOportions these opportunities for real learning might
have grown.

Cooperative Planning. If children's interests are to
be considered in this way much more responsibility is placed
upon them to define their own goals and purposes, to plan
ways for achieving these ends, to carry out and follow through
the plan as well as to make the evaluation of the project or
undertaking. Leadership will develop from the group and will
be shared by its members. The teacher becomes an advisor,

consultant, and resource person who guides and helps them

116
achieve their goals. In such a situation she is not the task-
master, the judge,nor the jury. The boys and girls no longer
are working for her. Artificial motivations of exterior
rewards and punishments become useless. Assignments are self-
assumed. The children become mutually reSponsible to each
other. Each person is committed to the group to carry through
his part of the job. Achievement becomes its own reward and
there may be little need for arbitrary marks or grades.
Learning becomes meaningful, purposeful, and self-satisfying.

School eXperiences are too often totally unrelated to
out of school activities. Where children's real interests,
concerns, and problems are made the focus of the school pro-
gram the activities both in and out of school contribute to
each other. Teachers need to learn many more skills of
working cooperatively with children.

What is being suggested here is obviously what is refer—
red to in the literature as "pupil—teacher" planning and means
just this. Both pupils gag teachers have their part in the
determination of what is done as well as where, when, why,
and how it is done. The teacher still retains the respon-
sibility as theaidult leader and professional guide of the
group. The teachers', parents' and societal aims and goals
are not ignored. Many teachers even within a quite restric-
tive course of study are able to give children many opportun-
ities to make choices and arrive at decisions within the

limits that have been pre-determined.

117
Hymes has the following to say concerning the needs
approach:
'Whatever they want to do is O.K." PeOple who react
this way are apt to say: "Schools just let children
do whatever they like to do."

This accusation is in part true--perfectly true--
and it is good to face it: Children must like what
they are doing. You have no other sure way of
knowing that they have grown enough. If youngsters
like their work, seek it, and Want it, then you can
be positive that their whole deve10pment has reached

the point where they can learn . . . .
A teacher's job is to know: What are the signi—

ficant facts of life? What counts? What matters?
What changes the way peOple live? What adds to
human happiness and what ends misery?

Evaluation and Testing. The testing movement, which
received its initial impetus in the early part of this century
and which has continued to eXpand and be refined, has had as
one of its major outcomes the emphasis on consideration for
individual differences of boys and girls. Merely to discover
the range of these differences in all aspects of growth and
behavior and to recognize these is not sufficient. Teachers,
parents, counsellors, guidance persons, school administrators,
and all those concerned with the education of children and
youth are becoming more and more aware of the fact that if
growth and deve10pment of an individual is to be achieved to
an optimal degree, the educational program must somehow be

geared to the needs, capacities, interests, and abilities of

the individual.

 

 

 

37James L. Hymes, Jr., A Child Develo ment Point 9;
View (New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1953). PP. 90-91.

118

Torgerson and Adams,38 while pointing out that the

desirable effect of the testing movement brought about the

recognition of the wide range of individual differences,

listed the following undesirable outcomes:

1.

Standardized tests were frequently selected
for use in a school without consideration as
to how well suited they were to the goals of
the local educational program.

The results of survey tests were frequently
misused in an attempt to judge teaching
efficiency . . . .

. . teaching in many schools became in part
an attempt to teach for test-passing.

The tests failed to evaluate growth on a suf—
ficiently broad basis . . . . Hence,teachers'
emphasis on the outcomes tested led . . . to
an undesirable narrowing of the educational
program. What was most measurable became most

important.

Many tests have now been developed to measure the

broader goals of education; such as, personality, values,

attitudes, interests, aptitudes, understandings, appreciations,

feelings, and interpersonal relations. Evaluation of neces-

sity is an integral part of the teaching-learning process.

In elementary education there has been for

some years a growing recognition of appraisal and
evaluation as an integral, intrinsic and essential
part of the total educative process. Evaluation
has been seen not as an end activity to be done by
some external agency, such as a teacher or an exam-
ining board, on a specific calendar date; it has

38

Theodore L. Torgerson and Georgia 3. Adams, Measure-

ment and Evaluation (New York: The Dryden Press, 19555. p. 8.

 

119
been conceived as a necessary ingredient of all
learning, to be engaged in cooperatively by learner
2‘3fieieifiiiis‘3‘éefifiireoi25°§§i§iin9f “Paratia” ”m“
. g process.

Thus, the child-study approach becomes the basis for
making decisions on what shall be learned, the methods and
techniques of teaching, the kind and quality of learning eXpe-
riences to be provided, and a constant on-going evaluationfor'
making judgments as to effectiveness of the learning process
and for redefining goals and planning further learning experi—
ences in the light of these goals.

Denton's case is an example in point where evaluation
was external--something that was done to Denton. The purposes
were not his. They were the traditional subject-centered
goals geared to academic achievement measured against inflex-
ible standards and grade level norms. The evaluation became
a grade or mark given him by the teacher at periodic intervals
which was supposedly to communicate to him and his parents
the degree of his success or failure. The danger with this
is that the goals will become the marks or grades. Children
work to please the teacher, who is the sole evaluator, and to
accomplish the ends and standards which she sets for them.

They seek to gain the reward--a good mark, and to avoid the

punishment--a poor mark. They become so engrossed in this

39Agnes L. Adams, "Appraising Student Achievement and
Development,” Current Trends ;n_Higher Education, Fourth
Annual Report of the National Conference on Higher Education,

19""9 l p- 850

 

" A w~.—n—-— 4
fl. tag

120
that there is little or no time nor energy left to pursue
their own interests, or to find out about things they want
and need to know.

Where marks are used there is a question as to the
validity of the motivation for learning. In reviewing Denton's
case history it is difficult to find instances wherein he was
pursuing some interest or need of his own for acquiring a
skill, for gaining knowledge, or even satisfying an intrinsic
desire. This is summed up quite well by Elsbree:

Under the traditional scheme marks acquire an
intrinsic value and the pupirs ambition is to
qualify for the mark r— gardless of how little com-
mand he may have of the subject matter taught.
pupils are impelled to study because of the prestige
which the mark carries or the privileges which it
brings. Thus the vast proportion of pupils attach
little significance to the knowledge and skill which

they command, and selggm look beyond the mark to see
its full implication.

It is quite likely that pupils, who like Denton have
long since learned the futility of striving for higher marks,
cease not only to be motivated by them but merely maintain an
apathetic attitude of ”getting by.“

Nor is the deleterious affect upon the pupils alone.
Elsbreel+1 goes on to say that aslong as teachers can wield

the "big stick' of marks and grades this has the dang er of

 

uoWillard S. Elsbree. Pupil Progress in_the Elementary
School (New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College,
Columbia University, 1943), pp. 65-66.

Ibid.

121
substitution for good teaching. Rogers writes, referring to

marks:

Removal of the modern crutch will literally force
teachers to greater classroom efforts and better pre-
paration of their own programs. It Will also reveal
the inept Egdagogue, to himself as well as his
superiors. 4

The fears and tensions that are created as a result of
marks and the ensuing threat of failure are certainly not con-
ducive to learning. Hymes points out the lives of children

are filled with unpreventable failure of all kinds. He goes

on to say:

A little realism will tell us that children are
well acquainted with failure. We do not have to
think up ways to fail them in order to stiffen their
backbones. We do not have to serve extra helpings
of failure simply to remind youngsters that there is

such a thing.
Somehow we in school work must learn to under-

stand that failure is a sharp hunting knife if used
on a school age child. . . . The school that wields

failure like a meat axe makes gincemeat of children's
attitudes towards themselves."L

The direction the modern school seems to be going is
toward parent-teacher-pupil conferences. This method seems
more defensible in terms of the eXpressed goals ofewaluation.
Faunce and Bossing have summed up the advantages which parents

and teachers see in these conferences as follows:

 

uzFrederick R. Rogers, "Education Versus the Marking
System," Education, 54 (December, 1933). 23h-239.

'43
Hymes, _p_. ci ., pp. 90-91.

 

122

l. The parent-teacher conference provides the
opportunity for a clear, descriptive report
of pupil progress.

2. It brings teachers and parents into contact,
and provides a chance for them to get better
acquainted.

3. It encourages parents to ask questions and get
satisfactory answers.

Q. It permits reporting to be made on the basis of
the individual's own development in terms of
his own potential, instead of forcing automatic
comparisonxsith other pupils.

5. It enables teachers to find out more about their
pupils.

6. It strengthens the school-home ties, and thus
makes a significant contribution to "public—
relations.“

7. It challenges the teachers to do real evaluation.
One cannot effectively participate in such con-

ferences without first knowing something about
pupils.

When confronted with this problem teachers are apt to
blame parents by implying that the traditional report card is
not only expected but demanded by them. This may be true but
only because teachers have shunned their professional respon-
sibilities as educational leaders and consultants in growth
and'develooment of children. For example, parents have long
since learned that comparing one child with another in the

home or neighborhood is most devastating to human personality.

 

tholand C. Faunce and Nelson L. Bossing, ngeloping
the Core garriculum (New York: Preintice—Hall, Inc., 1951),

57—295.

 

123

Why then is it that they are sending their children to school
and asking the teachers to make the same odious comparisons?
It is possible that our pediatricians, psychologists, and psy—
chiatrists, as well as the eXperts writing in the women's
magazines of the day have greater status with the public. Is
it also possible that the educators have been lax in both
their knowledge of the field of growth and development, and
their ability to counsel with parents on professional matters
concerning their children? This has implications not only for
the teachers, but for the institutions who are preparing them.

Grade Placement, Promotion, and Retardation. Closely
allied to this question of marking are the problems of grade
placement, promotion, and retardation. Although in the
school in question promotional practices are based more upon
the total aspects of growth, Denton, nevertheless, was threat-
ened towards the end of the fourth grade with retardation, and,
as a motivating device, was given conditional promotion. It
was at this point that his academic achievement showed a lag
that might be inferred to be a.result of the impending threat
of failure. Also he began to exhibit behavior that was unac-
ceptable to the school. It is difficult to be sure that this
was the determining factor in the change‘vhich took place,

but it doubtless did contribute to it.

124
Sandinu5 in his study in this area pointed out the un-
fortunate psychological effects on children who were retarded.
According to teachers these children exhibited more behavior
of the sort likely to be troublesome:uniaggravating. The

study by Otto and Melbyué has shown that the threat of failure

affords ineffective motivation.

Nor does the repetition of grades help pupils to achieve
even academically. Research studies have consistantly shown
that pupils who have repeated grades do little if any better
the second time than before. In McKinney'su7 study fifty-
three per cent of the repeaters made no improvement and twelve
per cent did poorer work. In Otto'sb’8 survey the literature
indicated that about twenty per cent of the repeaters do
better and forty per cent do worse than before. He concluded
that if the objective of the modern school is the optimal

deve10pment of its pupils, "non-promotion is not the way to

get 1t,'u9 In a study of fifty-six counties by teachers and

 

u5Adolph A. Sandin, "Social and Emotional Adjustments
of Regularly Promoted and Non-promoted Pupils" (unpublished
Ph.D. dissertation, Teachers College, Columbia University,

l9b2), passim.

46Henry J. Otto and Ernest O. Melby, ”An Attempt to
Evaluate the Threat of Failure as a Factor in Achievement,"
Elementary School Journal. 35 (April, 1935) 588-596.

“78. J. McKinney, "Promotion of Pupils-—A Problem in
Educational Administration" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
University of Illinois, 1928), pgssim.

“ssenry J. Otto, Elementary School Organization and
Administration (New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., l9hh).p.232.

 

"91b1d.

125
supervisors in Virginia it was reported that the repeaters
in those counties did not show any marked improvement intheir

knowledge of subject matter after their second year in the

50

same grade.

Another reason given for non—promotion is that groups
are kept more homogeneous in their academic makeup and thus
make learning more efficient. Blsbree, however, refutes this

with the following:

Proponents of non—promotion as a device for making
teaching easier point out that the removal of grade
standards and the policy of promoting pupils who
fail to achieve them tends to increase the varia-
bility of the teaching groups and thus makes the
task of the teachers more difficult. . . . the ob—
Jective evidence does not lend support to this
argument. Investigations indicate that the Spread
in achievement where normal progress is the rule
does not differ signifgiantly from that where non—
promotion is employed.

Beauchamp takes the following strong stand in discus-
sing promptional policy:

A child's unsatisfactory progress in the elementary
school can be eXplained only by one of three reasons.
One could be a matter of lack of maturation. This
the child cannot help and only the passage of time
will take care of the matter. The second reason for
poor progress could be lack of ability. This the
child acquires by accident of birth, and again he
can do nothing about it and neither can school
teachers. The third reason could be that the child
is the victim of a poor instructional program and a
poor curriculum. Again the child has no control over
this situation. It seems to the author to be an

 

50Annual Report 3; the Superintendent 9: Instruction 3;
Commonwealth of Virginia with Accompanying Documents for the
Year 1932-33 (Richmond, Virginia: Board of Education, 19335.p.16.

lelsbree, __p. cit., p. 17. ’

 

126
immoral act on the part of an adult to fail a child
after an entire year of effort for any of these 5
reasons, since they are completely beyond his control.’

In surveying the literature it was found that there was
little or no support in the research for either thetrpditional
marking system or retardation of pupils. All the data seem to
ofint toward the ultimate goal ofeiclose relationship inifimnmpa
of evaluation among the teachers, the parents, and the pupil
so that there be a pooling of information and understanding;

a three-way assessment of growth and development consistent
With the goals and values of those concerned. This is essen-
tial to the child study approach even though various other
techniques are being used.

Providing for Personal and Social Growth. There is
little or no diSagreement on the part of educators today that
one of the major reaponsibilities of the school is to help
youngSters to make successful personal and social adjustments.
DeSpite the wide criticism that today's schoolsaire not
teaching adequately the so-called "fundamentals," business,
industry, and the professions are testifying to the fact that
lack of success on the job is mostly due to factors involving
habits, attitudes, and values which result in poor personal

and social relationships, rather than from lack of skills

or abilities.

 

52George A. Beauchamp, Planning the Elementar School
Currigglum (New York: Allyn and Bacon, 19555. p. 271.

127

If the goals of education are viewed in the broad sense
of helping individuals towards successful living in a demo-
cratic society, then the classroom becomes an ideal opportu—
nity for the kind and quality of living which will help boys
and girls to gain the necessary personal and social skills.
This does not mean that additional or different kinds of sub-
ject matter must be taught but‘fiuflzways of working with
children within the classroom setting must be established
which provide the kind of eXperiences in everyday living that
are consistent with the eXpectations of society.

Denton’s teachers considered him somewhat shy and sen-
sitive. They accepted him as a boy who was content to Sit
back and let others make decisions or take the lead. His
school eXperiences were limited to doing pretty much as he was
told. About the only choice he had was whether or not hewpuld
do it. He and the other children were allowed a minimum of
interaction with each other. In a democratic society two of
the most desirable goals are for an individual to be able to
communicate with others and to be moved to help other human
beings. These activities are considered in the traditional
classroom as misbehavior. Denton apparently needed many
Opportunities to gain competence in personal and social skills.

Teachers must begin to look upon behavior in the light
of something other than that which is to be "disciplined."

Denton's shyness was behavior. Ojeman and Wilkinson, in

128

summing up the findings of their study of teacherundcrstanding
of pupil behavior indicate:

. . . it is not enough to be concerned about "problem

children“ when it comes to personality development.

Teachers to be effective guides for learning must

know their pupils not as entities in the classroom but

as living personalities with ambitions, attitudes, con—

flicts, and problems coming from environments that vary

greatly in the encouragement or discouragement effected.

If teachers are to get to know their pupils they must
have continuous opportunities to observe them behave in all
kinds of situations. This presupposes then an environment in
which there is freedom to behave. Denton's shyness and lack
of socialization with his peers, although not extreme, was
symptomatic as is all behavior. A permissive atmoSphere where
children are free to relate to one another, where they arefree
to have differences and discover ways to resolve these differ-
ences; where they are free to communicate with and help one
another, is the only kind of setting in which they can gain
the skills that are held so important and where teachers can
discover and help them solve the real life problems that are
confronting them and keeping them from developing fully.
Discipline should be an aspect of growth rather than

something which is viewed as control which tends to narrow

and inhibit growth. Discipline is not outmoded in the con-

cept of the modern school. Sheviakov and Redl have described

 

53Ralph H. Ojemann and Francis R. Wilkinson, "The Effect
on Pupil Growth of an Increase in Teachers' Understanding of
Pupil Behavior,” Journal 2; Egperimental Education, 8 (Dec-
ember, 1939). 143-157.

129
this concept quite Well in the following four principles of
democratic discipline:

1. We want discipline based on devotion to human—
itarian principles and ideals such as freedom,
justice, and equality for all rather than dis-
cipline based on a narrower, more egotistic
affiliation of “El group."

2. We want discipline which recognizes the inherent
digmity and rightg of every human being,:rather
than discipline attained through humiliation of
the undisciplined.

 

3. We want self-direction, self-discipline rather
than discipline based on obedience to a Fuhrer.

a. We want discipline based on Endorstanding of
the goal in view rather than discipline gased
on "taking someone else's word for it."

McCall defines the socialized individual as one " . . . who
has learned to discipline his wants in such a way as not to
come into violent conflict with the wants of others."55 The
classroom should become the laboratory for experimentation in
socialization. Jennings enlarges upon this idea:

The kind of group life in which an individual parti-
cipates contributes to his personal development.
Individuals can fully deveIOp only in interaction
with their fellows. The happiness and growth of
each individual student depend in a large measure

on his personal security with his classmates. In

a group he also learns to face, to analyze, and to
assess problems in a social context, and to deve10p
ways of solving them with others . . . .

 

5“eaarge v. Sheviakov and Fritz Redl, Discipline :9;
Today's Children §9g_Youth, Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Develo ment (Washington, D. 0.: National Education
Association, l9U5 , p. 19.

55William A. McCall, “My Philosophy of Life and
Education," lgachers Collegfi Record, XXXV (April, 1934),p.569.

130

Children need approval from others of their own
age possibly more than the approval of their teachers.
They need to grow in their ability to appreciateothera
and to make a place for themselves. They should have
opportunities for socialization, for exchange of ideas,
for helping ongéanother, and for eXploring one another's
personalities.

If peer status is so vitally important to the individual
then it becomes crucial for the teacher to find ways to assess
this status. Sociometry is rapidly gaining favor among
teachers as a technique for diagnosing peer relationships.

The sociometric test is defined by Northway as:

. . . a means for determining the degree townhich

individuals are accepted in a group, for discovering

the relationships which exist among these individuals

and for disclosing the structure of the group itself.57
This book is a good resource for teachers who would like to
learn about the possibilities of the use of sociometric tech-

8 study of peer status

niques in their classrooms. Laughlin's5
is an excellent example of how a teacher's use of sociometric
techniques lends itself to sensitizing the teacher to child-

ren's group status and affecting changes to improve the social

relationships of the boys and girls in the situation.

 

56Helen Hall Jennings, et gl., Sociometry in Group
Relations (Washington, D. 0. ”American Council on Education,
1948), pp. h—S.

57Mary L. Northway, A Primer of Sociometry (Toronto:
University of Toronto Press, 19325,“ p.

58Frances Laughlin, The Peer Status of Sixth and
Seventh Grade Children (New York: Eureau of Publications,
Teachers College, Columbia University, l9#h), passim.

 

131
Emphasis upon the personal and social relationships of

boys and girls does not preclude the neglect of the so-called
academic fundamentals. It is not an "either—or" proposition.
Beauchamp in disCussing the nature of the learning process,
sums up as follows:

Finally, we must remember that in the elementary

school we are not interested in learning simply for

its own sake. We are concerned with children's be-

havior so that they might be more worthy citizens

by being able to solve their social an? personal

problems as they live from day to day. 9

Providing for Home-School_B§lations. As has been dem-

 

onstrated throughout this study, Denton is, as is each child,
a distinct, unique, highly individualized personality. He
came to school in the kindergarten as such, "bringing his
family with him." The pre-school years, from birth to approx-
imately five years, are often considered the most formative
of a person's life. They are spent almost exclusively in the
family situation. What Denton was; how he felt about people,
things, and ideas; what he thought; how he acted and reacted;
what he wanted; in fact all of Denton, was the result of the
eXperiences he had had up to this time. His complexities of
experiences had given him basic attitudes, values, feelings,
interests, needs, concerns, and habits--some of these would

be changed with great difficulty and others possibly notatzfll.

59Beauchamp, op cit., p. 131.

132

To a large extent their families have shaped thes
unique personalities. Furthermore, the home fore
that have functioned in the past will continue to
operate-~will continue to eXpress themselves in the
child's behavior--even in the classroom . . . . To
understand why each youngster thinks, feels, and

acts as he doeg<5 one must therefore know something

of his family.

.3
v
85

The entire basis for the child-study approach is as
complete a knowledge and understanding of the child as poss—
ible so that he can be helped to grow and learn successfully.
Since the home and family environment is so crucial to this
growth and deve10pment it becomes mandatory that a greateffort

be made on the part of the teacher to gain understanding of

and insight into the deep emotional relationships within the

family.
Redl and Wattenburg state that:

Very few really important problems involving children

can be solved adequately without bringing their

parents into the picture. Most of the serious gin-

duct difficulties originate in home conditions.
Nor is it Just the problem of "difficulties." There are many
positive aspects of the home conditions which can, if the
teacher is aware of them, contribute to the improvement of
the quality of living and learning of the individual. Many

times, through lack of communication, the home and school are

 

60American Council on Education, Helping Teachgg Under-
_tand Children (Washington, D.C. l9h5), p. 2
61Fritz Redl and William W. Wattenburg, Mental H iene
ig_Teaching (New York: Hourcourt, Brace and Co.. 1951 ,
Chapter‘Vf

 

133
working at cross purposes when their goals for the youngster
are the same.

Denton would have possibly benefited from a closer
relationship between the home and the school; 1.0., between
his teachers and parents. Both his teachers and his parents,
especially his mother, had academic eXpectations for Denton.
For example, both wanted him to read, to write, to figure,and
to 80611 to a certain degree of competency. The degree of
these eXpectations is what probably worked a hardship on
Denton. Denton's eXpectations for himself were formed from
those of the teachers and the parents. The teachers' seemed
to have been arrived at from the grade norms of achievement
tests and the parents'from the success of the older sister.
Time and time again Denton's mother "encouraged" him to do as
well as his sister before him. What everyone wanted in the
situation, of course, was that Denton do as well as possible
for him. There was, however, little attempt to define real-
istic eXpectations whichivould be acceptable to all concerned.
As has been pointed out in Chapter II, there were available a
good deal of data which, if they had been interpreted and com—
municated to the parent as well as to the teacher, might have
jpromoted Denton's feelings of adequacy rather than frustration.

Both Denton and his parents had certain vocational ex-
pectations for him. It is impossible to tell from the study
‘whether or not the school was aware of these. Surely, there

should have been a consideration in his school program even

134

at a very early stage in his educational eXperience. Even
now, when Denton is in the eleventh grade, his self-image
interview shows he aSpires to enter either medicine [his first
choice] or electrical engineering. Neither his academic nor
economic status seems to indicate that medicine is a wise
choice for him. The question arises: How much help and under-
standing has Denton received from the school in making this
important selection of his vocation? The school has a certain
amount of reSponsibility to both the individual and hispmrents.

There is no evidence in the study that any of Denton's
teachers visited his home. During his elementary years his
mother came to school for parent-teacher conferences.
According to the reports they were helpful although somewhat
superficial. They talked about his academic achievement, but
always in terms of "how can we get him to do better." The
mother and the teacher discussed his problems of behavior at
home and at school, but always with the idea, "How can we get
him to conform.“ As Was stated this is probably better than
no contact between the home and school, but there is the
question of how much Denton was helped by these interviews.

The goals of education in our'society are pointed to-
wards the Quality of the individuals. Education must always
'be evaluated in terms of these individuals. What contributes
to the achievement of these goals must be looked at in light

of the improvement of the product. This is the purpose of

Ihome-school relations.

135

The proof of the pudding in home-school relations
is whether or not youngsters living is improved:

1. Do they have a richer, fuller, more nourishing
life, in school and out, than Would otherwise be
open to them?

2. Do they have more consistent guidance, in
school and out, and, as a result, live more
fully at the peak of their powers?

. . . Presumably youngsters will gain in proportion
to the fullness with which a school carries on its
home— school relations. Assuming that the techniques
suggested, children's living should be improved as 62
more and more Ways of Working With parents are used.

This becomes another plea for the individualizing of
our instructional program. Lee lists as blocks to individual

instruction:

1. We do not adequately know our children. Much
more can be done in all schools in getting
better acquainted with the children, with
their home conditions, with their abilities,
with their motivations.

2. We are not too conscious Lf how differences in
background affect learning. Does a child who
has travelled widely have a better motivation
for studying geography than one who hasn't?
Does a child who has interest in science have
a better motivation for studying science?
What differences exist in children from homes
of lower social economic backgrounds? What
differences exist in their ability to use
language, in their ability to understand
various social concepts? There is some research
in this area but the most important thing is
that each faculty study their own children to 63
see what differences exist in specific youngsters.

62James L. Hymes, Jr., Effective Home-School Relations
(New York: Prentice— Hall, Inc., l§335.“ p. 22

63J. Murray Lee, “Individualized Instruction." Education,
7“ (January 195”), 279-283.

136

If good home~school relations are to be established, it
rests with the professional educators to provide the leader-
ship. The motivation already exists. It can be asSumed that
almost all parents have a consuming interest in their children.
Teachers, it must be assumed, have this in common with the
parents. As a basis for establishing good relationships
Goodykoonz suggests five points upon which parents andteachers
agree:

1. Neither group wants children to fail. Both agree
that eXperiencing frequent failure is hard on
children.

2. Neither group wants children to be pushed faster
than is good for them.

3. Neither group wants children to be caught between
the pressures of differing standards at home and
-at school.

a. Neither group believes that learning goes on only
at school or only at home. They realize that the
child is a product of his total environment, and
that he is learning all the time, many things from
many persons. Both groups want to increase child-
ren's receptiveness to new ideas and new skills.

5. Neither group believes that all that is worth
while for children 30 learn is included in the
school curriculum.6

What better bond could there be for bringing the two
groups closely together? As has been stated, teachers must
furnish the leadership. They must first of all really Want

to establish a working relationship with parents. They must

 

6nBess Goodykoonz, "Parents Can Help Educate Their
Children,“ National Parent-Teachers gagazine,XLVII (November,

1952). p. 6.

137
feel the importance of good home—school relations. They must
be convinced of the necessity of cooperation with parents for
the sake of the youngsters. Although teachers agree to this
in principle, they excuse themselves on the grounds of lack
of time, disinterest on the part of parents or administration,
or lack of "know-how" to proceed. Parents on the other hand
have still not lost their awe of the school and many still
retain their fear of and antagonism toward the classroom which
represents to them many unpleasant memories. Teachers need
first to be convinced of the importance of involving parents
and secondly, toaicquire some skills in the how of the process
of this involvement. The teachers day-to-day work is with
children. It cannot be assumed that they will all necessarily
be effective in working withaidults. More and more teacher
education institutions are recognizing this need. In some
student teaching eXperiences they are offering Opportunities
for living in communities and working with parents both in

school and community activities.

There are many ways in which teachers and parents can
work together to establish a relationship between the home
life and school life of the children. Parent-teacher confer-
ences and home visits have already been mentioned. There is
the more formal Parent-Teacher Association organization which
exists in most schools today. Many teachers, especially in

the elementary school, are finding room organization of parents

 

138
a way in which to reach these families with whom they are im—
mediately concerned. Encouraging parents, both mothers and
fathers, to visit school and help them to feel at ease by
involving them in what is going on, is another sure way of
building good relationships and furthering understanding.
Parents can be involved in many more of the school activities.
There are teachers who makeresource files of parents'interests,
backgrounds, skills, and competencies and call on them fre—
quently to participate in activities of their interest where
they can contribute. The kind of out of school social con—
tacts the teachers have is also most important. Teachersmust
begin to realize their responsibility as community members
and become involved in activities and organizations of the

community.

Conclusion. The writer has attempted in this final

 

<3hapter of the study to show how the individual longitudinal
(Base inventory serves as aliasis for curriculum development.
Uth subject matter, grade placement type of program does not
Imeet the needs or achieve the goals of modern education which
611% viewed in the light of helping individuals toward optimal
c‘leveIOpment for living successfully in a democratic society.
CEesell and others served a purpose by their general approach
tio child study from which they drew conclusions in terms of
Eiverages or norms. This approach, however, has been found
:lacking since the individual does not grow and develop con-

sistent with these averages or norms. Since learning takes

139
place best when it proceeds from the needs and interests of
the individual and is consistent with his ability then the
individual must be studied if a curriculum is to be built
which will contribute most adequately to his development and
grOWth.

In showing how this might be done for Denton on the
basis of the detailed data and its interpretation in light of
educational implications for him, this study has fulfilled its
purposes. The writer has pointed out continually how this
may be achieved with Denton and how it may be applied to other
children in the classroom. The specifics werezneantto be sug—
gestive only. No right ways or sure methods were meant to be
inferred. Many more examples of good classroom practices and
organization could have been given. A There are manyiways
of achieving the goals of the child study approach. There is
no 232 way——no bgg£_method. The writer would presume, how-
ever, that any of the various techniques and methods should
be consistent with the principles of child growth and devel-

0pment as they have been described.

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USE chy

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