4-1— [L DOME COW. 1‘ « I a 'j/VL‘. (ff? // L.» 1/" ABSTRACT DOMINANT-ENTERPRISE, RAPID-GROWTH, RESOURCE COMMUNITIES; PLANNING CONCERNS FOR GROWTH MANAGEMENT IN AESTHETIC RESOURCE COMMUNITIES: A CASE STUDY OF TETON COUNTY, WYOMING BY Heather Elizabeth McCartney The research undertaken is an identification and analysis of the planning problems which occur in rapid- growth, aesthetic resource communities. The study begins with a review of traditional planning problems in extractive resource towns that are dominated by a single industrial economic base. These problems are then related to those of aesthetic resource communities. Examination of the user demand for recreational areas and the future of aesthetic resource communities were then correlated with a case study of the unique planning aspects of Teton County, Wyoming. The conclusions identify needed planning considerations for areas dominated by an aesthetic resource base. An attempt was made to answer the following research questions: 1. What resc comm 2. What resc 3. Whex natj Heather Elizabeth McCartney 1. What are the similar planning aspects of extractive resource communities and aesthetic resource communities? 2. What are the unique planning aspects of aesthetic resource community develOpment? 3. Where should the planning authority come from: national, state, or local jurisdictions? 4. How can growth pressures be dealt with? 5. How closely can the experience of Teton County be applied to other communities which are experiencing rapid growth due to resource develOpment? A literature review was undertaken to identify available information and research related to rapid-growth, single-function and resource communities. The research methodology included library research, utilization of available planning studies and reports, surveys and inter- views with key decision-makers in the case study area. Based on this research the following conclusions were derived: . Traditionally planning has been unable to keep pace in areas that are experiencing transition due to rapid- growth. . The differences between combinations of designed or traditionally develOped communities and single-function or dominant-enterprise communities are the levels of goal orientation and degree of land ownership. . Aesthetic resource community evolution and structures are varied and are not clearly definable. . The major distinctive difference between aesthetic and extractive resource community planning is the degree of permanent investment. . Aesthe1 paradig they ur istics . There i be trea . Policy must un conserv by huma . While a have pa Sidered social, exempli: ne8d to Citizen abSent Only th. be able balance ' Aesthet. poliCie: residen méintai; Zing th. enViIOn] COmPIEmE gaVe tht Heather Elizabeth McCartney Aesthetic resource communities do not reflect a paradigmatic shift in the planning process. But, they uniquely place emphasis upon aesthetic character- istics above all else. There is a need for aesthetic resource communities to be treated as a special problem in planning. Policy development for aesthetic resource communities must uniquely resolve the conflict of environmental conservation through investment versus exploitation by human demand. While aesthetic elements of these communities should have paramount importance, they should not be con- sidered in the planning process to the exclusion of social, political, economic, or cultural values. As exemplified by the Teton County case study there is a need to educate and integrate planning efforts involving citizens, government officials, entrepreneurs, ranchers, absent second-home owners and recreation seekers. Only through planning will all members of the community be able to maintain their chosen life-styles in balances. Aesthetic resource communities should direct their policies toward; insuring recreational benefits for residents; increasing additional cultural amenities; maintaining a diverse population cross-section; utili- zing the local labor force; and maintaining a quality environment within the developing urbanized areas to complement the aesthetic resource which originally gave the community its quality-of-life. Communities experiencing rapid, continuous growth lack the establishment of community goals, interaction, roots and feelings. There is a need for further research with case studies before clear conceptualizations can be made. There is a need for further research on aesthetic resource communities to determine what planning ele- ments are critical in order to provide innovative and flexible development of policies and solutions. DOMINF COMMI DOMINANT-ENTERPRISE, RAPID-GROWTH, RESOURCE COMMUNITIES; PLANNING CONCERNS FOR GROWTH MANAGEMENT IN AESTHETIC RESOURCE COMMUNITIES: A CASE STUDY OF TETON COUNTY, WYOMING BY Heather Elizabeth McCartney A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF URBAN PLANNING School of urban Planning and Landscape Architecture 1976 This researcr Endowment £01 The findings represent th HEATHER ELI 1976 This research was undertaken with support from the National Endowment for the Arts, Washington, D.C. 20506 The findings, conclusions, etc., do not necessarily represent the view of the Endowment. Copyright by HEATHER ELIZABETH MCCARTNEY 1976 My dee have provided complete this Sincere thanks the Arts, Who contribution c I am a and Associate; from their Pl; this Stildy. 0f TetOn Conn ACKNOWLEDGMEN TS My deep appreciation goes to several people who have provided me with the Opportunity and assistance to complete this study, and future my professional career. My sincere thanks is extended to the National Endowment for the Arts, who with foresightedness recognized the possible contribution of the following research. I am appreciative to Larry Livingston of Livingston and Associates for generously making materials and findings from their planning studies in Teton County available for this study. Appreciation is also directed to the residents of Teton County for offering their viewpoints and concerns for the county's environmental quality, recreational demand, and overall growth. Last, but not least my special thanks goes to my thesis committee, Doctor John R. Mullin, Doctor Rodger E. Hamlin, and Professor Sanford S. Farness for their guidance and direction in completing my academic goals and improving my shortcomings, while committing untold effort to me as a person. To Johnny Mullin who was an endless resource of information and encouragement, while providing critical analysis. To one of Mullin's backroom boys, my appreciation, for your innovation and wit during my controversial academic ii career. To the ' who continually from the wilds o to the woods Fal career. To the loving anagonist and the Red Sea prophet, who continually picked up my loose ends. Heather Elizabeth McCartney from the wilds of Wyoming, to the woods of Michigan Fall 1976 iii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES O O O C O C O O O O 0 LIST OF FIGURES O O O O O O O O O O 0 Chapter I. II. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . Focus of Research . . Reasons for Study . . Planning Contribution. Problems . . . . . Methodology . . . . Planning Studies. . . . . . . Interviews 0 C I O O O O O 0 Community Classification. . . Rapid Growth and Demand for Aesthetic Resources . . . . . . . . . Definitions . . . . . . . . . SINGLE-FUNCTION RESOURCE COMMUNITIES . Industry Effecting the Environment . Community Design . . . . . . . Similar and Unique Characteristics of Extractive Resource Communities. . Legal Controls . . . . . . . Community Goals . . Individualism Plays a Subordinate Role Planning . . Employment. . Housing. . Community . iv Page vii viii 0&0 GDQU'IUJH |'-' [—1 O F‘H UJN I" \1 NH 0% N N bNNNNNN «comma-woo Chapter ILL AESTHETIC Demand Devel Acce Comm' Prov of 81111113 Resc HOus Elnp] Lam: Conn GOVc COrm Chapter Page III. AESTHETIC RESOURCE COMMUNITIES . . . . . 32 Demand for Recreation . . . . . . . 37 Developing Year-Around Demand . . . . 39 Access Equals Demand . . . . . . . 39 Community Use and Market. . . . 40 Providing for Demand Versus Preservation of the Natural Resource . . . . . 41 Similarities of Extractive and Aesthetic Resource Communities . . . . . . . 43 Housing . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Employment . . . . . . . . . . 44 Landownership . . . . . . . . . 45 Community Facilities . . . . . . . 46 Governmental Control . . . . . . . 47 Community Feelings. . . . . . . . 47 Uniqueness of Aesthetic Resource comunities O O I O O O O O O O 4 8 LongeVity O O O O O O O O O O O 4 8 Preservation. . . . . . . . . 50 Jurisdictional Controls . . . . . . 51 Importance of Aesthetic Resource Community Planning 0 O O O O I O O O O O 53 Human Expectations and Demands Versus Natural Resource Preservation . . . 54 Complementary and Consistent Goals . . 56 The Effects of Limiting and Rationing . 59 The Future of Aesthetic Resource Communities in Terms of an Economic Base . . . . 60 Preserving the Natural Resource -. . . 62 Growth Management Planning . . . . . 63 Socioeconomic Impacts of Growth . . . 65 Communication for Choosing Change. . . 66 IV. A CASE STUDY OF TETON COUNTY, WYOMING. . . 68 Teton County . . . . . . . . . . 68 Chapter Teto Co The . The Ln Proble Land VI. Chapter Teton County as a Jurisdiction and a Community . . . . . The Relationship of Teton County to Other Aesthetic Resource Communities . . . The Impact of Recreational Demand . . . Problem Identification for Teton County Increased Recreational Demand Land Ownership . . . . . Quality of Life. . . . . Environmental . . . . Undefined Priorities and Goals. Preservation . . . . . . A "Sense of Community Feeling" . . . A Lack of Planning Tradition. . . . Jurisdictional Divisions and Controls . Issues Raised by Growth in Teton County. Growth Management. . . . . . . . . Capital Investment. . . . . . . . ,Effecting Resource Use and Conservation. Develogment of a Labor Force . . . . Accommodating and Retaining Population . Creating Communication Among Jurisdictions, Public and Commercial Interests . V O S UMMRY I I O O I O O O O O O O O The Teton County Experience Serving MOdel O O O O O _ O O O O O O 0 VI 0 CONCLUS IONS C O O O O O O O O O O Aesthetic Resource Communities . . Impacts and Conflicts Due to Rapid Growth. Growth Management in Aesthetic Resource Communities . . . . . . . . . Comparison of the Teton County Experience With Other Aesthetic and Extractive Resource Areas . . . . . . . . . FmTNOTE S O . . O O O O O O O O O O O BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi Page 71 77 82 85 90 94 104 111 111 113 114 120 123 126 127 128 129 131 133 135 153 155 155 157 161 165 169 176 Table 1101131119 af Jackson Populatio ProleCted Grand Tetr Bridger-“ Annual x Employmen: EmPIOym Proprie ProjeCtec‘ Snake Rix LIST OF TABLES Page Housing and Estimated Population, Town of Jackson and Teton County, 1976 . . . . . 86 Population Projections, Teton County. . . . 87 Projected Population, Teton County . . . . 87 Grand Teton National Park Annual Visitors . . 92 Bridger-Teton and Targhee National Forest Annual Visitors . . . . . . . . . . 93 Employment by Type, Teton County, 1973 Full- Time and Part-Time Wage and Salary Employment, Plus Proprietors. . . . . . 101 Total Employment, Teton County, Full-Time and Part-Time Wage and Salary Employment Plus Proprietors . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Projected Total Employment, Teton County . . 103 Snake River Drainage . . . . . . . . . 107 vii Figure 1' Vicinity I LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Vicinity Map of Teton County . . . . Teton County Map--Satellite Communities Areas Impacted by Interest Groups . . Dramatized Regional Pressures. . . . Landownership . . . . . . . . . Jurisdictional Divisions and Control . viii Page 69 74 76 83 97 121 The ma methods of p15 through a case research Was I Principles fo; into practica planning Of ‘491 e indu: viSEd. The 5:11. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Focus of Research The main focus of this research is to formulate methods of planning for aesthetic resource communities: through a case study of Teton County, Wyoming. The research was undertaken in order to relate theoretical principles for the development of optimal living conditions into practical application for the future. Interest in planning of aesthetic resource communities, specifically Teton County, developed out of conflicts in interests among citizens, settlement and housing problems, varied govern- mental jurisdictions and dominant national interests vs. local interests. The most important indicative feature of a con— temporary community is the extent to which its existence and social organization depends on industry.1 A community can be labeled single-function when the community and its supporting institutional services are characterized by a single industry.2 These communities are often resource- based. The single industrial community of the twentieth century are products of an age of industry and technology. Their existence depends on the advancement of technology, the developing complex division of labor and the sophisti- cated system of exchange. Resource-based communities of the past were developed near an energy source or developed to extract a resource and later many were created by a transportation network. Present day industries and com- munities have been developed to supply metals, while our future ones will be created to supply energy.3 The future of single-function industrial based economies and communi- ties are dependent upon impersonal forces outside their jurisdiction, company decisions, government policies, tax subsidies and depreciation and finally international trade agreements. Research on resident's physical and social needs in single-function resource based communities has previously been carried out. The major contributions in published literature are from Canada, possibly due to later frontier settlement and the present day push for develoPment of their resources. The geographical, political and social similarities of Canada and the United States makes it possible to apply the findings on attitudes, behavior patterns and expecta- tions of residents to similar communities in the United States. Wherever natural resources are being exploited there can be identified similar physical and social problems which are characteristic of single-function communities. Differences emerge from the varied attitudes and expectations pr research from g is needed for s deveIOpment in Rex Lug Conclus ions on develoPment. ba has been Publi day "boom town energy dev e l 0} The C research are; Littl Prob] r9301 Ther West Unit expectations people bring to a community. The basic research from Canada supplements a gap in information which is needed for successful energy and aesthetic resource develoPment in the United States. Rex Lucus published in Canada major findings and conclusions on the social implications of community develOpment based on a single-industry.4 Recent literature has been published by John Gilmore and Mary Duff on modern day ”boom towns," supplementing an anticipated need by energy develogment.5 Reasons for the Study The criteria important in the understanding of this research are: 1. Little research has been carried out about the problems encountered in utilizing aesthetic resources for various uses and demands, and 2. There is an indication that the development of western resources will play a large part in the United State's remaining twentieth century decisions. These decisions will encompass changing pressures in growth and the rate of natural resource consumption. The decision to use Teton County as a case study was con- sistent with an increasing National interest, exemplified by Nature Conservancy funding, the deve10pment of a land use plan for Teton County and the funding of this research by the Nationa main reasons f i 1- The Tet by the National Endowment for the Arts. There were four main reasons for undertaking a study of Teton County: 1. The Teton County experience is representative of whether the planning role to preserve the integrity of the area should be undertaken by a national, state or local agency or a combination. 2. Research was needed, as planning for aesthetic resources is unique. 3. The Teton County area is of major interest, setting a precedence in planning application. 4. The complexity of different interests and confusion of planning efforts involving National Park Service, 0.8. Forest Service, County, City, and varying citizen interests need addressing. Teton County is a political subdivision whose power and control is limited because 97 percent of the land is publicly owned. The Bridger-Teton and Targhee National Forests, Grand Teton National Park, the National Elk Refuge and the State of Wyoming are the major public holdings. The remaining 3 percent in private ownership encompasses approximately 75,000 acres. The town of Jackson is the center of population with minor village division in the valley area. Teton County, a jurisdictional division, has been coined a "community" in this study, due to the physical constraints which create a homogeneous unit in the valley floor of the mountains. The limited private land ownership promotes di rec operations and is 133’ no means interests and the Physical c promotes direct contact of citizens throughout daily Operations and during political decisions. Teton County is by no means a homogeneous community, for the citizen's interests and expectations are varied and diverging. Thus, the physical constraints compound conflicts and expectations for the community and its available aesthetic resources. In addition to dealing with the difficulties faced by aesthetic resource development, there is the need to gain answers to questions asked by planners of extractive resource develOpment that will inevitably follow in the wake of the large mineral and oil-shale strikes and develop- ment.6 The rapid growth facing the development of resource frontier communities is in need of management in order to maintain the quality of life in the develoPing communities, to preserve and enhance the areas aesthetic qualities for which the areas were originally chosen as conducive to . . 7 recreat1on and le1sure. Planning Contribution The research philosophy of this study was to select a research problem which had special relevance to a com- munity. Design and.management of an optimal community in an isolated environment, one which is environmentally hostile and in a fragile locale, will never be a small task. Problems of social, cultural or economic concern in Teton County are difficult and complex. Their components cannot be easily abstracted for study. They consist of a variety of mutually ir used to inclu economic and p niques. 9 Manager must coordinat they usually a creation of a m have been the In dealing with ex COnSiSt 0f gene individual case WOISe than the of mutually interacting aspects.8 The term "management" is used to include not only physical factors, but also social, economic and political considerations under suitable tech- niques.9 Management systems for resource community planning must coordinate externalities with the market system, for they usually are either non-market or they require the creation of a market where none existed before. Regulations have been the mechanism of the most general appeal for dealing with external effects. But regulations can only consist of general rules or of Specific decisions on an individual case. Too often, however, the regulations are worse than the problem.10 The management of rapid-growth for recreational demand in areas of aesthetic resources has created a con- flict in policies between the preservation of natural amenities, and the provision of recreational Opportunities. Areas endowed with natural amenities will be the first jurisdictions forced to develop planning policies which will comprehensively address primary and secondary-environmental, political, economic and sociocultural impacts of resource use. Thus, aesthetic resource communities currently will need to be treated as a Special problem in planning and .resource development. The planning of aesthetic resource areas will also lmelp clarify the utilization of the concept of use-capacity. The conflict 0- conservation a This 5‘ to address the 1- In wha demands Placed: 2; What t1 Capaci1 make? What 1: Equity for each indiv change. For i The conflict of resource exploitation and depletion versus conservation and preservation will be addressed. This study will lead to an awareness for the need to address the following questions: 1. In what priority should human expectations and demands versus natural resource preservation be placed? 2. What trade-offs between environment, carrying- capacity, and deveIOpment will man be willing to make? 3. What is equitable provision of operational demands? Equity addresses the advantages and disadvantages for each individual of an alteration or deveIOpmental change. For it is impossible to plan for Optimum conditions for every current or future inhabitant or user. Alterna- tives identified in aesthetic resource communities should aim to provide the best solution for as many requirements or the greatest aggregate net benefit.11 A growth policy guided by inadequate and incomplete indicators will give rise to the pursuit of pseudo-growth, where increases in consumption or investment are at the expense of the natural assets, resources and amenities.12 Problems There are several questions a study of this type cannot answer as they must be carried out collectively. However, by uniquely defining the needs of a community endowed with n problems arise are centered a 1. What a -- resour 2. What a resourc 3- Where 5 Rationaj 4' what car Problems How can How Clos aPplied rapid 91 The reSe endowed with natural amenities, several conflicts and problems arise. The problems identified for this research are centered around six questions: 1. What are the similar planning aSpects of extractive resource towns and aesthetic resource towns? 2. What are the unique planning aspects of aesthetic resource town develOpment? 3. Where should the planning authority come from: national, state or local coordination? 4. What can be gained from identifying potential problems? 5. How can growth pressures be dealt with? 6. How closely can the experiences of Teton County be applied to other areas which are experiencing rapid growth due to resource development? Methodology The research approach utilized available materials to evaluate implicit and explicit goals, policies and processes of the Teton County experience. Research on traditional planning and social concerns of resource com- inunities was carried out under library research. Background on the Teton County experience was gained through available stnniies: previous planning studies, develOping local plans, ecological and environmental research reports, interviews and correspondence . Planning Studi Cockerham, Attitudes Laramie: U Doll, F., Resources Commerce a. Hardee, 131 Planning R Wyoming. LiVingSton ‘30th Grow ment Altern. Natiofial Pa] Grand Teton septERlber 15 National P a] Boundar S 1975. y tl thiOn a1 Par Park, U.S. I Planning78tudies Cockerham, William, and Audie Blevins, Jr., Survey of Attitudes Towards Land Use in Teton County, Wyoming, Laramie: University of Wyoming, 1974. D011, F., and C. Phillips, Wyoming's Hunting and Fishing Resources 1970, Laramie: University of Wyoming of Commerce and Industry, 1972. Hardee, Bloodtand Morgan, Delination of Substate Planning Regions for Outdoor Recreational Planning in Wyoming. Livingston and Assoc., Community Attitudes Survey on County Growth and Development, 1976. Livingston and Assoc., Teton County: Growth and DevelOp- ment Alternatives, 1976. National Park Service, Final Environmental Statement, Grand Teton National Park, U.S. Department of Interior, September 1975. National Park Service, Grant Teton National Park: Boundary Study, U.S. Department of Interior, September 1975. National Park Service, Master Plan, Grand Teton National Park, U.S. Department of Interior, 1976. National Park Service, Statement of Management, Grand Teton National Park, U.S. Department of Interior, 1976. U.S. Forest Service, Visual Analysis-Teton County. Bridger-Teton National Forest, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1976. Interviews Jim Conners, U.S. Forest Service, Brider Teton National Forest. Dan Cowee, Teton County-City of Jackson, Administrator of Planning Services. Dr. David Love, U.S. Geological Survey, Laramie, Wyoming. Marty Murie, Environmentalist, Moose, Wyoming. fi—i Jack Necki N.P. Don Stocke Dr . Rober t‘: Consultant Dr. Eugene lndu$ try . l ' Commm 2' COmmm 3 ‘ Comma Howey 10 Jack Neckles, Assistant Superindentent of Grand Teton NOP. Don Stocker, City of Jackson (Interim Planner). Dr. Robert Twiss, Environmental Resource Management Consultant to Livingston and Ass. Dr. Eugene Zeizel, Teton County 208 Planning Agency. Community Classification Analysis and interpretation of the planning problems of extractive, single-function resource communities were applied to similar planning problems in aesthetic resource communities. Rex Lucus classified three types of communities with an economically based "resource located" industry. 1. Communities with a single industry 2. Communities with a dominant industry 3. Communities with diversified industry13 However, the application of aesthetically based economies have been excluded for simplfication in his research. For Lucus excludes communities which are "characterized as agricultural, fishing, hunting or trapping, market towns, county seats and tourist resorts."l4 The research on the following pages is the utiliza- tion and application of previous work on single-function- extractive resource communities to aesthetic resource communities, in order to enhance an understanding of the planning problems which will be encountered. 11 From Lucus's studies a working definition of dominant industry (enterprise) can be developed. A dominant-industry has an extensive influence upon the community, as the economic base is dependent upon that dominant resource, while allowing for a more complex social stratification.15 Lucus excludes the above communities (i.e., tourist resort) because of their social complexity. It is in these types of communities that the working population is basically made up of small capitalists, entrepreneurs and government officials.16 He covers single-function communities exten- sively and explains their similarities to communities with a dominant industry. Lucus states, "superficially the community with a dominant industry has many characteristics Of the one-industry town because the giant industry is seen as having an untoward effect upon the whole community.17 Thus Lucus's findings on single-industrial communities can be applied to dominant-enterprise communities. This is an important assumption to this research as many aesthetically- based communities will vary between having a single function and a dominant-enterprise economic base. Lucus narrowly defined "resource located" industries to include only mine, mill and rail communities. In order to expand these ideas for my research, resource located towns may be defined as either extractive or aesthetic. An extractive industry exploits a natural nonrenewable resource (mining and oil) or one which is harvested just for extraction (lumber). An aesthetic industry utilizes natural amenit investment and The Planning g: for extractive goals and plan} are directed tC period,» While goals and Plan;- Planning Per ioc 12 natural amenities or a resource through preservation, investment and the sale Of amenity services and goods. The planning goals, objectives and time-spans are different for extractive and aesthetic resource communities. The goals and planning period in extractive resource communities are directed towards the short term influx of the "boom period," while aesthetic resource communities direct their goals and planning period to long-term or continuous planning period. Rapid-Growth and Demand for Aesthetic Resources In this, the last third of the century, citizens are faced with four—day weeks, longer vacations and more spendable income. Armed with increased leisure time, income and a desire to get away from the tensions of a fast—moving society, new resort areas have develOped throughout the country. The aesthetic resources of scenic vistas, lakes, mountains, shores and other areas of natural beauty where nature has brought together elements that are conducive to reaction and leisure. Recreational activities have been increasingly developed in connection with the natural amenities and then promoted as a resort community.18 Resort communities built around natural amenities have experienced rapid growth rates. Along with the growth in recreation, there is the compounding desire on the part of the visitors to own property in these naturally-endowed areas. If the rate of growth in the second-home market and 13 the demand for recreational Spaces continues at the present rate, the availability and provision of natural amenities will be unable to keep pace. Preservation and enhancement of natural endowments and man-made additions must be encouraged in order that Optimum utilization of aesthetic resources is achieved to provide and protect these oppor- tunities. Importantly related to the rapid development of aesthetic resource communities is the phenomena that environmental disruption and social costs have suddenly been thrust into the center of political discussions. This has raised not only the practical issues of environmental control, but also the fundamental theoretical problems with which economists, decision-makers and citizens will have to concern themselves.19 With political, economic and socio- cultural factors in mind, this research was undertaken to provide a beginning awareness for the need for coordinating our planning of aesthetic resources. Definitions A reference to definitions has been given in order to clarify general titles used to clarify communities and their economic basis. While general planning terms have been identified to acquaint the reader to newer terms which have been added to the vocabulary to express a planning concept. They are listed in order of reference in the text: Commu area, subject characteris ti L definition) . combination 0 major functio is a local soc and communal s r850urce throng anenity servici Ext . £ 14 Community—-A group of people living in a district area, subject to the same laws, having common interests and characteristics (Funk and Wagnalls College Dictionary definition). Warren's definition of community is, "that combination of social units and systems which perform the major functions having locality relevance."20 A community is a local society, a communal organization including formal 21 and communal subsystems. Aesthetic industry-—Utilizes natural amenities of a resource through preservation, investment and sale of amenity services and goods creating a recreational and tourist oriented economic base. Extractive industry--Exploits a natural nonrenewable resource (mining and oil) or one which is harvested just for extraction (lumber). Single-function--A community is single-function when the community and its supporting institutional services are characterized by a single industry. Dominant-function--The dominant industry in a com- munity has an extensive influence upon the community, as the economic base is dependent upon that dominant resource while allowing for a more complex social stratifiation. New town--Newly built settlements which have self- contained labor markets. The prOposals are based on Providing for newly develOped growth demands, and are eStablished to steer growth away from existing urban areas. 15 Growth centers-~Existing settlements which are expanding to a point of self-sustaining growth, while providing jobs to residents in surrounding areas. Growth centers are encouraged to steer growth toward unemployed populations or an unexploited resource. Growth management--Management systems are designed to control or influence the rate, amount or geographic pattern of growth. The techniques include a variety of legislative, administrative devices, planning and fiscal approaches. The systems are designed to provide a community with an efficient means of providing for rapid growth. Carrying capacity--An analytical concept to deter- mine the natural ecological limitations of the land, and a basis for evaluating development prOposals. Externalities——Comp1ex interdependencies under our given institutional arrangements, lead to various forms of environmental disruption and social costs for which con— ventional economic theory can offer no solution. 1. Choice and behavior are not autonomous but are shaped by dominating units with a commercial interest. 2. The effects of production and distribution on the environment and society are anything but negligible. Projections--An extrapolation of a past trend, to 22 predict a future trend. 16 Agricultural zoninge-The designation of whole land areas or districts for agricultural use to preserve such activities, maintaining open space and limiting land speculation and develOpment. Conservation zoninge-This zoning limits growth in areas which are designated due to their unique value or fragile nature. Critical areas--Sensitive lands can be protected from development via special zoning classifications, environmental reviews, and higher standards, etc. Easement-fRights of property obtained to assure temporarily or in perpetuity certain types of uses or non- use of land. Environmental controls--Dealing with air and water quality, noise and flooding controls, etc. Environmental standards--Standards may be incorpo- rated into ordinances and other regulations to prevent building in areas with steep lepes, flood plains, etc. Performance standards--Performance criteria are concerned with levels of effects, leaving "flexible" the determination by develOpers and public administrators of means/use/material adequacy. Timing/Phasinge-One of the most valuable methods available to localities is the "sequencing" of facilities, zoning, permits, etc. CHAPTER II SINGLE-FUNCTION RESOURCE COMMUNITIES The intent of this chapter is to examine and compare historical factors to establish Similar characteristics between extractive and aesthetic resource communities. Industry Effecting the Environment The major industry of a community creates more than a social structure and a set of working conditions. It usually influences the environment in which the population lives. The use by man of a resource has traditionally polluted or artificially influenced the environment. The external effects of a maturing community is often not recognizable during much of its growth, or recognition of those effects not economically profitable. By the time the community reaches maturity, the accumulated effects of the industrial process are thggg for all to see and smell. Speaking of an extractive community, man living in a single— function community stated, "the day that there isn't smoke from those stacks and congestion, will be a sad one for ‘this town."23 Thus, the industrial dependency creates the environment and quality of life for a community. 17 18 The University of Manitoba Center for Settlement Studies, has researched extensively social factors effecting Resource Frontier Communities. From these studies factors were identified which influenced the quality-of-life: 1. Economic considerations and working conditions-- refer to economic forces that have either an attracting or repelling influence on residents including workers, families, businessmen and native people. Personal adjustment—-to climate, isolation, social and economic environment, workers, wives, children, professionals, civil servants, industry executives and businessmen. Community activities--voluntary organizations, recreation, post-secondary education, libraries, music, drama, art. Quality and range of services--education, health, counseling, legal, service industries, and consumer goods. Man-made physical environment--housing, community planning, pollution control. Administrative arrangements--respecting local government, state, and national agencies, housing, education, health, welfare, justice and the company. Geographic considerations--landscaping, climate, accessibility, transportation-communications, recreation.2 Through research on community satisfaction (Marans and Rodgers, 1975), planners and policy makers will not likely be "faced with different types of problems in differ- ent constituencies . . . the same attributes seem to matter to people of all sorts; the sources of dissatisfaction for one type of person are likely to be sources of discontent for everyone. n25 i i Citiz 'valued their their social 1 munity satisfa 19 Citizens in communities studied by Marans and Rogers, "valued their physical environment to a lesser degree than 26 Their attitudes towards com- their social relations." munity satisfaction were more strongly related to their individual dwellings rather than the characteristics of the town. Thus satisfaction with individual dwellings and the social setting are more important than convenience and environmental factors, such as noise or air pollution, although they are related.27 The proximity of residences to neighboring dwelling unit densities affects the perception of the level of crowding. The most satisfied with their micro-neighborhoods were persons who lived in areas with very low densities (less than one dwelling per acre).28 The size of the community is an important determinant of his (her) level of satisfaction, for it relates to the way in which a resident assesses various community attributes.29 "Residents of larger cities were less likely to evaluate characteristics of their communities in a favorable manner compared to residents of communities of smaller size," while residents in larger cities are more likely to think they are paying too much for the public services they get.30 Among public service attributes rated by people it was evaluated that public schools were strongly related to community satisfaction. The attributes most negatively evaluated were the parks and playgrounds, indicating the lack of available facilities or the adequacy of those facilities. The study also measured the satisfaction of communities ; Consideratio. 0f residenti and the time SChOOIS, SW1 erally, it V with high 0‘ Exa bEfOre a p] funct 10,1 0] P ('5' 5 cm 0 H a D to 00" 4-4LlrnnlflrTJ'UQI’U JLJ. y- {.710 "h (P .04 A 20 communities in which their physical environment was planned. Considerations were the amount of Open space, the density of residential development, the presence of trees and water and the time-Space distances between housing and shops, schools, swimming pools, parks and other facilities. Gen— erally, it was found that high levels of planning correlated with high overall ratings of satisfaction.31 Community Design Examining what constitutes a community is important before a planning effort is undertaken for either a single- function or a dominant enterprise community. These com- munity elements will enable guidance for the planning of totally new extractive and aesthetic resource communities or the management of growth within existing communities. Through the experiences of develOping new towns much data has been gained on what elements should be included in new town designs. A survey done by Dames and Greco, 1968 included such a listing, with the design goals including: a. provision of permament Open Space including lakes and parks b. preservation of existent topographic features c. broad range of housing opportunities d. strongly balanced industrial base e. convenient, attractive commercial development f. safe functional circular system 9. recreational facilities of all ages and interests h. well-engineered utilities and services 1. civic and cultural facilities j. prOper land use and land use interactions k. provision of policies to minimize increase tax burden on the region32 21 Also to be gained from these experiences is the data from evaluation. What changes in planning techiques are needed to make a new community successful: a. incorporate high-density living units b. predevelOp more c. educate local pOpulace not to fear the develOpment d. add more qualified personnel to staff e. do own marketing f. avoid strip zoning g. provide underground utilities h. provide cable TV i. include water recreation in plan j. never advertise plan until it is a fact k. incorporate better public relations 1. provide larger-size apartments m. earlier involvement of institutions n. closer correlation Of land use plan, marketing analysis and financial planning 3 Not all of these considerations should be used for all develOpments or communities, but it gives a basis on which more Specific community planning can start. Important in any new develOpment is the cost of planning and the diversity of the staff. A general figure used from previous new town planning efforts is 5 percent of the total cost of the project will be utilized for planning.34 The planning staff should include urban planners, civil engineers, architects, economists, landscape architects, . . 35 surveyors and f1nanc1al analysts. Many of the residential-industrial new town problems faced by previous develOpers will be problems that need to be addressed in extractive and aesthetic resource develOp- ments. Several of the identified problems in new town developments have been: 22 a. project financing b. county zoning c. acquisition of land d. escalating costs e. sales in light money market f. getting builders to accept restrictions 9. overcoming adverse local opinion h. finding a source of consumable water i. unrealistic land use theories36 The benefits from planned develOpment are; designated open Space, mixture of housing types, congruent design, stepped-growth and additional amenities. In develOpments which utilize or are lacking natural aesthetic resources, the additional develOpment of amenities consist of golf and swimming, while approximately one-quarter of them contain a library, theater, marina and Sports facilities.37 Similar and Unique Characteristics of Extractive and Aesthetic Resource Communities The uniqueness of extractive resource communities is wide ranging. To simplify the discussion at this point, it.will be assumed that the community is single-function, with an extractive resource as an economic base. Similar to new town developments, communities develOped for the extractive and aesthetic resources will need an overriding order and unified composition, creating a balance, symmetry and motion instead of stagnation. Another similar- ity in new town develOpment, extractive and aesthetic resource communities is that they often altruistically attempt to provide for growth. Not to state that this is bad; on the contrary, for too often the ills which result 23 from growth are from the inabilities to COpe with growth rather than from the growth itself.38 Legal Controls The first major difference is with the legal control over land usage, community develOpment, and the economy. Generally the land on which the extraction, industrial facilities and the community develOpment takes place is owned "lock, stock and barrel" by "the company." The goals and policies set by the company become the way in which the community and land develops. The social implication is that the impact of that industry upon the lives of the citizens is extraordinarily great, whether it takes an active part in the affairs of the community or withholds support.39 Through company control of the landownership there is an assurance that if the company plans the community, the community will develop by that plan. It allows for Optimum planning and utilization of resources. Traditionally the national government has played a large role in whether resource develOpment takes place. The extractive resource companies have ensured the government's involvement in order to stabilize their investments which otherwise would be precarious, because of the ultimate uncertainty of their , 40 economic base. Community Goals Single-function extractive resource communities are develOped with a unique philOSOphy, ideOlogy and theoretical T i l concepts . A are nonrenewa because largei in practice. relatively s h I is approximat. community is own economic is geared to and ultimately . m 1 24 concepts. A major consideration is extractive resource are nonrenewable. Lumber towns can be put into this category because large-sized timber is needed and clear-cutting is in practice. Thus the resource can be depleted in a relatively short period; even with reforestation, regrowth is approximately 30 to 60 years. The extractive resource community is put in a tentative position by depleting its own economic base. Under this overshadowing factor planning is geared to be short-term, affecting the company's goals and ultimately the community's goals. Individualism Plays a Subordinant Role There is no resemblance of individualism within many of the communities. The life of each person is geared around the interactions with the company in developing a set of common values. The levels of social control become more pronounced as the industrial hierarchy of the company forms the major dimensions of the social stratification. Lucus identifies three types of social mobility: l. upward mobility based on seniority 2. horizontal mobility at the top of the hierarchy, and 3. geographical (access to other communities) The size of the community affects the social mobility, social observability and social control. The smaller the community and less diversified, the greater individual observability is increased. At the same time, types of social insulation from external scrutinizing is built up by . . . 41 Citizens as a protect1on. 25 Social conflict and control are due to: l. isolation; community location 2. lack of immigration 3. emigration 4. interaction of work; common values 5. live and work in the same community 6. personalization 7. clubs and associations 8. individual cross pressures 9. institutional cross pressures 10. avoidance of confrontation (challenging the system) 11. focus of hostility (power and authority) a. location of decision-making b. distribution of control (large handholders vs. population)42 Those with horizontal mobility create a differentiation from the remaining population. There is also a tendency for them to remain involved in the community. The scope and intensity of involvement by citizens relates to the expected and actual duration of the stay in the community. Those who feel transient in the earlier stages of community development (construction workers) are not willing to invest time and energy in either the community or personal relationships.43 Planning The planning for extractive resource towns has much of the same aSpects as traditional planning for communities. Ultimately because of legal controls, the planning process is anticipative or preventive. The life span is based on the resource projections which enables a timing of develOp- ment. The plan for thelindustrial facilities and the community can be designed down to the last detail before an implementation program begins. Through planning, costs of Um infrastr= h directed towa his studies c' community dev . const recru. trans; maturJ .n-wa—a . I The tr roles; emp 10y e do n0t alwayS 26 the infrastructure are decreased. Community design is directed towards harmonious design. Lucus identifies from his studies of Canadian towns four stages of resource community develOpment: 1. construction of the community 2. recruitment of citizens 3. transition 4. maturity44 The transition period is often very difficult for the company. The control with which the company has over the community develOpment also forces upon it many different roles; employer, landlord, planner and legislator. These do not always complement one another. The company's main concern is running an efficient business. The other facets only seem to be burdensome, difficult and complex, but often necessary in order to have labor.45 Difficult planning problems are reached when the community begins to reach maturity. The problems differ from when the industry was growing and the community is characterized by different types of interpersonal relationships. Within the single- function community few adults leave the community. The older people retire, but want to live out the remainder of their lives in the town. With a shortage of housing which often occurs and the cyclic manner of employment, youths 46 Stabilization are forced to migrate out of the community. of the community prohibits a turnover in the working popu- lation, mainly because there are no alternatives in the area . Emploment Th background Despite th are male a overtime p Pr09ress i exodus of ‘ arrangemen Stage lack Which is p Create a s SUppOrted ‘. With the c: structiOn 1 and the 0t} behaViOr de wheeling bc thrEatened from Other 27 Employment The construction workers represent a wide range of backgrounds, socio-economic levels, skills and work patterns. Despite the diversity, they hold two things in common: they are male and they have a desire to work long hours and earn overtime pay. Changes in weather, unexpected rapid progress in one section of the construction, or a sudden exodus of workers all produce instability in the working arrangements.47 The community in this develOpmental growth stage lacks many of the amenities and balanced socialization which is planned for later. Long-term construction workers create a stabilizing facet, but there are fewer who can be supported in this category. As they begin to assimilate with the community they become more involved. Thus con- struction brings two distinct groups, one very transient and the other which move into more permanent jobs.48 Their behavior depends on whether the atmoSphere is one of a free- wheeling boom town or if drunkenness is deplorable or even threatened. Either way their behavior is usually different from other inhabitants.49 Their future is overshadowing because the community is vulnerable due to the single-industrial base. Periods of Optimum, deep pessimism and an overriding ambivalence and resignation are characteristic of many citizens. There is a realization that their welfare depends upon international markets, changes in technology or depletion of the resource. These represent an exaggerated threat in a community which Cd thl int Hou isoj has only Owne hous. IESu; desig 28 , 50 . . can offer no viable alternatives. As there is no security, the towns tend not to settle, nor the people to invest money 51 into permanent homes. Housing Housing employees has always been a problem with isolated, rapid-growth resource development. The result has often been for the company to supply the housing, not only due to the urgent need, but also because of the land- ownership. The philOSOphy on housing has been the maximum housing (accommodations) in the shortest time period. The result varies from tents, barracks, bunk houses and similarly designed row houses. Not only was the construction number important but also maximum utilization of space. Seldom houses with more than three bedrooms were built. Houses with that number were in demand. The philosOphy of most companies was not to be frivolous on planning aspects for the family or on design. The result was housing based on utility and function. Planning and the timing of develOp- ment played a major role on whether the housing was sanitary. Some of the problems were eliminated with single males in minimal housing with a mess hall. With the advent of the recent coal boom due to the energy shortage, areas and companies which are develOping a resource and are faced with being single-function, have advocated different types of develOpment. To counter the image of a company town, the companies are encouraging ti. af en inc the Wit 29 financing of the new town by private interests. In order to encourage prospective labor the company officials are emphasizing that the concept and appearance will differ from the coal boom towns of 60 year ago. No longer can companies afford the image of a West Virginia coal town. By encouraging private investment the coal company is no longer a landlord, for the builder sells the homes directly to individual buyers. An advantage over company housing is that private builders offer a wider variety of designs: with five floor plans and ten exteriors. Home financing can then be offered through F.H.A. rather than the company. Through federal grants, parks and playgrounds can be offered. Thus it is apparent that although the company has been lighted of its burden of providing social aspects in resource community development, the federal government has been forced to provide solutions to social problems in deprived areas. With this approach as a solution, can there be any more overall planning than what occurred 60 years ago? Instead of integrating and providing for needs, as in new town develOpments, profitable development is invested in by entrepreneurs, while socio-cultural and ecological needs are being left to the federal government. Traditionally the profits from resource extraction have not been utilized or distributed to create better communities living conditions, environmental amenities or to the benefit of the individuals working in the industry. Only recently through contract negotiations and governmental regulations have companies bee roy has whi. the Comm COM isol iS n Perm. PIEdt ISole remaj ttans is 0f Emil furth dePEn 30 been forced to set up retirement funds paid by production. royalties ($40.00/ton). Extractive resource development has obviously changed little; its goals and philosophies which it advocated and practiced 60 years ago have remained the same without external pressure.52 Community The social problems encountered in creating a viable community is often due to the settlement's isolation. This isolation creates what is labeled a frontier community. It is no wonder it has been so difficult to encourage private permanent investment into an area which has a short-term predetermined life span that is dependent upon a resource. Isolation from other contacts, human or activities, will remain one of the major social problems. Often a single-function community has no public transportation out of the area. If an airfield exists it is often company related. Access for the laborer and his family is dependent upon private transportation. This further creates a barrier to the outside world and a greater dependency upon the facilities provided by the company. The solution to isolation for many extractive com- munities has been for them to develop as a completely independent entity. This brings back the dependence of the residents upon the company to provide the facilities which in.turn, affects their social lives further. So begins a vicious circle of whether a company should provide services or leave it to private investment. fie by pri 31 As community size increases and the economy diversi- fies, the social conflicts and social controls experienced by community residents begin to minimize. Dominant enter- prise communities are characterized by having: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. several sets of management personnel social stratification affected more complex sets of formal and informal patterns of association level of observability reduced interaction between peOple depends on roles with the develOpment of the community--the degree of support for local organizations competitiveness--citizen social and political action can affect 53 potential flexibility in social life and tie def thrr Sen 9C0! CHAPTER III AESTHETIC RESOURCE COMMUNITIES The intent of this chapter is to review and analyze the uniqueness of aesthetic resource community planning, and the similarities to single—function resource communi— ties. In the introduction an "aesthetic resource" is defined as: a resource utilized due to its natural amenities, through preservation, investment and the sale of amenity services or goods creating a recreational or tourist oriented economic base. The term "aesthetic resource" was coined to encom- pass a unified area of land which is endowed with natural amenities. Examples of these are: a mountain range and the shadowed valley, a water body and the surrounding lands, or an area with unique curiosities. Inclusion of natural amenities under this term has no clear definition, but rather it is influenced by what man considers aesthetically pleasing and seeks-out for recreational or scenic enjoyment. The term "community," when used in this context often is not defined by a finite area with definite boundaries of develOpment such as in a municipality. But 32 33 rather the physical integrity of the amenities creates natural boundaries which form a cohesive unit where communal organization and personal interaction normally takes place. Often these natural areas will be subdivided by political and governmental units. The term "community" is utilized to represent cohesieve feelings and expectations. More often in this research the term "community" represents a land unit which is dominated by an economic base and thus planning must address economic but often diversified interests and expectations. These expectations range from preservation to develOpable exploitation of the aesthetic resource. The interests diversify with the number of preceived potential uses. Planning for aesthetic resource areas cannot be approached with one clear method. Similar to extractive resource development, each must be planned separately. There seems to be three separate types of aesthetic resource communities: 1. developing a manrman resource 2. utilizing a natural resource 3. a combination of both Identifying and differentiating between the develOpment of the resource seems to be important in the clarification of planning techniques to be utilized. DevelOping a man-made resounce seems to imply new town planning around a golf course or man-made lake where existing recreation would not have been present before the development of that man-made res The con Dev nat pri' amez resc Util dive domi is e has: aske, PUrp< Chang gr 0W1 34 resource. Ultimately, totally new planning takes place. The utilization of a natural resource must also take into consideration the type of develOpment which will occur. DevelOpment may go from a dirt access road to a regulated national park, or a combination of all different types of private and public involvement in one area of natural amenities. The second implies not only the develOpment of the resource, but whether the natural resource has been utilized. Utilization of a natural resource traditionally effects the diversification of interests and whether change from other dominant economic bases (mining or agriculture) to recreation is exceptable. In identifying whether the natural resource has been used traditionally, several questions must be asked. Did the area deve10p other than for recreational purposes? What evolution has occurred? How have the changing attitudes of recreation and leisure influenced the growth and develOpment of the town and the natural resource? There are of course examples and exceptions whenever categories are defined and placed upon fluid, complex elements. One example of this idea would be Vail, Colorado. vail could be considered between the two categories. They not only develOped man-made resources, but they also develOped the available natural resources. Thus there is a problem with categorizing. The types of aesthetic resource development discussed in this research will be a combina- tion of the utilization of a natural resource and the devel ence maint plann Recre. numbe: incom: attitl adver1 recre; decade 35 development of man-made recreational resources. The differ- ence is whether the community traditionally developed and maintained communal associations, or whether the present planning only needed to consider incoming residents. Recreation has been impacted by increasing population numbers, the trend towards a shorter work week, rising real incomes, advances in transportation technology, changing attitudes of people towards recreation, education and advertising. P0pu1ar interest in recreation and in outdoor recreation in particular, has spiraled in the past two decades. Economists were slow in realizing the economic significance of recreation. Marion Clawson was one of the first to stimulate an awareness of the growing demand for recreation services and Opportunities.54 Providing facili- ties around aesthetic resources has become a big business for many Operators, and thus a challenge for administrators and public leaders, and a mounting problem for our nation. The challenge stems from Opposite philosophies and policies in utilizing an aesthetic resource, where preserving natural amenities is conflicting with the goals and policies of providing recreational Opportunities. This conflict will be present wherever aesthetic resources are being utilized by man. In economic terms it is the challenge of supply and demand. The actual and potential expenditures in recre- ational resource develOpment are determined by the will char add: resc to c pm: For tion recr inte reso base in t] munii diffe Prob] 0f CC and t fied - g - _ .5 Hf..- '.' , o a . o 36 willingness of man to pay taxes, fees and administration charges to finance the development and Operation of additional recreational facilities. Unique to aesthetic resource communities is that development cannot be geared to only supply and demand with the exclusion of the potential primary and secondary effects of intensive use. For aesthetic resource availability and potential utiliza- tion is based on the use-capacity of areas dedicated to recreational use. Rapid increases in development and intensive use creates an exploitation of the natural resources and ultimately destroys the potential economic base.55 Rapid-growth without management creates a decline in the quality-Of-life for community residents. Each com- munity tied to aesthetic resource develOpment will have a different order of sequential priorities. The attending problems will differ with the natural constraints, the stage Of community develOpment, the amount Of recreational demand, and the intensity of use. The following have been identi- fied as the major problems forcing aesthetic resource use: 1. shortage of recreation areas and facilities 2. loss of Open space 3. inadequate public services 4. housing shortage 5. traffic congestion 6. fluctuating employment 7. water quality 8. deforestation 9. geological constraints 10. air pollution ll. visual pollution 12. diversity of community 13. governmental jurisdictions56 at in Ou: lea Out 37 Demand for Recreation During the past 20 years the leisure time spiral has created what could be termed a recreation explosion. Work and play are now stressed as mutual goals. Pleasure derived from outdoor recreation has become an accepted end for which we are willing to work and strive. Evidence of our changing attitudes and demands for recreation has been experienced in an upward spiral in park visitation, recreational areas, and monetary allocations for vacations and sports equipment. Our society has become more recreation conscious, we are learning and training our children how to appreciate the out-of-doors. "Demand" should not have a dictatorial authority beyond its true meaning, nor should recent trends be evaluated to the rank of eternal destiny. During this generation a major technological and political discussion hinges on energy demand, for long-term investment is dependent upon the energy form and its life Span. The forecasting of energy consumption and pricing has far- reaching social and environmental impacts as well as effecting our range of values and demands for aesthetic resources. The winter sport of skiing has become one of the fastest growing sports in the country with an estimated three million participants. western skiing is known for excellent snow conditions and high terrain. Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, Idaho, and New Mexico are the main competi- tors. The average ski-vacationer travels 632 miles. The was of dri pro ano it. For: add: to c ence of c Peri it i rESc ROt the Perc an a Cent be i] f0: 1 aillj and 1 ‘hk ‘che 38 western lepe Of Colorado has virtually become a metropolis of ski areas. Vail, which is approximately a 2 l/2-hour drive from Denver, atracted 828,000 skiers in 1974-75. TO provide for the demand, Vail Corporation will begin in 1976 another area west of the newly develOped Lion's Head. But it is hypothesized that the ski boom is over. The U.S. Forest Service presently instituted a policy restricting additional ski area leases until the present areas are used to capacity. Recently developed ski resorts have experi- enced financial problems. This leveling Off is a signal of diminishing demand. The rising cost of energy and a period of financial uncertainty has created the slump, but it is anyones guess, even with out knowledge of finite resources whether this trend will continue. Demand on aesthetic resources for recreation has not just been short-term vacationing. The effluency of the 608 has created a market for second homes. Ninety-two percent of the heads of households owning second homes are an average age Of 35 years. Of vacationing skiers, 35 per- cent of the ski magazine subscribers stated they would soon be involved in the second home market. The average value for the second home is $21,300.58 The average skier is willing to travel long distances to reach the better lepes and luxurious facilities. The trend in recreational demand is toward an emphasis on quality and service. Though the demand for families to backpack has increased in the mid-seventies, the major portion Of the 39 population who cannot afford week-long stays at Vail and private dude ranches, prefer luxury camping or driving a late model car and stOpping at luxurious motels with heated pools. DevelopinggXear-Around Demand Aesthetic resource developments have had to begin stressing supplemental amenities--fishing, boating, swimming, horseback riding, golf, and tennis. Recreational demand has made it necessary for the provision of year-round amenities. Golf, snow-skiing, water sports, and a wide ‘variety of other recreational activities form the basis upon which most second home communities are built. The market potential increases with a wider combination in recreation. In areas of seasonal climate, balanced recreational activi- ties insure a year-round desirability. The permanent value of the community, which is stimulated by diversity, enhances the buyer's satisfaction with his investment. Access Equals Demand The high level of demand or a major increase in recreational demand is dependent upon the access to the area, economic affluency, available leisure time and energy availability. Highway access, road closures, difficulty of mountain passes and airline Operations are major deter- minants to access in mountainous recreational areas. The economic decline of the seventies has brought about a leveling off in overall long-distance recreational demand. 40 There are expected gains in demands for areas which are in close proximity to major metropolitan centers. Increased advertising of our country's natural resouces (Parks) during the energy shortage and the bicentennial may have unknown long-term influences into the late 70s. Community Use and Market Important in the influence of demand is an indi- vidual's discretionary time and dollar. The nature of the market (discretionary dollar) is important, for it creates a demand for a quality environment. There are many varied aesthetic resources and facilities in which an individual's discretionary time can be spent. There is no monOpOly on recreation, for recreational Opportunities are found almost everywhere. There is little study on how families spend their discretionary time and money.58 In order for planning to :meet individual, community, and national demands without guess work, research is desperately needed. Time-budget allocation studies are needed whether it be for community services, inter-city community centers, recreation facili- ties, or regional and long-extended vacation demands. Intensive overuse which depletes the environment in the form Of pollution will become the deterring factor for aesthetic resource areas. The economy, like the environ- ment, lives on a continual input of matter and energy taken from natural resources (depletion) in the form of low I'-’~'I_'Ul re: re ce th Re. So: fag 41 entropy raw material, and is returned to the environment in the form of high entrOpy waste (pollution). One user hiking the back-country impacts the use and increases the cost for other consumers of that resource. There are reciprocal externalities and side effects to all of man's activities. Providing for Demand Versus Preservation of the Natural Resource Vail and Snowmass, Colorado are examples of a recreational community utilizing new town develOpment con- cepts. In areas of aesthetic resources, preservation of the natural environment takes precedence over man-made. Recreation development is closely tied to the preservation of the aesthetic resource. With limited acreage, their solution was to minimize interior vehicular traffic, facilitating primarily the pedestrian. Underground parking became a necessity in order to preserve and enhance the natural beauty. The cost is Offset by the elimination of snow removal. The rapid growth experienced with recreational development, as with extractive resource develOpment, requires the corporations to provide the community services initially with increased development and population. Special districts were formed to provide water and sanita- tion, fire and police protection and summer recreation facilities. These governmental units were designed to finally take over the responsibilities Of governing a fi~¥ V.‘ . 0 no. 42 community, while the private corporation provides the specific recreational Opportunities. Tourism, the major economic base, adds no major tax base for the support of community services. Thus, Vail has instituted a 2 percent sales tax for the develOpment of new recreational facilities and maintenance of service elements for the town.59 Demand for recreation due to more people, leisure, money to spend, greater mobility, more production and con- sumption have created greater pressures on the environment. To compound the pressures of depletion, Americans are demanding much higher levels of environmental quality. What quality of environment will we be willing to pay in money and effort? Are we willing to change our consumption levels? Too often develOpment demand and intensive usage has ironically been eliminated by the buying up of more land, which lessens the depletion effect for the time being, but never brings a solution to the source of the problem. However, in many aesthetic resource communities, 'with land at a premium the problem is only compounded with further development. Thus the demand for recreation will not disappear and must be met with alternative solutions. .Air pollution problems which occur during inversions in mountain valleys are met with an attitude that it is not as serious as in larger communities or parks. Somehow, peOple often seem to be proud of the fact and thus never have to address the problem.60 IE? gr C0 43 Aesthetic resource communities must have an objective of equilibrium between the natural endowment and the man-made environment. The equilibrium.must be main- tained while preserving the scenic beauty and the recre- ational Opportunities. The overshadowing main purpose of an agency and its programs must be a reaponsibility for environmental conservation. Greater emphasis is then placed on ecological studies and consideration of visual factors. A needed implicit assumption Often is that a community may not be able to accommodate all the projected (prOposed) growth and that limitations may be necessary in order to conserve the environment. The second assumption needs to be that development benefits someone while at the same time another individual loses. Planning thus needs to focus on equity of the environment while providing a net benefit for all men. Similarities of Extractive and Aesthetic Resource Communities There are several factors discussed about extractive single-function resource towns which are applicable to aesthetic resource communities. There is a need to attempt to deal effectively with urban growth by providing a physical environment that is at once convenient and orderly without the unwanted intrusions of noise and air pollution or insufficient services. H01 ave bui dev hig con pro bee aff. PI i: ext] Man) that 44 Housing Rapid-growth seems to effect the type of housing available to laborers. Without planning or company building (public, private, or corporate) a housing shortage develops. This forces the existence of temporary housing, high rentals or purchase prices, lower quality sanitary conditions and crowding, while there is little effort to provide low-income housing. Much of the recent housing has been at prices that average or local service workers cannot afford. The alternative has been mobile homes. Housing prices and buyers' income for the most part in both extractive and aesthetic resource communities do not match. Many residents suffer from the growth and demand, rather than sharing in the economic fruits. Employment Town development and thus employment seem to follow the same stages as extractive resource communities: construction of the community, recruitment of citizens, transition and maturity. Employment in the early stages brings in a majority of transient construction workers. Changes in the market or progress on a project creates a mass exodus of workers and produces instability in the working arrangements. The community at these stages Often lacks many of the amenities and balanced socialization that is planned for in matured communities. Employment fluctuations from seasonal demand, outside markets and the 45 countries' economic well being causes instability among workers. The difference between extractive and aesthetic resource development concerning employment, is that aesthetic resource development and growth may be continuous. This creates a perpetuation of the transition period. Laborers are encouraged into the community by the construction. They are usually transient, only wanting to work six months Of the year, keeping an eye on their bank accounts and one eye on their unemployment insurance book.61 However, because of the new construction, a job boom is created enabling many Of the local residents an opportunity «of working on a regular basis during the construction season.62 They are Often the skilled tradesmen and skilled workers, brought on the job by the contractor for a specific period of time.63 Employment in either type of resource community is dependent upon the type of resource and whether it can actively be pursued throughout the year or seasonally. Employment in aesthetic resource areas of stable maturity would remain seasonal and vary dependent upon external influences. The diversification of the resource use is the qualifying factor onwhich diversification of employment is dependent. The range in either case is very limited. Landownership Landownership is another area of similarity. Depending on whether the community is being developed by a 46 develOpment corporation or sold by private individual, influences the availability price and attending develOpment controls. This in turn influences the settlement form of the communities. Both extractive and aesthetic resources are Often located on sensitive lands which means a greater need for planning and coordination among governmental agencies. Major land holdings in the western states are held by the Department of Interior, forcing the leasing of £3 ‘ .i property from a governmental agency in order to develOp the resource adequately and profitably. Community Facilities Increased growth and continuous demand puts a strain on the financial capacity of the communities to provide police, and fire protection, the capital construction costs for water, sewer, and sanitation. Even with the increased construction of houses, the additional revenue rarely covers the related demands. This is especially true in areas where mobile homes are the major new housing units. But one of the major problems in western states is that assessed evaluations have not kept pace with the increased need for services and cost of additional services. This leaves the provision Of public services in a difficult financial situation if fringe develOpment wants to be provided for or avoided. 47 Governmental Control National Park, Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management Lands have traditionally had planned develOpment. They are now faced with the recent influx and increased demand for recreational facilities, and for the exploitation E of lumber, oil and oil shale. Local agencies and federal agencies are being faced with the questions of: how much control do we have over develOpment, growth and demand? E3 How does planning fit into the frame work of agency manage- ment? Lastly, how will each agency affect the accomplish- ment of managed growth, the timing and speed by which growth management is accomplished? Community Feelings A social implication with many of these develOpments is the need for "community feeling." The communities are characterized by a small diversified stable pOpulation of primary, personal relationships. Each inhabitant develops and Often has special benefits and obligations arising out 64 The social of interpersonal skills and relationships. stratifications and diversification of the population usually is the prohibitive factor towards the develOpment of a community as a whole. Community feelings are affected by the quality-of-life. Quality-of-life depends upon two things: (1) tangible aspects (the adequacy of available and affordable goods and services to the local service sector and (2) intangible aspects (morale and attitudes) 48 of the population towards available leisure activities. Whether the government is responsive and whether the community is supportive. Uniqueness of Aesthetic Resource Communities Planning for aesthetic resource communities differs in one respect in that it places priority and encompasses the ideas of preservation and investment. Longevity The time Span in planning for aesthetic resource communities must.have long-range objectives in order to direct the more immediate short-term problems Of growth and demand. Priorities must be established in order to guide the changes and resolve the conflicts. The differ— ence between extractive and aesthetic resource planning is that extractive resource planning is designed with the capital improvements to serve for the short period of boom to bust, while aesthetic resource planning must design with a factor of permanence. No longer can roads and utilities be planned with ultimate capacities. For in periods of rapid growth and change, projections of needs may be misleading. Flexibility needs to be built into all the concepts and designs. Tra- ditionally it has been difficult for planning to incorporate flexible change. For as zoning is instituted and roads laid, the directive and outlay of capital investments prohibits change. 49 Creating a future lies in an ability to imagine the remote consequences of present acts, to create the conse- quences for future acts and to connect present motives and feelings.65 Planning Often uses predictions and projections to create a future. Predictive accuracy is dependent so Often upon external factors which can not be calculated into the consequences. However, predictive accuracy is not as important as the heightened awareness that can be gained from the ability to readjust our images of the future as the present changes.66 To be effective, the ideology, goalszand processes Of conserving the earth's resources for future generations will have to become an activity that seems rewarding in itself.67 The Spatial environment should not be subject to plans of awesome future extent. It is more rational to control the present, to act for near-future ends and to keep the longer future Open. This enables the exploration Of new possibilities and an ability to respond to change.68 Planning the long-range goals and policies of a community is important, for an investment which proves to be incompati- ble with change is unlikely to be eliminated. The greater the flexibility of the area the greater the degradation. An Obsolete environment is a type Of pollution. The cost of which should be borne by the stream of users. 50 Preservation There are few activities which man undertakes in develOpment or recreation that do not have a detrimental impact upon the environment. Preservation Of a resource cannot be carried out unless there is an understanding of balanced environmental systems and ecological constraints. Some resources are destroyed in use, but can be replaced-- as long as no irreversible damages occur. The priorities of conservation are: 1. To prevent irreversible change 2. To re-establish renewable resources for the genera- tions of the middle future. An understanding of the principles of ecology--the interrelations among living organisms; between them and their habitats is certainly of great value in assessing the likely outcome of a proposed action. What is man's role in resource utilization and development? Whatever the role, there cannot be neglect of the preservation of the resource. The inclusion Of a resource to a conservation status should be a resource which will likely remain important for genera- tions, and through conservation will not be wasted or exploited. The resource should be included even if the present value of its conservation cannot be computed.69 It is important to consider the cost of usage, the cost of managing the resource, and to provide for regenera- tion with a fund for reconditioning the resource or site to an ecologically stable status.70 Zoos, animal preserves and 51 parks which once plundered to provide a spectacle are now being commissioned to preserve the communities and unique species which elsewhere have become extinct. Conservation should include the moderation of resource usage in order to prolong their future availability. Jurisdictional Controls In single-function, extractive resource communities the jurisdictional controls closely follow company policies. Thus develOpment of the community closely follows company plans. Aesthetic resource communities achieve this advantage if the land is in one ownership (i.e., a corporation). The develOpment Of the land can be timed, contain building requirements and restrictions, and still be sold for income on the tax roles. Dominant-enterprise communities usually face a more complex situation in their jurisdictional controls. Often the aesthetic resource was recognized long before a major influx of growth occurred. DevelOpment started for various .reasons and often is scattered with few design concepts. {The ownership of land varies--from large acreage to town- ‘sized lots, with every owner having different expectations for the develOpment of his land. Jurisdictional complications have arisen in many aareas of scenic beauty, for there are Often several public agencies with land holdings, various governmental interests, and complex landownerships by private interests. They have fr 5P UH. tv: The sta mil the Ser 00m «\V ht 52 resulted in uncoordinated landownerships with varying interests and jurisdictional policies. The demand for recreational Opportunities is closely tied to available facilities maintained by these jurisdic- tions. The Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission reported 234 million acres (12 percent of our total land) are available for recreation on the mainland of the United States. This figure includes only the designated public recreation areas. The total is misleading, for only a fraction of this is what would be normally thought of when speaking of public outdoor recreation. Counties and local units of government administer 3.5 million acres of which two-thirds are utilized as county or municipal forests. The remainder Of recreational lands are administered by states (32 million acres) and the federal government (198 million acres). Of the federal land, 84 percent is under the U.S. Forest Service jurisdiction and the National Park Service administers 17.5 million acres.71 Most of the land designated for public recreation contain expanses of forests, mountains, deserts and wilder— ness tracts that have scenic value, but are not really available for intense or even moderate recreational usage. Only approximately 10 percent of these lands can be utilized for these types of recreational usage. The areas which carry the major bulk of the load account for only one-half Of 1 percent of the total areas. Statistically this is very general. However, it implies the importance of future 53 policies in aesthetic resource areas. Though local, state, and federal lands have been set aside for recreation, the small percentage of the whole which can be utilized for moderate or intensive recreational use burdens this amount Of land. Thus utilization and policies for further develOp- ment must be carefully thought out. Further develOpment Of some forests and parks may create an intensive use which will ultimately destroy the resource. Jurisdictional coordination and unified private and public cooperation is needed in order that common goals are formulated and policies are carried out in the areas which are receiving intensive recreational demand. No longer can citizens afford to have public and private interests develop and control separate natural and man-made resources. Pro- tection cannot be administered from one jurisdiction nor from just governmental units. Every citizen who lives in an aesthetic resource community and those who utilize that resource need to contribute to its conservation and preserva- tion. A key policy decision is how intensively can we utilize aesthetic resources and expand communities in these areas without destroying the value of recreational experi- ences? Importance of Aesthetic Resource Community Planning The importance of aesthetic resource community planning to the whole field of planning will depend upon its contribution to addressing unanswered priority questions. 54 Intended for this section is the statement of many of the trade-Offs which will be faced by residents in aesthetic resource communities who are trying to address growth management. Areas endowed with natural amenities and pressured I by recreational demand will be the first jurisdictions ~ forced to develop planning policies that comprehensively address primary and secondary environmental political, I economic and sociocultural impacts. Thus, aesthetic é’ resource communities currently will need to be treated as a special problem in planning and resource develOpment. The problems in this section are related in un— answered questions. Each recreational community who attempts to address themnwill have priorities sequenced differently, and will implement the priorities under varying combinations of growth management techniques. Human Expectatigns and Demands Versus Natural Resource Preservation The conflict of man and nature is the major question now being addressed by aesthetic resource communi- ties. The conflict takes place not only in the areas of scenic beauty but in the communities which service the people utilizing the natural areas. The formal conflict is not taking place in urbanized areas, but recreational areas providing for moderate and intensive use. Many of the National Parks are reviewing the impact of intensive demand pa th st to Pl Cl. to 55 and its attending problems in preserving the natural amenities around which the park was built and mandated to preserve. National Forests are taking a look at trying to combine multiple uses which are non-conflicting, providing public access into lands without destroying the scenic pastorial beauty, or harming the flora and fauna for which the people are trying to reach. These conflicts and problems stem from the right to utilize public lands and the right to limit in order to maintain the natural amenities. Planning for aesthetic resource communities will additionally clarify the concept of use-capacity. Questions which need to be addressed: 1. What priority is paramount; man or nature? 2. Should and can a community provide for all the demand? 3. Should environmental conservation take precedence over people? If so where? a. maintenance of wildlife habitat b. maintenance of water quality c. in unstable geological formations d. maintenance Of scenic beauty e. provision of man-made structures f. providing utilities 9. providing housing for all levels of income h. maintaining human diversity 4. What mixture of peOple and preservation can there be with considerations to carrying capacities? 56 5. Should national or local goals have precedence? 6. Are the goals in agencies with governmental control over aesthetic resources consistent? 7. Are federal, state, and local policies meeting the changing demands? Complementary and Consistent Goals The protection of both natural and human resources can more easily be met with public and private complementary policies. In areas where the resource is held in portion by federal agencies and the remainder by private, unco- ordinated policies will allow for further distruction of the amenities. Policies have Often been inconsistent between the National Parks and the U.S. Forest Service. Often regulations and limitations such as the number of campgrounds in a park has created a greater burden upon the available sites on U.S. Forest Service lands and at times insufficient facilities. Limitations of park facilities Inay be the best policy for the park, but if the demand is such, the impact is pushed onto other areas Of the resource ‘which may or may not be less equipped to handle the load. Policy changes implemented in a vacuum of what is being done around the decision and what the consequences will be, Inay in the long run he more detrimental than the situation before the policy decision. Thus, it is strongly advocated ‘that resource decisions should be made by a group or (commission with representation from all agencies and facets of the public and private sectors. 57 Important in decision-making is, what combination of policies will assure the recognition of environmental constraints, while considering the trade-offs of social, cultural and economic aspects? Policy statements must invision the consequences or trade-offs. For each policy there is an aspect which benefits and there is at least one aspect which loses. An approach to planning through a series of internal balances automatically gives preference to aesthetics of order over the dynamics Of rapid growth. A major portion of effort must be directed toward developing a better understanding of the growth problems and their possible management solutions. For the directive and goals upon which a community gives consensus are not likely to develOp without conflict among the different needs and expectations. The result of policy changes and implementation to meet those policies are never precise. While one policy encourages a direction it often hinders several other aspects which are important to an overall plan. Policy implementation should be addressed by a number of questions. A few are: 1. How fast should various types of land classifications be put into use, or converted? 2. How are the goals and their achievement affected by growth? 3. Will needs Of lower and moderate income housing be met? 58 4. What are the major constraints to achieving a set of policies? 5. What type of government coordination is needed? 6. How can a study he better structured to help the community understand the complexities of growth? 7. What tools are available for management? 8. What are the options best suited for the community? Though just a beginning, these questions will encourage identification of viable alternatives, the consequences and trade-Offs of each policy and combination of policies, the phasing of growth, and a direction of program implementa- tion. After a develOped overall plan to growth management, there is a need to convert that plan to reality with strate- gies for implementation. Limitations on pOpulation and controlled land develOpment in communities of limited private land tends to raise prOperty values. High median incomes begin to dominate the market system. Community diversity is hindered and hard to maintain while there 'would be a high success in maintaining Open space. The trade-Offs for environmental preservation and limited ijpulation are the exclusion of median and low income families and community diversity. Community diversity is (one of the hardest policies to implement, for there are few solutions to creating and influencing diversity. A com- ruunity with diverse human resources should not squander 59 its diversity for short-term environmental or economic goals. The problem of growth and demand may often be reduced the question of control. The extend of control over spontaneous forces is in the interest of harmony and . order. Aesthetic resource communities are faced with a real 4 problem of over-design. Built with a concept of tourism, rather than as a viable community of year-around residents with an economic base of tourism. Planners are Often grappled either intellectually or practically with the enormous problem of translating their aesthetically invisioned "end-product" into a settlement or community inhabited by humans. Vail, Colorado is exemplary of this fact, for it was ordered for the economic base. tourism. BUt with little conception of the population who was to service it. Thus, the housing problem for employees was never addressed and will continue to be a problem. The Effects of Limiting and Rationing The effects of limiting and rationing touches many aspects of resource development. Limitation creates a greater demand than the available supply, which in turn .increases the market value Of the supply. Under this system it is difficult to supply for the demand in recreation, luousing for lower-income and socially disadvantaged peOple. Before limitations are set, it should be analyzed ‘whether or not the resource is being optimized by utilizing 60 it efficiently. If demand disallows the utilization of the resource for strictly recreation use, will compatibility enable multiple use? In order to utilize multiple uses, successful integration Of recreation with (l) timber management and harvesting, (2) watershed management, (3) livestock grazing, (4) occupancy use, and/or (5) mineral develOpment will be needed, while still maintaining the high level of quality that is being demanded. Without definite policy statements it is hard to state which direction is equitable. Either extreme, providing for demand and socially disadvantaged or limiting use will lead to an unequitable solution. Limiting use extensively without proper directives is unequitable for the large mass of human beings; the practice can be exclusionary and provides for the privileged with public funds. But, by providing for demand, overloading through intensive use depletes the resource and the economy it enables. The impact of depletion not only furthers the limited supply, but may have irreversible damages. The problems sighted occurring in aesthetic resource communities has ultimately the same effect as an extractive resource which creates a form of extraction in and of itself. The Future of Aesthetic Resource_Communities in Terms of an Economic Base The rising interest in recreation and increased mobility has created a greater demand for aesthetic 61 resources and services in communities specializing in the provision of recreational facilities. By all indications, demands in the industry's future will continue to be altered with economic and political outside pressures. The demand for aesthetic resources has fluctuated with current national economic trends in recent years, which implies a local community's lack of influence over increasing or decreasing demand directly. The impact upon demand which remained about the same during the recent energy crisis however, shows the priority level recreational time is placed among expenditure allocations on a nation-wide scale. The trends seem to indicate that many of the problems aesthetic resource communities are beginning to identify due to excessive demand, will be present in the near future even with less mobility and economic affluency. Planning in aesthetic resource communities is a process of societal guidance which occurs in the present, but its objectives are for the future. The defining of goals and objectives cooperatively by all residents and agencies involved gives future direction to the maintenance or change of all environmental components. These futuris- tic changes are accomplished through societal guidance systems, by conventional methods such as zoning and preser- ‘vation, by establishing a National Park, or through more innovative methods such as the transfer of develOpment :rights and performance standard guidelines. The future is ‘viewed as changes in the system which transcend the 62 established order. Planning establishes and integrates the necessary components which identify the needed goals and Objectives and establishes the process by which to guide the changes to the desired end. Thus, it is through a planning process changes can be integrated with objectives for the future. Preserving the Natural Resource Recreation is the product of aesthetic resource communities. The demand for recreation is the economic variable which allows the existence of a community dedictated to this purpose. But the market of a product is dependent upon its nature; ownerships, employment relative to capital input, geographical relations to other urban areas and to similar nearby markets; the reSponse Of entrepreneurs to new recreational demands, the OOOperation (economics) of interindustrial (and interagency) relations, and the threshold (use-capacity of the land) of providing for new market demands. Aesthetic resource planners and citizens in a com- :munity should not respond to a community's future by saving things for pure preservation sake, or by just being adaptable, but rather by taking an active part in creating ‘that community and its environment. However, always to be kept in mind is, that it is more rational to control the 3present while keeping the longer future Open. In order to 63 be able to explore new possibilities, enabling an ability to respond to change. Preservation of the natural resources in aesthetic resource communities will never be classified as preserva- tion for pure preservation sake, for maintenance of the resource is the maintenance of the economy, employment, a community environment and a quality of life. The survival of an aesthetic resource community is dependent upon the acceptance and cOOperation of citizens and visitors to preservation with its attending costs and benefits. But the degree to which citizens will allow environmental change under socially acceptable parameters becomes a political and educational question. Growth Management Planning The planning process in aesthetic resource communi- ties needs tO identify how growth should be accommodated; identify the occurring and potential impacts without inter- vention; facilitate the identification of alternatives for residents; and once a desired future is chosen, how the objectives can be brought about through policies and jprograms. Still needed in growth management programs is 'the integration of encouragement of municipalities to produce public goods more efficiently or citizens to use jpublic services more sparingly. The impact of growth management can begin by com- paring conditions without growth management tO those 64 communities who are committed to controlled growth. Creating and comparing two hypothetical situations is more difficult than comparing reality with a single hypothetical situation. Growth management in most areas is stimulated by environmental damage and changes in the quality-Of-life. There are several factors involved in develOpment controls which concern environmental reasons: 1. The common property issue 2. Interference with natural processes 3. Pollution of resources 4. Protection and enhancement of the aesthetic quality of the environment 5. trade-Offs between economic develOpment and natural resource protection or between individual and societal rights. The importance placed on ecological and environ- rnental factors in aesthetic resource communities encourages 'the establishment of growth management systems. The selection of a combination Of systems uniquely addresses 'the problem faced by that individual community. It is 'through the perceived combination of the direction and rate <3f population growth and economic development that guidance Inust be directed. Growth management systems which address environmental and resource problems due to growth are established to control: 65 1. Total population or rate Of pOpulation growth 2. Geographical patterns of growth 3. Demographic patterns of growth 4. Direction and pace of economic develOpment Socioeconomic Impacts of Growth Growth tends to lead to problems of inadequate supplies in housing, in local public services and create other external effects. However, communities which have a £1 trend of rapid growth, experience intensified problems with an accelerated inability to adequately supply facilities. But the implementation of growth management which limits housing, also effects the land values, which in turn effects the supply of low and moderate income housing. Growth management in aesthetic resource communities which stress the preservation of the environment, also must in turn specifically address the issue of providing low and :moderate income housing for service peOple. Normally, minimum lot size zoning requirements con- stitutes a deliberate attempt to reserve land for use by inore affluent components of the population. Thus, the local government discourages the movement Of lower-income families into a community. Under such circumstances the «court has found minimum lot size to be unreasonable and .invalid. However, the validity of minimum lot size zoning :requirements depend upon the reasonableness Of the restric- 'tiOns with consideration to the nature of the area in which 'the restrictions apply. 66 In the Steel Hill DevelOpment, Inc. v. Town of Sanbornton72 the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit affirmed a district court's decision upholding a six-acre minimum lot size requirement. Sanbornton a major resort and recreational area in New Hampshire, had extended the minimum lot size to approximately half of the town. The recreational summer pOpulation approximately doubled the 1,000 permanent resident pOpulation. Thus, the zoning was designed to prevent further second-home develOpment. As the Developer-plaintiff did not intend to satisfy a need for year-around housing the courts upheld Sanbornton's zoning design as reasonable.73 Communication for Choosing Change Choosing change for the allocation of resources in aesthetic resource communities is establishing the power to :make resident expectations effective. The establishment Of power in order to effectuate change must be through cOOpera— tive agreement and resident consensus. This can only be established through cooperative involvement from local citizens in the aesthetic resource community and the (government agencies which have jurisdiction over lands and activiites in these areas. An effective planning program established the greatest number of avenues by which .residents can communicate their needs and expectations, *while at the same time allowing routes of information exchange. Informational exchange on the problems and 67 potential alternatives, allows for the enlargement of the resident's context within which he moves and from which expectations are formulated. Communicating the future must be a dialogue among all who have a stake in it. Citizens and users must be able to input their intentions and expectations. Government agencies must enable input from residents and users on management policies which affect the common resource. Communications about a common environment's future requires more than giving everyone a say. Information must be actively sought out, organized and presented. We have to create an interest in communicating, to create a vocal clientele who will support, and create a clientele that demands that information be provided. Communication needs to encourage small-scale personal hOpes and intentions just as strongly as the political control obtained by major interest groups. CHAPTER IV A CASE STUDY OF TETON COUNTY, WYOMING Teton County Teton County is located in northwestern Wyoming on the eastern side of the Grand Teton Mountain Range and adjacent to the southern boundary of Yellowstone National Park. Grand Teton and Yellowstone National Parks as well as the John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Memorial Parkway form a vast core of upland wilderness. The 27,000 square miles of the park system and five U.S. forests define a complex of jpublicly-owned lands.74 The major highways and feeder .routes which service Grand Teton and Yellowstone National Parks are the convergent approaches into the "Jackson Hole" ‘Vailey. Contiguous with Teton County are; Targhee National :Forest to the west, Bridger-Teton National Forest on the east, and the Elk Refuge in the northeast. Refer to 'Vicinity Map, Figure l. Teton County isza political subdivision of which