PRERCIFLES 9F PEAENWG FOE SECONBARY URBAN CER'EEEZS EN BOMEIBAS That: {my i‘he Deans of M. U. D, MECHEGM STI‘I‘zTE UE'EEVELRSETY Wiiiis Wiiscn Martian 3972 LJURARY Michigan State University ABSTRACT PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING FOR SECONDARY URBAN CENTERS IN HONDURAS BY Willis Wilson Martin During the past twenty years, most nations of the world have experienced major increases in urban population. The situation in Latin America is not an exception. The demographic growth of Latin America, 2.9 per cent annually, is higher than that of Europe (0.9 per cent), the United States (1.7 per cent), and Asia and Africa (2.3 per cent). This growth is concentrated predominantly in urban areas, especially in large metropolitan centers and the capital cities. Without exception, the urban increase is sig- nificantly greater than the rural growth. The situation in Honduras is typical of the urban problems throughout Latin America. While Honduras has a low percentage of urban dwellers in cities of over 20,000 pOpu- lation (15.2 per cent) it does have one of the highest urban growth rates in all of Latin America (7.1 per cent annually between 1950 and 1960). Since 1930 the total population of the country increased about three times. In these same forty years the p0pulation in urban centers of over 2,000 increased six times while the population in urban centers of over 20,000 Willis Wilson Martin increased more than fourteen times. From this it is obvious that the urban areas of Honduras are absorbing practically all of the population increases. The largest and most important cities in Honduras - the capital Tegucigalpa (232,300) and San Pedro Sula (102,500) - have experienced phenomenal average annual increases in population in the last ten years, approximately 6.0 and 10.0 per cent respectively. This rapid increase in population resulted in the universal urban problems of.inadeguate housing, squatter settlements, overcrowded schools, poor health facilities, traffic congestion, lack of public water supply and sewage disposal facilities and.high unemployment rates. For the most part these conditions were unforseen by the city authorities and as a result few development planning efforts were initiated. In the very near future the secondary urban centers in Honduras will quite likely experience growing pains much like those presently occurring in Tegucigalpa and San Pedro Sula. Their problems will be increased by the rising expec- tation of a better life, brought about in part by the con- siderable improvements in transportation facilities and communication media. Only if the basic concepts of urban planning are known in these secondary urban centers can the .ideas and recommendations of various international agencies such as the United Nations or the Organization of American States be implemented. Yet there have been few, if any, urban Willis Wilson Martin planning books or texts dealing with the type of dayvto-day, down-to-earth planning problems which are inherent in these smaller, yet vitally important, urban centers. The aim of this thesis, Principles of Planning for Secondary Urban Centers in Honduras, is to fulfill the need for an urban planning text that can be utilized by municipal officials and community leaders who possess-little or no urban planning knowledge or experience. The thesis provides ideas and suggestions for understanding, evaluating and dealing With specific needs and problems of the secondary urban centers. The first section provides background material to convey a perspective and understanding of the urban problems in the secondary urban centers in Honduras. It deals with: 1) early Spanish city planning in the New WOrld, and the way if affected the location and layout of communities; 2) the historical growth of urbanization in Honduras; and 3) the laws relating to urban planning in Honduras and the need for a policy for channeling urban growth into the secondary urban centers. The second section of the thesis attempts to set forth a practical urban planning process for secondary urban centers in Honduras. It has been written in a style and format that will hopefully make it usable as a guide or "handbook" for conducting surveys and analyses concerning Willis Wilson Martin such topics as the fomulation of goals and objectives for urban development, the urban economy, environmental conditions and limitations, pOpulation trends, existing and future land uses and their relationships to each other and locational requirements, an evaluating of existing and future community facilities and services and the transportation system. The concluding section covers the final steps in the urban planning process: synthesis of the data, design of a deve10pment plan, and the policies and activities necessary to implement the deve10pment plan. By making use of the urban planning process secondary urban centers in Honduras will deve10p into more desirable places in which to live, work and play. PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING FOR SECONDARY URBAN CENTERS IN HONDURAS BY Willis Wilson Martin A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTERS OF URBAN PLANNING School of Urban Planning and Landscape Architecture 1972 PREFACE IIbecame interested in the problems of urban planning in Honduras while serving as a Peace Corps Volunteer in that country from 1966 to 1969. As a graduate with a BS degree in urban planning from Michigan State University I was assigned to serve as an urban planner for the Central District, which includes the capital of Honduras, Tegucigalpa. My role was one of developing an urban planning program for the Tegucigalpa Metropolitan area. This included the training of a staff of young Hondurans in urban planning techniques and methodology .and involved making numerous studies of the urban area. This urban planning staff had the responsibility of develOping feasibility studies for a variety of urban projects and for establishing a process for evaluating all subdivision and building proposals. Upon my return to Michigan State University for graduate study in urban planning in the fall of 1969, I worked with the director of the School of Urban Planning to develop a pro- gram for sending urban planning graduate students to Honduras where they could gain valuable experience and also contribute critically needed urban planning assistance to some of the secondary urban centers in the country. The program was granted administrative and financial support by the Honduran ii Office of Public WOrks, the United States Agency for Inter- national Development, the MSU School of Urban Planning and the MSU Graduate School. As part of this program I returned to Honduras with another graduate student during the summer of 1970 and prepared an urban develOpment plan for the com- munity of Danli. This plan for Danli included: an analysis of the environmental conditions affecting urban expansion, an inventory and analysis of the existing and potential land uses, an inventory and analysis of the community facilities and services with suggestions for the improvement of existing ones and the construction of new ones, a study of the existing street system and criteria for improving and extending it, population projections, and an analysis of the municipal economy in order to develop the means to implement the plan- ning objectives and proposals. Through these various experiences in Honduras it became apparent that there was a critical need for urban and regional planning in order to create a framework for making effective decisions concerning physical and social development. While municipal officials in the two primate cities in Honduras are beginning to understand and use urban planning methodology in their develOpment decisions, those of the secondary urban centers are essentially unaware of the basic concepts and benefits of urban planning. The pros- pect that urban planning concepts would be used as part of iii the_decision-making process in these secondary urban centers is greatly diminished by the fact that there is a shortage of both professional planners and planning technicians in the country. The purpose of this thesis, then, is to provide an important first step for the comprehension and understanding of urban planning practices and methodology in the secondary urban centers in Honduras. This thesis will serve to: 1. Act as a stOp-gap device for urban planning at the) local level. i 2. Enable local officials to better understand their own urban problems and put forth basic recommen- dations for their solution. 3. Stimulate and encourage a few Hondurans interested in these urban problems to enter the general field of urban planning as a profession. While this thesis, Principles of Planning for Secondary Urban Centers in Honduras, is intended specifically for Honduras, it could be useful in secondary urban centers throughout Latin America. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My gratitude goes to many people for their time and effort in helping me complete this thesis. I wish to express appreciation to my many friends in Honduras for making my stay there one of the most rewarding and productive experiences of my life. I eSpecially thank Professor Keith Honey of Michigan State University for being the chairman of my thesis committee and spending the long hours reading the original drafts of this paper. I am indebted to Professor Myles Boylan, Director of the School of Urban Planning and Landscape Archi- tecture, for his encouragement of my efforts in Honduras, especially on develOping the 1970 summer program. I express thanks to Dr. Robert N. Thomas and Dr. Clarence M. Minkel, both of whom are eminent Latin Americanist geographers at Michigan State University. Their continued support and en- couragement for this thesis and other programs relating to Honduras has been above and beyond the call of duty. In addition I thank my wife and parents for proof reading the final draft of this thesis and adding their valuable comments. To all of these peOple and the many others - Muchas Grécias. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii LIST OF FIGUMS O O O O O O I O O O O O 0 ix INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Chapter I 0 BACKGROUND 0 0 O O O O O O O O O O O l 0 Spanish City Planning in the New World . . . . . 10 Urbanization in Honduras: The Growth of Cities and Towns . . . . . . . . . . . . 16- Laws and Policies Relating to Urban Planning and Development in Honduras . . . . . . . . 33 II. THE URBAN PLANNING PROCESS - PART ONE. . . . . 49 Formulation of Goals and Policies. . . . . . . 53 Data Gathering and Analysis. . . . . . . . . 56 Maps Required for Gathering and Analyzing Data 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 59 GrOWth Determinants. o o o o o o A} o o o o 66 Economic Studies . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Environmental Studies . . . . . . . . . 80 Population Studies . . . . . . . . . . 101 Urban Land Use: Survey and Analysis . . . . . 116 Making an Urban Land Use Survey . . . . . . 119 Residential Land Uses . . . . . . . . . 125 Commercial Land Uses. . . . . . . . . . 133 Industrial Land Uses. . . . . . . . . . 140 Community Facilities and Services . . . . . 147 vi Chapter .Urban Transportation: Survey Types of Streets. . . . Street Inventory. . . . Traffic Volume Study . . Origin and Destination Study. Transit Study. . . . Street Paving Priority Study. Parking Study. . . . Affects of New Highways on the Social and and Analysis. Economic Life of the Community. . . III. THE URBAN PLANNING PROCESS - PART TWO . . Synthesis of Data and Design of Plan. 0 O O O O O O I a Deve10pment Implementation of the Development Plan. . . Residential Land Use Controls Suggestions for/Subdividing Residential Use Subdivision Commercial Land Use Controls Industrial Land Use Controls Other Controls . . . . . Occupancy Permits . Building Permits . Fees. . . . . . Historic Areas . . Setback Requirements Traffic Control . Street Layout. . . . Design Criteria for Streets Street Naming and Property N mb Street Lighting . . . Improvement Program. . Maintenance Program. . Citizen Participation Property Tax System Updating the Planning Process. Significance of the Development BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . APPENDIX 0 O O O O O O 0 vii New Areas for Standards u er '6 p..- D) :3 Page 184 185 187 189 191 192 195 196 200 206 206 211 213 230 233 238 238 239 239 240 240 242 245 250 256 261 262 263 264 264 265 266 267 276 Table '1. LIST OF TABLES Page Latin America: Average Annual Increase in Population 1950-1960. . . . . . . . . . 5 Honduras: Urban and Rural Population for Census Years from 1930 . . . . . . . . . 20 Honduras: Percentage of Urban and Rural Population for the Census Years from 1930. . . 21 Honduras: Rate of Change in Population Between 1930 and 1970 O O O O. 0 O O. O O O O O 22 Honduras: Number of Municipal Capitals- by Size 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O 26 Honduras: Population Living in Municipal Capitals, By Size 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O 27 Honduras: Ten Largest Cities for Census Years 30 from 1930 O I O I O O O O O O O O 0 viii Figure 1. 2. 3. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. LIST OF FIGURES Primacy of Cities in Honduras. . . Secondary Urban Centers in Honduras. Tentative Regions and Subregions in Honduras 0 O O O O O O O 0 Presentation of Climatic Data. . . Environmental Survey and Analysis: Topography. . . . . . . . . Environmental Survey and Analysis: Drainage . . . . . . . . . Environmental Survey and Analysis: Geology and Soils . . . . . . Environmental Survey and Analysis: Natural Resources . . . . . . Environmental Survey and Analysis: Suitable Land for Urban Development Typical Population Projection. . . Age-Sex Pyramids . . . . . . . Population Density Map . . . . . Land Use Survey: Notations on the Field Map 0 O O O O C O I ' 0 Estimating the Number of New Homes Needed in a Community . . . . . . . . Schools: Area of Influence . . . School/Park Concept . . . . . . Functional Arrangement of Streets . ix Page 25 31 41 83 88 92 94 98 100 107 111 115 120 131 164 165 186 Figure Page 18. Block Standards: Arrangement. . . . . . . 223 19. Block Standards: Length . . . . . . . . 224 20. Lot Standards: Lot Lines . . . . . . . . 225 21. Lot Standards: Length and Width. . . . . . 226 22. Lot Standards: Corner Lots . . . . . . . 226 23. Lot Standards: Back-up Lots . . . . . . . 227 24. Grading and Drainage of Blocks and Lots. 0 C O O O O O O O C O O O O 228 25. Survey Markers. . . . . . . . . . . . 229 26. Street Layout: Perpendicular to Grade. . . . 246 27. Street Layout: Parallel to Grade . . . . . 247 28. Street Layout: With Grade. . . . . . . . 247 29. Street Layout: Checker-board and Radial Plan. C O O O O C O O O O O O O O 249 30. Street Design: Reserve Land for New Highway 0 O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O 2 5 0 31. Street Design: Cul-de-sacs . . . . . . . 251 32. Street Design: Stub Streets . . . . . . . 251 33. Street Design: Half Street . . . '. . . . 252 34. Street Design: Intersections. . . . . . . 253 35. Street Design: Sight Triangles . . . . . . 254 36. Street Design: "T" Intersections . . . . . 255 37. Street Design: Separation of "T" Intersections. 255 38. Street Naming and Property Numbering System . . 257 39. Example of House Numbering. . . . . . . . 259 INTRODUCTION During the past twenty years, most nations of the world have experienced major increases in urban population. The situation in Latin America is not an exception. The demographic growth of Latin America, 2.9 per cent annually, is higher than that of Europe (0.9 per cent), the United 3 States (1.7 per cent), and Asia and Africa (2.3 per cent). This growth is concentrated predominantly in urban areas, especially in large metropolitan centers and the capital cities. Without exception, the urban increase is signifi- cantly greater than the rural growth. In Latin America there are four countries which are outstanding in their degree of urbanization: Argentina, Chile, Uruguay and Venezuela. While these nations cannot be considered representative of Latin America as a whole, the degree of urbanization in Latin America is higher than that registered in other developing regions of the world. On the other hand, analysis of the individual Latin American countries reveals striking regional variation. Central America and the Caribbean, for example, are less urbanized than most of South America. Approximately 10 per cent of the pOpulation of Haiti is in towns of more than 20,000 in— habitants, while the corresponding urban pOpulation in Argentina rises to about 80 per cent. 1 In analyzing the urbanization taking place in Latin America, Ramiro Cardona has made two observations which point to the nature of the problem:1 1. That the process of urbanization is irreversible. 2. That the migration of rural people to large cities is primarily the product of the inferior conditions of the "campesinos" in comparison with those of urban inhabitants. The United Nations World Seminar on Bettering Slum Conditions, held in Colombia in early 1970, presented in its final report several conclusions and recommendations concerning the urban problems of Latin America:2 The Problem of Urbanization and its Characteristics - - The growing concentrations of people in urban areas, which results in overcrowding and lack of acceptable accommodations for housing, is caused by the migration from rural areas and the natural increases of p0pu- lation in the urban areas. . . . - The possible solution of this crisis varies from the short range considerations of demolishing the slums to the rational distribution of money to modify the urban infrastructure of the rural areas. . . . 1Ramiro Cardona, "Aspectos sociales: Mejoramiento de tegurios y asentamientos no controlados," Revista de La Socidad Interamericana de Planificacion, Volume 4, Number 13-14, (March - June 1970), p. 55. 2Naciones Unidas, "Seminario mundial sobre mejoramiento de tegurios y asentamientos no controlados, Informe final - conclusiones y recommendaciones," Revista de La Socidad Interamericana de Planificacién, Volume 4, Numbers 13-14, YMarch - June 1970), p. 48. - The long-range solution should be directed to the progressive elimination of the causes, for example, integrating economic develOpment programs with master plans for urban and regional areas, to assure the efficient utilization of the public resources available. . . . Priorities for Improvement of the Problem - - There is a need for long range plans to diminish the and the migration to the cities by means of improving the urban-rural balance. . . . In another seminar, held in Chile by the United Nations Organization of American States in 1959, the need for but lack of urban planning in Latin America was discussed:3 There is a general lack of planning at the different governmental levels and a consequent need to encourage a favorable attitude, not only among politicians but also among the general public. The fact that the provision of services is usually made without reference to any fixed order of priority- particularly of an economic nature - invariably has an adverse effect on the economic development of the countries themselves. . . .when urban planning agencies exist, they are concentrated in the capitals. . . .- The need of local communities to plan is thus overlooked. . . . It is considered that urban growth should be more evenly distributed than it is at present, preferably within the framework of regional plans, and thus that part of the flow of migrants to huge 'primate' cities should be diverted to provincial towns. The national capitals at present exert an unhealthily strong attractive power, draining the rest of the country 3Philip M. Hauser, editor, Urbanization in Latin America, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961), p. 72. of the better educated, more ambitious and wealthier people, and tempting the government to spend a ‘ disproportionate amount for prestige purposes on their public buildings. . . .4 The need for urban planning at the local or provincial level is presented in a United Nations study of Esmeraldas, Ecuador, but could hold true for the majority of secondary urban centers throughout Latin America:5 - The location of the buildings for such important services as governmental administration, education, social assistance, health and so on was decided on without any regard for a planned development of the town but merely on the basis of such immediate considerations as proximity and convenience. The rapid growth of the town soon made these locations so inconvenient that a move to more appropriate and satisfactory sites has now become an urgent need. . . . The best policy would, of course, be to draw up a master plan for the town and to distribute and locate the various services in a way that would prove most convenient and efficient from the point of view of the town's present and future development. The situation in Honduras is typical of the urban problems throughout Latin America. While Honduras has a low percentage of urban dwellers in cities of over 20,000 p0pu- lation (15.2 per cent), it does have one of the highest urban growth rates in all of Latin America (7.1 per cent annually between 1950 and 1960) (Table l). The two largest and most important cities in Honduras - the capital, Tegucigalpa 4Ibid., p. 305. 51bid., p. 262. Table 1.--Latin America: Average Annual Increase in POpulation 1950-1960 COUNTRY URBAN RURAL TOTAL Argentina 2.8 1.0 2.1 Bolivia 3.1 1.6 2.1 Chile 2.6 0.5 ‘ 2.5 Colombia 5.4 1.0 . Costa Rica 6.0 2.5 3.8 Cuba 3.3 1.0 2.2 Dominican Republic 5,3 , . Ecuador 5.2 . . El Salvador 4.8 . . Guatemala 5.2 2.0 . Haiti 7.3 1.0 1.8 HONDURAS 7.1 2.0 3.1 Mexico 4.7 1.5 3.0 Nicaragua 6.1 2.0 3.3 Panama 3.8 2.0 2.8 Paraguay 3.8 0.5 1.5 Peru 4.0 1.0 2.5 Uruguay 1.7 0.0 1.4 Venezuela 5.8 .0.5 3.4 LATIN AMERICA Source: G. Rosenbluth, "Problemas socio-economicos de la marginalidad y la integracion urbana," Revista de La Socidad Interamericana de Planificacion, Volume 47 Numbers 13-14, (March - June 1970), p. 8. (232,000), and San Pedro Sula (102,500) have experienced phenomenal average annual increases in population in the past ten years, approximately 6.0 and 10.0 per cent re- spectively. This rapid increase in population resulted in the universal urban problems of inadequate housing, squatter settlements, overcrowded schools, poor health facilities, traffic congestion, lack of public water supply and sewage disposal facilities and high unemployment rates. For the most part these conditions were unforeseen by the city authorities, and as a result few or no development planning efforts were initiated. Tegucigalpa and San Pedro Sula are just beginning to develop planning agencies to deal in a comprehensive manner with these urban ills. While both cities have made previous efforts to utilize urban planning methodology in development decisions, most of these attempts have met with limited success. One reason for their diffi— culties has been the lack of understanding by politicians, community leaders and priVate developers of the practical benefits and uses of urban planning. If the two major urban centers in Honduras are only beginning to understand and utilize urban planning practices, what might be expected in the secondary urban centers of the country, such as La Ceiba (36,900), Puerto Cortés (23,000), Choluteca (19,500), El Progreso (19,300), Tela (14,200), Comayagua (12,000), Siguatepeque (10,600), Santa Rosa de COpan (9,400) or any of the other fifty-six urban centers of over 2,000 p0pu1ation? In the very near future these provincial centers quite likely will experience growing pains much like those presently occurring in Tegucigalpa and San Pedro Sula. Their problems will be increased by the rising expectation of a better life, brought about in part by the considerable improvements in transportation facilities and communications media. If the basic concepts of urban planning are unknown in these secondary urban centers, how can the ideas and recommendations of various international agencies such as the United Nations be implemented? Assuming, however, that local initiative does exist, there is still a shortage of‘ adequately trained personnel to fulfill the need. While the conclusions and recommendations of various seminars on urban problems in Latin America have expounded Wordy, highly theoretical theses on urban planning for cities, few if any of these forums have given considerations to the day-to-day, down-to-earth planning problems faced by the secondary urban centers of Latin America. IThere have been few, if any, urban planning books or texts dealing with the unique problems of these smaller, yet vitally important, urban centers. The aim of this thesis, Principles of Planning for ‘Secondary Urban Centers in Honduras, is to fulfill the need for an urban planning text that can be understood and utilized by community officials with little or no urban planning knowledge or experience. This paper has been written spe- cifically for municipal officials and community leaders living and working in the secondary urban centers in Honduras to provide them with the background and a basic knowledge and understanding of the urban planning process. By making use of the urban planning process these secondary urban centers will develop into more desirable places to live and work, with more and better services and facilities for the citi- zens of the community. In short the thesis provides ideas and suggestions for understanding, evaluating and dealing with specific needs and problems of the secondary urban centers. The thesis has been divided into three major parts. The first section provides background material to convey a perspective and understanding of the urban problems in the secondary urban centers in Honduras. It deals with: (1) early Spanish city planning in the New World, and the way it affected the location and layout of communities; (2) the historical growth of urbanization in Honduras; and (3) the laws relating to urban planning in Honduras and the need for a policy for channeling urban growth into the secondary urban centers. The second portion of the thesis attempts to set forth a rational urban planning process for secondary urban centers in Honduras. It has been written in a style and format that will hOpefully make it usable as a guide or "handbook" for making surveys and analyses concerning such topics as the formulation of goals and objectives for urban development, the urban economy, environmental conditions and limitations, population trends, existing and future land uses and their relationship to each other and locational requirements, an evaluation of existing and future community facilities and services, and the transportation system. The concluding section covers the final steps in the urban planning process: synthesis of the data and the design of a develOpment plan, and the policies and activities neces- sary to implement a develOpment plan. This part of the thesis has also been developed within a format which can be readily used in "handbook" form by municipal officials and community leaders. CHAPTER I BACKGROUND The kind of planning procedures to be undertaken by secondary urban centers is dependent upon a knowledge of and sensitivity for the historical, cultural, political, insti- tutional and urbanization characteristics of Honduras. This section provides, in summary form, the kind of background information necessary to comprehend the complex urban problems confronting municipal officials and community leaders. The first part is a brief review of the laws and policies of the Spaniards concerning the founding and deve10pment of cities during the conquest and colonization of the New World. These early Spanish laws and policies have had a direct affect upon the location and layout of almost every secondary urban center in Honduras. Spanish City Planning in the New World Because the Spaniards in the Old World were urban people, they were accustomed to living together in towns and cities. The Spanish manner of development was dictated by the needs of the people rather than by the precepts of a preconceived plan. The Romans while in Spain had laid out cities in a preconceived manner, but when they left the 10 11 cities reverted to developing in unorganized and unplanned ways.6 With the discovery of the New World in 1492, Spain had to face the problems of conquering, colonizing and de- fending its newly acquired territories. In order to ad- minister the newly conquered lands it was found necessary to develop cities, whether they were to be on the site of Indian towns or to be built as completely new towns. Cities would thus provide the nucleus for the political, religious and military administration of the new lands. But the conquistadores were not trained in the design of new cities nor provided with the criteria for determining suitable locations for new cities. This limitation was proved by their first attempts to deve10p new settlements almost all of which ended as failures because of poor judgement. Most of the new sites for cities picked by the conquistadores were chosen without regard to location, t0pography or any preconceived plans. Thus, many of these settlements were established in swamps, or in areas of very heavy seasonal rains, or in extremely hot areas with scant prevailing winds. Many of the sites were abandoned within a very short time after their colonization. The conquistadores' interest, of course, lay 6 Francis Violich, "Evolution of the Spanish City," Journal of the American Institute of Planners, September, 1962, Volume 28, Number 3, p. 172. 12 not in creating new cities but in finding fame and fortune. Their sole desire was to find gold, silver and new lands to conquer in the name of the Spanish King. In 1501, King Ferdinand issued some guidelines for the location and layout of additional settlements in the New WOrld: As it is necessary in the island of Espahola to make settlements and from here it is not possible to give precise instructions, investigate the possible sites, and in conformity with the quality of the land and sites as well as with the present p0pulation outside present settlements, establish settlements in the numbers and in the places that seem proper to you.7 In other words, the King left it up to the judgement of those in command to do the best they could in choosing a site and laying out a new city. At least they should give it some thought before they went ahead and established a city. As the quick riches of gold and silver were completely exploited, the conquistadores began to see that the land in itself had value and that much money could be made by owning land (and those poor Indians who happened to live on it). New demands were created for the orderly, equitable and efficient parceling of land that could be described on paper and found and marked upon the landscape. With this new demand for land, coupled with the in- adequate land policies of Spain and the inability of the 7Dan Stanislawski, "Early Spanish Town Planning in the New Wbrld," Geographical Review, 1947, Volume 37, p. 95. 13 conquistadores to carry out these policies, the King in 1513 issued some additional instructions concerning the establish- ment of cities and the distribution of land: One of the most important things to observe is that. . . the places chosen for settlement. . . be healthy and not swampy, good for unloading goods; and if inland to be on a river if possible, . . . good water and air, close to arable land. . .-. In view of these things necessary for settlement, and seeking the best site in these terms for the town, then divide the plots for houses, those to be according to the status of the persons, and from the beginning it should be according to a definite arrangement; for the manner of setting up the lots will determine the pattern of the town, both in the position of the plaza and the church and in the pattern of streets, for towns being newly founded may be established according to a plan without difficulty. If not started with form, they will never attain it. Stanislawski states that these instructions imply the use of the checker-board street pattern - that is, streets running parallel or at right angles. He also points out that "The lack of a definite and detailed description of the grid may be the reason for its failure to appear in the New World for years after these instructions were given."9 This along with the great time lag of communication across the Atlantic Ocean and the hectic times themselves probably also prevented, in part, these new instructions from being implemented. Other related instructions were periodically issued from Spain to those conquering and colonizing the New World. 81bid., p. 96. 9Ibid., p. 96. 14 But, it was not until 1573 when Philip II sent comprehensive instructions for the location and layout of cities that the checker-board pattern was finally imprinted on the New World. Some of the highlights of those instructions are as follows: In selecting the province, region, and area that is to be settled, always keep in mind that it should be healthful, which can be known by the number of healthy old people and youths of good constitution and color, and by the healthy fruits and other provisions. Do not select the places of great elevation, since the winds are bothersome, and the service and transport are difficult, or very low places, for they are usually insalubrious; select places of intermediate elevation that enjoy fresh air - especially coming from the north and south - and if there are mountains or hills near the site, they should be to the east or to the west, and if for some reason a place of considerable elevation must be chosen, see to it that it is in a place that is not subjected to fogs; if the site is by a river, it should be placed to the east, so that the rising sun touches first upon the town before it touches the water. Having selected the site for the town, it must be in an elevated place, where there are healthy conditions, protection, and fertile lands for farming and pastures, fuel and building materials, good water, natives, con- venience of transport, of easy access, open to the north wind. If it be on the coast, care should be taken that it be a good harbor and that the sea should be neither to the south nor to the west; if this is not possible, do not place it near lagoons or swamps in which are poisonous animals and polluted air and water. . . . The four corners of the plaza face to the four principal winds, because in this way the streets leaving the plaza are not exposed to the principal winds, which - would be of great inconvenience. The plaza should be a rectangle, prolonged so that the length is at least half again as long as the width, because this form is best for celebrations with horses, and for any others that are to take place. The size of the plaza should be proportional to the population, taking into consideration that in Indian 15 towns, since they are new and intended to increase, the plaza should be designed with such increase in mind. It should not be less than 200 feet in width and 300 feet in length nor greater than 800 feet in length and 532 in width; a good prOportion is the intermediate size of 600 feet in length and 400 in width. If the town is a port, the main plaza should be at the harbor. It should be in the middle of the town in inland places. For the cathedral, parish church, or monastery there is to be the first assignment of lots after the streets and plazas are laid out. Then mark out the places for the palace, the town hall, the customs house and the arsenal. Thus, the checker-board street plan was imposed on the land in the New WOrld, and where there have been variations from it they have been because the lay of the land made it impossible to follow the official plan. Since the checker-board street plan has been the basis of almost every secondary urban center in Honduras, it is important to look briefly at the advantages and disadvantages of this deve10pment pattern. Some of the major advantages include:11 - The checker-board pattern offers an excellent system to divide and distribute land easily and equally. All of the parcels of land - lots and blocks - are rectangular land themselves to very efficient and compact use of land. lOIbid., p. 102. 11Dan Stanislawski, "The Origin and Spread of the Grid-Pattern Town," Geographical Review, 1946, Volume 36, p. 106. 16 - It is a facile system because all of the streets are straight and no specialized tools or skills are required for layout. - Once the system has been laid out it can be easily ex- tended indefinitely. The disadvantages include: - The difficulty of adapting straight streets to topographic features such as hillsides and ravines. Usually develop- ment that has occurred in these rugged areas has varied from the checker-board layout. - The checker-board street pattern does not provide con; venient access from the edge of the city to the center. Thus in some cases radial streets have been superimposed upon the checker-board pattern to aleviate this transpor- tation. - The checker-board pattern is monotonous. Today's planning in the secondary urban centers of Honduras is complicated by the old grid-system. But the systems is there, and it must be lived with. In many cases the development of new modes or transportation, such as automobiles, buses and trucks, has rendered the Spanish grid- pattern obsolete. But this has not reduced the ability of the urban centers to attract an ever increasing number of people.- There has, in fact, been tremendous growth in the urban areas of the country as compared with the overall growth of Honduras. Urbanization in Honduras: The Growth of Cities and Towns Settlements vary in Honduras from a village of several huts strung out on the mountainside to complex urban centers 17 such as Tegucigalpa and San Pedro Sula. Each community reflects the physical site and the cultural heritage of its own people. While there are several large urban centers in Honduras, the majority of settlements are small and de— pendent on the agricultural environment that surrounds them. The use of the term urban to describe a particular settlement creates a problem because of the official govern- ment definition of urban that is used in Honduras. Up to” 1961 the capital of each municipality (cabecera municipal) was considered urban whether it had a p0pu1ation of ten or 10,000. This definition was based only upon the adminis- trative function of the settlement and not its size. Ac— cordingly, in 1950 there were 271 urban centers, one for each of the municipalities. Beginning with the 1961 Census the definition of urban was changed. Now the term urban is based upon the number of inhabitants and the existence of certain community services within a settlement. Thus, an urban center is now defined as having the following: 1,000 or more residents; A primary school with six grades; At least one of the following services; a post office, public telegraph or public telephone; A road or rail connection to other settlements or regular air or maritime service; A piped water system; and 18 -'Electricity.12 Applied to the 1950 census, as many as 165 of the 271 communities previously considered urban did not comply with even the basic criterion of 1,000 or more inhabitants.l3 With the use of the new urban definition, the 1961 census showed that there were some sixty-three urban settlements. A majority of the municipal capitals were no longer classi- fied as urban. Thus, in 1961, 23.3 per cent of the total’ population of Honduras lived in urban areas. The remaining p0pulation was classified as rural, that is, living in villages (aldeas), hamlets (casarios) or in isolated houses. The difficulty in using the current Honduran defi- nition of urban is that most other countries and international agencies classify urban as those settlements with 2,000 or more residents. International agencies such as the United Nations consider "urban" as being settlements with a p0pu- 1ation of over 20,000. By not having a standard definition of urban, it is impossible to compare data from Honduras with other countries or regions of the world. For example, in 1961 Honduras had sixty-three urban centers under the pre- vailing urban definition; with the 2,000-or-more urban 12Walter D. Harris, Hans A. Hosse, and Associates, Housing in Honduras, (Washington, D. C.: Pan American Union, 1964), p. 14. ‘ 13Ibid., p. 15. 19 definition there were 37 urban centers; while using the 20,000-or-more classification there were only 3 urban centers. For this reason the data that follow use three definitions of urban: (1) all municipal capitals; (2) settlements with 2,000 or more inhabitants; and (3) centers with over 20,000 residents. The present Honduras definition of urban is not used because it is impossible to apply to the censuses of previous years or the official census estimates for 1970. The total population of Honduras for the censuses of 1930, 1940, 1950, 1961 and 1970 estimates are presented in Table 2. The data for the country as a whole have been divided into one rural and the three above mentioned urban classifications. [In his demographic analysis of Central America and Honduras, Gibson states that: "The most important aspect of urbanization [since 1930] in Honduras is the increase in the size of aggregates [municipal capitals] . .'. and the increasing concentrations of aggregate population in cities."14 Table 3 shows this marked increase in the per cent of people living in centers of over 20,000. The per cent of the total p0pu- lation has risen from 3.2 per cent in 1930 to 15.2 per cent in 1970. The percentage of rural population has remained 14Jeffery R. Gibson, A Demographic Analysis of Urbanization: Evolution of a System of Cities in Honduras, El Savlador, and Costa Rica, A Thesis, Cornell University, 1970, p. 154. : 20 .mmammflosmma .onmalhmma .moflummmo a mmmpam co m mmuoumnmo cw Hmuou cwflomflnom .mOmsmU m mowumflpmumm op flamenco cmfloomuwa .ohma .mufiwum>flcs Hamcnoo .mflmmna d .momm mumou can .HOpm>Hmm Hm Twenspcom cm mofluflo.mo Emummm M NO soausao>m. “HOADMNHGMQMD mo mammamnfl owemmumosmo s enemnww .m hummmmb "mmousom .umm nmm.vmm mmm.omm nmmemvm Hmm.mmn.H mmmeammem onma ohmenam nmaemmm mvm.m>m mmmeaamea mmh.vmmea Hmma emmemm vma.hm~ mmvevmv mmaeevm momemmmea omma mamehm Hmm.ona vmm.mmm mmm.mmh mmmehoaea ovma mumehm mhmemaa mamemmm mmmeaam vmaeemu omma ooo.~ ooo.~ Ho>o Hw>o mumpnmo mumpsmw mamuflmmo Hmmfloficsz mowummmo a mmmpam cowumasmom _ swans (P .1, Hansel; deuce ommH Eoum mums» msmswo How nodumasmom amusm one seems "mmnppcomnl.~ magma 21 .mmammwosmma .onmalhmma .mOwHommo w mmmpam cm M mmumomnmo cm Hmuou smflomanom .momcmo m moaumwpmumm mp Hmumcww spfloomufln .oema .suemumpwmo Hemeuoo .memoee 4 .mowm mumou paw .HOpm>Hmm Hm .mmuspcom ca mwflufio mo Emumhm 0 mo soflusao>m "cofiumNHcmnHD mo mHmMHmsfl oanmmumosma d .GOmnwo .m mummmob «moousom .umm w~.mH wh.mm wh.~m wm.nm onma mm.HH wH.Hm wv.om wm.mm Hmma wm.m wm.ha wo.am wo.mm omma mH.m we.mH wH.mm mm.oh ovma w~.m wa.ma $5.0m wm.mm ommH ooo.~ ooo.m Hm>o um>o mamufimmu Hmmwowssz mowummmo a mmmpad muwucoo mnmucmu swamp . . Hausa omma Eonm mummy mumcmu on» you cowumasmom amusm can amen: mo mmmusmuumm unsuppsomnu.m manna 22 relatively stable, while there has been an increase in the percentage of peOple living in settlements of over 2,000 residents. The growth of the large cities has been the dominant feature in the demographic growth of Honduras since 1930 (Tables 2 and 3). Gibson further states that: "It is not the levels of urbanization that are striking, as much as it is the rate of change.15 Table 4 shows the rate of change in the p0pu- lation of Honduras. The urban centers of over 20,000 resi- dents show a dramatic rate of growth since 1930. Table 4.--Honduras: Rate of Change in Population Between 1930 and 1970. Total Population ‘ Increased 3.0 times Rural Population Increased 2.9 times Urban POpulation Municipal Capitals Increased 3.2 times Settlements over 2,000 Increased 6.1 times Centers over 20,000 Increased 14.3 times Since 1930 the total p0pulation of Honduras increased about three times. In these same forty years the p0pulation 151bid., p. 242. 23 in urban centers of over 20,000 increased over fourteen times. This illustrates the fact that the larger cities of the country are absorbing most of the population in- creases. The monumental problems that this creates in the provision of services and facilities in the cities are almost out of hand relative to the capacity of local govern- ments to deal with them. In 1970 there were only four cities of over 20,000: Tegucigalpa, San Pedro Sula, La Ceiba and Puerto Cortés (Figure 1). It is within these four urban areas that the tremendous population growth is taking place.' The need to provide some alternative locations is necessary. The secondary urban centers of the country must begin to provide new serv- ices and facilities to help relieve some of the growing pains in the four primate centers. The present is toward the concentration of peOple in a small number of cities, creating a dominant urban hierarchy in Honduras. Plans and policies must be established for the accelerated development of secondary urban centers to help relieve and demand for goods and services in the four major centers. Table 5 shows that there has been a marked increase in the number of municipal capitals that have a population of 2,000 or more. The number has grown since 1930 from twenty to 66 municipal capitals with populations greater than 2,000 This is an increase from 7.4 per cent of the total number of municipal capitals with p0pulations in excess of 2,000 in 24 1930 to 23.5 per cent in 1970. Concurrently there has been only a slight increase in the number of municipal capitals that have a population of 20,000 or more. The data in Table 6 shows the total number of people living in municipal capitals since 1930 based upon settlement size. The percentage Of peOple living in municipal capitals with a population of over 2,000 has sharply increased from 42.8 per cent in 1930 to 80.6 per cent in 1970. The percentage of the population living in municipal capitals of less than 2,000 inhabitants has correspondingly decreased from 57.2 per cent in 1930 to 19.4 per cent in 1970. There has been a tremendous increase in the percentage of those who live in municipal capitals of over 20,000 population, from 10.5 per cent in 1930 to 46.6 per cent in 1970. The data presented in the tables above have illus- trated the urban phenomenon that has taken place in Honduras in the past 40 years. They have shown a tremendous in- crease in the number of residents in settlements of over 2,000 people, and especially the spectacular growth of urban centers of over 20,000 people. An examination of p0pulation data for the ten largest cities in Honduras in each of the censuses since 1930 (Table 7) reveals clearly the dominance of Tegucigalpa and the spectacular growth of San Pedro Sula as compared with the slower growth and expansion of other cities in the country. 25 240,000 220,000 Source: Direccién General de 200,000 Estadfstica y Censos. 180,000 160,000 140,000 120,000 100,000 80,000 60,000 40,000 20,000 1 10,000 I rllln- oI.llllllIll m m m 0: :0 o m m 0) <0 ~4 m 0. F1 12 \m o 0: r4 5 s 1: vi a H :3 0) 4J m m m U. o1 c c F: m m -a u +1 :4 E4 m m mvu w m U: L) o s tn >1 (L mix :3 o -a o L) r4 0 m m ()0 -H o H m 0 L1 2 u 910 .u s 11 e: o n a. o m s m m .u U C) s m b m m H F! u. a B 0 n1 -H s c s a: m c m m m Figure l.--Primacy of Cities in Honduras - 1970 ‘..J|l.linr .) i 26 .umm “we.av e Awm.mmv mm Awm.mhv mam Hmm ohma Awa.av m Amm.mav mm Awa.mmv oem mum HmmH Amm. v m Awm.mav em va.nmv ham Hum omma lee. v m lem.eev mm lwm.mmv new mam came Awe. v H Awe.n v om Awm.~mv Hmm. Hum omma boo.e~ u0>o ooo.m»u0>o ooo.m amps: mamueamu Hemeoeesz mo "coaumasmom gufiz mamuwmmu Hmmwowcsz Honssz Hmuoa muwm we mamuwmmo Hmmwowcsz mo Honssz “mauspso :I.m manna 27 .umm Awm.mvv hmmevmm Awm.omv Hmvemmm va.mav mhmemma humemvm onma Awm.hmv chmeham Awm.mmv hom.mmm Awm.omv mmmeehfl Nvmemnm Hmma AwH.NNV vmmemm Amm.mmv vmmemmm AwH.va mmeehma mmwevmv ommH Awm.omv mamebw Awm.mmv Hmmeona Awm.hwv mamemma vmmemmm ova Amm.oav mumehm Awm.mvv mhmemaa Awm.hmv mmveoma mamemmm ommH oooeom Hm>0 oooem Hm>0 ooo.m HOGGD mawuflmmo Hmmwowcsz "GOwDMHsmom auw3..mamufimmo HMQAOficsz aw mcfl>wq wamoom «6 Henssz Hence mnwm mm .mamuwmmo Hmmwowcsz cw mcfl>flq sowumasmom unsuppsomli.m manna 28 The two cities have been the largest urban centers by far for the past forty years. The growing importance of the north coast, with its banana plantations, new industrial areas and seaports, has made it the fastest growing region of the country during this period. Of the ten largest cities in Honduras in 1970, five are in this north coast region (Figure 2). Besides San Pedro Sula, they include La Geiba (3), Puerto Cortes (4), El Progreso (6), and Tela (7). Choluteca (5) is the capital of the department of the same name in the southern region of the country. It owes part of its growth to the fact that it is located on the Pan American Highway, which has connected it for years with neighboring Central American countries and with Tegucigalpa. Comayagua (8), once the capital of Honduras, experienced a decline in growth until the road was completed from the north coast to Tegucigalpa. Siguatepeque owes its growth to the highway to the north. In 1970 a new paved road was opened to the north coast which could bring a wave of growth to these two cities. I Santa Rosa de COpan is a regional center in western Honduras. It is located on the important road from the north coast to El Salvador and Guatemala. It is now in the process of being made into a first class paved highway. ”Trujillo declined in rank and importance, because of the failure of the banana plantations which suffered disease 29 during the 1930's. Subsequently, the economic base of the community was lost and the banana plantations were abandoned. In 1970 Trujillo had a population estimated at just over 5,000, which would rank it the nineteenth largest city in Honduras. A departmental capital Juticalpa grew because of the construction of a highway from Tegucigalpa during the 1950's. In 1970 its estimated p0pulation ranked it as the twelfth largest city, with a population of over 8,000.16 The present birth rate in Honduras is 49/1000, one of the highest in Latin America. The natural increase is 3.4 per cent per year, which is very high compared with 17 At this other Latin American countries and the world. rate, the population of Honduras would double in about twenty years. Data on the urban growth characteristics for most of the primary and secondary urban centers in Honduras are not available. Only in Tegucigalpa have there been some studies made to understand where the tremendous p0pulation increases are coming from. Census studies show that Tegucigalpa is growing at 6 per cent per year, which means that the city 16A complete ranking of the cities over 2,000 p0pu- lation in Honduras, based upon their 1970 population, is presented in the Appendix. - _ l7POpulation Reference Bureau Inc., 1971 World POpulation Data Sheet - Revised Edition, (Washington, D. C.: Population Reference Bureau Inc., 1971). Table 7.--Honduras: 30 Ten Largest Cities for Census Years from 1930 1930 1940 1950 1961 1970 est. Tegucigalpa Tegucigalpa Tegucigalpa Tegucigalpa Tegucigalpa (27,573) (47,223) (72,385) (134,075) (232,276) San Pedro San Pedro San Pedro San Pedro San Pedro Sula Sula Sula Sula Sula (13,130) (20,392) (21,139) (58,632) (102,516) La Ceiba La Ceiba La Ceiba La Ceiba La Ceiba’ (10,237) (11,293) (16,645) (24,863) (36,863) Tela Tela Tela Puerto Puerto Cortés Cortés (6,041) (8,969) (12,614) (17,048) (23,032) Puerto Puerto Puerto El Progreso Choluteca Cortés Cortés Cortés (6,014) (7,019) (12,228) (13,797) (19,501) Trujillo Santa Rosa El Progreso Tela El Progreso de COpén (6,018) (9,150) (13,619) (19,300) Santa Rosa El Progreso Choluteca Choluteca Tela de Copan (5,196) (5,409) (7,075) (11,483) (14,250) Choluteca Choluteca Santa Rosa Comayagua Comayagua - _ de COpén . (3,716) (5,057) (6,417) (8,473) (12,123) El Progreso Comayagua Comayagua Santa Rosa Siguatepeque de Copan (3,696) (4,758) (5,192) (7,946) (10,653) Comayagua Trujillo Siguatepeque Juticalpa Santa Rosa . . de Copan (3,676) ( ) ( ) (7.210) (9.412) mMH9pcom aw muoucmu scans mumcaoommul.~ musmwm mW/ cameo soauosuumcoo Mecca -2: can on . H m mcfiumwxm 1|: mumshmflm m onsao e we, mumucoo swans bmpcoomm C fimflflwHUsOMB HHGMQ '''' \\.III \\ mmamoau issix. msvmmmumsmam .\MW . :wmoo up / mmom musmm agape we ® ouumsm smooo Ofiucmaud mMMMWU 32 will double in population in about twelve years. An im- portant characteristic of this growth is that over 50 per- cent of the increase is the result of internal migration, rather than fertility.18 A detailed study by Nance and Thomas in Tegucigalpa revealed the following characteristics of the migration to the capital:19 1. The fertility levels of migrants exceed those of the native population. 2. Migrants from rural areas have higher fertility levels than migrants from urban places. 3. Generally, the migrants' fertility level is in- versely related to the size of the community where they were born. In other words, the rapid migration to Tegucigalpa brings with it higher fertility rates, which add to the skyrocketing p0pulation growth. ~ The data collected in Tegucigalpa for the above study indicate that the migrants to the capital were ". . . coming 18Direccién General de Estadistica y Censos, Censos nacional de Honduras, (Tegucigalpa, Honduras: Direcc1on General de Estadistica y Censos, 1964). 19James V. Nance and Robert N. Thomas, "Place Factor as a Fertility Differential: Tegucigalpa, Honduras" in Population Dynamics of Latin America, (Muncie, Indiana: Conference of Latin Americanist Geographers, forthcoming). 33 from other urban areas and from relatively prosperous agri- cultural areas that are accessible to Tegucigalpa."20 “The process of urbanization in Honduras is inevi- table and of growing prOportions once completely dependent on agriculture to one that is more orientated to producing goods and services. This process of urbanization is facilitated by the modernization of transportation and communication facilities, the provision of water and sewer services, the extension of electrical power facilities and construction in general. To deal with and develop solutions for the many problems of urbanization presently facing Honduras, it is necessary to examine the existing legislation and policies concerned with urban planning and deve10pment in the country. Laws and Policies Relating to Urban Planning and Development in Honduras Existing legislation in Honduras that deals with urban planning and deve10pment is found in a variety of laws. The Law of Municipalities gives power to the local govern- ment to plan and direct the development of the community. These powers are spelled out in Title VII, Articles 58 to 20Stanley D. Brunn and Robert N. Thomas, "The Migration System of Tegucigalpa, Honduras" in Population Dynamics of Latin America, (Muncie, Indiana: Conference of Latin Americanist Geographers, forthcoming). 34 61,21 which deals with such things as the maintenance of public buildings, parks and streets, the protection of people and property, the maintenance of tranquility in the com- munity, the protection of the community's health, the pro- motion of traffic safety and the promotion of the general welfare of the peOple. Because of very limited economic, administrative and technical resources, the municipalities .have not been able to develop facilities or provide the essential services as stated in the law. Various laws creating institutions to help deal with these urban problems at the local level have been adopted. A law22 creating the Municipal Autonomous Bank was initiated to create a financial institution to help the municipalities obtain funds to provide some of the essential urban facili- ties and services which they lack. All of the municipali- ties in Honduras contribute 5 per cent of their annual budgets to the Bank to provide the necessary capital for it to function. The Bank, however, has not been able to 21Ministero de Gobernacion y Justica, Asesoria Municipal, Ley de Municipalidades y del Negimen Politica con sus Reformas, (Tegucigalpa, Honduras: Ministerio de Gobernacion y Justica, 1927), p. 10-12. 2Direccién General de Obras Pfiblicas y Urbanismo, Anteproyecto de 1ey de Planificacién Urbana: Version Modificada, (Tegucigalpa, Honduras: Direccién General de Obras Pfiblicas). 35 provide anywhere near the amount of money that the various municipalities have requested. Another law, written in 190623 and amended in 1933, created certain standards for the widths of streets, blocks and lots and other elements of construction in general. This type of regulation is now completely out of date and can only hinder future planning efforts in the municipali- ties. Other laws of interest include the one that created the Association of Honduran Municipalities, an organization dedicated to resolving common problems that affect the municipalities. It seeks sources for loans or grants and technical help for public works of local interest. The Law of Community DevelOpment24 was established in the 1960's to promote ideas and methods for coordinative efforts in providing urban facilities and services to the residents of the various municipalities. These efforts are to be carried out by creating community action groups to promote projects that would benefit the community. There exists a group of laws which grant specific functions to various departments of the central government and to independent and semi-independent institutions. The 23Ibid., p. 10. 24Ibid., p. 10. 36 Ministry of Public Health has the function of protecting public health and providing health centers. The Ministry of Public Education is in charge of all educational matters, including the construction of primary and secondary schools. The Ministry of Communications and Public Works controls those activities relating to highways, telegraphs, telephones, public buildings and other public structures. The National Autonomous Water Supply and Sewerage Service, the National Housing Institute and the National Electric Power Enterprise were created to provide the services which their respective names indicate. In an attempt to coordinate the various agencies and institutions, a law creating the Economic Planning Council was passed in 1965.25 The objective of the Council is to formulate plans for economic development in the country. This is done by attempting to coordinate the various programs, projects and activities of all governmental agencies. The CounCil formulates national development policies for the country as a whole, for regions and for urban areas. All of the laws and other regulations obligate the central government, its various agencies and institutions and the municipalities to give consideration to the problems of planning for urban and regional deve10pment in order to 251bid., p. 12. 37 adequately provide for the comfort, health, safety, and convenience of the people. Despite these efforts, the process of urban planning on the local level has still not been effective. This failure is partly due to the lack of an adequate legal instrument and lack of administrative and technical abilities to analyze the facts, to make projections, to formulate goals, to make development plans and to carry out the pro- posals. In an attempt to overcome urban planning problems at the local level, the Ministry of Communications and Public Works has recently develOped a prOposal for a Law of Urban Planning in Honduras.26 The first part of this proposal deals with the preparation of a National Urban DevelOpment Plan that would analyze the possibilities of (l) increaSing production by regions, (2) providing for an adequate demo- graphic distribution, and (3) maximizing the return on public monies invested. It would coordinate the efforts of all the agencies and institutions of the government, along with those of the Economic Planning Council. 26Ibid., p. 12-29. Also see: Direccién General de Obras Pfiblicas y Urbanismo, Informe numero uno: propuestos bases para una 1ey de planificacién urbana en Honduras, (Tegucigalpa, Honduras: Direccién General de Ubras Pfiblicas y Urbanismo, 1969). 38 The proposed law would give the Office of Public WOrks and Urbanism explicit powers for urban planning and for the implementation of regulations to control development in a cooperative effort with the municipalities. This office, as a centralized and specialized agency, would have the advantage of being able to offer administrative and technical personnel as well as financial assistance to the municipali— ties. The proposed law lists the elements that a develop- ment plan for a municipality should include, such as policies for development, land use, circulation, community facilities and services, economic programs, and regulations for imple- menting the development plan. The municipalities would retain the power to make deve10pment plans for directing their growth and eXpansion, while the Office of Public WOrks and Urbanism would provide the administrative and technical assistance to each municipality requesting it, and would help it make a development plan. After gaining approval from local officials, the plan would have to be approved by the Office of Public Works and Urbanism before it would be the official policy of the municipality. This prOposed Law of Urban Planning in Honduras is being considered by the National Congress, and the debate relative to its merits and deficiencies continues. 39 One of the most important steps taken to date by the Honduran Government in the field of urban planning has been the regional planning effort conducted by the Urban and Regional Development Section of the EconomicPlanning Council. This office has develOped the rationale for regional planning and has divided the country tentatively into ten regions.27 Regional planning is important because it can be used to help determine priorities for the financing, develop- ment and construction of projects within the entire country. For example, not only is it important to know the number of new hospitals that should be built in the country, but it is crucial to determine where these new health facilities should be located to provide maximum services and benefits to the maximum number of people. Regional planning can provide some of the rationale and criteria for making these investment and development decisions. 27Consejo Superior de Planificacion Economica, Sector de Desarrollo Urbano y Regional, Definicion por municipio de regiones y subregiones, (Tegucigalpa, Honduras: Consejo Superior de Planificacion Econémica, 1967); Distribucién regional de poblacion y actividad econémica de Honduras - §§Cumento de trabajo, (Tegucigalpa, Honduras; Consejo Superior de Planificacién Econémica, 1968); Informes regionales: los diez regiones, (Tegucigalpa, Honduras: Consejo Superior ae Planificacién Econémica, 1967-1968); Introduccién a la planificacion regional: c0pia borrador,—TTegucigalpa, Honduras: Consejo Superior de Planificacion Econémica, 1968). 40 Many agencies of the national government have divided the country into regions for their own administrative pur- poses. Since these agencies have acted independently, there has been no standardization of the regions nor agreement on the criteria for determining them. Therefore, the data collected to help determine needs and priorities for specific programs and projects on a national level have been gathered from an overlapping, confusing and bureaucratic system of regions. The result has been a system of regions that are not uniform or fruitful for the purposes of coordination between the different agencies, or for the determination of national priorities. The Economic Planning Council has attempted to resolve this problem by tentatively dividing Honduras into ten regions (Figure 3). This division would serve all of the government agencies and would make possible the comparison of data gathered for all of the regions and a determination of priorities at both the regional and national level. In most cases the various government agencies have regional offices located in cities throughout Honduras to help carry out their particular functions. The principal city in each of the ten regions which houses most of these governmental service offices has been designated as a regional pole. In other words, each regional pole has been determined monspsom cw mGOHmoHInsm can mcofimmm o>wumucoall.m gunmen .MOAEonoom cOHUMOHMflcmam mp uoflummsm ohmocoo .Hmcofimmm a oceans oaaoummwo mp uouomm “mousom ‘_‘v \tfiMv scammnnnsm.ll sounmmm I mammwosmm_ ‘ .v as: 42 by the services that it offers, and the area of influence it serves. Within this system of regions with their re- spective regional poles, the Economic Planning Council has developed a system of subregions and sub-poles. A sub-pole would serve the ordinary needs of the population located within that community, but the procurement of special items or services would require travel to a regional pole. Thus, there exists a_system of smaller subregions and sub-poles which operates within the system or area of influence of larger regions and poles. The type of pole depends upon the services offered and the size of its area of influence. It is important to understand that while a community like Tegucigalpa is a Central American pole, it also serves as a regional pole within Honduras and as a subpole for those living in or close to the city. Therefore, it provides many people with a wide range of services and with a varying area of influence, depending upon the type of help desired. The system of regional poles and sub-poles is based upon given criteria that can change. For instance, if a new highway or a large medical complex is constructed in a com- munity, it would drastically change that community's area of influence and could cause replacement by another com- munity within that region as the regional pole or sub-pole. This might happen because the new facility created a whole new pattern of inter-dependencies between this community and surrounding ones. 43 The tentative regions and sub-regions.in Honduras as developed by the Economic Planning Council were intended to be used for three principal functions: - As statistical areas in which to gather data and make studies. As service areas to be used in planning the develop- ment of physical and social infrastructures by various governmental and private agencies. As areas for programming development based upon national and sub-national plans and in terms of the spacial distribution of the activities in which this development is planned. The Economic Planning Council gathered and analyzed various types of data in helping determine the basis of these tentative regions. Some of the data used include: Types and potential of agricultural lands. Location of valleys for agriculture. Climactic zones. Mineral and other natural resources. Population - totals, density, urban_and rural. Location and size of urban areas. Number of students and literacy rates. Immigration flows. Internal migration flows. System of transportation - highways. Banking activities. Human resources - doctors, lawyers, engineers, etc. Services and facilities available. 44 - Public investments. - Per capita income. All of these data and more have been published for each of the ten regions in Honduras and are available from the Section of Urban and Regional DevelOpment of the Economic Planning Council in Comayagfiela, D. C. There are also many maps and data sheets available concerning the regionalization of Honduras which can provide a wealth of material for the region in which a particular secondary urban center is located. In Honduras, most of the population is still in rural areas. However, there is an increasing migration to the urban areas, which is causing an extremely rapid growth of urban centers as compared with the country in general. This rural migration to the urban centers can be advantageous for the country only if a balance is maintained between this process and the deve10pment of employment Opportunities and the necessary social services. If farming and ranching are done with primitive methods it usually creates conditions in which wages are low, production is insufficient, public services are deficient and the amenities of life are scarce. This causes the rural peOple to migrate to urban areas with the h0pes of finding better employment and educational oppor- tunities. If agriculture is mechanized, many laborers are put out of work and they, too, are forced to the urban areas 45 to look for employment. This phenomenon has occurred in Honduras and is happening in all of the develoPing countries of the world. What is necessary is not to stop the migration from the rural areas to urban centers, but to control it and direct it to those secondary urban centers that can best provide economic opportunities for the peOple. The demographic migrations are often made in steps, the peOple moving progressively from a village to a larger community and finally to a large urban center. If there is not a definite policy for the decentralization of industry, government and social services, the flow of migrants will eventually reach one city, usually the capital, such as Tegucigalpa, or one or more other large cities, such as San Pedro Sula. This rapid migration to one or two urban centers creates such tremendous pressures on existing transportation systems, housing stock, employment oppor— tunities, pollution control, urban utilities, public safety, and the educational and health facilities that the larger centers can no longer keep up with the demand for the essential elements of urban life. This situation creates the likelihood of dis-economies of scale in specific sectors or activities in the urban centers. Continued p0pulation concentrations may point to expensive new technologies as the only means of overcoming these problems (dis-economies) thus intensifying even more the tendency of the primate 46 centers to focus the nation's power and resources on itself. Primate cities, - the seats of political, economic, cultural, administrative and demographic power - tend to resist the deve10pment of power in the secondary urban centers of the country. These secondary urban centers help feed the growth of the primate centers through the loss of their own human and other resources to that center, while getting very little exposure to modernization in return. There is an urgent need for a national policy to deal with all these problems of urbanization. This policy should assure that public and private investments are distributed around the country, based upon the capability of the various secondary urban centers and the regions around them to increase production and provide employment. Such a pOlicy with emphasis on the development of the secondary urban centers can: 1. Reduce in a healthy way the dominance of the national economy by a single major urban center. 2. Help to avoid dis-economies of soale on the urban infrastructure and services in the primate cities. 3. Help to vitalize and modernize the regions served by secondary urban centers. '4. Help in the deve10pment of transportation links throughout the country. 5. Contribute to a more rational distribution of economic resources, such as industries, services, etc. 6. Help in the distribution of national income. 47 '7. Help in the development of those regions that are underdeveloped compared with the country as a whole. With the approval and implementation of a national urban policy in Honduras, the flow of migrants to primate centers can be controlled by develOping secondary urban centers to attract these migrants. Thomas and Brunn point out that "Migration is related to economic development and opportunity, and thus its spatial causes and consequences -merit careful consideration by various governmental agencies."28 The deve10pment of these secondary urban centers would require the construction of new highways, creation of employment opportunities and the provision of urban services such as schools, hospitals, housing, water and sewage, electricity and many other services to stem the growth of the primate cities and deve10p the secondary urban centers as alternative growth areas also creates the need to approve, in some form, a Law of Urban Planning. The passage of this law would i provide for a comprehensive approach to develOping the secondary urban centers for new and expanded functions which they are to serve as spelled out in the national urban development policy of the country. The prOposed Law of Urban Planning, or any alternative to it, must provide technical assistance, upon request, to these secondary urban centers. The new role of the secondary 28Brunn and Thomas, op. cit., (forthcoming). 48 urban centers as defined in the national urban policy would create a demand for urban planning technicians far in excess of the number presently available to provide this service. There is presently a shortage of people schooled in the principles of urban planning, or knowledgeable as to how the urban planning process should relate to these secondary urban centers. The following sections of this thesis provide guidelines in "handbook" form which may serve as a practical intermediate or stOp-gap measure to improve and increase urban planning and urban management skills in the secondary urban centers in Honduras. CHAPTER II THE URBAN PLANNING PROCESS - PART ONE Urban planning in Honduras is not a new function or reaponsibility of the local government. Officials in every secondary urban center make numerous decisions daily con- cerning the location of a new building, the extension of a particular street, or the eXpansion of a specific community facility or service. All of these decisions are concerned with planning, whether the officials know it by that name or not. The problem is that many of these decisions are made without an understanding of how they relate to each other and to the total deve10pment of the community. The function of the urban planning process is to provide the community with "the most logical means of solving the numerous problems resulting from the growth of population, the expansion of industry, and the changes growing out of technological and scientific deve10pments._ The economic benefits of intelligent planning are reflected in lower tax rates, stability of investments, and better business oppor- tunities, and ...social benefits are attained through the deve10pment of better cultural Opportunities, convenience of 49 50 living, and the amenities of home and community life."29 "Planning is a process of government which looks to the future for the purpose of influencing and well-being of the people. Planning should encourage study of the community in the light of modern technology and current economic and social trends. It should seek to protect the good features of the community and to improve those which.are substandard. Planning is essentially a process of understanding human needs and of influencing and shaping future public policy to serve those needs most effectively.... Thus, in its operations, planning involves both organized foresight and corrective hindsight."30 These are the functions of the urban planning process: 1) to provide a guide for the orderly development and expansion of the community; 2) to insure that growth will be harmonious by preventing an undue intermixture of incompatible land uses; 3) to create a more desirable, efficient and satisfying living environment; and 4) to "provide information and advice necessary to insure that priority will be given to projects) in order of their importance and [to insure] that all govern- mental functions will be carried on in the best possible 29Donald H. Webster, Urban Planning and Municipal Public Policy, (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1958), p. 4-5. 30 Ibid., p. 4. 51 relationship to each other."31 Planning is a continuing process which involves five basic steps: STEP ONE. Formulation of goals and objectives. This should direct the planning effort toward the best possible social, economic and physical environment for a community. STEP TWO. Data gathering and analysis. These should involve a survey of trends and existing conditions with respect to pOpulation, economy, urban land use, transpor- tation, natural environment, community facilities and services and other elements pertinent to the community, and an analysis of the facts obtained in the survey, including identification of problems, potentials, and relationships. STEP THREE. Synthesis of the data and formulation of a development plan to achieve the stated goals and objectives. This should include recommendations relative to the location and character of prOposed land uses, community facilities and services, major highways, and other important transportation facilities. STEP FOUR. Implementation of the prOposals presented in the development plan. This should include various methods of carrying out the plan, such as ordinances, 31Ibid., p. s. 52 permits, fees, eminent domain and.improvement programs. STEP FIVE. Continual updating and analysis of new data. This should produce information that might result in a need to change or modify assumptions on which the deve10p- ment plan was made. The planning process "consists of methods and tech- niques to coordinate and bring into harmony the uses made of land and the numerous and varied public and private structures placed upon it. These varied structures and uses - regardless of who builds and Operates them — are parts of the same community organism, and their purposes and the uses are related and interdependent. Unless design, coordination and adjustment are applied in determining their location and relation to one another, and unless all are located in accord with a general plan for the deve10pment of the community, serious maladjustments and deficiencies are likely to ensue. The process of applying foresight and coordination to the location, extent and timing of public and private improvements in order to prevent or minimize maladjustments, deficits, and deficiencies is what is meant by the urban planning proc- "32 ess. 32The International City Managers' Association, Local Planning Administration, (Chicago, 111.: The Inter- national City Managers' Association, 1959), p. 10. 53 The use of the urban planning process by local of- ficials and community leaders in the secondary urban centers of Honduras is, at present, non-existent. To help these decision-makers begin to understand and use the concepts of the planning process there is need for a document which sets forth basic techniques, sources of information, and procedures. With this need in mind, the following is a detailed, step-by-step guide for developing a planning program. It provides the principles for data gathering and analysis, and the subsequent design and implementation of a development plan for secondary urban centers in Honduras. Formulation of Goals and Objectives "City planning is the systematic and continuing application of organized knowledge and foresight in pursuit of Clearly defined and properly related urban development objectives. Physical form and function, the most Obvious manifestations of city planning, are not the only elements of planning concern. The physical city is both a cause and effect of the social and economic city; and social and economic considerations are given increasing weight in urban . "33 plann1ng. 33Frederick H. Bair, Jr., Planning Cities, (Chicago Ill.: American Society of Planning Officials, 1970), p. 18. 54 The urban planning process is a technique applied through local government to guide public and private actions for the common good. The kind of planning and the way it is implemented should vary according to the kind of local government it is to serve. "Planning adOpted to government capabilities can be very helpful, but planning with tech- niques for maintenance which are too complex or too expensive, with objectives which are too sophisticated, with implemen- tation which is beyond ability to administer, may lead to disenchantment with all planning. In short, the kind of planning should be adapted to the kind of government. It should produce improved governmental effectiveness and improved governmental structure and organization."34 The first step in the urban planning process should be a careful preparation of a statement of major development goals and objectives for a community. In too many cases, the planning process begins with immersion in basic studies, that is, data gathering and analysis, withOut any thought as to what the information is to be used for. "This is not a matter of deciding how we will plan, or what details will be included in the plan, but what we are planning for."35 A sample list of planning goals and objectives for a secondary urban center in Honduras which can provide the 34Ibid., p. 19. 35Ibid., p. 19. 55 basis for planning and the decision making far into the future might include the following: Create and maintain a better living environment for health, safety and welfare of the people. Provide better living conditions by developing adequate housing Opportunities for all peOple, and by improving subdivision designs. Promote a rich and diversified balance of living, employment, recreational and cultural opportunities for all elements of the population. Prevent misuse and waste of land throughout the community by establishing an orderly pattern for future growth and deve10pment. Provide adequate educational facilities and oppor- tunities. Provide adequate community facilities and services. Provide a functional system of streets for the efficient and safe movement of traffic. Protect and conserve the natural environment - the air, water and land. Improve and enhance the economic base of the community and provide ample employment Opportunities. Attain a high standard of governmental service and a minimal level of public expenditure and taxation within the community. Create an environment reflecting the values of inhabitants of the community, recognizing the indi- viduality and vitality inherent to it. Formulation of these goals and objectives should begin with active participation of the community residents. A citizen committee could be appointed by elected officials to develop some goals and objectives for the community in 56 limited areas without vested interests controlling or di- recting their efforts. This committee should include leaders from all sectors of the community, such as business, in- dustrial, civic, and neighborhood groups. The committee should determine goals and objectives which the community should pursue in order to guide its future growth. Opinions of residents in the community could be actively sought through an opinion survey, results of which would guide the committee in formulating tentative goals and objectives. Public meetings should be held to discuss the tentative goals and objectives for the community. The committee should then finalize these goals and objectives and submit them for approval to elected officials. The elected officials should then adopt these goals and objectives as the official guidelines for future policy and deve10pment decisions in the community. The ensuing steps in the urban planning process and all subsequent programs and projects in the community should then be assessed in the light of the official goals and objectives which have thus been established. Data Gathering and Analysis Essential information for planning in a community is provided through research. The purpose is to obtain data on the physical, social and economic setting of the community, 57 limitations and opportunities inherent to the natural environ- ment, physical changes man has made and is likely to make in this setting, and characteristics and trends in the growth and needs of the p0pu1ation, land uses, community facilities and transportation systems. Research includes examination of the community as it was (historical trends), as it is (existing deve10pment and policies), and how it might be (future considerations and constraints upon the growth and development of the community). Data gathered for the community should note both positive and negative characteristics so that policies and programs can be implemented which accentuate the positive and reduce or eliminate the negative aspects of development. In proposing a deve10pment plan, all of those factors must be considered in relation to the peOples own desires and needs regarding the future of their community. The objective of this step of the planning process is to provide a factual basis which will insure the optimum deve10pment and expansion of the community. This is ac- complished by analyzing the demands of the community for such things as employment opportunities, housing, community services and facilities; and then by comparing them with the potentials of the natural, physical, social and economic environment which are available to meet these needs. The potentials and demands for deve10pment are based upon 58 opportunities and limitations provided by the natural en- vironment and the social and economic forces which cause the growth (or decline) that lead to change in the community. Data and findings gathered from a survey of the community will be valuable not only to municipaliofficials directly concerned with the welfare of the community, but also to health officials seeking a site for a new hospital, utilities investigating areas of new development where they can plan for and extend their services, private groups.searching for an ideal industrial site for proposed manufacturing activities, or individuals looking for an area to build where basic urban services will be available and adjoining land uses will not be a health or safety hazard. The data gathering and analysis step of the planning process is important because it brings together the factual material upon which future development decisions will be made. It provides the background upon which the municipal officials will make a deve10pment plan for the community. This data gathering and analysis step should include information on the following items: - Growth determinants, which include the urban economy and the economic base of the community, the natural environment and the constraints that it places on the eXpansion and development of the community, and the trends, projections and characteristics of the community's p0pu1ation. - Urban land uses which include existing and potential residential, commercial and industrial areas and 59 community facilities and services. - Transportation system, which includes the capacity and function of existing streets within the com- munity. Maps Required for Gathering and Analyzing Data Among the most important tools used in the gathering and analysis of data are maps. Taking information acquired in the survey of a community and putting it on a map fa- cilitates analysis and quickly relates it to the areas for which it was collected. For example, by plotting on a map the parks and recreational facilities in the community, one can locate and visualize these sites instantly, and can analyze them in terms of their spatial distribution and location relative to other urban land uses, such as resi- dential areas. Therefore, the first step is to obtain or make some maps of the community so they can be used in record and illustrate the datagathered in the land use survey. Presented below are some of the maps needed for a planning effort in a community and some possible sources for which they might be available. A location map is one of large scale that shows a community and its relation to the surrounding area. It can be of several types: one might be of a Honduran community ‘with its location shown in relation to that of Tegucigalpa and the other major cities of the country. The major 60 highways of Honduras would also be on the map, especially those that connect the community with the rest of the country. Another type might be a map of the department in which the community is located, showing the principle cities, roads, and natural features that relate to that community. A location map with more detail might illustrate the munici- pality in which the community is located with the surrounding development, agricultural lands, highways and natural features that relate to the community. A locational map usually does not show the exact street system of a particular community. Rather it shows an overview of the community as it relates to the environment, whether this be natural or man-made. A base map is one that shows the streets of a com— munity and the area immediately surrounding it which would affect the location of future urban expansion of the com- munity. The base map usually shows the community in its center, bOunded by one or two kilometers of adjacent land. In special cases, where the city is located on the edge of a body of water or at the base of a mountain, the map would have the community on one side and the adjoining countryside on the other. Base maps of a community are used to determine specific land uses, to locate transportation facilities and to indicate which adjacent lands might be deemed favorable or unfavorable for urban expansion. 61 Some of the types of maps.(and their sources) which are available in Honduras for use in the survey of secondary urban centers are as follows: - Geodetic Survey Maps. These are maps (1:50,000) with contour lines for every 50 meters of elevation. These would serve as excellent location maps, showing the location of the community in relation to the surrounding area. The geodetic maps show all of the man-made and,natural environ- mental features such as roads, streams, mountains, wooded areas and communities and other settlements (aledas and casarios). Each of these topographic maps covers an area of approximately 500 square kilometers. By fitting tOgether several maps of adjoining areas it is possible to make a large map that covers areas such as an entire municipality. This would help put the particular community under study in better perspective in relation to the larger whole. The geodetic survey maps are of a scale too small to serve as an accurate and detailed base map of the community. But if no other maps are available, they would be useful in identifying certain areas of the community that are un- suitable for construction because of irregular tOpography. Also, it is possible to enlarge sections of such maps to make more detailed maps of the community. The resulting maps will not be completely accurate, but they will give an 62 overview of the tOpographic conditions in the community. The geodetic maps also show other features, such as wooded sections which might be used to determine natural areas where recreational facilities might be located. All of the surface water courses noted on the maps would be useful in determining general drainage patterns in the community. These geodetic maps are available to municipal governments upon written request to the National Geographic Institute in Comayagfiela, D. C. - The Office of Statistics and Census has published a book of maps for the principal communities in Honduras. These maps vary in scale, depending upon the size of the community, but all of them show the streets and public buildings in the community. While many of these maps are outdated, they can provide an excellent foundation from which to make a base map. These maps should be taken to their respective communities for field check for making additions or correc- tions that reflect changes that have occured since they were originally drawn. These community maps are available upon request from the Office of Statistics and Census in Comayagfiela, D. C. - Air photographs of a community provide an excellent source for making a base map. The air photos can be enlarged to a desired scale and a map of the community can then be 63 traced from them. This provides an easy way to make a base map which can be very accurate. After tracing a base map from an air photo, it is necessary to make a field check in the community to correct errors and to make additions for those areas that have expanded since the air photo was taken. From this map, along with the field check, a final accurate base map for the community can be drawn. Air photographs, taken at various times and at various altitudes, can provide an invaluable resource for the further study and survey of the community. Rivers, wooded areas, roads, lot lines, buildings, agricultural and grazing areas and the general lepe of the land can be determined and accurately mapped. Air photos taken several years apart will show the recent pattern of growth in the community. Air photos can also provide help in making the environmental survey and the land use survey. While air photographs are not available for every community in Honduras, most of the larger communities have been photographed. The National Geographic Institute has a list of these communities which includes the dates on which the photos were taken. Copies of these air photo- graphs can be purchased from the National Geographic Insti- tute in Comayagfiela, D. C. The National Geographic Institute contracts to have air photos taken of certain communities periodically. If a community finds that there are no air 64 photos available a request to the National Geographic Insti- tute by the municipality stressing the need for the air photographs to help in making base maps, land use studies, and environmental survey for the community might bring action the next time contracts are made for-air photography. Various governmental agencies have made maps of certain cities where they have conducted projects. Some of these agencies that might have maps-include: - The National Autonomous Water Supply and Sewerage Service which usually has maps of their water and sewer systems in those communities where they have built or presently maintain services. - The National Electric Power Enterprise, which commonly has maps showing its utility lines in the communities where electric power service is provided. - The Office of Statistics and Census, which has maps of some communities as a result of making census tracts and presenting census data. - The Office of Highways, which has maps of various communities as a result of highway location studies. It also has highway studies made by consulting engineers which frequently include maps (and other important data) for particular communities. - The Ministry of Public Works and Urbanism, which has some maps of communities where it has had projects. 65 Old maps and other historical data are often available in the community itself. Files and archives sometimes have these materials that are important for the planning effort in the community. Old maps can be used in noting the historical growth of the community. The scale used in making a base map for a community should depend upon several things. First, the map must be of a usable size. It must be large enough to show the data that are to be presented but not so large that it cannot be placed on a large table in order to be viewed and worked on. If a larger map of a community is desired, it is best to divide the community in sections and draw each portion of the community individually. Maps showing the various lot lines in every block may need to be of this unusually large scale and may cover only part of the community in each segment. All of the maps, if placed together, would make an extremely large map of the entire community, but if drawn as one map would be unmanageable. The scale of a base map depends upon the size of the community and the area around it which is available for deve10pment. All maps should be of a uniform scale, such as 1:500 or 1:10,000. This is important because if the need should arise to change the scale of the maps, it will be much easier to do so if the scale is uniform. Since the 66 base map has many uses, it is essential that the original drawing can be easily COpied. COpying machines usually will not take any drawing wider than 42 inches. Thus, it is important that the scale selected for the base map does not require paper of greater width. Finally, since a base map not only includes the present urbanized portion of a community but also the surrounding area in which urban expansion might occur in the future, it is important to use a sacle on the base map that will accommodate both. Otherwise, when the city does expand a new map must be drawn. Growth Determinants An urban planning program for any secondary urban center should begin with a study of those factors that will influence or determine the growth of a community. These include study of the urban economy - "a key consideration in gauging the amount and rate of land development that is 36 likely to occur in a city"; environmental studies - essential to determine those areas suitable for urban development; and population study which "supplies a basic yardstick for the estimation of Space needs for various categories of land 37 use." All three of these, taken in concert, provide a 36F. Stuart Chapin, Jr., Urban Land Use Planning, (Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1965), p. 103. 37Ibid., p. 181. 67 framework for the planner of growth constraints within which subsequent judgements and estimations are made con- cerning the future growth (or decline) of a given community. Economic Studies The study of the economy of any secondary urban center is an essential step in the planning process. The term economy not only refers to manufacturing, agriculture, fishing, and mining, but also to trade, finance, transpor- tation, government, and other services using the community as a base of Operations. Chapin points out the importance of studying the urban economy by stating, "The destiny of an urban center is controlled by the extent and character of its productive or income-producing activity and by its general vitality. Studies of the economic basis for this activity hold the key to how the city has develOped to where it is today and what its future prospects are."38 A com- munity prospers because it serves as a center for the pro- duction and/or distribution of goods and services, which in turn create jobs and other employment Opportunities. Chapin continues, "Viewed in these terms, the urban economy thus conditions the amount of land deve10pment that occurs. For example, an expanding economy with the implications it holds for new businesses and industries and p0pu1ation 381bid., p. 107. 68 grthh means more land going into use. Similarly, economic forces that are responsible for leveling off or declining trends in economic activity also exert influences on the pattern of urban land uses in the city."39 Urban economic studies also have importance because population forecasts and estimates are based upon the ability Of the local economy to provide employment Opportunities. A survey of the urban economy should begin with an examination of reasons a particular community exists economically. Is the community a port where goods are shipped in and out? Does the community possess some natural resources that can be sold to other communities? Is the community an agri- cultural trading center which serves the needs of the surrounding territory? Is the community the seat of political power? Is the community strategically located for the distribution of goods? Does the community have unusual climate or scenery that could attract tourists? The economic reasons for the existence of any community may be found in the answers to one or more of these questions. What is important is to determine the reason for the his- torical existence of the community and to find ways to per- petuate its ixistence. If a community hOpes to survive it must maintain its inherent economic advantages, and if it 39Ibid., p. 107. 69 wants to prOSper it must seek new markets for its particular goods or services in order to provide new employment Oppor- tunities for its residents. 4 Once the historical economic perSpective of the community is determined and understood, the study of the urban economy should focus upon the principal causes of change that have affected the local economy over the years. Perhaps a community has lost its economic base because of natural disasters, such as diseases, floods or volcanic eruptions. Trujillo, in the Department of ColOn on the North Coast, rapidly lost its economic base because of the spread of diseases in the banana plantations. The result was a drastic decline in the importance of the community and a loss of economic advantage over other areas which were involved in the growing of bananas. Technology has created many changes in the local economy of some communities. New roads send traffic around smaller communities which once acted as service areas in the movement of goods and peOple. Siguatepeque is the halfway point between Tegucigalpa and San Pedro Sula where buses once stopped and passengers could rest before continuing on their journey. New, the new paved road speeds people on their way to either city in half the time and without need for a stOpover in Siguatepeque. And this community is rapidly losing its eocnomic base of providing services to travelers. 70 Communities that have lost their particular economic advantages, for whatever reason, must look.for, find and deve10p new ways to provide an economic base. - An important need of every community is to have an economic base that is "balanced", that is, a base that is not completely dependent upon one good or service. In short, the local economy must be sufficiently diversified so that if adversity should affect a given economic function it will not cause the complete collapse of the community. The community that has only one good or service for its economic base is vulnerable to fluctuations and changes in the demands and requirements for that item. Therefore, it is extremely important for such a community to broaden its economic base to include more than one good or service. Another form of imbalance in the local economic base results from lack of year-around employment opportunities. Many agricultural communities experience great demand for labor during part of the year and practically no demand for the same labor force at other times. The coffee producing areas of Honduras are noted for this extreme imbalance in employment Opportunities. 1 Some economic activities are noted for low wages. A community that has these types of economic activities suffer because it is unable to generate.enough capital to develop and eXpand new facilities or services. 71 Other economic imbalances may include the.lack of housing or other services and facilities that workers might demand. Thus, while there might be the potential for ex- panding the economic base of a community, it becomes next to impossible to do so because the community does not offer basic urban services such as water and sewers, electrical power or recreational and cultural facilities. Therefore, new industries and businesses that might have moved into the community locate elsewhere, because other communities can provide the services and facilities needed or desired. All of these forms of imbalance in the local economy, and especially that of little or no diversification of the economic base, cause many difficult problems for the com- munities in which they exist. While there are no set rules or instructions to follow in order to eliminate these economic imbalances, there are a number of things a community can do to ease such problems. One is to encourage and develop the use of new agricultural crOps. This is especially important for the community with an economy based entirely upon one crop. These new crOps might help to even out the seasonal fluctuations in the employment Opportunities that a community can offer. The planting of new varieties of crOps which can be harvested during the previous slack months could give a community a new lease on life by providing year-around employment opportunities. And certain industries could be 72 encouraged which would need workers only seasonally, ideally during those times which were previously slack times. Promotion of the community for certain industries that might find it an advantageous place to locate could help broaden its limited diversification and make the economy less dependant upon one industry or crop. Some communities in Honduras are develOping new tourist at- tractions that can provide certain facilities and services for those on vacation from the bigger cities. With the expanding paved highway system in the country, the tourist potential for those communities that can offer something unusual, such as historical sites and recreational areas, is being tapped. In developing tourist trade, secondary urban centers will have to provide services and facilities that tourists demand, such as good hotels, good roads, good hospitality and recreational Opportunities. Where the potential exists for new economic activities but the ability to provide even minimal services and fa- cilities is lacking, the entire community should be encouraged to program, plan and finance certain services that would attract new industries. Investments in these basic services could soon be returned in the form of new revenues from jobs and taxes. These kinds of public investments can help diversify the local economic base of the community. 73 To begin any program which broadens the economy of a community, it is necessary to examine the existing economic base and the potential for future economic ac- tivities. This is part of the planning process and should be included as one of the growth determinant studies of each secondary urban center. The Office of Statistics and Census in the Ministry of Economy and Finance has made an occupational classification of economic activities in Honduras. This classification includes agriculture, mining, industry, construction, commerce, transportation and services. The latest census lists by municipalities the number and percent of economically active people in each one of these occupational classifications. A survey of this data will reveal how the people living in each of the municipalities make a living. Of importance, besides the number of peOple in each type of occupation, is the income derived by each of the various economic ac- tivities. While exact income data might be difficult to obtain, municipal officials should work with the local Chamber of Commerce to determine approximate incomes generated by each occupational group. Based upon this income data they can determine what occupation generates percentage-wise the most income per worker in the community. Most likely it is not the same occupation that has the most workers, namely agriculture. The income data will help determine 74 thoSe occupations that should be encouraged to locate in the community - those that pay well and provide good po- tential employment Opportunities._ Some data are available in the Agricultural and Industrial Census concerning income generated from the sale of goods from the community. There is also a need to survey the industrial concerns to determine their relative im- ‘portance in the community, based upon the number of people employed, wages paid, and the future plans each concern has and the problems it faces. Every community has an economic area of influence. While this area may vary, depending upon the product or service being offered, communities are continually struggling to expand their areas of influence. Larger cities may be able to expand their area of influence at the expense of secondary urban centers because of new roads and their ability to provide goods and services more efficiently and clearly to communities along the highway. The secondary urban centers must determine in advance of the completion of new highways the economic effects - both positive and negative - that these new roads will bring. How will the road affect the community's area of influence? Will new business and industrial concerns take over the business of the community by selling goods and services cheaper to the peOple? These are some of the questions the community must face and answer. 75 From the survey of the existing economic base it is necessary to determine the potential.for each of the various types of occupations. By consulting with leaders in each of the occupational groups some insight may be obtained into the potential economic base that each one provides. If one industry or occupation group is planning to expand, it is important to know the reasons for expansion, the size of the planned eXpansion, and.the number of new jobs that will be created. The expansion or closing of industry will directly affect the pOpulation projections that have been made for the community. A community with an increasing population must find. more and better employment Opportunities for its residents or there will be an out-migration of people and a decrease of influence of the secondary urban centers as it relates to the rest of the country. The community leaders should be very interested in these future employment Opportunities and should help to determine those areas where opportunities will be expanding or declining. In an attempt to determine future employment Oppor- tunities in a community it is necessary to be aware of the priorities and investments being formulated and encouraged by the national government for public works.and for private businesses and industries. Community leaders and municipal officials should be constantly aware of national priorities 76 for the encouragement of industries and the investment of new capital within their communities. Financial inducements made by the national government can directly affect the types of industries that will locate in various communities. The national government is the develOper of many new projects, such as roads, telegraphs, and various public buildings that can directly affect the local community by providing jobs in the construction and management of new facilities; After surveying the various economic activities in the light of past trends and future plans there should evolve some guidelines to make a gross estimate for the various land uses and areas required in the near future. Certain types of economic activities require large parcels of land near transportation facilities while others require smaller parcels that can be located close to residential areas for convenience. Some of the new industries might create nuisances and health hazards in the forms of noises, smells and/or smOke that will require that they be located somewhat away from the residential areas of the community. Most new commercial and industrial activities will require the extension and expansion of certain community facilities and services, such as water, sewers and electrical power. All of these must be dealt with in making a gross guide for land uses and requirements and locations for expanding the economic base of a community. The gross land use guide is important 77 because the make-up of the economic base bears directly upon the health of the city and its economy, pOpulation and land uses. There are some important factors that affect the economic base of any community - factors which bear on the expansion of present economic activities and the possible development and construction of new ones. - The first factors concerns the markets available in the community and the surrounding trade area pertaining to the good or service being offered. If an industry can produce a good and distribute it over a wide area from a given community, this community would be more ideal for the industry than a community with only a small trade area. - Another factor concerns the existing economic ac- tivities in a community and how they can affect new in- dustries that consider locating there. If certain economic activities exist in the community, there is the possibility that similar industries might move into the community to make use of the same economic advantages that caused the first industry to locate there. The north coast around San Pedro Sula provides a good example. On the contrary, if existing economic concerns are having difficulties, this may discourage new industries from building there and discourage the existing ones from expanding. 78 - Also of concern are the employment Opportunities in a community and how they can dictate whether the economic base will expand or decline. Mounting unemployment will negatively affect the economic base, as this indicates that the economic activities in the community are on the decline and many people are not able to earn a living there, thus creating an out-migration of people. - Building costs in a community can also affect whether some industries will expand or construct new facilities. These include the cost of labor and the availability and cost of building supplies. 1 - Also important in almost every economic activity are transportation costs. The ability to ship finished goods to a market and to receive raw materials at the lowest tran3portation cost can readily determine whether a given economic activity will locate in one community or another. 6 Further, availability and cost of services and facilities in a community are important to those economic activities that are considering locating there. If certain services or facilities, such as electric power, and not available or available only at high costs, industry will not be attracted and will look elsewhere to build. - Finally, taxes that an industry must pay may affect, in some cases, where it will locate and build. Each economic activity tends to deve10p in areas where costs are less, 79 including taxes, because this means lower prices for the goods produced, and that more people can afford to buy them. It is not usual for just one of the above factors to affect directly the economic base of a community. But, if a number of these factors combine to make one community more advantageous than another, the one with the most ad- vantages will expand and diversify its economic base and the other will decline and have an out-migration of economic activities and pOpulation. In summary, while the level of economic deve10pment varies among the secondary urban centers in Honduras, it is important to include at least the following items in an economic survey of the community: 1. 2. Some historical evolution of the local economy. Identification of the marketing area of influence for the community. Present economic base — identification of the basic industries in the community. Data on employment, income and labor force. Some judgement concerning future possibilities of the economic base. Some identification of public action and policies necessary to eXpand and/or stabilize the economic base. Some estimate of future land needed and facilities and services required for industrial and commercial activities. 80 Environmental Studies A second growth determinant that must be examined in order to make a plan for the deve10pment of any secondary urban center is the physical and climatic character of an area. Environmental characteristics include climatic factors, such as precipitation, winds, and temperature; and physical features such as tOpography, soil conditions and areas of periodic flooding. By gathering and using the information available in various governmental agencies, by making a field survey covering the area in question and by evaluating other physical conditions that might be of importance for urban deve10pment and expansion, it is possible to put together a complete panorama of the environmental aspects of a community. It is well to emphasize that conditions of the natural environment can limit and/or influence the direction of future urban growth. These environmental conditions can also affect the health, safety, and welfare of the people of the community if urban deve10pment does not take place in harmony with the natural environment. For example, many communities in Honduras have grown and expanded without regard or concern for the inconveniences and hazards of constructing buildings in flood plains or in areas with steep slopes that might surround the community. Because of this disregard of the topographic conditions many towns have had continual problems of erosion from the steep lands where buildings were con- structed. 81 When the deve10pment plan of a community takes into account physical and climatic conditions of the natural environment, the municipality and its residents will not have to spend thousands of Lempiras40 in the.future to solve problems caused by poor selection of construction sites. It is much more economical and easier to avoid these problems by enacting and enforcing regulations which prohibit con- struction and development in undesirable areas, then to correct them when a disaster occurs. To correct them at a later date may mean spending more money to relocate homeless people and to clean up and repair the damages. The following section presents ideas and suggestions on how to make an environmental survey and analysis of a community. Climate . Data concerning the Climatic conditions in a par— ticular community in Honduras are usually available from the Office of Civil Aeronautics. These data include infor- mation on the prevailing winds. This can be important in determination of the location of a heavy industry or refuse dump that might create unpleasant odors or smoke. If a nuisance of this type is located upwind from the community, the residents will obviously suffer discomfort. If the direction of the predominant wind is known, this type of 40One Lemperia is equal to 50 cents of U.S. dollar. 82 land use should certainly be located downwind.... Data on maximum, minimum and average temperature can be important to a community, too.. They would indicate hot seasons when the population might have a tendency to move to cooler areas to avoid extreme temperatures. The average rainfall per month is also recorded for most communities. This would help-in.determination of the best time for construction - the dry.months - and it would indicate those times of year when floods might most likely occur. Rainfall also affects the time of the year when crops are planted and harvested. This wOuld relate to seasonal migration to the community of laborers who would work in agricultural concerns. The climatic data can be presented graphically to facilitate their use, as presented in Figure 4. Topography - Topography is one of the most important criteria used in determining whether an area should be developed for urban use. An ideal site for the expansion of a com- munity in terms of the tOpography is a relatively flat area that has, at least some lepe to it for drainage purposes. A perfectly flat area is undesirable for urban construction because it does not provide natural drainage for the rain water. Instead, the water puddles in certain areas and can cause damages to building foundations, utilities and streets. 83 Inches CLIMATIC DATA N [H m (D Q) ' s... m (D N D ‘II-" , J F M A M J J A ’S O N D Predominant Wind 10 Rainfall - Average owhmco Figure 4.--Presentation of Climatic Data Hilly areas develOped for urban land use present a variety of problems. The most important of these concern drainage and erosion. A steep hillside, covered with trees and vegetation, may look suitable for deve10pment since there are no signs of soil erosion and the surface water run-off from rains has not presented any problems to the community below. But the steep hillside in its natural state has the ground cover that holds down the soil with a complex system of roots. This retards the erosional effects of rain and surface drainage. Problems occur when urban develop- ment is started on the hillsides and the natural ground 84 cover is broken by digging foundations and constructing streets and utilities. The clearing of hillsides to plant crops also leaves the soil Open to rains which cause erosion. Once urban deve10pment has taken place on a steep hillside, it will present a continual problem for the local government and the residents of the municipality. With every rain the streets will act as canals, carrying the water which has run—off the bare ground and which has not [been absorbed by the soil. Roofs of houses now cover ground that used to absorb rain water and this causes additional run-off that is channeled into the streets. The steeper the slope, the faster the rain water runs off land. The faster the run-off, the greater the amount of soil carried with it. Rain will cut deep gorges as it runs off the land and streams down the hillside. Homes, businesses and streets at the base of the hillside become the dumping ground for all of the soil that has eroded. Dirt and mud accumulate in the streets, making them impassable and forcing the mu- nicipality to clean them after every rain. This clean up effort in terms of money, time and.suffering could be avoided if hillsides around the community were left in their natural state and not develOped for urban land use. Streets that provide access to homes located on hillsides quickly become impassable for vehicles and even 85 for people on foot. Municipal officials and the hillside residents will fight a losing battle to keep these streets in repair, as all of the material originally placed on the streets to provide a base for vehicle traffic slowly erodes. But maintaining access to hillside residences is not the only problem. Slowly but surely, the once rich tOp soil is eroded and fields that were once producing various agri- cultural crOps must be abandoned because the soil will no; longer support any vegetation. This results in large areas being left without any ground cover, thus exposing them to rain and surface water run-off, causing even more erosion. Homes and other buildings that were constructed on the steep hillsides fare no better than streets or crops. Slowly the soil around homes erodes and residents are forced to make costly repairs to save their homes from slowly slipping down the hillside into the community below. After a while the action of rain and run-off will wash away the soil that prOvides foundations for houses, and they will start to slide down the hillside too. When these homes can no‘longer cling to the steep hillsides, the owners not only lose their houses but the remaining land is rendered useless because the soil will not support construction and most likely is now just a steep embankment. Thus, not only do the houses end up at the bottom of the hill, but the land does too. 86 In 1969, a large area of residential land in Tegucigalpa located on a steep SIOpe began to wash down the hillside. Within one year approximately 150 homes had to be evacuated because they had either been destroyed when they slid down the hill or were on the verge of destruction and thus were abandoned because they were unsafe to live in. Costs of finding new shelter for these people - both in social and monetary terms - have been high. The problem would never have occurred if this steep hillside had not been subdivided and built upon. Municipalities and other governmental agencies that have spent money in the construction of utilities such as water and sewer, electrical power and roads lose their investments when these either wash down the hillside or are rendered useless when the peOple are forced to move away. The end result is the loss of money, both public and private, which was invested in the area. The cost in economic and social terms of having to relocate the former residents is an unnecessary burden. The solution is to prohibit urban development on the steep hillsides that surround the community. Few, if any, of the secondary urban centers in Honduras have accurate tOpographic maps. However, the general tOpography of the community can be ascertained by looking at the geodetic maps which have contours for every fifty meters. In some cases engineering surveys made for a particular community 87 might include a topographic map. Agencies such as the National Electric Power Enterprise, the Department of Highways, or the National Autonomous Water Supply and Sewerage Service should be contacted to determine if any topographic maps do exist. While an accurate topographic map of a community is helpful, it is not essential for urban planning purposes. What is important is to map the general pattern of the land and to determine those areas where the lepe of the land is so steep that growth and expansion for urban deve10pment should not be permitted. This kind of information can be gathered in a field check of the community. By using the base map of the community, the areas of steep lepes can be noted and marked (Figure 5). Areas that seem desirable for urban growth and deve10pment based upon tOpographic criteria should also be noted and marked on the map. The resulting topographic analysis map will show the problem areas in the community where urban development should not be permitted. And, based upon the topography, it will show those areas which are desirable for urban deve10pment. While there are no precise criteria or standards available concerning the type of deve10pment that can be permitted on a certain piece of land, based upon its slope, it is important to note that some types of urban deve10pment 88 Flat land - Best for urban ‘ \ N N z :- growth 3 \ e \ e \ .‘ 2 ’I I” ’/ I Irregular - " larginal area for rban growth \\\\\\!, §§WH 7/54 / ‘ Steep ¢“’: \\\\‘ SlOpes ”: ‘ Figure 5.--Environmental Survey and Analysis: Steep SlOpes - __‘:::£;§>' Undesirable ‘,d€{:;/’ or urban é/f Topography can take place on moderate slopes while other types require almost level ground. For example, a commercial or industrial concern requires a more or less level site because of the necessity for a large area on which to build its plant and to provide parking, loading, and unloading facilities. A 89 hillside would not provide a site that would satisfy these requirements. The heavy traffic generated by these land uses would not be conducive to a hillside location, either. Residential land use requirements are different from those of commercial and industrial uses. Dense residential de— ve10pments, that is, areas with small lot developments or multiple housing, need more or less level ground for de- velopment because of the intensity of actiVity that occurs there. This higher density housing has many roofs that would shed too much water on a steep hillside, adding to the erosion problems. Further, the physical activity of living and playing on small lot developments on steep hillsides wears down the natural ground cover and leads to erosion and drainage problems. Residential deve10pments that are less dense, one or two houses per acre, would be adaptable and acceptable on hillsides, if much of the land were left in its natural condition. The intensity of use created by these large lot residential land uses would be much less than that created by small lot, multiple family, commercial or industrial uses. Some standards are needed that would apply to steepness of slope of a piece of land and to the potential intensity of use proposed. No criteria are available to determine the relationship between the two which would prevent the usual problems associated with hillside deve10pment. Until 90 some relationships between intensity of use and steepness of lepe are determined it is best to keep urban development off the steep hillside areas. This should apply to agri- cultural deve10pment as well. Perhaps a "steep hillside" is best defined as an area with lepes over.20 degrees. In cases where erosion from a steep hillside with urban development on it causes continual problems for the community, the municipality should attempt to relocate the residents to more advantageous areas. A program to plant trees and bushes on hillside areas should be started by the municipality to help prevent further erosion and the problems which it creates in the community. Moreover, the preservation of the hillsides as scenic green areas will enhance the beauty of the entire community. One land use that could be developed atop a hillside would be a scenic lookout type of park. The hillside would be left in its natural state, with just a path or small road to provide access to the tOp. The top of the hill would be a park where visitors could picnic and enjoy the view. This type of park would not provide facilities for those recreation uses that require the leveling of land. Its purpose is to provide a scenic View of the community and the surrounding countryside without disturbing the character of the hillside by constructing football fields or baseball diamonds. 91 A second and equally important environmental factor in determining those areas where the city should grow and expand is the drainage pattern and its characteristics. Once again a base map should be used to denote all the rivers and streams that pass through or around the community (Figure 6). In addition, all areas that might be included in flood plains should be marked on the map. These areas are undesirable locations for residential, commercial or ~ industrial land uses because of the constant threat of loss of life and prOperty from flooding. All construction should be prohibited from these flood plains. It is best to prohibit construction on any land that is not at least two meters higher than the highest recorded flood. Prohibiting con- struction in flood plains and strict enforcement, will help save the loss of lives and property which so often occurs during periodic flooding of the rivers. On this same map the general pattern of drainage should be drawn. Areas that lie in the direct path of surface water drainage should be left without deve10pment so as not to inhibit the drainage of the area. Areas that do not drain well after a rain should also be noted and marked as undesirable for urban deve10pment. These include swampy areas and areas where ground water.is so close to the surface that it causes drainage problems which would affect the construction of buildings. Usually a site is 92 \ \ \ Poor . “K\ Draina Figure 6.--Environmental Survey and Analysis: Drainage not desirable for building if the ground water is within two or three meters of the surface. On such a site it is almost impossible to construct a stable foundation. Occasionally, a flood plain can be utilized as a park and recreational area. If flooding conditions occur only once or twice a year, the inundation of an area used 93 for picnics or sports activities will cause relatively minor inconvenience. Only during the period of flooding and clean-up will it be unavailable for use. The absence of construction within the flood plain keeps damage at a minimum. All in all, the development of such an area for recreational purposes may provide the best use of land for i the community. A third environmental map can be made showing the geology of the area in and around the community. This would indicate 5211 types and their characteristics that might affect urban deve10pment. While few precise soil maps are available for specific areas of the country, most of the country is without such map coverage. But, as in the case of topography, it is not the exact types of soil that are impor- tant. What is important is to map those areas with soils suitable and unsuitable for construction purposes (Figure 7). Some points to keep in mind when trying to determine the suitability of various areas for urban development based upon soil conditions include: - Bearing capacity. Building foundations must rest on soil that is able to carry and support the weight of the building. The specific requirements vary, depending upon building materials, size of structure and the functions anticipated. If the bearing capacity of the soil is low, the area where it 94 Soils Susceptibl to Erosion Impermeable soil Wet soils - poor bearing capacity Rock utcrOp l\ //// Soils with good bearing capacity for urban deve10pment Soils " susceptible \V to Wet erosion soils Soils susceptible to erosion Figure 7.--Environmental Survey and Analysis: Geology and Soils occurs should be limited as to the uses permitted. Extra precautions must be taken when constructing a building on it to be sure the structure will not collapse. This, in most\cases, will greatly increase construction costs. Soils of low to moderate bearing capacity can be built upon but only with the prOper 95 engineering techniques. Not only do buildings require good bearing capaCity, but streets and highways require a firm base for construction. Streets designed for heavy traffic require a much higher bearing capacity than do local streets which provide access to only a few houses.. Costs of street construction on soils with low to moderate bearing capacity are considerably more than on soils with a high bearing capacity. Susceptability to erosion. Some soils erode very quickly even on a slight incline.. Others will not erode even on fairly steep banks, if protected in some manner with a ground cover. It is important to prohibit construction in those areas where the soil erodes very easily. Wetness. Some soils drain rapidly, while others hold moisture for long periods of time. Those that hold water make undesirable building sites because of the threats which shifting foundations and dampness hold for all types of construction. Permeability. Soils that are all but impossible to excavate present problems.for.the municipality when attempt are made to construct urban utilities, especially water and sewer mains. .If the ground is hard the cost of installation increases. However, maintenance costs are minimal. The problem is just 96 the Opposite where soils are loose and soft. Utilities are easy to install, but the soil is not strong enough to support the weight of the various facilities. This results in broken tubes which raises the cost of maintenance. The permeability of the soil affects the foundations of buildings in the same way. If the ground is too hard, construction costs rise. If the soil is extremely soft, the foundations will not be firmly supported to carry the weight of the buildings. Another important feature which should appear on the environmental geology map is rock outcrOps. Sometimes the geology of an area is such that the soil has eroded to such an extent that bed rock is exposed. It is impossible to build on such rock outcrOps because of the construction problems imposed. An excellent source of information on the soil condi- tions and limitations in and around a community is the Desarrural agent. Since he is an expert concerned with helping the farmers of the area to produce more and better crops, he is aware of soil conditions and characteristics, and he can help delineate problem areas. It is necessary to make a field check of the land around the community to note its limitations for urban development. Besides soil condi- tions the field check should include tOpography, drainage and natural resources. 97 Another environmental map should be made to include the natural resources of the area (Figure 8). These include the following: areas with full or partial forest covering, which might be important for lumbering, or for erosion control if located on river banks or hillsides. The minerals mined or known that could affect the economic base of the community should be included. Excellent agricultural lands should be noted and avoided, if possible, as areas for future urban' expansion because of their high agricultural value. CrOps that are cultivated round the community and which add to its economic base should also be noted. The types of wild- life found in and about the area should be noted so future urban expansion will avoid destroying these natural habitats, if at all possible. Areas of Special scenic potential should be noted and preserved for future deve10pment as recreational lands or tourist attractions that could add to the economic base of the community. These might include land along streams for picnicking, hilltOps that might provide scenic vistas, coastal areas for swimming or forested areas for camping or hiking. The environmental survey can provide rationale for channeling urban development in certain areas and prohibiting it in other areas. By comparing the four environmental maps - topOgraphy, drainage, geology and soils and natural resources - it is easy to determine those areas that are: 98 To Valley corn, rice Sparsly ,, Wooded Marginal 3. poor Agricultural :3 Agricultur Land (Corn) f. Land 33., Grazing ° ' Lands .' Marginal Agricultural " Land (Corn) Prime Agricultural Limited mining: and (Tobacco) gold, silver, copper Figure 8.--Environmental Survey and Analysis: Natural Resources - Undesirable for urban expansion and deve10pment. - Marginal for urban growth, that is, with some environmental limitations for deve10pment, and - Desirable for urban growth and expansion because they have no environmental limitations for de- velopment. 99 A composite map of the four environmental surveys can be made denoting these three classifications for urban development (Figure 9). This map provides an overview of the community and surrounding areas that are undesirable, marginal and desirable for urban growth and expansion. The environmental survey and analysis can serve as a basis for making public and private decisions concerning .the growth and expansion of a community. The maps show those areas where urban growth should logically occur and areas where urban deve10pment should be prohibited. The municipality should use the findings of the environmental survey and analysis to encourage the growth of the community in those desirable areas. An environmental survey of any secondary urban center should include data on such natural features as tOpography, drainage, soil conditions, natural resources and climatic conditions. The environmental survey and analysis serves to lessen the inherent conflict between man and nature. The municipality can logically prohibit construction in those environmental areas such as prime agricultural lands or forested areas that help prevent soil erosion. The municipality should channel growth in those areas that can support urban expansion at the lowest cost, both to the environment and the developer. A final determinant that influences the growth (or decline) of any secondary urban center is population. The 100 Undesirable De irable Marginal Undesirable Desirable Undesirable rginal Undesirable Marginal Figure 9.--Environmental Survey and Analysis: suitable Lands for Urban Expansion first two growth determinants, urban economics and environment have a direct bearing upon this third determinant. For example, if the urban economy cannot provide sufficient employment opportunities for the existing pOpulation there will be a stabilization or decline in the population of that 101 community. With limited employment opportunities there are no economic incentives that might attract people into the community and in many cases this situation causes an out-migration of peOple to other areas which can provide employment Opportunities. The natural environment can also affect the growth potential of a community. A case in point would be a community which is situated in an area of ir- regular topography, or in an area of poor soils which cannot support agriculture, or isolated from natural resources such as the ocean, forested areas or mineral deposits, the natural environment creates limitations on the size of the pOpulation that can make a living under these adverse conditions. With the completion of the study and analysis of the urban economy and the natural environment in a secondary urban center, the next logical step in the planning process is a study of the final growth determinant - the population. POpulation Studies Population count is an essential consideration when planning for the deve10pment of a community. However, sheet numbers are not the only consideration in a demographic study. Characteristics such as age, sex, educational level and employment data must also be taken into account in the evaluation of the people and their community. Physical growth of a community increases prOportionately with that of pOpulation. It is difficult to predict accurately 102 the future population of any community, because.its growth is dependent upon many variables. Among these are government policies and decisions, deve10pment and growth of the sur- rounding region, and various characteristics and beliefs of the peOple who already reside in the community. Never- theless, it is necessary to make population projections based upon data available. Population projections are usually pre- sented in the form of alternatives. High and low growth potentials are based upon the analysis of whatever information is available concerning those factors which can influence the growth or decline of urban centers. Based upon these estimates, the community can better acclimate itself for future growth and deve10pment. Since each community is different, there are no rules that can be universally applied to predict rates of population growth. POpulation growth is based upon three principal factors: 1. Births. The population of a community grows or declines depending upon the number of new children born. Cultural norms in various parts of the world, country or community help to determine the number of children that a family desires. Usually in rural areas there is a desire for many children. Sociologically this provides security and happiness for the parents, especially as they grow older. 103 Indeed, economically, numerous children will reap additional money benefits for the family. In urban areas where farming is not the prime occupation, there is normally not economic need for large families. In fact, because of the differing economic situations, a large family is sometimes more of a burden than a help in the cities. The urban environment provides numerous and varied social services to older people. Thus, the need for a large family is not as pressing. Urban and rural locations are two important factors which help to determine the number of children a family desires. Others include economic, religious and cultural ideals. The varied and complicated reasons which may determine the size of families makes it very difficult to predict population growth based only upon birth rates. 2. Deaths. Death is another element that influences the rate at which a pOpulation will increase or decrease. The death rate is based upon the sanitary.and medical tech—7 nology available in a community. Nutritional standards are also important in determining death rates.) In areas where the birth rate is equal to the death rate, there is no population growth. This is a most unusual situation. Most cities are dynamic, that is, growing, since the death rate is usually lower than the birth rate. It is necessary to check local trends concerning the causes of death and from this predict with some accuracy the future death rates. This, of course, is complicated by the deve10pment of new 104 preventive medicines, the construction of new health fa- cilities, the ability of the people to pay for health services and the outbreak of diseases that could drastically alter the present death rates. 3. Migration. Migration is the movement of peOple from one place to another. The migration can be within the country or between countries. The principal.reason peOple decide to change their place of residence is based on regional economic differences. Some areas of the country offer better economic opportunities than others. Since these are concerned with the availability of employment, homes, and services, it is usually the larger‘Cities that can best provide them. The deve10pment of new industries in a community usually provides expanding economic Opportunities. This, in turn, provides the impetus for people to move there. The region around San Pedro Sula on the north coast is a good example of an area with expanding employment Opportunities. As'a result there has been a tremendous influx of people migrating to San Pedro Sula looking for work. In other instances, peOple will change their place of residence because they want their children to go to high schools, trade schools, or perhaps the university. Others will move so a family member can take advantage of some social service, such as a hospital, which is not available in their former place of residence. 105 Many peOple living in the secondary urban centers are moving to Tegucigalpa or San Pedro Sula in order to improve their employment and/or living conditions (albeit real or imagined). Rural people are migrating to the secondary urban centers looking for better living Oppor- tunities, too. The new and more efficient transportation facilities, such as paved highways, will facilitate and accelerate this migration of peOple to the major cities. Newspapers, magazines, transistor radios and travelers are bringing new ideas to rural areas and tempting even more people to migrate to the big cities. The rate of population growth is a complicated relationship between these three factors: birth, death and migration. To understand these factors a community must look at itself in retrospect. Why was it founded? Why did it grow? Why did peOple move into (or out of) the community? Are these reasons for the growth still valid today, or have there been changes creating new regional economic differences? Is the community able to compete against the surrounding communities or are others providing more and better economic opportunities? Have peOple begun to migrate to the larger cities? If so, what actions could the community take to reduce the exodus? The answers to these questions can help leaders understand the dynamic nature of their communities. 106 Methods of Projecting POpulation The Honduras Office of Statistics and Census makes periodic population projections for all of the municipalities including municipal capitals and rural areas. These pOpu- lation projections are only available for a period of three or four years into the future. To make deve10pment policies, plans and programs, the local government needs pOpulation projections for at least a ten year period. (Some argue that projections for a twenty or thirty year span are necessary in order to make comprehensive plans.) In areas of rapid eXpansion and growth, like Honduras, it is increasingly difficult to make accurate, long range population projections. Demographers have not demonstrated an ability to predict future pOpulation with any reasonable degree of accuracy. Witness the frequent errors when census counts become available for comparison with past estimates. The changes in the population in a given community are extremely difficult to forecast for periods of ten years let alone a period of twenty or thirty years. The simplest method is the arithmetical projection. The procedure computes the average numerical population change for the past decades and then projects this numerical increase into the future. For example, if the pOpulation of a community increased an average of 3,000 per ten year period for the last several decades, then this average growth would be the future projection for the next ten year period. In 107 this case if the 1970 population of a community was 10,000 the 1980 population would be projected to be 13,000 (Figure 10). 15,000 1 .g I Geometric LI 14,000 Projection ‘/ 13 ,000 \\ I, '.l Arithmetical 12,000 I, Projection \ 11 000 . f—— I $\—‘/ 10,000 9,000 8,000 7,000 //, 6,000 5,000 /, 4 ,000 // , 3,000 l/// 2,000 ,» 1,000 0 o O O O O o o o O o O O H N m v In ‘0 1‘ m 0‘ o 0‘ Ch ON 0" m m m m 0‘ m o H H H H H r—l H H H H N Figure 10.--Typical Population Projection A geometric projection is the average rate of pOpu— 1ation change for a community per decade. This average rate of change is then utilized to make future projections. For 108 example, if the average rate of increase.was 40 per cent per decade for the last several decades,.then a community with 10,000 peOple in 1970 would have a projected pOpulation of 14,000 in 1980. ' The principal advantage of arithmetical and geometric projection methods is that they are easy to make. The estimates derived from these projections are most accurate in areas with constant population changes or in communities where marked changes are not likely to occur. They are most accurate for short range projections of five to ten years. The disadvantage is that they cannot take into account changes that might drastically alter the future rate of growth. At best they do provide a round estimate of the future population. In many cases the arithmetical projection can be used as a minimum forecast and the geometric projection as a maximum forecast (Figure 10). Other projection methods are available but are very complicated and therefore need to be implemented by experienced demographers. Most of these methods make use of complex formulas to project net migration and natural increases based upon past conditions and probable future considerations which may alter growth rates. Other projections of popu- lations can be based upon the relationship of growth in one area as compared to another area. Any efforts to make a pOpulation projection for a community should begin with a discussion with the pOpulation 109 eXperts in the Office of Statistics and Census in the capital. These people have the necessary experience and expertise to help make the most accurate population projections. Population projections for a secondary urban center should be revised at least once a year supported by changing demands, priorities, and policies that would change the bases on which the projections were made. This yearly re- vision of the projections can be formulated upon several indicators in the community that reflect an increasing or decreasing population trend. One of these indicators is school enrollment. An increasing enrollment in the schools during the year would seem to indicate an increasing popu- lation. The number and type of new buildings under con- struction based upon the number of building permits issued would indicate whether the population was increasing or decreasing. If the number of unoccupied dwelling units was increasing this would seem to indicate a decreasing popu- lation trend. Another indicator would be the number of people registering to vote for an election. New employment opportunities in the community would.indicate an increase in population. Little demand for labor, would indicate the opposite. The construction of a new highway could alter the projected growth of a community. This new facility makes the community more accessible to rural areas and may act as a magnet attracting once isolated peOple. On the other 110 hand, new highways might make the primary cities-more accessible and thus attract many people living in secondary urban centers to migrate because of increased economic, social and cultural facilities. By assessing these pOpulation indicators on a regular basis it is possible to determine whether population pressures are remaining relatively constant.. If so,-the ten year forecast could be extended an additional year based upon the -same criteria. If the rate of p0pu1ation.growth is increasing or decreasing it would result in a respective increase or decrease of the ten year population projections. The ten year population estimates should include a high and a low estimate. Thus all of the programs, plans and policies of the municipal government should be flexible enough to ac- commodate the projected maximum or minimum pOpulation for a given year. Population Characteristics An examination of the pOpulation characteristics can provide an important insight into future needs and demands in a community. Just as overall increases and decreases in pOpulation create demands upon the schools, hospitals, water and sewerage facilities, the characteristics of the pOpulation also provide insights into more specific needs and demands. An example of this is the breakdown of the total pOpulation by age and sex. The most common method 111 of doing this is by making an age-sex pyramid. Figure 11 is an example of two age-sex pyramids. I "All IIBII AGE 55 .+ 50 54 45 49 Female Male 40 44Female Male 35 39 80 34 29 24 I 19 LI 14 HHION) [cmomou T I I I l j l f T I l 300 200 100 100 200 300 300 200 100 100 200 300 Population Figure ll.--Age-Sex Pyramids There is a normal distribution of people in a given area when the pyramid is uniform in shape (Figure 11a). A distribution of peOple like this illustrates a larger number of children in proportion to other age groups in the community. This would indicate the need for parks and playgrounds designed to serve these younger peOple. There- fore, instead of developing one or two large parks, there should be a series of smaller parks located in residential areas to better serve this predominate age group since they Lil-L 1:: 112 are more limited in their ability to get around the community. A different type of park system would be necessary if the age-sex pyramid indicated that a large proportion of older people were living in the community. In this case, the tOp of the age-sex pyramid would be wider, indicating more older people in comparison to the total population. Therefore their demands for parks would be quite different than those of active children. They would want more passive areas in which people could come to sit and pass the day. This type of age-sex pyramid would also indicate that there is not as great a demand for schools as there would be if the base of the pyramid was wider. Some age-sex pyramids for a community might not be uniformly shaped. A figure-eight shape is an example of this (Figure llb). This would illustrate a deficiency in the number of middle-aged persons in the community. In this situation there would be a disprOportionate number of young and old people. Absence of the middle-aged group would indicate that something was disfunctional in the community albeit for social, political or social reasons. The levels of education or literacy rates provide another important demographic indicator. A low literacy level would indicate that a community has.a serious lack of educational facilities. It would also indicate that the types of job skills which a community might offer would 113 be very limited. The number of school aged children pre- sently attending school will provide some indication of the ability of the community to provide educational Opportunities to its future leaders. It is essential for a community to have the maximum number of people with the highest edu— cation possible so that they may have the Opportunity for better employment and the ability to better understand the important social, economic and political issues that confront the community and the country. It is important to know the density of residential areas in order to provide adequate urban services. Every community does not have an even distribution of people. Accordingly, urban services such as water and sewerage will have different demands in different neighborhoods. A neighborhood with a high population density will require larger water and sewer facilities than a less dense area. Local government with its limited financial resources can best provide urban services if the actual or prOposed population density of a neighborhood is known. The most accurate method of determining pOpulation density is to make a house to house survey. A map drawn to illuStrate this information would reveal the pattern of population density by blocks. This method, while it is accurate, is very time consuming. Another and easier method to approximate the pOpulation density by blocks is to determine the number of houses per block and multiply that number by 114 the average number of peOple per house. The total number of houses in a community is listed in the latest national census. This count added to the number of new houses con- structed since the census will provide the total number of houses that presently exist in the community. The number of new houses constructed since the last census can be determined from the number of building permits issued during that time span. Aerial photos can be extremely useful in helping to determine the number of houses.in each block. A field check is necessary to locate multiple family and group quarters, such as jails, hotels, boarding houses, barracks and apartments, in order to determine how many people are housed in them. The national census also shows the average number of peOple per house for every community in Honduras. With allowance made for group quarters, this figure can be multiplied by the number of houses in a block to determine the average density per block. This information is best presented on a dot map where one dot equals five people. This final presentation of population density illustrates the spacial patterning of the peOple in the community. The next step is to analyze the reasons for this distribution of peOple. The varying densities might be caused by the physical environment such as the topography, soils or flood plains that would affect the ability of the land to support urban development. Ownership of land values can also cause differing density patterns. Extension of 115 urban utilities might create areas of higher density, since people have a greater tendency to live where these services are available. It is also important to note the location of schools and park facilities with relation to density and distribution of population. O 0 O 0 00°00 o°°°o o 0000 00000 00 o o 000 O 00 o 063§80° o 00 o o 000 0° 0° ° 0 o o o o o 0 oo o o o o 00 o 0 o o 0 0°C 0 o O o 0 o o o o c» o 200 as; oo o %,o ‘3 o 00 o o o 000 (:00 000000000 0 o 0 E80 o o o o o o o o 0 O o O o 0000 0° 0000 0000 000 o: o 0 000000090 O°oQ° oo 0 Q 0 01° ° 0 o°o° 00%00 o 0 0 0 ° 0 o 00 0%0 o o O . O O O 0°00 O O O o: o O 0000 °°° ° 0° 0 ° ° 0 00030000 0 o o 000 O O 0 080000 0 o 0 000000 O ' O o o o 0 ° = Five peOple 0 ° Figure 12.--P0pulation Density Map Comparative distribution of population and community facilities readily indicates those areas where it is neces- sary to extend or build new community facilities if the Peeple are to be prOperly served. 116 The study and analysis of the three determinants - urban economy, environment and population - will help pro- vide the basis for estimating the rate and direction of urban growth. The next step in the planning process is the examination of existing and future patterns of deve10pment in the community. This pattern of development takes into account the various land uses, community facilities, and the transportation system. The following section provides cirteria to study and analyze the existing and future pattern of development in the light of the study and analysis of the growth determinants. Urban Land Use: Survey and Analysis The orderly development and growth of a community depends upon the Spatial distribution and functional re- lationships between the various urban land uses. These are usually classified as residential, commercial, industrial and public uses. Numerous cities in the world have grown and expanded without any regulations or preconceived plans concerning the distribution of the various land uses. Consequently, communities developed in a haphazard manner with a mixture of land uses. There was a disregard for the potential dangers and hazards that might exist between conflicting land uses. When a city deve10ps and expands in this fashion - indiscrimately mixing residential, commercial, industrial 117 and public or community uses - it can become an undesirable place in which to live, work and play. For example, homes which are situated among commercial and industrial uses don't provide a desirable environment for young children. The streets are crowded with traffic and there are precious few places for children to play. Also indiscriminate mixing of land uses can affect commercial and industrial operatons. These Operations cannot function efficiently if they are surrounded by houses where noise and traffic have to be restricted. It is important that differing land uses be grouped together only when they are compatible or when functional relationship exists. A community should control the various land uses so they will be located in a pattern that minimizes conflicts between them yet. I There are several ways in which the municipality can control the location of land uses. One method is to issue licenses only for the operation of commercial and industrial establishments which are located in the areas designated for commercial and industrial use. Another method to control land use is through the issuance Of building permits. In this case the municipality issues a building permit for only those buildings that are located in ac- cordance with the land use plan of the community. Any construction begun without a building permit should be immediately halted by the municipality until the building 118 is found to be in accordance with the land use plan. A building permit may then be issued. By implementing these controls and others, (see Implementation of the Plan), the municipality can regulate the use of land and can also direct the growth, expansion and deve10pment of the community in an orderly manner. Every urban activity requires an allotment of land. While different land uses in each community vary in the amount of land needed, a majority would fall somewhere within the following percentages: - Streets usually occupy 25 to 30 per cent of all land within the urban area of a community. The remaining land, called buildable land, is used for all of the other urban land uses. - Residential land uses occupy the largest percentage of buildable land in a community - usually 60 to .70 per cent. - Commercial land uses will vary greatly in different communities but usually occupy only 3 to 8 per cent of the buildable land in a community. This percentage does not include small commercial uses which are carried out in the home and thus are secondary land uses. — All industrial land uses usually occupy on the average of 10 to 15 per cent of the buildable land in a com- munity. 119 - Community facilities including parks occupy the remaining percentage of the buildable land usually between 7 and 27 per cent. This, of.course, depends upon the number and extent of community facilities and services offered in a community. Making an Urban Land Use Survey It is necessary to obtain a base map Of a community before beginning an urban land use survey. A base map shows existing streets, develOped areas and the adjacent land surrounding the community. This map is used in the field to record information about each of the various urban land uses. It is also used in the final presentation to illustrate the patterns of land use. A land use survey can be made by one or more persons depending upon the size of the community and the time available in which to carry out the survey. It is best to cover the community on foot, making notatiOns on the field map concerning every land use on each parcel of land. In the outlying areas of the community, where urban development is sparce, the land use survey can be made from a moving vehicle. The notations made on the field map should include the exact use of each parcel of land - whether a leather 120 goods store, a single family dwelling unit, a hotel, a repair shOp for electrical items, a small general.store, a pharmacy, etc. (Figure 13). In many cases one parcel of land may be used for more than one purpose. Thepredominant use of the land should be noted.along with the secondary uses. In the case of a small store.which occupies only one room in a dwelling unit, the predominant use would be residential and the commercial use-would be secondary In other cases, a business would be the predominant use if it occupied more than half of the building while the house was located on the second floor or behind this principal use. Vuau+ L 3 I91") F ‘ H Figure l3.--Land Use Survey: Notations on the Field Map 121 Notations on the field map must be complete and legible. Otherwise, someone will have to return to gather the information that is missing or not readable. A slash mark is used to note two or more uses on one parcel of land. The predominant use should be marked closest to the street. In the example in Figure 13, the small store, a movie theater, a bar, a house and three vacant lots are the predominant land uses. The secondary uses, where they exist are marked above the slash line. I In most cases base maps do not have lot lines indicating each parcel of land. Thus, it becomes necessary to mark approximate lot lines on the map for each block. Wl'nile it is not necessary, or possible, to mark their exact location, it is important that each lot or parcel of land be shown in relative size to other lots in the same block. In Figure 13 the parcel of land with the movie theater is approximately twice the size of the lots on each side and the field map was marked accordingly. Aerial photos can be eattremely useful in attempting to delineate lots lines on the base map. The number of floors in each structure should be ma~ZI:‘ked on the field map with the function of each floor ncD‘bed. The first use on the left in Figure 13 is a small 8"lore and house. The (2) marked under the word "House" denotes that it is located on the second floor. A number be side a particular use indicates the number of stories in the structure . 122 It is important to cover only ten or twelve blocks in each field trip. Then the survey team should return to the Office where information from the field map can be transcribed to another COpy of the base map.with ease and in a legible manner. Prompt and faithful Observance of this procedure facilitates corrections and eliminates confusion. Other data which could be collected on an urban land use survey, but is not necessary, include: - Building materials used in the construction of the structure. - Age of the structure. - Condition of the structure. While this additional information is important for planning ]§>Vturposes, there is the possibility of collecting too much information and then not being able to decipher it at a later time. If this additional information is desired, it is best to make a second land use survey. (See the resi- dential land use section for more information on how to gather and use data on building conditions.) When the land use survey has been completed for the entire community, the map with all its various notations on each parcel of land will provide a complete overview of the community. Because of the many notations for each pa~J:'cel, it is usually difficult to visualize the general land use patterns. Therefore, it is best to group the 123 various land uses which are similar and assign a color to them in order to key them on the map. The following color codes are universally accepted for making land use maps. The first code is for a general land use map. Color Scheme for Land Use Maps - General Residential Yellow Commercial Red Industrial Purple Community Facilities (parks, etc.) Blue Agriculture Green Vacant lands (Blank) Color Scheme for Land Use Maps - Detailed Residential Single Family Yellow Multiple Family _ Dark Brown Commercial Neighborhood or Local Pink Dot Central, ' Scarlet Highway Red Industrial Home Purple Dot Light Purple Heavy Black Warehouses Gray Recreational Dark Green 124 1 Community Facilities (Public) Blue Schools Blue (i) Churches Blue (i) Cemeteries Green (marked "Cemeteries") Private Institutions Light Blue Agriculture Light Green Vacant Land (Blank) The colored land use map on which all similar uses are grouped together provides an instant view of the com- munity. Notice the spatial distribution of the land use patterns. Where are the residential land uses? The com- mercial and industrial land uses? What effects have the roads which lead into the community had on the pattern of land uses? What kind of land uses are attracted to these highways? Do they conflict with the use of the road for speeding people and goods to their destinations? Are there conflicts between land uses? Are schools located near residential areas? Are there large, heavy industrial land uses in the middle of residential land uses? How do the various land uses in the community relate to the environ- mental survey? Where are the conflicts between the natural and man-made landscape? The answers to these and other questions which the map provides will help one to gain an understanding of the land use problems in the community. 125 This analysis of the existing land use patterns serves as the framework for develOping the future land use plan for the community. Also, from this land use map it is possible to calculate the acerage and approximate per- centage of each land use in the community. The following section is a detailed examination of the various land uses found in secondary urban centers, along with some criteria and suggestions for the evaluation of existing and future land uses. Residential Land Uses The function of any residential land use is to provide an adequate place in which to live. It is important to design and build residential areas which ensure the health safety and welfare of the peOple. This means, for example, prohibiting the construction of residential units in swamp lands where sanitary sewers cOuld not be built, or near factories where noxious fumes could affect the health of residents. The safety aspect would preclude building homes near major highways where traffic would create a safety hazard for young children. In addition, the proximity of social services like medical clinics and schools would enhance the well-being of the people. The provision of basic urban utilities in all residential areas would help provide for the health and safety of the people while making the area a desirable place in which to live. 126 Good locations for residential.development would include those areas of relatively flat ground which are somewhat isolated from the central commercial and heavy industrial land uses. This does not mean that there is no access to these areas, but rather that the major roads which service the commercial and heavy industrial areas do not pass through them. Congestion, traffic hazards, noise, smells and smoke should not infringe upon the residential land uses or upon the peOple that live there. Nevertheless, residential areas should be accessible to shopping and employment areas. Mapping of existing residential land uses is the largest single task when making an urban land use survey for a community. This is because residential uses represent the largest urban land use. It is important to know where people live in relation to the other land uses. Whether various residential neighborhoods within the community function as good living areas for the health, safety and welfare of the residents depends in part upon the neighbor-- hood's location relative to other urban land uses. In making a land use survey it is essential to note whether a dwelling unit is a single family or a multiple family unit. This is important in order to determine what level of services and facilities such as water, sewerage, electrical power, schools and parks are necessary in order to create a healthy environment. Usually, multiple dwelling 127 units result in higher densities of people living in a given area. This, in turn, creates higher demands for facilities and services. Areas where it is difficult or costly to install urban facilities should not be developed as multiple residential areas. Instead, they should be planned for single family dwelling units because the cost of providing and installing basic urban utilities will be lower. The collection of data regarding the age and con-‘ ditions show those homes in sound condition, those in need Of repair in order to remain structurally sound, and those which are in such poor condition that they will have to be replaced in the near future. General criteria by which housing conditions can be measured or judged would include such items as degree of deterioration, level of maintenance, state of repair, adequacy of plumbing and lighting, degree of room crowding, and so on. The problem with this kind of data is the difficulty in applying it generally. What one person may regard as a sound home another may consider in fair or deteriorated condition. In order to make an accurate study of housing conditions standards for determining the condition of structures will have to be clearly stated so they can be uniformally applied to all buildings in the community. If such basic criteria can be established and uniformally applied, then a map can be made to illustrate those areas with sound, fair and sub-standard housing. The number and percentage of existing dwelling units in poor 128 condition shows the intensity of the housing problem in every community. It is important to analyze why certain areas of the community have good housing conditions while others do not. Is poor housing related to the age of the structure? Is it related to the price of land? Or is it caused by adjacent land uses which adversly affect the living conditions of the area? Is it caused because the dwelling units are rented rather than owner occupied? Is it caused because the area has a high pOpulation density? Is it the result of the presence of a high percentage of multiple family residences? Or is it the result of certain adverse environmental condi- tions which surround the structure? With the complete analysis of housing conditions in a community it is possible to formulate policies and plans that will help to eliminate existing problem areas and help to avoid repeating mistakes as the community grows and eXpands. A map of historical growth will graphically illustrate how a community has grown over the years. This map is made by drawing a ring around the urbanized portion Of the com- munity at ten year or census year intervals for as far back as the data can be found. Note the new areas of expansion for each of the varying intervals. Did a new road or industry cause the city to expand in a certain direction? Did a natural disaster, such as a flood, damage a certain section 129 of the community, thus stOpping growth in that direction? Did the construction of certain urban services, such as electrical power or water service, affect the areas where the city expanded? Did the deve10pment of a new agricultural crOp or the discovery of a new natural resource affect the growth Of the community during one of the ten year periods? Did the community fail to expand in certain areas because Of the pattern of land ownership? The answers to these and other questions of this type can help in the understanding of how and why a community grew as it did. Comparison of the historical growth map with an environmental map will help determine why certain areas were not developed for urban uses. Analysis of historical growth and patterns of urban land uses can provide an important basis for formulating plans and policies for the future expansion of the communtiy. The comprehensive urban land use survey and analysis will illustrate present and future residential land use con- flicts and problems. Some of these conflicts and problems can be seen and understood by comparing the environmental survey and analysis with the data gathered from the land use survey. Has deve10pment of residential, commercial or industrial uses occurred in those areas that were determined to be unbuildable in the environmental survey? If construction has occurred in these areas it should be stopped immediately. 130 The municipal officials should direct the expansion of the community into those areas determined as best for urban development in the environmental survey. Future Residential Land Uses The projected pOpulation growth for a community directly affects the number of new houses that will be needed in the future. One method of estimating the number of new houses in a community is to take the average number of people per house from the latest national census and divide it into the projected pOpulation. The result is an estimate of the total number of houses that will be in the community when it reaches the given population. The difference between this estimated number of houses and the actual number of houses in the census is the estimated number Of new dwellings the community will need in order to accommodate the projected increase in the pOpulation. For example, if the latest census (1970) shows a community with a population of 10,000 peOple and 1,820 houses, then the average number of peOple per house is about 5.5 persons. If the projected pOpulation for 1980 is 13,000 to 14,000 peOple, then the estimated number of dwellings in the community based upon 5.5 peOple per house will be between 2,360 and 2,550 houses at that date (Figure 14). The difference between these two estimates and the actual number of houses in 1970 is the estimated number of new dwelling units that will have to build in the 131 730 New Houses 540 New Houses \\V 1 Actual Number \\% of Houses \» 1,820 Persons per House 5.5 5.6-5.5‘5.4 5.6-5.5'5.4 Total Population 10,000 l3,000 14,000 Year 1970 1980 Figure l4.--Estimating the Number of New Houses Needed in a Community community in order to provide housing for the projected population. In this example the number of new houses that will be built in the community is between 540 and 730. This means an average of 54 to 73 new homes will have to be built every year in the community for the next ten years. The number of new houses needed in the future will vary if the average number of peOple per house changes. If the average number of peOple living in each house increases, even slightly, then the number of new houses needed will decline. The Opposite is also true, if the average number 132 Of people per house decreases from the present average then the demand for new houses in the community will increase. For example if the average number of people per house de- creases from 5.5 to 5.4, then the estimated number of new houses would be between 585 and 775, an increase of approx- imately 45 new homes over the number estimated by using the 5.5 average number of peOple per house. If the average number of peOple per house increases to 5.6, then only 500 to 680 new homes would be needed because there are more people living in each house or approximately 40 to 50 fewer houses would be needed over the ten year period (Figure 14). The determination of future housing needs for a community provides only a rough estimate of the number of new dwelling units that will be needed. The estimated number of new houses will also increase when some of the older houses in the community are torn down or destroyed. This estimate will provide an approximation Of the number Of new hOuses needed. The amount of land that will be necessary for future residential expansion of the com- munity depends upon the density of the residential development planned. 'The smaller the lots the less the land will be needed. New areas for residential expansion should be chosen, based upon the environmental criteria and the feasibility Of extending or providing urban services and facilities. Suitable areas for residential land uses should be develOped 133 in stages. Thus, only one area at a time will be used for residential construction. Only as it begins to fill up with new homes should a new area be Opened. By permitting new residential deve10pment only in those areas designated for residential land uses and by develOping them in stages as the demand for new homes arises, the communtiy will grow and expand in an orderly manner, creating the best possible living areas, with maximum urban facilities and services - at minimum social and economic costs. Commercial Land Uses The primary function of any commercial land use is the selling of goods or services. The most important con- sideration for commercial land is location. It must be conveniently located for those who_want to purchase a given good or service. If the site is isolated, people will be less inclined to go out of their way to purchase their goods or services at that location. The various commercial land uses can be broken down into three types, each with different locational requirements depending upon their area of influence. The first type of commercial land use is concerned with the larger businesses which are usually found in the center of the community. These businesses include banks, Office buildings, movie theaters, clothing stores, furniture stores and appliance and hardware stores. Usually these 134 commercial activities sell items that are not needed daily, but are special purchase items. They usually attract peOple from the entire community and the surrounding countryside. They have a regional area of influence. The preferred site for these larger commercial activities is usually in the center of the community. Many of them need space to display goods and space for storage. Many also require a site large enough to receive and ship goods. Certainly, these activities should not be carried out in the street or on the sidewalks. There is the rising need for some types of parking areas for storage of cars that are used to travel to these commercial establishments. This means that the city might have a municipal Off-street parking facility for use by all commercial establishments, or that each business concern might have its own parking facility for the exclusive use of its employees and custdmers. It is important to have intra-city bus routes pass through or close to these commercial areas in order to provide quick and easy access for those peOple wanting to shop there. The second type of commercial land use is concerned with businesses of a local or neighborhood variety. These serve a smaller area and provide items that are purchased daily. They include small grocery stores, barber shOps, repair shops, pharmacies, small restaurants and bars. These commercial activities are usually spread throughout the 135 community. The area of influence for these stores is much smaller than that Of those in the central commercial area. In many cases these commercial establishments occupy no more than one room of a residential dwelling unit. Often they are a family operated business that might sell cold pOp or items that a housewife might frequently need. Some of these commercial concerns provide additional income for the family while others provide the major source of income. Because of the completely different scale of commercial -acitivity, these neighborhood enterprises do not have the problems of loading and unloading, traffic congestion and parking. The third type of commercial land use is relatively new to secondary urban centers. It is the highway orientated. The rapidly expanding first class highway system in Honduras has created new demands for commercial activities to serve travelers. These commercial uses include gas stations, vehicle repair facilities, motels and restaurants - especially drive-ins. Other commercial enterprises such as automotive, truck and tractor sales which require large sites for their Operations are also attracted to locations along the highway because of the availability of large parcels of land. This land is usually less costly than that in the central com- mercial area. Added to this, of course, is the fact that it has excellent access. 136 Existing Commercial Land Uses The survey of existing commercial land uses in the community will provide information concerning locations and types of commercial activities. It is important to gather additional data on each commercial activity and to ascertain the total number and types of businesses in the community. The Chamber of Commerce in the community can usually provide this information which can then be checked with the data gathered from the land use survey. Note the past trends in commercial activity in the community. Again the Chamber of Commerce can usually provide data on the employment, wages and sales for the various commercial activities for the last several years. It is important to determine if the percentage of people employed in commercial activities has remained constant or increased with the growth of pOpulation. Data on employees wages is also important to note. Are wages increasing or are they remaining relatively stable? What is the total volume of business carrie out in the community? Is businesses expanding with the Opening of new highways which make the community more accessible to previously isolated areas? It is necessary to determine the trends concerning the location of new businesses. For example the growth of new residential areas often in- fluences the location of new commercial activities. It is also important to note whether new businesses have been 137 built on undesirable areas such as flood plains, poor soils, etc. The mapping of the commercial areas will illustrate the spatial patterns of commercial activity within the com- munity. This graphic presentation along with an analysis incorporating the answers to the above questions will help the community to grow in a logical manner with ample but safe commercial areas. One final question to answer is how do the various types of commercial land uses relate to the surrounding land uses? Especially the residential land uses? In other words, do the existing commercial uses con- flict with the other land uses in the community? If so, efforts should be made to eliminate these conflicts as soon as possible. Future Commercial Land Uses In order to plan for future commercial land uses it is necessary to take into account a variety of things. The first and most important is the projected growth for the community. Usually, the more rapid and projected growth, the more extensive the land that will be occupied by commercial uses. Areas prOposed for residential use will attract numerous neighborhood commercial uses. Another influence affecting commercial activities is the construction of new highways that permit the community to expand its area of influence or marketing. It is extremely important to evaluate 138 the effects of a new highway on a community since it.can have negative effects as well as positive ones.. All too many businessmen in a secondary urban center only see the construction of a new highway as an asset, because they feel it will enable more peOple to travel to, and thus purchase goods in their community. They fail to recognize that the new highway also makes it easier to leave the community - the road is paved in both directions. Many peOple may begin to travel to larger cities to purchase goods where selection Of items is greater and often cheaper. The community needs to make a concern effort to limit or slow this exodus. The community leaders can start by assessing the affects of the road on the community's area of influence. Will the marketing functions Of the community be absorbed by larger cities, or will the community be able to expand its own area of influence? If so, it is important to determine What changes will have to be made in order to keep the community economically active. Since the new highway will take'years to plan, design and construct, the municipal leaders will have several years in which to make their own plans for the Opening of the new highway. The use Of new agricultural crops or the discovery and exploitation of a natural resource in the region sur- rounding the community can also affect demands for new com- mercial land uses. The commercial vitality of a community 139 depends directly upon the amount of money that people have to spend for goods or services. If there are expanding employment Opportunities in the community, the commercial land uses will require new areas in which to locate. If a community has a declining economic and employment base, the demand for new commercial sites will not be as great. Suitable areas for new commercial areas should be based upon data gathered from the environmental survey and analysis. Thus, new commercial activities should not be located on land found to be unsatisfactory for building purposes. New commercial sites should also be chosen, based upon existing and proposed land uses of other activities so that problems inherent to different land uses will not cause future problems. The necessity for convenient access dictates that both central and highway commercial activities be located where topographic conditions will not hinder the movement Of traffic. These two commercial activities should be separated from residential land uses because they generate heavy traffic. Since neighborhood commercial uses serve local needs, they often expand in step with new residential development. Usually, this situation does not create conflicts with surrounding living areas since these neighborhood com- mercial uses do not generate the same problems as the central and highway activities. The neighborhood businesses which 140 have grown and are no longer of a secondary use in a resi- dential structure should be required to relocate on collector and arterial streets and not on local streets. This would help eliminate problems of increased traffic congestion and hazards in the surrounding residential areas. Commercial and uses do not normally occupy a large percentage of the develOped land within a secondary urban center. Yet, they indirectly cause many of the inconveniences and problems in the community. The survey of commercial land uses and the analysis of their spatial relationship to other urban land uses in the community can provide important insights into why and where these problems exist. The analysis can also be used as a basis for making future deve10pment decisions in order to avoid creating the same urban land use conflicts that presently exist. Industrial Land Uses The primary function of any industrial establishment is the manufacturing or processing of goods and materials. The size of an industrial concern can vary from a one-man Operation to one that employs hundreds of peOple. Every industrial Operation has different locational requirements depending upon the size of the Operation and the type of goods produced or processed. To provide some criteria for locating industrial land uses, it is necessary to classify the type of industries. 141 The first type of industrial concern is the small home Operation of artesiana. Often, it functions as a "secondary use" in a residential unit. Usually the Operation employs the head of the house. He may be aided by one or two people, usually family members. He may be a blacksmith, a shoe maker or a carpenter. Whatever he produces is sold to the neighborhood peOple. In most cases,.his, and other similar industrial uses do not create any bad odors, smoke or noise that adversely affect adjacent residential land uses. A second type of industrial land use is one that Operates on a little larger scale. While it may be carried out in the home or in a separate facility, it is the major use of the land. If it is located in a residential dwelling unit, then the house is the secondary use of the land. This industrial concern often occupies a larger site than the home industry. A typical Operation usually has between three and twelve employees and might engage such industrial activi- ties as baking, processing materials for construction purposes, or producing any of the items of those home industries which have expended their Operations. These light industrial enterprises usually do not create nuisances for adjoining .residential land uses. If they do, they should be classified as heavy industrial land uses and apprOpriately located. In some cases the light industrial concerns need limited Off-street loading and unloading facilities so they will not 142 create traffic congestion or hazards for the surrounding residential land uses. These light industries should be located on collector or arterial streets because they usually generate too much traffic for local streets. A third type, heavy industries, are those Operations that employ many people and/or create nuisances for the surrounding residential or commercial land uses. For this reason they should be located away from residential areas. If they create smoke or odors then they should be located down wind. Residential land uses should not be located in heavy industrial areas just as heavy industrial land uses should not be located in residential areas. These types of industrial concerns include sawmills, meat packing plants, cigar factories, agricultural processing plants and those light industrial Operations that create nuisances. Usually the heavy industrial operations have a regional or country- wide market where the finished products are sold. Because of this wide area of influence, they need to be located close to railroads or major highways so they can receive raw materials and ship out finished goods. Heavy industrial land uses should be located close to highways so that truck traffic will avoid the community and reduce traffic hazards on already congested streets. Because of the size and scale of Operations, these types of industrial concerns require many urban services 143 such as water, sewage, electrical power facilities and regular trash removal. The water demands, for example, require larger tubes in order to supply the quantity needed. Large level sites are necessary for the construction of the buildings, parking, loading and unloading facilities and areas for the storage of materials. A final point is that these heavy industrial sites should be accessible to employees. If the sites are completely isolated it is difficult for the workers to get to their jobs. Warehouses are the last type of industrial use. While they are not usually classified under this category they do require many of the same locational considerations as in- dustrial land uses. The most important consideration is access, since warehouses are used for the storage of goods for eventual distribution or collection. Thus, they need to be located along major highways. Some warehouses generate heavy traffic year round, while others, especially those used for storage of agricultural products, are used intensively during periods when a particular crOp is harvested. Ware- houses are usually one large building or a series of units. The site for these facilities must be large enough to ac- commodate the various buildings and all of the trucking activity that accompanies it. A level site, well removed from any area that might flood, is also important. While these warehousing activities do not create the nuisances that 144 are associated with heavy industrial land uses, they do need to be located away from residential land uses because Of the heavy truck traffic which they generate. The land use survey will note all of the industrial land uses and their location in the community. The industrial cOncerns should be mapped according to one of the four types. Because of the character of industrial land uses and their effect upon the community, additional information should be collected that will help to better understand their present and future importance. For instance, it is importaht to know the number of employees working in each type of industry and to know if the work is permanent or seasonal. The wages paid by the various types of industries and the total value of the products produced or processed are important in attempting to determine the economic base of the community. The taxes that these industrial concerns pay to the munici- pality are important in planning the expansion and con- struction of new public facilities and services. The marketing areas for the various industries are important in helping to influence new industries that might consider locating in the community. The analysis and evaluation of the existing industrial land uses and their relationship to other land uses is neces- sary to help determine problem areas and to avoid the creation of these same problems as the community develOps and expands. 145 It is important to deve10p and reserve new industrial areas. Selection of areas should be based upon the analysis and evaluation of the environmental survey and the existing and proposed land uses. Some of the questions concerning the suitability of a site from prOposed industrial land uses would include: is the land relatively flat and does it drain well? Will the soil support the intensive activities of the proposed industrial uses? If an industry is to locate there, is there room for future expansion? Are urban utilities available in the area? If so, which ones? If not, what will be the cost of extending them and who will pay the cost? Are the urban facilities adequate to provide for additional demands that will be created by these new indus- trial uses? Is there adequate highway or rail access to the proposed industrial site? If not, will the increased traffic create more traffic problems in the community? Are the proposed sites for heavy industrial uses isolated in order to minimize their negative affects? Yet at the same time are they accessible so that the employees can get to them? Would the proposed industrial sites eliminate most of the existing problems between industrial and other land uses? Will these new sites promote the orderly growth and expansion of the community? Will the municipality prohibit the con- struction of industrial concerns that will create nuisances in areas not designed for industrial purposes? Will the 146 municipality prohibit any deve10pment that is not of an industrial nature in prOposed industrial areas? Like other land uses, it is difficult to determine the amount of land necessary for future industrial develOp- ment. Once the best industrial sites have been determined, they should be develOped in stages just as in the case of new residential land uses. In this manner one industrial site will be develOped and filled before a second industrial area is developed. This will help promote the orderly logical growth of the community. In addition, the munici- pality will not be forced to spend large sumsof money developing several industrial sites at the same time and before they are necessary. The pOpulation projections for the community will indicate the rate of growth anticipated. Higher rates of population growth would normally mean that more areas will be needed for industrial deve10pment. The reverse of this is also true. The deve10pment of a new industry can directly affect the community's rate of growth by providing new employment Opportunities, thus attracting more peOple. Programs of the central government involving monetary outlays in certain projects will affect the future industrial potential of every municipality. Also, domestic and foreign investments can affect the amount of new land needed for 'industrial land uses. The Municipal Autonomous Bank and the 147 Economic Planning Council along with the National Develop- ment Bank are good sources to check concerning proposed investments which might affect industrial development and Opportunities in the municipalities. Community Facilities and Services Living together in communities, people have come to exPect and demand certain urban services and facilities such as public markets, schools, trash pick up, electricity, hospitals, police and fire protection, and water and sewage systems that they otherwise would not have been able to enjoy if they had continued to live in scattered sites in the countryside. The demands for these services and fa- cilities necessitated the establishment of municipal govern- ments to plan, build, administer and maintain these facilities and services. Although the central government of a country can help plan and finance certain projects, it is the local government that has had to face the problems of providing the daily services that are required by the residents of the community. Today the municipalities in Honduras are expected to provide community facilities and services ranging from providing cemeteries and parks to maintaining streets. Most municipalities attempt to provide as many urban services and facilities as possible, but it is extremely difficult to do so for numerous reasons. Because of insufficient 148 economic resources nearly all of the secondary urban centers are limited in the services and facilities that they can provide. In addition, many communities do not have the technical personnel, like engineers, to plan, build and maintain the desired facilities and services. Many Of the larger and more complex urban facilities and services like electrical power, water and sewers, schools, health clinics and public housing are planned and developed in coordination with various agencies of the central government. However, due to the multitude of requests from municipalities all over Honduras these agencies are limited in their ability to suPply facilities and services. Since most community facilities occupy a parcel of land, they are an important part of the overall land use pattern. Data on the various facilities and services should be gathered as part of the comprehensive land use survey. It is important to examine and analyze existing community facilities in terms of their function and location and to provide recommendations and prOposals for their improvement. New facilities and services that will be needed in the future should be based upon prOposed land uses and upon projected increases in pOpulation. Some of the more common and impor- tant facilities that the municipality should provide along \vith suggestions for improving existing ones and criteria for locating new ones are presented below. 149 Community facilities and services can be divided into public and private ones. Public facilities are those that are Operated by the government - local, departmental or central - for the use and benefit of the general public. These public facilities can provide a unique Opportunity for the municipality to satisfy the needs of the peOple on one hand and to enhance and direct the growth and expansion Of the community on the other. Municipal Building In this facility are located the administrative Offices of the municipality. Because of its function it should be centrally located to provide convenient access to all. The municipal building should be near other governmental offices because of its continued contact with them. The role of the municipality is rapidly expanding as it attempts to provideall of the community facilities and services to provide all of the community facilitiesand services demanded by the residents. In many cases the building is very old and was designed to fit the requirements of a bygone era and thus no longer provides adequate quarters for the efficient administration of a modern community. In some cases it might be possible to expand or remodel the existing building in order to provide more space for the Offices of the municipal government. If the present site cannot be expanded, it is important to find a new site or 150 building that will be centrally located so the municipal Offices can continue to be accessible to the peOple and other governmental offices. This building might be an important part of a new program to revitalize the older central area of the community. Maintenance of the municipal building is important. If the present building is in poor physical condition it could create a safety hazard for those working in the building or for the people entering or passing by it. Mainte- nance is also important because the building is usually in a prominent location and is a focal point in the com- munity, and therefore it is a reflection of the community's character. Public Market The function of the public market is to offer a safe and sanitary place for people to buy and sell goods. The location should provide easy and convenient access. Thus, if.a community has only one public market, it should be centrally located. In communities where there are two or more public markets, they should be located around the com- munity near residential neighborhoods, but on major roads so they will not create traffic hazards on local streets. Usually the area around the municipal market is congested with vehicles loading and unloading goods and people. In many cases there are individuals selling items 151 on the sidewalks and impeding pedestrian movement. Under these conditions the market is more of a public hazard than a public service. Therefore, all vendors should be required to sell their goods inside the market in one of the stalls that has been provided. Off-street loading and unloading facilities are also necessary for any public market so these activities will not be carried out in the street, thus interfering with other traffic and the shoppers. PrOper maintenance of market facilities and grounds is important because of the obvious health and sanitation hazards that exist in the handling of meats and fresh produce. Therefore, the market should be supplied with numerous garbage receptacles for the disposal of food items. The municipality should also clean the market daily. It is important to maintain the building in good repair so it will not create a safety hazard for those using the facility. New market facilities should be located to provide easy and convenient access from all areas of the community. Public transportation should be readily available to the market for those living too far away to walk. Good access also means the market should be located on a major street that provides easy vehicle access. The site should have a large loading and unloading area which will not create traffic problems around the market. Parking facilities should also be provided for the trucks, cars and buses that carry goods 152 and people to the market place. Wide sidewalks around the market will make pedestrian access much easier and safer. A small park or recreational area adjacent to the market could provide a place in which to rest when shOpping and an area for smaller children to play while their parents are shOpping or working. Any new market site should be large enough so the facilities can be expanded as the need arises without having to purchase additional land. The market must.also be served with all of the essential urban utilities, especially water, sewers and electrical power, in order to help keep the fa- cility clean and provide a safe and efficient Operation. The market should be designed in such a manner that daily maintenance of the facilities will take a minimum amount of work and time. Daily trash pick-up should be made so garbage and refuse will not create health problems. Recreational Facilities Recreational land uses are another important feature of the urban landscape. They include a wide variety of functions such as parks, playgrounds, sport fields and fa- cilities for football, baseball and basketball, exposition grounds, community centers, plazas, golf courses, camp grounds, picnic areas, scenic and historical sites, beaches, swimming pools, and Open spaces. The location and type of existing 153 recreational facilities should be noted in the comprehensive land use survey of the community. The criteria for determining the adequacy of a particular recreational land use in the community depend upon its location and function. For instance, it is im— portant that neighborhood recreational facilities, such as community centers and childrens' playfields, be conveniently located in residential areas. On the other hand, those recreational land uses such as beaches, city plazas and Sport facilities provide a citywide or regional function and are not so dependent upon the proximity to residential areas. Nevertheless, they do depend upon the quality and quantity of facilities available. The adequacy of a recre- ational site depends upon the age groups for which it is intended, in addition to the area that is to be served. The concept of locating neighborhood recreational land uses, such as parks and playgrounds, adjacent to ele- mentary schools is an excellent way in which to provide the residential areas with recreational facilities. The school park concept provides for the multiple use of the facilities by locating the two land uses together. During school hours the park and playground provides a recreational area for school children. In this manner they are far enough away from the school so their activities will not disrupt the other classes that are in session. After school 154 the'park and playground can provide play areas for the children in the neighborhood while, at the same time, the school building can serve as a community center which provides the neighborhood with facilities for meetings, adult classes and social functions (Figure 16). Another type of park facility can be develOped on lands along rivers which are susceptible to periodic flooding. This area can provide excellent locations for parks, sports fields and picnic sites. These recreational land uses located in flood plains should not have permanent buildings or structures which might be seriously damaged in a flood. Such buildings should be located on adjoining land that is not susceptible to flooding. Deve10ping these flood plains in this manner can provide two major services: 1) storage areas for flood water overflow instead of having other areas flood where it might cause considerable prOperty damages, and 2) park and playground areas for recreation during the nonflood times of the year. The location of future recreational areas in the community depends upon the function they will serve. Neigh- borhood recreational facilities should be located in existing or proposed residential areas that can provide easy access. The idea of creating recreational facilities in conjunction with neighborhood schools should be implemented. A parcel of land in every new residential area should be reserved 155 as a school/park site before any housing construction begins. This would permit the municipality or other civic groups to deve10p the land for recreational and educational purposes as the need arises without the additional cost of having to acquire the land. City wide and regional recreational land uses such as sports facilities, exposition grounds, and swimming pools should be located where they will not disturb the surrounding land uses and where the surrounding land uses will not negatively affect the recreational activities. Unusual recreational land uses like beaches, scenic and historical sites should also be preserved and develOped by the com- munity. All recreational sites should be large enough to provide the services and facilities that the particular recreational use requires. In order to provide adequate recreational sites, the municipality should begin a program to acquire new lands for future recreational land uses. An enormous problem for the municipality is the maintenance of all recreational facilities. All too fre- quently, a piece of land is designated as a "park", but it is never maintained and only remains a parcel of land overgrown with weeds. The municipality must deve10p a program Of continual maintenance for all of the recreational facilities in the community or their function will cease to exist. This maintenance program should include cutting the 156 grass, picking up litter, painting and repairing the fa- cilities and expanding the services offered. Cemeteries Cemeteries are another important facility provided by the municipal government. In most cases only one or possibly two cementeries have been used since the founding Of the community. As a cemetery becomes overcrowded it is necessary to expand the existing facility or deve10p a new one.‘ The location of a cemetery is important because, it is a permanent fixture on the urban landscape and thus it must be prOperly located in order to avoid problems in the future. Usually it is easier for the municipality to acquire land adjacent to an existing cemetery for future expansion. The existing site should only be expanded if there are no conflicts with the adjoining land uses and there are no environmental problems such as steep lepes, poor drainage or flood plains. Cemeteries, like other urban land uses, are not suitable on steep lepes for they will cause erosion and drainage problems. Cemeteries located in swampy lands or in flood plains can be periodically damaged by high waters. If a new site is required, the same environmental criteria should be used to determine if it is suitable. A 157 relatively flat, well drained site on the edge of the com- munity will usually make a good location. Use of a cemetery is not a daily occurance like the public market, for instance. Therefore, the site does not have to be centrally located. Yet the new site should not be so isolated from the com- munity that access would be difficult. A large site should be acquired so that the surrounding land uses will not negatively affect the use Of the area for a cemetery or vise versa. The site should also be large enough to serve the community for many years to come. Cemeteries, like other community facilities, create numerous maintenance problems for the municipality. Too often the present maintenance is minimal and the cemetery becomes a community eye-sore, overgrown with weeds. In most instances the maintenance of the cemetery is a full time job requiring the services of one or two municipal employees. Public Laundry Facilities Some communities have develOped public laundry fa- cilities. The best location for these facilities is in residential areas in order to provide easy access from the houses. The facilities usually include wash tubs and a large grassy area to dry clothes. They are usually located next to rivers because of the availability of water. Tubes usually divert the water from the stream and carry it a 158 short distance to the laundry facility, thus providing a constant supply of water. It is important that these intake tubes be located away from the areas where sewage or garbage might be dumped into the river. This situation could cause a community health problem of major prOportions. The need for expanding existing laundry facilities and for constructing new ones usually depends upon the availa- bility of water in the residential areas of the community. Those residents who have water service in their homes usually wash their clothes there. Another important fact in de- termining the need for new facilities is whether water is available all the time or whether it is scarce during the dry times of the year. In the case where water is distributed to all the residential areas all year long, there may be a limited demand for public laundry facilities. 'As is the case with every municipal facility, it is important to maintain the public laundry facilities. This includes repairing damages as they occur and keeping the grounds around the facility clean. Library and Auditorium In communities where libraries and auditoriums exist, they are usually located in conjunction with other buildings. An auditorium and a library located in one of the educational buildings provides facilities for students during the day 159 and the community in the evening. An auditorium is necessary for large community gatherings such as meetings or cultural and social events. A library is important for both students and others who need access to some type of research facility. Any community that is fortunate enough to have either or both Of these facilities should be proud of their accomplishments and keep them in good condition. This means keeping the grounds clean and the buildings in repair. Community Centers These are facilities from which a variety of com- munity services can be administered and where neighborhood groups can gather for meetings, classes and social functions. In many cases the community center is located in a school or health center. The building can thus serve a multiple use by providing educational or health facilities as well as a place for community functions. Fire Protection Facilities Many secondary urban centers in Honduras do not have a fire fighting organization or facility. As a com- munity expands with the addition of new buildings, it is important that the municipality provide some kind of fire protection service. This should be a program to l) acquire fire fighting equipment, 2) train men in the use Of the equipment and 3) construct a central facility where the equipment can be stored. 160 The facility to house the fire fighting equipment is usually a large garage. It should be centrally located in order to provide ease of access to all areas Of the com- munity in case of emergency. The site should have sufficient space to maneuver the equipment and to store it. It should also be large enough so the building can.be expanded as the need arises. Fire fighting facilities can be built as aprt Of a municipal garage used for the storage of municipal trucks and equipment. Programs to educate the public on fire safety procedures are an important step to help reduce fire hazards. An annual clean up campaign to haul away trash that has been accumulated by the residents will also help to reduce fire hazards in the community. Slaughter House (Rastro) Nearly every municipality in Honduras has some kind of public slaughter facility. These slaughter houses Should be considered heavy industrial land uses because of the nuisances they can create, such as bad odors and noises. Since these facilities have been built to protect the public health, it is essential that they be well maintained in order to carry out that function. Garbage Collection and Disposal Most Of the municipalities have some type Of garbage collection and disposal service. This includes the removal 161 of all food items and other refuse to promote health and sanitation. It is essential to collect the garbage neatly in order to prevent health problems that may occur from refuse that has been drOpped during the collection process. Every residential, commercial and industrial land use should be provided with garbage collection at least once a week. Commercial establishments such as hotels, boarding houses, hospitals and restaurants should have more frequent garbage collection. They also should be required to pay more for this extra service. Disposal facilities should be located close to the community, but isolated sufficiently to prevent nuisances such as smoke and bad odors from affecting the adjacent land uses and the community in general. If they are located too far away from the community then the additional problem is created Of carrying the trash long distances in order to dispose of it. The collection trucks become over-occupied in driving to and from the disposal site. There are two common types of reque disposal fa- cilities. The first is Open dumping where garbage is col- lected and dumped on the ground. Since the refuse is not covered it attracts rats and flies and creates a general health hazard. A better method is a sanitary land fill where the garbage and trash is dumped into ditches that have been dug in the ground that then covered with dirt at least 162 once a week. The food stuffs and other trash items will decompose when buried under at least one meter of dirt. This method minimizes the health hazards that are created when refuse is left on the ground. Sanitary land fills must be located where soil and drainage conditions can support this type Of activity. The site should not be located in areas where surface drainage will erode the top soil and expose the garbage. It should not be located in wet lands where the decomposing garbage might pollute the ground or surface water and create additional health problems. Administration and maintenance of the garbage collection and disposal service are among the most important functions that the municipality performs. These jobs must be handled efficiently or the community will be faced with serious health troubles. Educational Facilities Educational facilities in a secondary urban center usually include several primary schools, a secondary school and possibly a vocational school. In most.cases the secondary and vocational schools serve the entire community from one location, while the primary schools are located throughout the community. The first step in the survey of the edu- cational facilities of a community is to gather and analyze some basic data, such as the location of the various schools and the size of their sites. What are the urban land uses adjacent to the school site? Do they create problems or hazards 163 for students? What is the student enrollment for each grade at every school? What is the enrollment capacity for each school and for each classroom? Are classrooms overcrowded or is there an excess of space? What is the age and struc- tural condition of each school? Does each school have sufficient lighting and ventilation? How many teachers are there in each school? What is the ratio of students to teachers? Is there a need for more teachers to assure. a prOper education for students? What special facilities does each school have, such as a library or an auditorium? The answers to questions like these will help determine the problems within the community's educational system. Some typical problems that might be found in various kinds of educational facilities are discussed below. Primary Schools Some educational experts feel that primary schools should be so located that no student has to walk more than six or eight blocks in order to get to school. Based upon this criterion, each primary school has an area of influence of approximately 500 meters in every direction. Therefore, primary schools should be distributed so that their areas of influence covers all residential areas in the community. (Figure 15). One of the problems with existing primary school sites, besides their poor distribution around the community, 164 ‘" €:.‘V,I A l7 }/ . _ '\ :vv'z 9' '03910122' ’ AVA‘ gv»' Figure 15.--Primary Schools: Areas of Influence is that they are too small. In these cases the school building occupies all the site, and there is no space for a playground. New school sites should include playgrounds part of the educational facility. A program to acquire additional land around existing primary schools which lack recreational areas should be implemented. This school/park concept (Figure 16) can provide a focal point in the neighborhood, not only as an educational.and recreational facility but also as a community 165 Residential.Area lilillli . :'_ Tot Lot ;. ,._ . _- 37 ' Sports 3 -‘- - zfl :. .. __. . r.\ . . : .. . l_] - ...... ‘- _o— .0 . .n . . Local Street __.__ [lll'-[ »_. .ResideTtial ArLa Figure 16.--School/Park Concept or neighborhood center where social services can be dis- tributed and where meetings and social and cultural events can be held (see recreation section). Some primary schools are poorly located. A site in the middle of a busy commercial or industrial area exemplifies a poor locale. Smells, noises and smoke from such an adjacent industrial land use might inhibit the 166 learning process because of the obvious nuisances and distractions. Future sites for primary schools should be in residential areas away from streets with heavy traffic and away from commercial and industrial land uses. Proposed sites should not conflict with any data gathered in the environmental survey. In other words, sites should not be located in flood plains, on steep lepes, etc. They should be large enough to provide sufficient space for educational and recreational functions as well as for future expansion. And they should not be in the areas of influence of existing schools except in instances where they are to replace all or part of an older facility. As new residential land uses are develOped, the municipality should require that a large parcel of land, the location of which is determined by the above criteria, be reserved as a school/park site. This will assure the availability of land for future schools and park sites which will be properly located and which will cost the community nothing to acquire. When primary schools are located according to the above criteria, the children can easily walk to school along residential streets instead of having to cross busy streets with heavy traffic 167 SecOndary and Vocational Schools Existing sites for secondary and vocational schools have many of the locational shortcomings which plague primary schools. Too often a site is too small to adequately carry out the educational functions required. Since there is usually only one secondary and/or vocational school in the community, they should be centrally located to provide ease of access from all residential areas. Because the facilities are for older children, the problems presented by busy-street crossings are not as critical. However, it is still essential that secondary schools not be located next to commercial or industrial activities which might adversely affect their use. Future sites for secondary schools should be large enough to accommodate expansion of facilities as enrollments increase. They should also be near large recreational areas which can be utilized for a variety of functions as part of the schools' curriculum. Sites chosen in this manner will not require such large areas, since the adjacent recre- ational land can serve as part of the educational facility. In some cases, when a new secondary school is built the old school building could be re-established as a vo- cational school until additional money is available to construct a completely new vocational facility. 168 Government - Municipal Economy The primary function of municipal government is to provide facilities and services to its residents. Local government can only provide those community services and facilities which residents are willing or able to pay for in the form of taxes, fees, and assessments. For this reason the number of community facilities and the quality of services Offered depend directly upon the amount of money that the municipality receives from these sources. Often, the demand for various services and facilities is much greater than the ability of local government to finance them. A function of the planning process is to provide for the planning and prOgramming of those facilities and services that will be necessary in the future for the prOper deve10pment of the community. It is essential that each mu- nicipality prepare annual budgets in coordination with the policies, programs and projects set forth in the community's development plan. Local government should invest its economic resources only in those projects that are in ac- cordance with the deve10pment plan. This will eliminate unnecessary and costly duplication of services and the con— struction Of facilities that are poorly located or un- necessary. 169 The purpose of this section is to look at the fi- nancial situation of the secondary urban centers and to Offer some suggestions and recommendations to improve their fi- nancial capabilities. This is important if the local govern- ment is seriously thinking of utilizing the planning process in order to improve its community. An annual budget is required by law for each mu- nicipality in Honduras. The budget indicates various incomes and expenditures prOposed for the coming fiscal year. While the majority of the municipal budgets are expanded each year, they usually cannot satisfy the demands for improving the community. Too many municipalities are falling behind in their ability to provide urban facilities and services to their residents. The Law of Municipalities41 limits the items that can be taxed and the rates that can be charged. This has, at times, prevented local governments from raising new revenues sufficient to meet the increasing demands placed upon them by their residents. The law, written in 1927, needs to be revised and updated. The needs and requirements of running a community today are vastly different from those of forty years ago. However, the inability of the municipal governments to provide many of the basic facilities 41Ministero de Gobernacién y Justicia, 22° cit., p. 24. 170 and services to all their residents cannot be completely blamed on the antiquated Law of Municipalities. Too many of the municipalities have been slow in their efforts to collect income from the sources which they are legally entitled to tax. For example, many municipalities could greatly increase the revenue from the tax on cutting lumber if they would only enforce the law. Frequently, it is this lack of enforcement that allows potential income to slip through the grasp of local governments. There are times when local government is not sufficiently organized to collect the rightful fees and taxes that are due. The municipalities must make a concerned effort to collect those fees, taxes and assessments to which they are entitled to under the law, and to do so with a minimum of red tape and inconvenience. If the paper work is too involved or time conSuming, the peOple will not make any continuing effort to pay. Thus, it is necessary that the entire procedure be conducted in a well organized manner. If taxes, fees and assessments are going to be collected, then local govern— ment will have to make sure that services are rendered when paid for. Some Of the more important revenue sources for a municipality include:42 42Ministero de Gobernacién y Justicia, 2E° cit., p. 24. 171 Taxes on commercial establishments. Usually, this is the largest single income generator for a municipality. The supervision and collection of this tax on all commercial establishments is important. This tax is based upon the sales volume of the commercial establishment. Care should be taken by the municipality to have each commercial establishment report its sales, as required by law. The local government can then be sure to collect all the money that is due. Fixed Taxes. This includes taxes on signs, animals, raffles etc. While in most cases, the fixed tax on these items is small, the enforcement and collection of these taxes from everyone would produce a large sum of money for the municipality. It is argued that the cost of administering this tax is greater than the income which it generates. In the end many of these small taxes can add up to a large amount of money. Service tax. The income derived from service charges such as street lights, garbage pickup, water and sewers should cover the cost of providing each one of these services. In many municipalities a small fixed fee is charged to each house for the collection of trash. This fee usually does not cover the cost incurred by the municipality in providing this service. The municipality should charge enough so the fee covers the expense of garbage collection. The fee should be based upon frequency of service - service twice a week 172 would cost twice as much as service once a week - and upon the amount of garbage accumulated each time. Hotels, boarding houses, restaurants, etc., which generate more garbage should pay more than single family residences. This concept Of charging, based upon the amount and intensity of service, should be extended to all services which the municipality provides. The low fees that are collected for many of these services explains why, in most cases, the services presently being Offered are of poor quality. If fees were raised, the quality of services rendered should correSpondingly improve. Fees based upon the amount and intensity of services provided will lower the cost for those peOple who use the service very little. This would allow the municipality to extend its services to those who presently cannot pay the standard fee. Chrages for use of the public market and slaughter houses should cover costs of administering and maintaining these services. Again, the fee should be based upon the areas occupied or the time spent in using the facility. Fees charged in this manner will provide more and better facilities and services for the community, paid for in greatest part by those who stand to gain the most from them. Real estate tax. The tax on real estate in most municipalities provides a good source of income but has ' 173 been under-utilized until recently. Because of the complex nature Of setting up a prOperty tax system - making exact property maps and determining land values - it is recommended that a municipality desiring to set up a prOperty tax system consult with the Department of PrOperty Taxes (Catastro) of the National Geographic Institute. This department can provide the necessary expertise so a municipality can set up a property tax system and increase its income potentials. This increased municipal income can be used to finance more projects, based upon the development plan for the community. This would help expand the needed urban services and fa— cilities. Lumber exploitation tax. Many municipalities in Honduras could greatly increase their income from this tax by providing stricter supervision of the hauling of lumber from their communities. Presently, much of the lumber cut and hauled out is not taxed, simply because the municipalities do not or cannot enforce the tax. Many of the expenditures of a municipality are fixed costs. There are certain obligations that have to be met each year, such as salaries, obligatory contributions to the Honduras Association of Municipalities and the Municipal Autonomous Bank, repayment of debts from previous years, and general Operating costs. In many municipalities these fixed costs are about 50 per cent of the total expenditures 174 of the local government. The fact that these costs are fixed does not mean that the municipality should not peri- odically re-evaluate them and try to minimize them. In some cases the number of public employees has grown faster than the means with which to pay them. The result is a higher fixed cost of administering the affairs of the com- munity. These periodic re-evaluations should closely examine the function of each employee who works for the municipality. And it should determine if all of the jobs are still re- quired and if the number of people in each department is still needed in order to perform the specific functions assigned to it. If a new department is added in the mu- nicipality, the shifting of personnel plus the hiring of a few new peOple may be sufficient to carry out the new duties without adding greatly to the fixed costs of administering the local government. It is the expenditure for public works that con- tributes most to the implementation of the policies, plans and programs presented in the deve10pment plan for a com- munity. However, since the expenditure for public works is not fixed cost, it is usually this expenditure that is out if the budgeted incomes do not materialize. Thus, if there is a shortage of money for a given year, the projected expenditures for public works, such as an addition on the public market, are postponed until the following year. 175 Therefore, the public works fund, which is usually minimal, is out even more. The result is that demand for public facilities grows much faster than the ability of the mu- nicipality to construct them. This fund must be administered in a manner that allows new facilities to be built and Older ones maintained. Only in this way can needed public services and facilities be provided, improved and extended to those areas of the community where they do not presently exist. It is necessary to increase annually the funds allotted for public works. This is especially important if the community has a growing population. It is essential that the basic urban facilities and services be provided in every community for the health, safety and welfare of the people. This is the major responsibility of the local govern- ment. A large public works budget is even more important in those communities which have few if any of the basic urban services or facilities. By continually increasing funds available for public works, the municipality will better be able to provide for the new and costly urban utilities which the community needs in order to prosper. Central Government Facilities Many agencies of central government have offices and facilities in secondary urban centers. These facilities would include: judicial courts, post offices, telegraph and telephone Offices and general offices for the administration 176 of various programs. Since the function of.most.public agencies is to provide a service to the people, these buildings should be centrally located in order to provide convenient access for the people. These government offices, like the municipal building, are usually grouped around or close to the central plaza. Located there, these agencies do not create functional problems for the surrounding land uses, which in most cases are commercial uses. It is difficult to set aside land for these govern- mental purposes before deve10pment actually occurs. There- fore, the municipality should assist the central government in finding apprOpriate locations for these facilities. Working in cooperation they can develop solutions that will best fit the land use plan for the community. Police stations and jails have unusual site requirements compared to the other governmental land uses. These facilities require very large parcels of land in order to accommodate the various functions which they are intended to serve. Jails, for instance, need areas for the prisoners, living quarters for the guards, offices for administration, recre- ational areas, and space for parking vehicles. Because of the requirement for large sites, it is usually best and least expensive to acquire land on the edge of the community where land is available and is cheaper. The location of police stations and jails should depend upon the adjacent 177 land uses, since they can create various nuisances. A large site would help to buffer some of the more Obvious annoyances. Hospitals and Medical Clinics Since hospitals and medical clinics provide a direct service to the public, they should be conveniently located. They require a large site in order to carry out their function prOperly. A large site will provide room to expand facilities as the need arises. The large site will also provide isolation from surrounding land uses which might disturb patients. For this reason, hospitals and medical clinics should not be located near busy streets or commercial and industrial land uses that would create noise and additional nuisances, such as smoke and vibrations. Airports 'Airports require large expanses of land that are relatively flat. Another and equally important requirement. is that the flight paths be clear of any obstacles, such as trees, hills and buildings which might hinder landings and take-offs. In addition to the obvious safety factors, airports can create nuisances to adjoining land uses because of the noise of aircraft. Therefore it is best not to locate schools and hospitals near these facilities. Airports should be located near highways to facilitate the transfer of goods 178 and people. Some industries find it to their advantage to locate near airports because of the good transportation fa- cilities that the airport provides. With the extensive highway construction program now going on in the country, it is difficult to determine the affects of these roads on travel patterns. Where air transportation might presently be the best method of travel, the new roads may change the picture because of lower travel costs and shorter travel times. Therefore, in some cases new roads might diminish the importance of existing airport facilities. The municipality should cOntinue, however, to maintain airport facilities for emergency flights. Electrical Power Facilities ‘ Most of the electrical power in secondary urban centers is develOped by diesel motors. The noise which is created from these machines automatically classifies these facilities as a heavy industrial land use." This is con- venient, since it is the adjacent heavy industries that require the greatest amount of electrical energy. Therefore, Special transmission lines and other heavy duty equipment do not have to be spread over the entire community, thus raising the cost of installation and service. In addition to the land needed for the power generating plant, land is needed for power substations and transmission poles in order to distribute the electrical energy. The 179 municipality should make sure that electrical energy service is provided to all areas of the community that request it. They should also make sure that none of the land used in providing this service conflicts with existing and future land uses. The National Electrical Power Enterprise (ENEE) provides most of the electrical power in the secondary urban centers. The municipality and the power company must work together and coordinate all of their activities,.since these will directly affect the growth potential and livability of the community. Water and Sewage Service Every cOmmunity needs to have an adequate water and sewage system if it is to provide for the health, safety and welfare of the peOple. Almost every secondary urban center in the country has a water and sewage system adminis- tered by the National Autonomous Water Supply and Sewerage Service (SANAA). The community's water and sewage facilities should be jointly planned by SANAA and the municipality. These plans will depend upon the areas to be served, the density of population, and the existing and prOposed land uses. Deficiencies in the water system can present critical problems and inconveniences for residents. In many com— munities there is not an adequate supply of water the year around. In the rainy season water is plentiful, but in the 180 dry season it is a scarce commodity. Programs for expanding and improving the water distribution and storage system are necessary, not only to provide water to new residential areas but also to provide enough water to the existing residential areas. The sources of water for a community are usually streams which provide a constant flow of water for the system throughout the year. From these sources water 15' piped into storage facilities for later distribution to the community. Areas upstream from the water sources should be carefully maintained so the flow into the system is not hindered or stopped. This means the stream bed in front of the intake tubes should be cleaned periodically to prevent rocks and dirt from being carried into the water system. It is also important that the area directly upstream from the water intake be fenced Off to prevent animals from wandering into the stream and defiling the water. Water in the public system should be treated, or at least filtered, before it is distributed to users. There have been many instances where filters which were not cleaned soon clogged with debris which slowly Shut off the flow of water into the system. In addition it has been estimated that 15 to 25 per cent of the water delivered in the tubes is lost before it reaches the user. This is caused by separated or or broken water mains all of which points up the need for 181 .continual supervision and maintenance of the water system if it is to perform its function. Along with a water system it is necessary to provide a waste disposal system. In all too many communities sanitary sewers are not available to all households. ‘The resulting unsanitary conditions greatly increase changes for disease and illness. Frequently, areas served by sanitary sewers have problems because the system is very old, or because it has not been prOperly maintained. The sewage collection system like the water distri- bution system, closely parallels the streets in order to provide each parcel of land with service. Most sewage systems are "gravity flows" which means they are designed so that the flow of wastes always drains down hill. This eliminates the need for costly pumps and lifts to move the sewage, which in turn lowers the construction and maintenance costs. It is important that sewage systems be properly designed and built, since constant maintenance or alternations of the system are extremely expensive undertakings. There are two basic types of sewage collection systems. The first is a combination sanitary and storm sewer system. These are very expensive to install because of the large diametral tubes required to carry both the daily flow of sanitary wastes and the additional flow of rain water runoff. Most communities have the second type of sewage system where 182 storm and sanitary sewers are separate. The cost is less because the streets are used to handle surface water runoff. Thus the sanitary sewer carries only sewage. Separate storm sewers can be built where surface drainage cannot properly handle the rain water runoff. Facilities to treat sanitary wastes after they have been collected are very expensive. Presently there are no communities in Honduras with adequate sewage treatment facilities. In most cases, sewage is dumped into a nearby river without benefit of treatment. This, of course, pollutes the river and creates a health hazard. Each municipality must work in COOperation with the National Autonomous Water Supply and Sewerage Service in order to deve10p some kind of preliminary treatment facility. This is essential if the community wants to provide a healthy living environment for its residents. Future demands for sewage services depend upon the anticipated growth of the population and the number and types of commercial and industrial Operations that might be located in the cOmmunity. Any new program to extend the present sanitary sewers should include any existing residential development which is presently without sewage service. An effort must be made to provide every dwelling unit in the community with sanitary sewer facilities. 183 Surface Drainage A good system of surface drainage is essential. The rapid removal of rain water runoff helps prevent problems Of flooding which can cause serious damage to streets and buildings. The municipality should construct street gutters or ditches so surface water will be carried away rapidly and efficiently. The problems of surface water drainage vary with the topography and the average rain fall. One community may have no drainage problems at all, while another, surrounded by hills, will flood in certain areas every time it rains. Every community, as it grows and expands, acquires more and more impermeable areas, such as roofs and streets. Water that once was absorbed by the soil now drains off these impermeable surfaces and so increases the need for better and more efficient surface drainage facilities. The second type of community facilities in addition to the public ones discussed above are private facilities, such as schools or social and economic clubs. The location Of a private primary school should be determined, using the public school but with one exception. Since one school usually serves the entire community, it should be centrally located. Social clubs, such as civic and service organizations, and economic groups, like the Chamber of Commerce and 184 Cattlemen's Associations, are important activities in any community. Specific locations for these type of land uses are difficult to determine in advance of the desire to build one of them. Since these uses can at times create noise and traffic congestion which might adversely affect adjacent residential land uses, it is best to locate the facilities in commercial areas or on major streets. Thus, these fa- cilities will be centrally and conveniently located, while whatever nuisances they create will have a minimal affect upon surrounding land uses. This concludes the survey and analysis of the land uses usually found in the secondary urban centers in Honduras. Land uses are extremely important because the orderly de- velopment and growth of a community depend upon the location, spatial distribution and functional relationship among them. The next step is to examine the transportation system in a community which ties all of the land uses together. Urban Transportation: Survey and Analysis .Another important factor which bears on the growth and expansion of a community is its system of streets and highways. Practically every community in Honduras was laid out centuries before the invention of the automobile. Streets were designed and adapted to the mode of transportation Of that era - the pedestrian and the man on horseback. The result was a series of narrow streets flanked by buildings 185 that Opened directly on to the roadway. Today the older parts of a community, usually the central area, are still serviced by these narrow streets which are hardly adequate for the modern means of transportation - the car and truck. Streets serve a variety of functions. First, they provide access for the movement of goods and people. As the modes of transportation change, the criteria which determine if streets are function also change. A second ‘ function Of the street right-of-way is to provide space for the circulation of light and air as well as access to individual parcels of land. Streets not only provide access for people and automobiles but also for the various urban utilities such as water, sewers, and electrical power. Streets are also important because they determine the size and shape of blocks. .Streets are an unusual land use since they ordinarily occupy from one-fifth to one-third of the total developed land in a community. Types of Streets The following is a system which classifies streets according to the function they serve: Local Streets - Serve as access to residential plots of land. Therefore, through traffic is discouraged. Collector Streets - Serve to collect the traffic from local streets and channel it to the arterials and highways. Arterial Streets - Serve to carry heavy traffic. They extend for considerable distances and connect various parts of the community. 186 Highways - Serve as access to, from and around com- munities as they speed people and goods efficiently and quickly between cities. The layout of streets in a community should take into account the function which each street therein serves. The following illustrates an ideal functional arrangement of streets. = Highway _ Arterial "' "' Collector '——- Local Figure l7.--Functional Arrangement of Streets The various types of streets require different stan- dards of design. For example, highways need a wide right—of- way in order to carry the large volumes of traffic. Local 187 streets do not require such wide right-Of-ways because their function is not to carry peak traffic loads. Presented in Appendix B are diagrams illustrating minimum standards for street right-Of-ways and pavement widths based upon the specific function of the street. Street Inventory An important function of the urban transporation survey is to make an inventory of the existing streets in the community. The first step is to classify each existing street according to its particular use as defined above. Next an analysis should be made to determine problem areas. The most common of these concerns a street which is too narrow for its function when measured in terms of the standards (Appendix B). In such instances, it may be necessary to start a program to widen the street so it can better serve its function. An alternative is to transfer the function to an adjacent street which might be wider and therefore better able to serve that particular traffic function. (See Implementation Section for an expanded discussion of these ideas). An inventory of existing streets will also pinpoint problem areas where their functions are hindered. Typical might be the following: Buildings that have been built in the street right-of-way or that protrude into the street enough to cause a traffic bottleneck. This situation also 188 prevents the future widening of the streets. Buildings located within the street right-of-way create a safety hazard because pedestrians are forced to walk out into the street in order to get around the buildings. Other problems frequently occur because of conflict between the streets and the adjacent land uses. Heavy industrial concerns located in residential areas generate truck traffic on residential streets which were not designed for this type~ Of use. This creates safety hazards for the area's residents. The loading and unloading of trucks in the street or on the sidewalk creates traffic and pedestrian problems that need not exist. Certain land uses, such as the public market and the central commercial area, attract large volumes of traffic which results in congestion. An additional problem for the local government is maintaining the streets especially since very few if any of them are paved. The data gathered in a street inventory will illustrate the problem areas in the existing street system. A graphic presentation of those problem areas will help to create a visual understanding of the problems and to aid the local government in develOping programs to rectify.them. Every new street planned in the community should be designed and constructed according to the standards for the particular function that it is to serve. In order to classify a new street according to its function, it is necessary to know the existing and prOposed land uses that will border 189 it since these have a direct bearing on the function which the street will perform. This points out the fact that land use planning and transportation planning go hand in hand. Each is dependent upon the other. It is important to make other types of traffic studies to better understand the existing and future traffic demands and requirements in the community. These studies will provide information on such items as traffic movement, volume of traffic, origin and destination, and mass trans- portation. These data will provide the basis for making plans and decisions to improve the movement of people and goods. Traffic Volume Study A study of the number and types of vehicles entering and leaving a community on the major highways will help indicate the importance of the area as a major generator or attractor of traffic. A survey of traffic volumes should be taken at least once a year on several consecutive days between the hours of five in the morning and nine in the evening. The total of the surveys will indicate the average daily flow of traffic passing each check point. The data collected should include the number of vehicles, the type of vehicle - whether it is an automobile, truck, or bus - and the direction in which the vehicle is traveling. The 190 data Should be collected on an hourly basis in order to note peak traffic times on the highway. A survey of the traffic volume moving within the community Should also be undertaken. This is essential for understanding internal traffic movement. The survey will provide data in order to determine the priority for widening or paving certain streets to better accommodate the traffic. A traffic volume survey should be taken at various points‘ within the community. Since most traffic passes through key intersections or across bridges, these provide good sampling places for collecting data concerning traffic flows. This in turn gives the best overall view of traffic movement within the community and does not necessitate stationing a person at every intersection. Comparative data should be collected in a similar manner for the traffic volume study on the major highways entering the community. The data collected from these annual surveys Of traffic volumes can provide, over a period of time, an impor- tant basis for predicting future traffic volumes on various streets within the community. An annual census of the number and types of vehicles registered in the community and the surrounding area helps in estimating future traffic volumes and future trends that will directly affect the pattern of traffic movement. The traffic volume and patterns in the community are important because they can provide the data for making 191 planning and deve10pment decision. For example, the traffic volume and patterns in the community can be used as a basis for determining the priority for street paving. They can also be used to determine truck routes through the community which will help alleviate traffic congestion and safety hazards in the central area of the community. Origin and Destination Study A more detailed survey of the traffic using a par- ticular highway is called an origin and destination study. In this survey all vehicles are briefly stOpped in order to ask the following questions: - Where did the trip originate? - Where is the destination of the trip? - What is the purpose of the trip? (Work, social, shOpping, etc.) - How often is the trip made? - How Often do passengers stop in the community, and why? The answers to these questions can help local of- ficials foresee future traffic conditions and can provide interesting insights as to the future of the community and its role of importance to the highway traveler. If there is an increasing number of vehicles using the highway, more peOple should certainly be entering the community and making use Of its various facilities. If they're not, the reason might be that the community does not offer sufficient 192 services. Or perhaps the streets are poorly maintained or congested so the traveler doesn't want to stop. These kinds of insights should help in understanding the transportation patterns which can directly affect the economic base of the community. Transportation studies can provide the munici- pality with a basis for making improvements on certain streets that will help resolve some of the traffic problems. The Office of Highways (Caminos) can usually provide some help in setting up and carrying out traffic volume surveys - especially origin and destination studies. Many problems can arise in making traffic surveys, so the advice Of the highway officials who have experience in these studies can often assure success of the project. Transit Study Since most of the peOple traveling between secondary urban centers in Honduras use buses, it is important to gather and analyze some information concerning these transpor- tation services. The information necessary to help evaluate the adequacy of bus service and its effects upon the com— munity can be provided by the responses to these questions: - Bus service is provided to what other“communities? - How frequently do buses travel to these destinations? - How far away are these destinations? - How long does it usually take to get there? What is the cost per person to take the trip? 193 - How many carriers have buses traveling to the same communities? - What is the average number of passengers carried on each trip? - What problems are encountered in making the trip, such as bad roads, poor scheduling or low quality of service, etc.? If peOple are going to be attracted to a community and therefore enhance the economic vitality of the area, a good transportation facility is essential. This includes frequent and efficient bus service from out—lying areas and a conveniently located terminal. Too often a bus unloads its passengers where there are few Opportunities to make travel connections to other areas. This includes other areas within the community, too. A bus terminal would help resolve these problems. This facility Should be centrally located preferably near the public market and the central commercial areas which attract many of the passengers in the first place. If inter-city bus transportation exists, it should pass by the terminal So people arriving in the community can conveniently travel to other parts of the urban area. The construction of a new highway or the improvement of an Old one will create new transportation demands. Paved roads often mean that a bus can make more trips in a day because travel is now easier and quicker. The cost of main- taining vehicles is lowered. Paved roads also encourage 194 peOple to travel to other communities to shop or transact business. Previously they did these things only in their own community because of the hardship of the journey. A cooperative effort among various bus owners is essential if a community is to be provided with good transpor- tation service. In many cases two or more buses leave a community at the same time for the same destination. This usually means that there will be a long wait before the next bus departure to this particular destination. Not only does it result in poor service for people wanting to travel, but also in poor profits for bus owners, because they usually Operate at only half capacity. A survey and analysis of the inter-city buses should also be undertaken. These are the buses that provide service to various areas within the community. The same questions used in the intra-city bus transportation study can be used for surveying inter-city bus system. In addition it is important to note the various bus routes and ascertain if all areas that merit are provided with service. The locations Of bus stOps often create traffic problems which need not exist. Designated bus stOps should be marked and provided with sufficient Space for the buses to pull over to the side of the street and let passengers on and off. All too frequently the buses load and unload passengers in the middle of the street, thus blocking the flow of traffic and creating 195 safety hazards for the passengers. As the community grows and expands, it is necessary to extend the bus routes in order to provide new areas with transportation service. Two other studies - a street paving priority study and a parking study - can provide additional information to help eliminate some of the traffic problems that exist in the community. Street Paving Priority Study Only a few of the secondary urban centers in Honduras have paved streets. However, when funds are made available, they are usually insufficient to cover paving costs for all the streets. A paving priority study can help determine which streets should be paved and the order in which the work should be carried out. The particular function of a street provides the criterion for determining priority. - Highways and arterial streets in the community should be paved first, since they carry heavy volumes of traffic. Important collector streets which are used as bus routes should be given secondary priority for paving. Local streets should be assigned the lowest priority because of the small volumes of traffic. — Streets that provide access routes through the com- munity connecting it to other communities are impor- tant-and should be paved. This will help provide for 196 the efficient and safe movement of traffic within the community. - Special truck routes which carry heavy traffic around the community to help alleviate congestion should also have high priority. - Areas that generate heavy traffic, such as the central business district and the public market areas, merit high priority. No street should be paved, however, until water and sanitary sewers have been installed. If these utilities already exist, they should be put in good working order before paving begins. Choosing the streets to be paved and determining priority, based upon the above criterion, will provide a sound investment base for spending the community's limited resources. This is true because the study reflects the needs of the entire community rather than the needs of a few individuals. Parking Studies The central commercial area of any community needs a sufficient number of parking Spaces for shoppers, if it is to thrive and prosper. Therefore, it is important to make a study of the parking situation in the city center. A parking study should include an inventory of the present parking facilities, noting problem areas. Then recommendations 197 can be made which will ensure adequate parking for the future. Permitting parking on the streets is the easiest way to provide parking spaces. The basic problem with an on-street parking system is that cars occupy part of the street which could be used for the movement of vehicles. On-street parking creates the need for construction of wider streets so both the movement and parking functions can be accommodated. Some of the larger cities have attempted to regulate the on-street parking by: l) permitting it on only one side Of the street, 2) limiting it to a certain period of time, like an hour, in order to provide a constant turn-over in the number of parking spaces available; 3) permitting it only during certain times of the day when the traffic is light; and 4) eliminating it on certain streets altogether. The parking study and its analysis should examine every street in the central business area of the community and determine which, if any, of the above parking regulations would best apply in order to provide for parking, and, at the same time, for the efficient movement of traffic. The width of a street and its traffic volume should determine its type of on-street parking. Most common is parallel parking. In this arrangement the parking of the vehicle is parallel to the flow of traffic on one or both sides of the street. This parking arrangement is usually 198 employed on narrower streets where there is the need for parking and also for traffic movement. Angle parking is the second type of parking arrangement. It is usually employed on wider streets where more area may be used for parking than for traffic movement. In this arrangement the vehicle is parked perpendicular to the flow of traffic on one or both sides of the street. It allows more vehicles to be parked per block than does the parallel arrangement. But is occupies areas of the street that could be used for the movement of traffic. A parking study should determine what type of parking arrangements and regulations should be used on all principle streets in the community, especially those in the central commercial area where there is the greatest demand for parking spaces. The parking study should also examine the feasibility of using off-street parking areas. These facilities are used for the storage of vehicles which are not parked in the street. Off-street parking is often employed to provide parking in congested areas where the number on-street parking spaces is inadequate. In other cases, off-street parking facilities are developed in order to replace on-street parking, which in turn improves the traffic flow. Some communities have found that several off-street parking facilities located around the central business area decrease traffic congestion 199 by reducing the need for vehicular travel on streets in the community center. They also reduce the need for on-street parking, which in turn increases the capacity of the street to handle traffic. A new commercial building constructed in the central business area should be required to provide off-street parking facilities for the vehicles of customers and employees. The number of spaces required depends upon its size and function and the number of customers and employees that it might attract. This requirement will help eliminate future parking and traffic problems. A part of the parking survey should also include a study of the loading and unloading facilities in the central area. The laoding and unloading activities of stores in the central commercial areas are usually conducted in the street or on the sidewalks. This creates a type of traffic problem which might be solved by designating certain areas for loading and unloading rather than for parking. Strict Observance of the use reserved for these areas is necessary. Otherwise, they will be used for parking. The municipality should require all new commercial and industrial buildings to be equipped with off-street loading and unloading fa- cilities so these activities will not create traffic and safety hazards. 200 Affects of New Highways on the Social and Economic Life of the Community The purpose of constructing a new highway or im— proving an old one is to permit the quicker, safer, cheaper and more efficient movement of goods and people. All of the secondary urban centers will, in the near future, be connected to the other secondary urban centers and to the primary cities in Honduras and Central America. The new highway syStem will create new areas of influence in all of the urban areas by allowing people, goods and ideas to travel faster and further than was ever possible on the old, unpaved windy roads. As peOple and materials begin to travel longer distances in a shorter time, more conveniently, the secondary urban centers must either extend their areas of influence or have some of their marketing functions taken over by more aggressive urban centers. The primary cities are apt to expand their areas of marketing influence rapidly when a new highway is opened. Many times they will usurp some of the important marketing functions of a secondary urban center, thus cutting into that community's economic base. While the new highway will permit more people to travel to the secondary urban centers to make purchases and conduct business, it also makes travel easier from one urban center to another, or to the primary cities. This could 201 have a negative affect upon the community if it no longer functions as a market attracting peOple. This, in turn, could cause a decline in the economic activity and importance of the community. The attraction of the larger city is great, and with eXpanded ease of travel, many peOple will choose to travel there to carry out activities which they once per- formed in the secondary urban centers. The primary city has the advantage of possessing a larger and better selection of goods and stores. In some cases prices are cheaper because of lower transportation costs. It also offers an extensive variety of services and facilities for health and educational purposes which attract many people from the secondary urban centers. The secondary urban center needs to prepare for the effect of new highways if it wants to protect and expand its economic base and marketing area of influence. Commercial establishments must expand their services and selection of goods and check their prices if they are to remain a viable marketing center. The community must create a pleasant atmosphere in which to shOp or people will travel to other communities to make purchases. Since new highways drastically change old patterns of commercial activity, it is essential that the secondary urban center prepare to meet this new challenge or the economic base of the community will decline. 202 With the old highways some communities provided a traveler with many services, such as food, lodging, gas and repairs for his vehicle. Now, with the new paved highways, travel is quicker and more efficient, and fewer stOps are required. Therefore, a community which is dependent upon providing such services must modernize and expand them in order to continue attracting travelers. Otherwise, the com- munity will lose an important part of its economic base and vitality. A community that is by-passed by a new highway often finds itself with an altered economic base and physically isolated. In some cases it is planned that a new highway will by-pass a community, because of the urban land uses that might spring up along the roadway which would diminish the function of the new facility to carry peOple and goods quickly, efficiently and safely. If isolated by a new highway, the municipality should construct an arterial road to the highway. This will facilitate easy access for travelers who may wish to avail them selves of the various services and facilities offered by the community. A tourist at- traction, such as a scenic park or historical area, may induce more travelers to stOp in the community. This could add new economic benefits and compensate for some that might have been lost with the deve10pment of the new road. 203 In some instances when a community is by-passed by a new highway, many of the existing commercial establishments move to new locations along with roadway. These new fa- cilities are built to provide services for travelers who normally would have stopped when the old road passed through the community. This abrupt movement of businesses to lo- cations along new roads is not in the best interest of the community because it does not foster orderly and contiguous growth. For instance, what will happen to the buildings that were vacated in the center of the community? Who will pay the costs of extending the necessary urban services to these highway sites? Highway officials do not favor these commercial activities along the highway as they usually create traffic hazards. Municipal authorities must work closely with the highway planners to insure that the location of a new highway will help and not hinder the deve10pment Of the community. The selection of routes for the highway around the community should serve both the interests of the community and the highway planners. Highway officials usually want a route away from urban deve10pment while municipal officials want traffic to pass close to their community. The municipality should request the paving of entrances to the community so traffic can easily leave the highway and enter the community. Local officials should agree to control deve10pment along 204 the highway so its function will not be negatively affected. With strict development regulations along the new route, the highway Officials might be more willing to build the by-pass closer to the community so it will not leave the town completely isolated. The municipality should enforce these regulations to control development that would adversely affect the function of the highway. Provisions in this regulation Should: Permit only large industrial and highway commercial land uses to develop along the road. Prohibit, under all circumstances, residential land uses along the highway, as the two uses are incompat- ible. Require large parcels of land for development in order to limit the number of activities that will be spread out along the highway. Require defined entrances and exits between the highway and the adjacent land uses. Require large parking areas well away from the edge of the highway so people will not park near or wander out on to the highway. Require loading and unloading facilities well away from the road so these activities will not take place near the highway and create traffic hazards. 205 Another effect of the new highway might be that it would increase the traffic in the community. This is especially true if the highway passes directly through the community or if the area has some special features, such as beaches, parks or scenic areas that might attract many people. This usually means more traffic hazards and congestion in the community. The municipality in this case should carefully study and analyze the situation and make plans to provide better traffic movement to and through the community. CHAPTER III THE URBAN PLANNING PROCESS - PART TWO With the completion of the data gathering analysis step of the urban planning process it is necessary to synthe- size all Of the information which has been collected so it can be used as a basis for making a development plan for a community. A deve10pment plan should create the best possible social, economic and physical environment based upon the goals and objectives that have been formulated for a community. Since there will be an abundance of information gathered and analyzed concerning the urban economy, the natural environment, the population, the urban land uses, the community facilities and services and the transportation system, it is necessary to combine all of these separate elements into a coherent whole. This is done by examining the data to determine how each part relates to the other and to the community and region. Synthesis of Data and Design Of a Development Plan The purpose of the synthesis step in the planning process is to seek a basis for determining the land area needed to accommodate future growth expansion of the community. 206 207 The data which has been collected and analyzed has es- tablished where each type of land use is presently located and has provided criteria for determining suitable locations for future land uses. The synthesis of the data will es- tablish exactly where each type of land use should logically be located within the community as it grows and expands. After determining where the particular land uses should be located in the future, it is necessary to determine or estimate how much land is needed for each of these land use types for a given period into the future. The amount of land needed for each kind of land use will depend upon the survey and analysis of past trends, existing conditions, and the potential of the community to provide new economic activities, which in turn will help determine the rate of growth that can be expected. This is usually done by making several alternative plans or solu- tions, usually in the form of a map, that reflects the best possible balance of land utilization. The creation of an Optimum pattern of land development is done by 1) examining the existing character of deve10pment for each land use type, 2) determining the existing space requirements for each type of land use in the community and applying this criteria to the growth expected and then 3) balancing these Space requirements against the availability of land. 208 After the various alternative plans have been de- velOped, each one Should be examined in terms of fulfilling the stated goals and objectives that were formulated in the first step of the planning process. In this examination, some of the questions to which the municipality should seek answers might include: How does the plan affect the natural environment? What would be the cost of implementing the ‘plan? Does it satisfy the needs and requirements of each. land use type? Is there a logical and rational basis for the Spatial organization of the various land uses, community facilities and the tranSportation system? Will the plan satisfy the future needs of the residents? Does the plan follow logically from the analysis of anticipated future land use needs? In this synthesis step of the planning process, the citizen committee that helped to formulate the goals and Objectives for the community should examine the various alternative plans in order to help determine the one that seems most suitable and feasible for the community. The committee should enlist the active support of the community as a whole in determining which plan is best in terms of existing conditions and the future potential of the community. The particular plan that best fits the capabilities of the community should be approved by the committee and the elected Officials as the official development plan for the community. 209 Just as individuals, families and businesses plan their activities, local government must plan too. The purpose Of planning is to determine the wisest use of the community's resources to reach established goals and objectives. Com- munities have always planned their futures to some extent, but a comprehensive approach involving a deve10pment plan which takes into consideration the community's economic base, population characteristics, and public facilities, as well as the cultural content, social needs and political and financial realities, is a much newer phenomenon. One of the basic objectives of the planning process is the attainment of a desirable, efficient, and satisfying living environment for the residents of a community. To be efficient and effective, a community needs a guide for its growth and deve10pment. A development plan can serve this need for such a guide because it will provide a framework for making numerous daily decisions concerning the growth and expansion of the community. A development plan is the presentation of the community's goals and objectives for the future, expressed in a general manner through text and graphic aids. A development plan should deal with all Of those elements that affect the community, such as the characteristics and location of future land uses and public facilities, the design of streets, the location and development of transpor- tation systems, and all physical facilities which are necessary 210 or desirable to promote the economic and social betterment, comfort and convenience of the people. It is necessary to balance and harmonize the physical, social and economic factors of the community in order to produce a better place in which to live, work and play. By creating the most appropriate utilization of space and the most efficient arrangement of services, the deve10pment plan can extend the economic resources of the community to better provide for health, safety and welfare of its residents. The basic concepts of a development plan include: 1) a separation of those land uses that are incompatible or inharmonious, 2) the grouping together of those uses that are compatible which compliment each other, 3) the promotion of the orderly and contiguous expansion of the community to assure the economy of services, 4) the develOp— ment of a transportation system that is harmonious with the surrounding land uses while fulfilling its functions, and 5) the provision of sites for community facilities and services to assure their best use. .The nature of a deve10pment plan has several important aspects. The plan should be general. It should contain recommendations for the location of the various land uses and community facilities. It should not be so specific that it gets down to precise 211 details, such as lot sizes, etc. The plan should be comprehensive. It should attempt to bring into balance the various land uses. The plan should be flexible. It Should attempt to systematically anticipate, encourage, and guide uses of land in the community based upon their functional inter-relationships. By pointing out the functional linkages between major land uses, the deve10pment plan should establish a framework within which various alternative land use patterns may logically occur. 3 The plan Should emphasize changing needs. .The plan should facilitate its up-dating in order to accurately reflect changing land use needs and the varying emphasis placed on them by the in- habitants of the community. The development plan for Danli, Honduras (Danli: plan de desarrollo - una guia para el crecimiento) is an example of the application of the principles of urban planning for a secondary urban center in Honduras. The next step in the planning process is the imple- mentation of the development plan. Implementation of the Development Plan Implementation of the deve10pment plan is just as essential as formulation of the plan itself. Making a 212 development plan does not mean that the community will auto- matically grow and expand accordingly. Implementation is an important step in the urban planning process for without it, the plan will not be used as a guide for making develop- ment decisions. A series of programs and policies are needed to implement the proposals and recommendations as stated in the deve10pment plan. Presented below are some suggestions on how to implement a development plan.. It is important to use several or a combination of these suggestions in order to provide the maximum impetus. After the completion of the development plan the local governmental Officials should adOpt it as the Official policy for the growth and expansion of the community. This adoption could take the form of an ordinance which states that all subsequent development decisions shall be in accordance with the policies and prOposals as detailed in the Official deve10pment plan for the community. This will help assure that all plans for new construction, uses of land, and community facilities will be based accordingly. A special planning commission of three to five people should be appointed by local officials to administer the deve10pment plan and keep it up to date. Their function would be the mandatory review of all plans, programs and prOposals for public and private deve10pment in the community, 213 and presentation of recommendations to community officials for approval of only those which are in accordance with the deve10pment plan. The local Officials would make the final decisions concerning the approval or rejection of all development proposals, based upon the recommendations and findings of the planning commission. Residential Land Use Controls Ordinances can be used to help eliminate many of the problems in residential areas that might have been brought to light in the urban land use survey and analysis. For example, in some communities the municipality has permitted the construction of buildings, usually houses, within the right-of-way of a street. In most of these cases the road has a wide right-of-way of which the actual pavement width occupied only a relatively small part. Wide right-of-ways are necessary because future traffic demands may require that the pavement be widened. A wide right-of-way will permit this without the need of purchasing additional land on each side of the road. Of course, if buildings have been constructed in the right-of-way and widening becomes necessary, people living in those buildings must be relocated and the buildings themselves must be purchased and razed The alternative is to purchase a completely new right-of-way. Both are very expensive solutions to the problem. 214 Never, under any circumstances, should the construction of any building be allowed within the right-Of-way of any highway or street. An ordinance should be passed to this effect and the public Should be informed of this prohibition. Any construction that is started within a highway right- Of-way should be stopped immediately. It is important to do this before time and money are spent in constructing a building, only to have the municipality physically remove it. It is much easier and cheaper in both monetary and social costs to the people involved and to the municipality, if construction in highway right-of-ways is prohibited right at the start, rather than letting it go and dealing with the problem at a later time. The municipality and the highway department Should clearly mark the right-of-ways of all streets in the community so the public will know beyond any doubt where it is illegal to build. Sometimes it is the density of houSing in certain areas of the community that causes problems. When there are many homes too close together, problems affecting the health , safety and welfare of the residents usually result. Under crowded conditions there is little or no room for children to plan. There is usually a lack of adequate water and sanitary sewer facilities because these urban utilities were not built to service so many peOple. The result is 215 unsanitary living conditions. In many cases this situation arises when a particular parcel of land is subdivided for residential use with a given number of lots each intended for one home. Based upon this density the urban utilities were designed to serve a given number of households. But when two or more houses are built on each lot the resulting density is two or three times greater than originally planned. This, in turn, creates demands upon the utilities for services which they were not designed to meet. To avoid this develOp- ment problem, the municipality should not permit construction of more than one house on a lot in an area that has been designed and planned for single family units. The illegal use and occupation of land in the com- munity is a growing problem for most municipalities. This situation usually occurs because there are no housing Oppor- tunities for people with very limited incomes. Since these peOple cannot afford to buy or rent any existing houses, they are forced to seek their own solution to the problem which usually results in their squatting on (or illegally occupying) a piece of land. The question for the municipality besides the obvious health problems since these areas are without any water or sanitary sewer facilities - is how to deal with these people when they settle illegally on public or private lands. The struggle to remove them physically usually leads to direct conflicts and does not foster good 216 relations between these people and the municipal government. If faced with a housing shortage for people with very limited financial resources, the municipality should attempt to_ provide some areas that can be used for residential purposes which have been provided with at least minimal public utilities. This, of course, must be done at a cost which these people can afford, if given the opportunity to pay over a period of time. This would provide an alternative for these people‘ so they would not have to illegally occupy private land, land reserved for other uses, land in flood plains or on steep hillsides, or land in the highway right-of-ways. The cost to the municipality of providing land for these peOple to settle on which has been subdivided and provided with minimal services, is less in the long run, than the cost of removing them once they have squatted. John C. Turner43 feels that these people, if given the Opportunity of purchasing a piece Of land at a reasonable price will slowly, but surely, improve the dwelling units which they have constructed, 43See John C. Turner, "Barriers and Channels for Housing DevelOpments in Modernizing Countries," Journal of the American Institute of Planners, May, 1967, Volume 33, p. 167-181; "Housing Priorities, Settlement Patterns, and Urban Development in Modernizing Countries," Journal of the American Institute of Planners, November, 1968, Volume 34, p. 354-363; "Uncontrolled Urban Settlements: Problems and Policies," The City in Newly Developing Countries, (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice Hall Inc., 1969), P. 507-534. 217 inasmuch as they have a feeling of security and ownership that they did not have when they were squatting. In this situation Turner says that these peOple will improve their homes and in turn improve their living conditions. If this is the case, the cost of providing land for them to buy is far cheaper than having to deal with the problem of squatter removal and relocation a later time. Sometimes when new areas have been subdivided by the municipality or private individuals, the resulting lots have been extremely large. They are large because they are usually located on the edge of the community where the cost of the land is minimal. But the problem of providing utilities to these large individual lots is an expensive prOposition. The cost per lot of laying water and sewer pipes depends, for the most part, upon the length of frontage. Small lots have little frontage and thus, smaller deve10pment costs in terms of the utilities. These large lots are more expensive to service because of the larger frontage. In some cases these lots are large enough to be used for small farming purposes with the house built in one corner and the remainder planted in crOps. ‘The water facilities are then used to irrigate these small farm plots of land which creates a heavy demand upon the community water system - a demand which it was never intended to serve. Since new residential areas need to be provided with urban services, they should be of 218 an urban size and used only for residential purposes. Urban lots should be large enough for the construction of a resi- dence and a small yard, and not so large as to be used for farming purposes. The municipality should only permit urban uses on lots that are provided with urban services. All new residences in or on the edge of the community should be provided with minimum urban services, such as electricity, water and sanitary sewers. By requiring these basic services, the cost of each lot is increased. But without them the potential for unhealthy and unsanitary living conditions increases. Those who cannot afford all these urban services in their homes should have access to at least some type of communal water and sanitary facilities. The municipality should control the subdividing of new lands for residential purposes based upon the demands for new residential sites. The cost of constructing and extending urban utilities to several areas being subdivided at the same time is expensive, especially if the lots are not sold and remain vacant for many years because there was not a sufficient demand for them. The municipality should permit the subdividing of new lands for residential purposes only as the need becomes apparent since it is unwise and uneconomical to permit new lands to be subdivided when existing residential land with all of the urban services 219 remains vacant. Vacant lots with all of the utilities provided, place an unnecessary burden on the municipality in terms of wasted money that could have been used for other purposes. In the past many new residential areas were not provided with any park, recreational or school sites. When new lands are subdivided for residential purposes, the municipality should require that some of the land be left for a school/park site. Therefore when a residential area is developed to the point that a new school is needed, a site will already have been reserved for this purpose and thus will have to be purchased. These sites should be con- veniently located to provide easy access for school aged children from all corners of the neighborhood. How much land Should be dedicated for a school/park site is difficult to determine. An important criterion used to determine the amount of land is based upon the density of the deve10pment. Higher density means smaller lots, and therefore more land is needed for recreational purposes. There are many problems that residential land uses create in the community. While the above list is not incon- clusive, it does illustrate that most of these problems are not impossible to rectify. In most cases an ordinance prohibiting a certain activity, and the enforcement of it, will go a long way to help create a more livable community. ' 220 The solving of problems in the community created by the existing residential land uses and the prevention of these same problems in the development of new residential areas is an important function of any planning program in a secondary urban center. An ordinance requiring all new subdivisions to be in accordance with the deve10pment plan is essential in order to guarantee the prOper deve10pment of new residential areas in the community. This would require the deve10pment of new subdivisions only in designated residential areas as proposed in the deve10pment plan. The ordinance would also require that new subdivisions be built according to certain standards of design and layout in order to provide organized and harmonious growth of the community. A procedure for the review and subsequent approval or rejection Of a proposed subdivision should be included in the ordinance. Suggestions for Subdividing New Areas for Residential Uses The municipality is vitally intereSted in the design Of new residential areas for several reasons. The purpose of subdividing land for residential use is to provide a place for residents of the community to build houses and live. Streets are constructed in the Subdivision to provide access to these individual parcels of land. The cost of the individual lots depends upon the original cost of the 221 land plus the cost of constructing streets and providing community services and facilities. If a subdivision is designed with many streets, then the cost of each lot will be more. But if the streets in a new residential subdivision are carefully laid out to minimize the number needed while still providing adequate access to every lot, then the cost of the individual lots will be less. If the cost of lots is less, then more people can afford to buy them. The more people who are able to buy lots the greater the chance that all lots will be sold. Vacant lots that are serviced with public utilities create wasted public and private expenditures. The purpose of a residential subdivision is not to design a maze of streets. The purpose is to develop usable sites for the construction of dwelling units at the least possible cost. The prOper design of subdivisions is important to the municipality which is in charge of maintaining streets and many of the utilities located in the community. The elimination Of unnecessary streets in a new subdivision will save the municipality money since there will be fewer streets which need to be maintained. If the streets are poorly designed in a new subdivision, it will cost the municipality a great deal to correct this error in the future. For these reasons the municipality is vitally interested in subdivision 222 design. A prOperly designed subdivision will cost the com- munity less in the long run and often cost less to build in the first place. Subdivision Standards There are several locational standards for determining the desirability of a piece of land for residential uses. The location of a new area for residential use should be: 1. Based upon the capacity of the land for residential subdividing purposes; in short, on the environmental survey; 2. Contiguous to the present urban area of the community to provide for its orderly expansion; 3. Based upon the ability to extend and provide urban services; and 4. .Based upon the location of other land uses both existing and prOposed. Subdivision standards are important in order to assure that all new deve10pments be designated to provide for the safety and welfare of the people while also creating a pleasant environment in which to live. Once a subdivision has been constructed it becomes a permanent fixture on the landscape. It is next to impossible to change a poorly designed subdivision when it has been constructed and the lots sold. Any changes that have to be made are costly and 223 would be unnecessary, had the subdivision been properly designed in the first place. Some basic design criteria are presented below in order to help eliminate some of the common errors made in subdividing. (Also see Street Layouts). Blocks: (All blocks should be arranged with two tiers of lots. By designing blocks in this manner there is a need for fewer streets and this means lower deve10pment and maintenance —' l l l l I l l [31 on Don a. '1 I l .I . ID .__._1 IT——].——[_.'—_—; .1...__ 981513151! 43]” Figure 18.--Block Standards Arrangement Blocks should not be so short that there are many intersections which create traffic hazards. Unnecessary streets increase the cost of each lot. But blocks Should not be so long as to make access to interior lots difficult. In some cases where long blocks have to be used, pedestrian walks cutting through the middle of the block can provide access for children walking to school, etc. 224 ,/’_—\‘Too lonq L Too short Figure l9.--Block Standards: Length The use of superblocks is a new idea that can cut the cost of subdividing. A superblock is a grouping of four or more blocks used for residential purposes connected together by sidewalks and surrounded by a road that provides vehicle access. A system of sidewalks is used to provide access between the blocks and the individual lots. Super- blocks have been used in those projects where few private cars are owned by the residents and therefore the need for a street to carry vehicle traffic to each lot is unnecessary. The monetary savings of building sidewalks instead of streets is substantial. The superblock concept has been used exten- sively by the National Housing Institute for low-coSt housing projects. Colonia Kennedy in Tegucigalpa, built by the housing institute, was based on the superblock concept and now provides housing for over 15,000 peOple. 225 Lots: All lot lines should be at right angles to the street. This creates usable pieces of land that have a large enough frontage to provide sufficient access to the street. Figure 20.--Lot Standards: Lot Lines All lots should have direct access to public streets. This provides sufficient right-of-way to each lot for the urban services that are required. It also prevents the future closing Of a street because it belongs to one person. The depth of a lot should be about 2 l/2 to 3 times the width. This provides for the most efficient use of the land so it will be suitable for constructing a dwelling unit. Long narrow lots or very wide lots with little depth are not suitable for building because of their odd shape. All corner lots should be slightly wider and longer to provide for a clear vision area at the intersection. Figure 21.--Lot Standards: Length and Width Figure 22.--Lot Standards: Corner Lots No individual lot which has been approved as part Of a subdivision should be re—divided to create two or more lots. There should only be one house built on each lot. However, assessory buildings such as a garage or a shed should be permitted. 227 Back-up lots should be provided when residential land uses are adjacent to major highways or industrial areas. These lots should be extra long With a buffer zone to help separate the two conflicting uses. I l l l l , . l l lugolalcfllaofiaiunin :DIDIIL-l U FDPEPFF p :,c';ushfi., -,”““Back-up lots - /- /z//_///? . ' '- Major street Figure 23.--Lot Standards: Backup Lots Grading and Drainage of Blocks and Lots: PrOper grading and drainage of every block and lot are important to keep rain water runoff from damaging houses or eroding the soil. This means that each house should be placed on land which is slightly higher than the rest of its lot in order to keep drainage of storm waters away from its foundation. Surface water is drained off each lot either 228 to the street, or to the back lot line or in both directions. Proper grading of lots and blocks will result in a subdivision of the land that provides buildable sites for homes. Lots that are too high or too low in relation to the road are not desirable sites in terms of drainage. Figure 24.--Grading and Drainage of Blocks and Lots 229 Survey Markers: Every corner of every lot and block should be ade— quately marked with a survey marker before the subdivision is approved and lots are sold. If all boundaries are clearly marked it will help prevent the possibility of buildings being erected within the highway right-of-way. Individual lots can be marked with steel rods driven into the ground at every corner. The corners of the blocks should be more permanently marked with a metal rod encased in concrete. ~—’1¢th4i 3 Metal Bar - 1/2" diameter and Concrete Cylinder 4" diameter and 36" long ‘ r: Figure 25.--Survey Markers The deve10pment plan should be used as the basis for locating and develOping all new residential subdivisions. The private develOper should use it to determine those areas that logically should be subdivided to provide new housing sites. Government agencies, such as the National Housing 230 Institute, should make certain their prOposed sites for construction of public housing are in those areas determined best for residential land uses. Commercial Land Use Controls The mapping and evaluation of existing commercial areas in the community can point out some problem areas and potential conflicts which, in many cases, can be solved or eliminated in the future with the use of ordinances and regulations. For example, since small commercial establish- ments located in a dwelling unit are secondary land uses to the residential function, they should not create nuisances or safety hazards to the adjacent residential areas. If problems are created by these neighborhood commercial ac— tivities they should be required to relocate in commercial areas. In any event, these home commercial activities should be required to continue to function on a small scale, providing convenience goods and services only to the immediate neighborhood. Street congestion in and around the central commercial area can be alleviated by requiring off-street loading and unloading areas. This can be accomplished by requiring each commercial concern to provide its own space, or by providing a central facility for use of all businesses. Off-street parking facilities should also be required. 231 Highway commercial areas all too Often do not pro- vide entrances and exits for their commercial establishments, and a serious traffic hazard is created by vehicles by pulling out on the highway from any place and at any angle. Defined entrances and exits should be required to help prevent this situation. Too many times a driver parks his car or truck with part of the vehicle still on the road, thus making it extremely difficult for other drivers to see vehicles traveling the highway. Parking areas for all commercial uses should be located well away from the highway. This will leave the roadsides as clear vision areas for those traveling and for those pulling out on the highway. Many of the new highways built around communities to alleviate congestion have themselves been choked with traffic because of the numerous commercial establishments which have located along the road. Because of the problems of traffic congestion, high land costs, and lack of room to expand, many Of the businesses that were once located in the central commercial area of the community have decided to move out and locate their stores along major highways. The movement of these businesses to locations along a highway does not usually provide for the orderly and contiguous growth and expansion of the community. Usually these locations have few if any 232 of the necessary urban services, such as water or sewers. If the commercial activities from the central business area are leaving to relocate along highways, it is important to determine who will pay to extend these urban services to those areas. Plans should be made to re-develop the central business area where funds have already been Spent installing these services. The local government and the merchants in the central business area should work together to revitalize the commercial area in the community center by providing‘ parking areas and off-street loading and unloading in order to make the area a more convenient place to shop. This would help to eliminate some of the problems that are causing businesses to move out. The larger cities in Honduras have seen the develOp- ment of a new type of commercial land use called the shOpping center. This is the compact grouping of one or more stores on one site located on a highway or major road. These shOpping centers usually include a variety of stores that cater to convenience goods and services. Since several stores are located together, the shopping center provides one stOp shopping, that is, the ability to purchase a variety of goods without having to drive all over the city. ShOpping centers usually depend upon the automobile or busses for access to them and, therefore, require large parking areas. 233 These commercial facilities are strategically located to provide convenient access from a number of adjacent neighbor- hoods. ShOpping centers are popular because they provide a variety of stores without all the traffic and parking problems that exist in the central commercial areas. It is likely that several of the larger secondary urban centers in Honduras will see the development of Shopping centers in the coming years, especially with the construction of a first class highway system in the country. Industrial Land Use Controls All industrial land uses need good locations, just as residential and commercial land uses do. In too many cases the left-over land in the community is designated for industrial sites. If a community sets aside only marginal land for industrial development, then new industries will not locate there and the community will lose out on an opportunity to improve its economic base. Some land along new highways should be reserved for industrial uses in order to provide them with convenient access. Heavy industrial land uses and warehouses need to be located in areas ex- clusively reserved for these uses and not intermingled with other land uses. Just as the residential areas have to be protected from industrial operations, industrial land uses have to be protected from residential land uses. Regulations 234 reserving certain parcels of land for the exclusive use of industrial concerns will help the community to grow and expand in a manner that will provide for the health, safety and welfare of the peOple. One of the most persistent problems in a community is the growth and expansion of home and small light industries to the point where they create nuisances for the surrounding residential land uses. In most cases, when these industrial uses were started they did not cause any problems for the adjacent residential land uses. But as they prospered and grew, they began to adversely affect the surrounding land uses. Problems would include increased traffic congestion, noise, smoke, and general disorganization of the neighborhood. When such a Situation develOps, they should be required to relocate in the heavy industrial areas where their Operations will not bother the surrounding land uses. The municipality should strictly control the expansion of these small home and light industrial concerns that are located in reSidential areas. When the need arises to expand one of these industries, the municipality should help the owners find an apprOpriate location in a designated heavy industrial area. In a few cases where the small home or light industrial concerns have remained small, they have negatively affected the surrounding residential uses. The problem is usually 235 that they create noises at all hours of the day and night. Usually it is unfeasible to make these small home or light industrial concerns move to heavy industrial areas since they are such small Operations. However, the municipality can help control the noise problem by regulating their hours Of Operation. This points up the need for the separation of conflicting land uses, such as residential and industrial. If industrial Operations were grouped together, away from} residential land uses, there would be no need to control their hours of Operation, etc. While there is an inherent conflict between industrial land uses and residential land uses, there is also some conflict between industrial land uses and surrounding land uses. Industrial Operations located next to schools can be a hazard because of the heavy traffic they generate. Noise and smoke that might filter into the school would not encourage the learning process. They could endanger the health Of those concerned. Parks and recreational areas are, for the same reasons, best located away from industrial areas and close to residential areas. Hospitals and medical clinics are two other uses that should not be located near industrial concerns. Programs to Promote New Industry When a new industry is seeking a place to locate it will look at the relative advantages and disadvantages of various 236 communities. It will choose to locate in one com- munity instead of another because of a combination of factors. Some of these factors include: Availability of raw materials. Accessibility of transportation facilities. Location of markets. Climate. Water supply and sewage disposal facilities. Power availability and price. Labor supply, Specific skills and wage rates. Existing industries. . Available sites. Community services: fire, health, trash service, etc. Taxes. Particular local regulations. Special inducements made by the community. Community facilities: stores, schools, cultural centers, etc. While industries can bring prosperity to a community by creating new economic Opportunities, they can also create some difficult problems for the community. If a new industry wants to locate in the community, some of the questions to which the municipality should seek answers might include: How would this industry fluctuate in the local, regional, and national markets? 237 - Is it a seasonal Operation? If so, what will its workers do the remainder of the year? - Will the industry use local labor or bring in workers from other areas? - What are the chances that it will succeed and main- tain Operations in the community? If it fails, what happens to the economic base of the community and the public investments in water and sewer services, etc.? - What will be the added revenue to the community over the investment that the municipality will have to make in order to get the industry to locate there? - What will be the effect of the added load which the industry will put upon the existing facilities in the community such as schools, water, sewers, roads, etc.? - Will the industry polute the air, water, or land to an extent which might create prOblems for other land uses or the natural environment? Tegucigalpa and San Pedro Sula have started to develop new industrial sites based upon the concept of the industrial park. This is essentially the subdivision and deve10pment of a parcel of land exclusively for industrial 238 purposes in the same manner that land is subdivided and developed for residential land uses. The streets within the industrial park are wider to facilitate the movement of larger vehicles. There are shared parking and loading and unloading facilities for the various industries which helps eliminate traffic hazards and congestion which results in lower development costs. The industrial park lowers the cost of installing urban utilities because it is compact and is used only for industrial purposes. The use of the industrial park promotes an orderly and efficient pattern of land use. Industrial areas in secondary urban centers should be develOped in this manner because of the advantages in site location and costs. The industrial park here will not be on the same scale as its counterpart in the larger cities. But the concept of using it for develOping smaller industrial areas is desirable. Other Controls Occupancy Permits. To help regulate land uses in the community, the municipality should require that a permit be issued in order to Operate a business or industry. In this way the municipality can regulate land uses by issuing permits only for new businesses that are in accordance with the development plan. The required yearly renewal of these operation permits will help the municipality regulate land 240 is based upon the type of Operation. By requiring permits in order to operate a business, the municipality is provided with the means of generating revenue for new community projects. The above suggestions for implementing the develOp- ment plan by means of ordinances and permits requires strict measures to enforcement. Any new construction, business Operation or other similar activity not in accordance with the various ordinances of the community should be suspended immediately until all prOper procedures established by ordinance have been complied with. Historic Areas. Ordinances protecting historical or scenic areas in the community are desirable. They would ensure the preservation of these areas for specific purposes, and they should create programs to develop and maintain them. There might be an ordinance to create a historical area in the community, perhaps around the church and the plaza, and placing architectural controls on its buildings in order to preserve its atmosphere. Any area that would make an excellent park site should be reserved for that purpose and a program initiated to develop it. If such areas are not preserved and protected by ordinance, they might be used for other purposes and thus negate their value as tourist or historical attractions. ‘ Setback Requirements. Another ordinance that could help implement the deve10pment plan would be one dealing with 241 street planning and street layout and design. A problem common to all the secondary urban centers in Honduras is that of adapting narrow streets to the needs of the car and truck. Some of these narrow streets have been made one way streets because they are not wide enough for two way traffic. There have been many attempts to eliminate parking on narrow streets so there will be room for the movement of traffic. But the traffic problem is not that easy to solve. Automobiles parked on the sidewalks and trucks loading and unloading in the streets cause many inconveniences for other motorists and pedestrians. Programs establishing one way streets and eliminating parking on certain streets have helped to improve the flow of traffic. But these measures have only served as a partial solution to the complex urban traffic problem. Another and more important method that has been used to resOlve the traffic problem is the adoption of a set back ordinance which requires wider set backs for new buildings on certain streets. This will help create a long range solution for improving the traffic flow in the community. An ordinance of this type requires a greater set back when the owner of a piece of land wants to construct a new building or remodel an existing one. This method makes it mandatory . that the owner construct his building two to four meters 239 uses and keep track of the number and types of commercial and industrial establishments in the community. The mu- niciaplity should control and regulate existing commercial and industrial establishments by refusing them permission to expand or remodel any existing structure for use in a type of operation which is not in accordance with the develOp- ment plan. Thus, in time, with a minimum of inconvenience and disruption to the economic base and to the peOple, those businesses and industries which are not in accordance will be eliminated. Building Permits. Building permits can also be effective in controlling land uses. In this case, the con- struction of any new building or the expansion or the re- modeling of any existing building would require the issuance of a building permit by the municipality. Thus, the mu- nicipality is able to control new development in the com- munity by awarding permits only for propoSed construction which is in accordance with the development plan. Building permits are important not only for controlling land uses but also for determining that new structures meet minimal standards Of construction and the set back requirements for their particular streets. Eggs. These various permits can also be used to raise revenue for the municipality. The Law of Municipalities allows the local government to collect a fee whose amount 242 back from the Old building line in order to permit the eventual widening of the street. It takes considerable time before all the buildings of an entire block or street stand back along the same line, because the municipality can only enforce these new set back requirements when a new buildings is being constructed or when an old one is being remodeled. Meanwhile, new buildings stand farther back in relation to Older buildings. But eventually the entire block or street is reconstructed and the community has a wider right-of-way. When the pavement has also been widened a wider street is created for the movement of vehicle and pedestrian traffic. Since these set back requirements are applied to both sides of the street, eventually the entire street will be from four to eight meters wider with little or no cost to the community. Traffic Control. Prohibiting or restricting vehicular traffic in the central part of the community is another solution to the traffic problem. Building a series of parking lots around the perimeter of a central commercial area can eliminate much of the need for driving and parking on its narrow streets. Some communities have tried to deve10p more efficient public bus systems with the hope that more peOple will decide to leave their car at home and use the public transportation. This would help to reduce the number of car traveling and parking in the center of the community, 243 where the traffic congestion is usually worse. Other com- munities have ordinances requiring a definite number of off-street parking places for every new building that is constructed in the community. The number of parking places should depend upon the function and size of the new building. Some communities also require that offestreet loading and un- loading areas be built into the design of new buildings so that these activities will not be carried on in the street or on the sidewalk and add to the problems of traffic and pedestrian movement. Another idea that has been used to eaSe the problems of traffic congestion in the central city has been the desig- nating and designing of certain streets as heavy traffic routes. This helps to channel the heavy traffic safely through the community without adding to the traffic congestion that may already exist in the narrow streets of the central area. It also helps to prevent heavy traffic from using residential streets. If certain streets are designated as heavy traffic routes or truck routes, then these streets, when they are paved, can be designed to carry the maximum load and other streets of the community will not have to be over-designed with such high standards. This will help reduce paving costs and allow more streets to be paved. Traffic can be moved more quickly and far more efficiently in the community if a system of traffic movement is established. 244 In most of the communities in Honduras vehicles traveling on east-west streets are required to yield to north-southbound traffic. This System of determining right-of-way is very arbitrary, and it is not conducive to the efficient movement of traffic. Traffic movement should depend upon the function the street performs. Local streets should yeild to collectors, arterial streets and to highways. Collector streets should yield only to highways. When two streets with the same ‘function intersect the one that carries the least amount of traffic should yield to the other. Placement of traffic regulation signs, especially stOp signs, is important for the efficient movement of traffic and for the safety Of the peOple. Without traffic signs neither drivers nor pedestrians know for sure who has the right-of-way at an intersection and movement of the traffic is slowed considerably. Other traffic regulation signs that denote one-way streets or traffic hazards, such as schools, hospitals, and areas where children cross frequently, can help the movement of traffic and create safer streets in the community. Essential to any effort to improve traffic movement and safety through regulation is enforcement. If people continue to park in no parking areas or load and unload trucks in the street when off-street facilities have been provided, and if the authorities do nothing about it, then these efforts 245 to improve the traffic flow are doomed to failure. Placement Of signs has to be accompanied by enforcement of stated regulations. A program of traffic education is important so people of the community will understand and respect traffic regulations. After all, traffic regulations are made in an effort to make the community more livable by moving traffic more efficiently and safely through it. Street Layout. The prOper design and layout of streets is important because once the streets have been constructed they are usually a permanent feature of the com- munity. Many existing traffic problems could have been avoided had there been prOper street design and layout in the first place. Topography is the most important consideration, and flat areas that are well drained create the fewest problems. Conversely, to be avoided - as far as street layout is concerned - are areas with irregular tOpOgraphy which might prOduce streets on inclines so steep that vehicles cannot slimb them. Or residential lots so leped that owners cannot build on them. The following three figures show the prOper and imprOper methods of designing and laying out streets in relation to the topography. 246 / 7- -\~D\ \ / __ _ \ .11., [:1 ~ -—~ :- -—— 13% F. \ Figure 26.--Street Layout: Perpendicular to the Grade Streets that run perpendicular to the grade may have steep inclines and may create lots that are unusable and susceptible to erosion unless expensive grading is done. Streets which run parallel to the slope create lots on one side of the street which are considerably higher than those on the other side. This design creates drainage problems and also necessitates costly grading if lots are to be made accessible and usable. 247 Figure 27.--Street Layout: Parallel to Grade Figure 28.--Street Layout: With Grade 248 Streets should be designed in relation to the topo- graphy. This avoids steep grades on the streets and requires only minimal grading to create usable lots. This street layout is most desirable. Streets are usually laid out according to the checker- ‘board plan, the radial plan, or a combination of both (Figure 29). The checker-board plan is usually used in flat areas . because it is simple to lay out and the resulting lots are easily described in legal terms. The lots are functional because they are uniform in shape and economical to build upon. Because of its uniformity, the checker-board plan is easy to understand, and it adapts well to an address numbering system. However, it does not relate well to areas where the topography checker-board plan when super-imposed upon irregular tOpography may produce some streets which are on steep inclines and lots which present difficulties to builders. Classification of streets according to function becomes difficult when this plan is utilized, and the resulting street pattern creates many intersections which add to the problem of traffic safety and to street maintenance. Radial street planning adapts well to irregular topography because the pattern can run in relation to the SlOpe, thus minimizing grades and creating more usable lots on which to build. The radial pattern produces a functional 249 Figure 29.--Street Layout: Checker-board and Radial Patterns system of streets which minimizes the number of intersections. However, it is difficult to lay out, and it can create lots of irregular shaped lots which do not lend themselves to building. Most communities make use of both street patterns - the checker-board and the radial - depending upon the topography. Where the topography is irregular the radial plan is used. Where it is flat, the checker-board pattern is utilized. The function that a street is to serve - local, collector, arterial or highway - should determine how it is designed and where it is laid out. Steep grades are more acceptable 250 for local and collector streets because of the smaller volume of traffic which they carry. In some cases it is best that local streets be laid out according to the radial plan in order to discourage heavy traffic from using them. Design Criteria for Streets. The prOper planning of streets can avert future traffic problems and costly alterations. While the criteria presented below will not guarantee good street designs, their use can minimize the ’ effects of bad street design. PrOposed Highway I l . . [6' I In Eli—11311:]: Fall]! I I i i l l l I Figure 30.--Street Design: Reserve Land for New Highway When subdividing land for new residential uses, land that is prOposed for a new highway should be reserved. The use of cul-de-sacs in residential areas can help to discourage heavy traffic. When a prOposed residential land use is adjacent to an area being subdivided, stub streets should be incorporated into the street design to facilitate the addition of the 252 proposed area into the street system. This will help create a unified street system for the entire community as well as for each subdivision. Undeveloped Land A .A AV'V A. v. s‘ Q. Qp 4 ‘ 4 ‘r Half Street :34 G l i-i Figure 33.--Street Design: Half Streets Half streets should be prohibited unless the owner of the adjoining prOperty dedicates the other half of the street at once. A half street is created in anticipation Of the adjacent land owner's decision to someday subdivide and then dedicate the other half of the street. In too many cases it develops that he has other plans for his land, and the street remains only half of its proposed width, not sufficient for the flow of traffic. Every street should be a public street in order to eliminate problems of maintenance and to assure proper design. If a street is not public, the people who depend on it for access have no assurance that it will not someday be subdivided and sold. 253 Standards establishing minimum and maximum grades for streets are necessary in order to assure drainage of storm water and movement of traffic. If a prOposed street will be on a very steep incline, the use of steps for access to adjoining lots may be desirable. Civil engineers have sufficient data to determine maximum and minimum grades. Vertical and horizontal alignment of streets is important in order to provide sufficient clear-vision areas. Civil engineers have proper standards and criteria for alignment depending on function, that is, traffic volume and velocity. 90 degrees imifi'qi Less than 80 degrees 1:11:11] Figure 34.--Street Design: Intersections All streets should intersect at approximately right angles (90 degrees) in order to provide better sight distances. 254 No more than two streets should intersect at the same point. Intersection at more than two streets creates a traffic hazard and necessitates special design in order to move traffic safely and efficiently. Clear Vision Area - No Buildings ‘2] Figure 35.--Street Design: Sight Triangles Buildings on the corner of a block should be set back or cut on an angle to provide good visability at the intersection for vehicle and pedestrian traffic. Other obstacles such as signs and bushes, should be set back from the intersection. It is best to have a flat grade at every intersection. This should extend 15 to 30 meters from the center in order to provide prOper visibility. 255 II1-fl fl'+_fl In a: Elsi [EDD-Obi ,3] I3. I I I I I Figure 36.--Street Design: "T" Intersections "T" intersections are best for local streets and collector streets. They are safer than four way intersections because there are fewer turning movements which can increase the chances of accidents. "T" intersections also help to discourage through traffic in residential areas. I DJ, '5 [b I [‘40| meters ‘5 [jib-I2:- Figure 37.--Street Design: Separation of "T" Intersections 256 The "T" intersections of streets which run in the same direction should be separated by a minimum of 40 meters from center line to center line. This reduces the necessity for drivers to cut sharply across traffic lanes, thus en- dangering other drivers and pedestrians who are crossing the thoroughfare. Street Naming and Propertnyumbering. Every com- munity should have a system of street naming and prOperty numbering to facilitate the delivery of mail and telegrams, and to provide quick identification ofya dwelling unit should some emergency occur, such as fire or illness. The system also helps visitors who seek a particular house,, store or office. Street naming and property numbering go hand in hand. One cannot function efficiently without the other. The two are based upon a point of reference, a particular place where street naming and prOperty numbering begin. This point is the intersection of_two base lines which are at right angles to each other and which extend to the limits of the community (Figure 38). The base lines are usually two major streets. However, one of the base lines can be a river or the edge of an ocean. The system of street naming should be as simple as possible. Since it depends upon two base lines that divide the community into quadrants, the use of directional letters 257 200 100 w 0L E cm o c c> or o C) o o o c> o) c C) o» o c> o 10 o w) a; r cu :4 F‘ a: «I <1 I 100 I m Cortés Street S. W. 3w 3 SE. 3 P00 8 Figure 38.--Street Naming and PrOperty Numbering System with street names immediately locates any street within one of the quadrants. For example, in Figure 38 note that the addresses are COpan Avenue SE (southeast) and Cortés Street SW (southwest). A further refinement is to designate as a "street" all thoroughfares running east-west, and to use the name "avenue" for those running north-south. This allows a person to know immediately in what direction a specific street runs. 258 In Figure 38 Cortés is a street because it runs east-west and Copan is an avenue because it runs north-south. Streets can be given either names or numbers. However, once a name or number has been used, it should not be used again in the community. Otherwise, there will be no end of confusion. A street naming system as described above is capable of infinite eXpansion in any direction as the community grows. After a systematic street naming program has been worked out for a community, a plan must be devised for numbering each parcel of land. By far the most easily understood system is based upon a numerical progression. The numbering is done by hundreds for each block starting at the reference point or the base line. Thus the first block is numbered one hundred, and the second block two hundred and so on (Figure 39). The actual assignment of prOperty numbers can be made by measuring the approximate distance from the corner of the block closest to the base line to the front entrance of a building. For every three meters of distance, the number increases by two. For example, if a house is located approximately thirty meters from the corner of the block closest to the base line, the number assigned to the house 259 "420" ’ l l I ' 40 ' 500 13122}: . fl . _ I Bchk ' Block 1" 30 meters __1 f I .1. ' . ' I lwl I I S I Figure 39.--Example of Housing Numbering would be twenty (20) (Figure 39). If this house was located in the 400 block the complete house number would be 420. This system of assigning building numbers based upon the distance from the corner is better than assigning numbers consecutively to the existing buildings, because a new building built in between two existing ones would have to be assigned a number that would result infla fraction. More- over when a building is torn down and a new one constructed, a new number can be assigned that is not to be duplicated anywhere else on that same street. Odd numbers should be assigned to buildings on one side of the street and even numbers to buildings on the Opposite side. The most systematic way of designating odd and even numbers is to select, for example, the north and 260 east sides of streets for even property numbers and the south and west sides of streets for odd numbers. In this system the odd and even numbers are always on the same side of the street (Figure 39). Another function of a housing numbering system is to provide separate numbers for each entrance of a multi- family residence, for houses in back of other houses and commercial enterprises that are part of a residence, provided they have separate street entrances. A property numbering system must be flexible enough to provide prOper numbering for diagonal streets, cul-de-sacs and group housing projects. Once a system for street naming and property numbering has been adopted for the community, its residents must be notified of the new system in advance, because of its implementation success or failure depends upon the degree to which they understand and use it. Free maps can be distributed showing all the streets and avenues in the com- munity with names and block numbers. An explanation of the address system can be printed on the Opposite Side of the map. It is also important to provide signs with proper street and avenue names at every intersection. Every building, once it has been assigned a number, should display that number above the entranceway. If the street signs and the building numbers are not prominently displayed, no one will understand or use the naming or numbering system. 261 Street Lighting. To promote the welfare and safety of its residents, the municipality should begin a program to provide adequate street lighting. In the central area of the community there is usually a need for street lights at intersections and also in the middle of the block because of the greater activity taking place there during the night time. There are many vehicles and people using this com- mercial area at night and ample street lighting is important to help provide for the safety of drivers and pedestrians. In residential areas where there is less activity, eSpecially traffic in the street, there is usually only the need to place street lights at intersections. Located here they help to create safer intersections since this is where most accidents occur between pedestrians and vehicles and vehicles themselves. To pay for the cost of lighting the streets, each parcel of land, whether industrial, commercial or residential, shOuld pay increased monthly light bills based upon the extent of the street lighting in their area. The power of eminent domain, the collection of fees for services rendered, and the creation of an improvement program to expand certain public services and utilities are additional methods which will help implement the goals, policies and programs in the deve10pment plan. The use of 262 the power of eminent domain can be applied by the mu- nicipality when other means of acquiring a piece of property have failed. Eminent domain is the right of the municipality to take, upon payment, a piece of private property because it is needed for a public purpose. This power is most Often used to acquire a piece of land that is necessary for the expansion of a school or the extension Of a street. The municipality should collect fees for the use of certain community facilities and services in order to raise revenue to maintain and improve them. For example, fees should be collected from those people selling goods in the public market or from peOple wanting a burial plot in the ' cemetery. Fees for services such as water, sewers, electrical power, trash removal and street lighting should be determined by the amount of use or the frequency of the coverage of the particular service. Improvement Program. An improvement program to help plan for and construct new or additional community facilities and services is important in order to help implement some of the proposals as presented in the development plan. The study and analysis of existing facilities and services as presented in the deve10pment plan may reveal various de- ficiencies. An improvement program should include a listing of priorities for the construction of new facilities or the 263 improvement of old ones based upon their need in the community. Also included in this program should be a proposed method for financing the prOposals. Some methods of financing a new public facility or service would include: - Paying for the improvement out of current revenues. - Accumulating the funds in a reserve to build the improvement at a later date. - Borrowing the funds to pay for the improvement and charging fees for its use. Maintenance Program. A maintenance program for the public facilities in the community is essential. One method is the assignment of certain municipal employees to Specific facilities in an effort to provide the proper full time maintenance and repair function that might be required. Or a team Of several workers each scheduled to work one day on a particular facility and the next day on another might be feasible. In this case the workers might be in charge Of several facilities that do not require full time personnel. The cost of constructing a facility to replace one which was not prOperly maintained is usually much higher than the cost of normal maintenance. Special programs sponsored by the municipality or by civic or school groups in the community can help implement some ideas and proposals presented in the development plan. 264 The development of a parcel of land for use as a park, or the planting of trees on a steep hillside or along the streets would all help to improve the living conditions of all the people in the community. These community deve10pment projects should always be in accordance with the prOposals presented in the development plan. Citizen Participation. Citizen awareness of the deve10pment plan is extremely important if it is ever going to be implemented. The first step in creating such awareness is the distribution of the plan to all interested civic groups and residents in the community for their understanding and comments. A program to educate the public in order to gain support and understanding of the deve10pment plan and the planning process as a whole is essential. Without public support and understanding of the function of planning and its potential benefits to the peOple and to the community as a whole, the deve10pment plan will not be used as a basis for making deve10pment decisions and the effort and expense required to produce the plan will have been wasted. Property Tax System. The last suggestion to provide the means of implementing the deve10pment of a property tax system. The procedures for starting such a system are quite complicated and involve the detailed mapping of every parcel of land in the community and the creation of a uniform 265 assessment system to determine the value of each parcel and the improvements on the land, such as houses, etc. It is best for a community to consult with the Department of Property Taxes (Catastro) in the National Geographic Institute in Tegucigalpa before attempting to develop a property tax system. This department has the experience of having set up property tax systems in other communities in Honduras and can provide expertise and help in understanding and initiating the system. Updating the Planning Program A development plan is a picture of a community at one point in time. But changes in the physical, social and economic base of the community along with new techno- logical changes can invalidate the assumptions on which the policies were based in the deve10pment plan. It would be an important function of the planning commission to change the policies in the development plan for a community when they become out dated and are no longer a valid basis for making decisions. The completion of the deve10pment plan does not signal the end of the need for additional information. Planning is a continual process which makes use of new information as a basis for new policies, and plans on which to base de- ve10pment decisions. 266 Significance of the Development Plan The completion and adoption of a deve10pment plan will not result in any immediate or radical changes in the community. The development plan is to be used as a guiding influence for making development decisions in the community. Its influences will gradually become apparent with the de- ve10pment of new areas and the rebuilding of older parts of the community. Slowly, the organization of the community will appear with the development of more convenient fa- cilities and services and the more efficient spending of public funds. The deve10pment plan will not perform miracles, but it will provide the means and the process to slowly improve the community. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Abrams, Charles. Man's Struggle for Shelter in a Urbanizing World. Cambridge, Mass.: The M.I.T. Press, 1964. Abrams, Charles. 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La Ceiba, Atlantida 36,863 4. Puerto Cortés, Cortés 23,032 5. Choluteca, Choluteca 19,501 6. E1 Progreso, Yoro 19,300 7. Tela, Atlantida 14,250 8. Comayagua, Comayagua 12,123 9. Siguatepeque, Comayagua 10,653 10. Santa Rosa de COpén, Copan 9,412 11. Danli, El Paraiso 8.897 12. Juticalpa, Olancho 8.138 13. Choloma, Cortes 7,379 14. San Lorenzo, Valle 6,826 15. Santa Barbara, S. B. 6,487 16. El Paraiso, El Paraiso 6,269 17. La Péz, La Péz 5,777 18. Olanchito, Yoro 5,212 19. Trujillo, Colon 5,040 20. Catacamas, Olancho 5,016 21. Talanga, F. M. 4,970 22. Villanueva, Cortés 4,760 23. Nueva Ocotepeque, Ocot. 4,740 24. Florida, Copan 4,658 25. Nacaome, Valle 4,561 26. Colinas, S. B. 4,375 27. Morazan, Yoro 3,909 APPENDIX A 276 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 277 San Marcos de Colon, Choluteca Santa Rita, Yoro Yoro, Yoro Amapala, Valle Putrerillos, Cortes San Marcos, S. B. Azacualpa, S. B. Naranjito, S. B. Saba, Colon Jesfis de Otoro, Intibuca Trinidad, S. B. Ajuterigue, Comayagua Guaimaca, F. M. Corquin, Copan El Negrito, Yoro San Luis, S. B. Macuelizo, S. B. Dulce Nombre, Copan Gracias, Lempira Minas de Oro, Comayagua Quimistan, S. B. San Antonio de Cortes, Cortés Villa de San Antonio, Comayagua Pimienta, Cortés El Triumfo, Choluteca San Nicolas, S. B. La Libertad, Comayagua Ruinas de Copén, Copan Langue, Valle Arada, S. B. Jocon, Yoro 3,836 3,803 3,699 3,650 3,568 3,527 3,460 3,369 3,277 2,977 2,956 2,926 2,915 2,912 2,895 2,865 2,721 2,683 2,679 2,625 2,596 2,421 2,409 2,369 2,347 2,346 2,311 2,291 2,263 2,180 2,169 278 59. Limon, Colon 2,093 60. San Nicolas, Copan 2,083 61. San Francisco de la Paz, Olancho 2,081 62. Campamento, Olancho 2,069 63. La Esperanza, Intibuca 2,059 64. Santa Cruz de Yojoa, Cor. 2,046 65. Villa de San Francisco, F. M. 2,034 66. El Paraiso, Copan 2,001 Source: Direccion General de Estadistica y Censos. Poblacion total en cabeceras municipales y en aldeas y caserios: 1967-1970. Tegucigalpa, Honduras: Direccion General de Estadistica y censos, 1969. APPENDIX B MINIMUM STANDARDS FOR STREET RIGHT-OF-WAYS AND PAVEMENT WIDTHS Wa kway ku__ :2.00 1-0 4.00 :1.C 2.00% 6.00 1. Pedestrian Walkways Right-of-way 6.00 meters. Width of Sidewalks 1.00 meter for each one. Roadway Ila--an- 2 00 l 0:.80 7.00 :.89 1 11-00 2. Cul-de-sac Right-of-way 11.00 meters. Pavement Width 7.00 meters. 279 280 Roadway 1-5n 1-0 q no I-n 1-10 F I I | 14.00 I I 3. Local Street Right-of-way 14.00 meters Pavement width 9.00 meters Roadway _L.qp 1}0 13-00 II n 1 so 18-00 4. Collector Street Right-of-way 18.00 meters Pavement width 13.00 meters 281 Roadway .59 5.50 1 10.00 . 5.50 L.50 I I I 24.00 Arterial Street Right-of-way 24.00 meters MINIMUM Pavement width 10.00 meters Roadway 1.50 fl.0 19.00 1.p J.50 l I I l 24.00 Arterial Street Right-of-way 24.00 meters MAXIMUM Pavement width 19.00 meters NOTE: In the case of arterial streets with a right-of-way of 24.00 meters, the development of the street should begin with the construction of a roadway 10.00 meters wide located in the middle of the highway right—of-way. As the need arises, the street can be widened on both sides of the existing street to a new pavement width of 19.00 meters. 1.15 16.50 1 9-50 11011-5 l I I I 30.00 6. Arterial Street Right-of-way 30.00 meters MINIMUM Pavement width 9.50 meters Median .‘\ Roadway 9.50 i 6.00 g 9.50 30.00 Arterial Street Right-of-way 30.00 meters MAXIMUM Pavement Width Two roadways of 9.50 meters each NOTE: In the case of arterial streets with a right-of-way of 30.00 meters, the development of the street should begin with the construction of a roadway on either side of the highway right-of-way of 9.50 meters. 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