ENGINEERING AND ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF CARBON DIOXIDE FERTILIZATION FOR TAIWAN'S AGRICULTURE Thesis for IIzc Degree of M. S. IEIICI‘IEGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Tung Liang 1963 THESIS Q. o. 2-. LIBRARY~ MHfiqgtt State UniVCI'SIT-Y _‘ 3 ‘~ .. .. - H.” .. _. ,;-H¢_..i-~_ m, 1 r. A“ " bk I This is to certify that, the thesis entitled Basin-ring and new lulu-non of Carbon Dioxide mama to: um‘. I manna. I presented by ' I } I . ii: I .‘I ‘ has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for I y fl degree mm! M I 7/7 27%;; : Major professor Datekez/i/féj a . . h h‘kaha‘ . Q. l I wul\c. .Is \“I$O.k I- .t.‘ I. .% -.-:-‘ri o.”‘ It. ENGINEERING AND ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF CARBON DIOXIDE FERTILIZATION FOR TAIWAN'S AGRICULTURE By Tung Liang AN ABSTRACT Submitted to the Colleges of Agriculture and Engineering of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING Department of Agricultural Engineering 1963 Approval ;7E/<'j;z :;U7E7Q:ZfLr€€;g;r’ AN ABSTRACT Carbon dioxide fertilization has been proven biologic- ally sound by many experiments in greenhouses and field plots, but it has never been adopted as a regular practice by far- “IBIS. Lack of knowledge between pure experimental results and actual methods of conducting the operation is suspected to be the cause of this long postponement. This study is intended to investigate this knowledge gap and try to bring it one step forward to the fulfillment of this promising experimental result, which may help solve most of the food shortage problems faced by the world. The method of approach to this study is outlined below. 1. According to the nature of operation, carbon di- oxide fertilization was broken down into two cate- gories, namely: a. Absorption or biological phase b. Distribution or engineering phase The former covers the carbon dioxide movement from the release of the distribution point to the con- version into a part of the plant body and the latter phase covers the carbon dioxide movement from central source to the point of release. Simple equations for the relationship of parameters involved were derived. With the equation, the two phases mentioned could be evaluated precisely and correSponding measures could be decided to improve the whole operation. 3. Basic parameters for a few crops were collected and a trial distribution system was also designed following the design procedure organized in this study. Based on this trial design and the limited data, a rough conclusion was reached that carbon dioxide fertiliz- ation is a highly profitable practice. A few criteria values were also obtained for the two different phases as a guide to maintaining the operation in the profitable range. It is the intention of this study to formulate a way to explore this subject and also determine if further study' is necessary instead of trying to reach any definite con— clusion and the work done so far encourages further study. Therefore, the conclusions tendered in the last chapter will need modification either when more precise knowledge of parameters are available or better distribution system is invented. Nevertheless, this study has fulfilled its ob- jective. ENGINEERING AND ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF CARBON DIOXIDE FERTILIZATION FOR TAIWAN'S AGRICULTURE By Tung Liang A THESIS Submitted to the Colleges of Agriculture and Engineering of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING Department of Agricultural Engineering 1963 b Duns” 9/?/o$ ACKNOWLEDCMENTS The author wishes to express his sincere thanks to Professor H. P. McColly, Agricultural Engineering Department, who has skillfully supervised the study upon which this thesis is based. He also wishes to express his thanks to Dr. W. P. Buchele who has unselfishly supervised the early stage work of this study. The author is grateful to Dr. L. E. Malvern, Professor of Metallurgy, Mechanics and Material Science Department, and Dr. S. P. E. Persson, Agricultural Engineering Depart- ment, for their guidance and suggestion. Special credit is also due the Agency for International Development, Washington, D. C., for the financial assistance given to the author. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' 1 LITERATURE REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Carbon Dioxide as the Limiting Factor . . . . . . 6 Enrichment Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Methods of Enriching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Other Related Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . ll ABSORPTION ECONOMY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Derivation of a General Absorption Economy Equation . . . . . 16 Chemical Analysis and Yield Weight Ratio . . . . 18 Possible Carbon Source and Its Cost . . . . . . 23 Application of Absorption Economy Equation to Rice Crop . . . . . . 26 Values for the Various Absorption Economy Equation Parameters . . . . . . 28 A Nomogram for the Solution of Absorption Economy Equation . . . . . . 29 The Absorption Economy for Four Crops in Taiwan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 FACTORS AFFECTING THE ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT FOR DIFFERENT CROPS IN DIFFERENT STAGES OF GROWTH . . . . 32 Carbon Required to Enrich a Definite Volume of Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Diffusion Loss . . . . . . . . . . . 33 The Absorption Power of Leaf . . . . . 36 Height of Plants and the Releasing Point of C02 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 DESIGN OF A CARBON DIOXIDE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM FOR TYPE II CROP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'. . 39 Develop a Lateral Pipe Arrangement, Outlet Diameter, Outlet Spacing, and Mixture Design Procedure . . . . . 43 Develop a Lateral Pipe Pressure, Main Pipe Pressure, Pipe Friction, and Air Horse- power Calculation Procedure . . . . . . . 48 Application of the Design Procedures to a 20 by 50 Meter Rice Field . . . . . . . . . . . 50 iii Page ECONOMICAL ANALYSIS OF CARBON DIOXIDE FERTILIZATION . 54 Cost Analysis of the Proposed Distribution System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Fertilization Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 CONCLUS ION AND RECOAMENDATI ON . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 8 APPENDIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 iv Table \OGNO‘MbOJN 1—1 0 .2 H NH The The The The The The The The LIST OF TABLES chemical composition of rice price and weight ratio of rice . chemical composition of soybeans price and weight ratio of soybeans chemical composition of sweet potatoes price and weight ratio of sweet potatoes chemical composition of sugar cane price and weight ratio of sugar cane K values for rice crop In, rs, W3, PS, and Pr values for four Taiwan crops . . . . . . . . . . . . K values for four Taiwan crops . . . The absorption economy range for four Taiwan crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 19 19 20 20 21 21 22 22 27 26 28 31 Figure 1 LIST OF FIGURES Carbon dioxide curves for wheat Absorption economy Daily carbon requirement Diffusion loss of carbon Horizontal Spread versus throw for straight outlet 0 O O O O O O O O O C O O 0 Horizontal spread versus throw for 45° diverging outlet . . . . . . . . . . . Lateral pipe arrangement for a 20 x 50 meter rice field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi Page 30 34 37 46 47 52 INTRODUCTION Food shortage has always been a challenge to the agri- cultural scientists in the densely populated countries and eventually more countries will feel the pressure of this problem in the very near future if the growth of world popu- lation continues at the present rate of 50 million per year. Unfortunately, Taiwan ranks almost highest in the population density list. For the past twelve years, breeding of new Species, increasing fertilization, and many other measures have been adopted to increase the land yield to meet the 3.5 per cent annual population growth rate and keep the living standard fairly high among the southeast Asian countries. However, recently the positive tendency started to level out and no major increase seems to be possible; therefore, lower- ing of living standard seems to be the only temporary solution to feed the growing population if no other new measure could be introduced in time. Since all easy-to-adapt scientific knowledge has al- ready been exhausted in the increasing of unit land yield and all arable land has already been converted into farms, it is natural for people to try to reclaim marginal land, such as tidal basin and mountain land. Experiments on these methods started a few years ago, although it is technically possible to grow crops in these lands, but the high cost of reclamation (2,500 U. S. $/ha to 6,000 U. S. $/ha) makes the cost of food production even higher than purchasing them abroad. On the other hand, carbon dioxide fertilizer on a greenhouse basis has provided definite yield increase, but it has never been extended to ordinary farming in Spite of its great potentiality of food increasing power which has already been proved by many experiments conducted in many European countries as well as by a few scientists here. In view of its promising past result and the world food demand, the need for further investigation is obvious. However, past experiments were entirely restricted to the objective of proving biologically the possibility of in- creasing crop yield by enriching air with C02 and no con- sideration was given to the technique and economic phases of this problem. But the success of carbon dioxide fertiliz- ation will depend very much on the invention of a technique which may administer 002 economically as a fertilizer (if it is economical by nature). Furthermore, the term "C02 fertilization" in the past only stood for the practice of enriching air with C02 to eliminate partially or completely the C02 as a limiting factor in the photosynthesis process, but many experiments concerning microclimate and in the field of plant physiology (cited in Literature Review) definitely discovered that C02 exhaustion phenomenon exists in the immediate vicinity atmosphere of crops actively under photosynthesis and crop wind braking power aggravates further this problem (eSpecially air within crops). It would be intuitively felt that not only by enriching air with C02 but a method of increasing air circulation would also increase crop yield. Therefore, "COz fertilization" used hereafter in this study will be broader in meaning and defined as follows: "Carbon dioxide fertilization is a practice by which the yield of crops can be increased through elimination partially or completely of C02 as a limiting factor." A simple diagram below may help clear the idea. r<ée -C02 fertilization~w~~~~—~-e>—« 002 exhaustion CO2 enriching 4% g \ W”"‘*’°'*_I Region Region Severest 0.03% . COZ saturation exhaustion normal paint or max. CO point 002 con- concentration centration sustained by plant in the air without injury As mentioned above, COZ fertilization is an economic practice and it also has been biologically proven sound. The immediate step would be an economic analysis from the point of view of application technique. This evaluation will tend to be rather approximate in nature; nevertheless, it would yield knowledge to estimate if any further eXperi- ments are necessary and also the very kind of experiment needed if it could be administered economically at the pre- sent level of technology. In short, this study will try, basing on available engineering knowledge and agricultural science, to evaluate the economical possibility of using this method to increase food for the densely populated countries. This investigation will concentrate on the following -three major phaSes of the problem and be conducted accord- ingly. l. Derivation of an absorption economy equation for the determination of net economic return for every unit carbon investment. 2. Study of controllable factors affecting absorp- tion economy. ‘ 3. Engineering evaluation of the method of elimin- ating 002 as a limiting factor. In view of the nature of past experiments in this sub- ject, this one will be an entirely new and also indiSpens- able study for the realization of "COZ fertilization" practice. It intends to continue the study from the place left by the agricultural scientists who have done their work Splendidly by proving the possibility of increasing yield by COZ fertilization. It is the duty of an agricultural engineer to prove that it is also economically and engineer- ingly possible. But this study, even successful, will not immediately bring C02 fertilization into farms because many unknowns still exist, such as the optimum application time in the plant's life, correSponding fertilization change, ££_gl. which will further require close cooperation between many different branches of science. But this investigation will serve its own purpose. LITERATURE REVIEW The conception of multiconditioned process was first recognized by Liebig and was expressed in his law of the minimum in regard to yield of field crOps, which says, "The yield of any crop always depends on that nutritive con- stituent which is present in minimum amount." Apparently at that time Liebig did not consider light, water, 002’ and many other factors which also influence the yield of crops as well as nutrients. Giving due credit to interaction of separate factors, Blackman, in 1905, stated his law of limiting factors in a broader term: "When a process is conditioned as to its rapidity by a number of separate factors, the rate of the process is limited by the pace of the slowest factor" and the classical example used by Black- man was the interaction of carbon dioxide and light. This law governs any physiological process. The Special factors that influence the rate of photosynthesis may be grouped under the heading internal and external factors. In this study, the main interest will be concentrated in the exter- nal factor-~carbon dioxide, which is treated as the limiting factor. ,The idea of this study is to improve this factor to the point where CO2 will not be limiting the yield. The literature reviewed will be also confined within this sub- ject and presented in the following sequence. U1 1. Information about CO2 as the limiting factor. a. Environment b. Photosynthesis curves 2. Enrichment experiment results to prove the idea is practical. 3. Types or methods of enriching and their re- Spective merits. 4. Other related literature. COZ exhaustion Crop wind braking power Penetration of radiation within plant cover The absorption of C02 by the leaf and its efficiency - Air pollution problem and» a Carbon Dioxide as the Limiting Factor Although either light or supply of carbon dioxide could be the limiting factor of photosynthesis process of a plant, many experiments Show that even under moderate light intensity, the carbon dioxide concentration rather than light acts as the limiting factor. There are many carbon dioxide curves of different plants and the one reproduced in Figure 1 is the wheat carbon dioxide curve by Hoover, Johnston, and Brackett in 1933. It is obvious from the curve that, even at such a low light intensity as 630 F.C., the saturation point of carbon dioxide concentration is still much higher than 0.1 per cent (by volume) which is almost three times the normal C02 con- tent in the air. From the many carbon dioxide curves avail- able and the strong light intensity on the earth (light intensity in summer about 10,000 to 12,000 F.C. was reported CO2 taken up, milliliters/minute 0.2 0.I 0.082 Figure I Light intensity 947 F.C. Light intensity 630 F.C. Light intensity .56 F.C. I 0.246 Percent C02 in gtmosphere Carbon Dioxide Curves for Wheat by Withrow in 1936), it is reasonable to expect that enrich- 'ing the air with carbon dioxide will lead to a proportionate inCrease in crop yield. Experimental results tend to con- firm this conclusion. Enrichment Experiment The knowledge gained from carbon dioxide curves naturally leads the scientist to experiment with the possi- bility of using CO2 as a fertilizer to increase cr0p yields. Many experiments of this nature were conducted both in the United States and many European countries, eSpecially in France and Germany. Although Brown and Escombe I1902) and Demoussy did the first work at the same time in applying increased amounts of carbon dioxide to plants on a relatively large scale, it was Demoussy who first achieved success and obtained an in- crease in dry weight of 158 per cent for those plants grow- ing under conditions of carbon dioxide fertilization. In practically all cases where the carbon dioxide supply to field and greenhouse crops has been increased, bene- ficial results have been obtained as measured by increased yield of grain, fruit, or amount of dry matter produced. In Europe, H. Fischer (1912 to 1927) has purified the~carbon dioxide from the gases that emanate from smelter furnaces and conveyed it in pipes to greenhouses and field plots. By these means, increased yields and more vigorous growth were obtained with potatoes, beets, tomatoes, and bush beans. Favorable results from €02 fertilization have also been ob— tained by Riedel (1919, 1921), Cummings and Johns (1918, 1920), Jess (1920), Borneman (1920), Owen, Small and Williams (1926), and Gradenwitz (1920). The results of Riedel's studies are listed below: Crop Increased Yield (planted in a glass house) (check 100%) Tomato 275% Cucumber 335% Spinach 250% Potato 290% Barley 200% Riedel also reported that crops grown in field plots gave yields varying from 1-1/2 to three times over those of un- fertilized check field plots. Jess (1921), in field eXperiments with Irish potatoes, increased the average weight of the tubers from 140 to 330 grams by the application of 002. In greenhouses, the yield of tomatoes was increased from 29.5 kilograms for an un- treated house to 81.3 kilograms for the treated one, while the yield of cucumbers was increased from 138 to 235 kilo- grams. In this country, the most extensive work on carbon dioxide fertilization has been done by Cummings and Jones (1918, 1920) in greenhouses and the plants were grown in large open containers by the size 26 inches high, 26 inChes long, and 18 inches wide. Their results are listed as follows: 10 Net Increase Crop (check 100%) Beans (seed only) 132% - 304% Beans (dry pod only) 172% - 243% Peas (total dry matter) 118% - 217% Potatoes (no. of tubers) 146% Peas (dry seed) 267% - 391% Potato (gain in weight of each tuber) 107% - 425% Strawberry 180% These eXperiment results tend to confirm that the hypothesis of considering C02 as a limiting factor in the photo- synthesis process and also enriching air with C02 to increase crop yields are biologically possible. Methods of Enriching Past experiments of C02 fertilization were conducted mainly in three different ways: (1) plants grown in small glass containers or compartments, (2) in greenhouses, and (3) in field plots. The results cited in the last paragraph are either of greenhouses or field plots. Negative results were reported by Brown and Escombe (1902), also by Cummings and Jones (1918, 1920), and others. But the negative re- sults were obtained only from experiments in which plants were grown in small, closed compartments and 002 concen- tration variation was large. It is also believed, in addi- tion to this C02 nonhomogeneity, such as high humidity, temperature, etc., many other external factors induced by the practice of enclosing plants in small compartments also have harmful effects on plants. However, experiments conducted in greenhouses and in fields produced only positive results. 11 In short, past work in this topic has been attempting to prove the biological possibility of increasing yield by improving the limiting factor. The C02 supply of the photo- synthesis process and experimental results in this reSpect also unanimously confirmed this theory. Although the experi- mental results were so promising and most of the world hungry for more food, this result has never been put into actual practice. The author believe that it may be due to lack of information about the economic and engineering (method of application) phases which greatly hinder the utilization of this proven fact. Therefore, a further in- vestigation of this problem from the engineering point of view should be valuable. Other Related Experiments Besides those cited above, there are many other im- portant facts relating to C02 fertilization worthy of being cited here. 002 Exhaustion In addition to the ingeneous successful experiments of enriching the air with C02 to increase photosynthesis rate, another phenomenon of C02 exhaustion existing in the imme- diate vicinity of plants found by culture both in solution and in field experiments may also suggest that the photo- ‘synthesis rate can also be increased tremendously without even increasing the C02 concentration in the air. A method of ventilating or stirring air may wipe out this exhaustion 12 effect and leaves would be eXposed to air with normal C02 concentration. Lundegardh (1921), Kreusler (1885, 1887), and Singh and Kuman (1935) discovered this exhaustion phenomenon and later demonstrated by Kostycher g£_gl. (1927) and Chesnokov I and Bazyrina (1932). They also discovered that, not only the rate of circulation of air and solution, but also the size and shape of the plants may be of importance too. An- other interesting experiment in corn fields showed that C02 concentration of the air may drOp to 0.001 per cent on windless days from the normal 0.03 per cent, and this is only the average value of the air in the corn field. It is very reasonable to suSpect that air in the immediate vicinity of leaves will be tremendously low. Consequently, a very low rate of photosynthesis may only be too natural. Crongind Braking Power In 1915, G. Hellman, in discussing wind reasearch at Nauen, stated that an anemometer placed at a height of two meters lost velocity if the grass beneath it was grown. A. Koelsch stated about the calm prevailing within the plant cover during a storm, "It seems as though one had dropped into a sink-hole: above the elements battle, but under the plant cover hardly a breath is felt." How much this braking power has further aggravated the 002 exhaustion is unknown now, but it is almost positive that this must further make the 002 exhaustion effect worse. 13 The Penetration of Radiation Within Plant Cover If light intensity is seriously reduced by plant cover, then the C02 exhaustion within the plant cover will not have serious effect on the photothesis because light instead of C02 would act as the limiting factor. But measurement by A. Angstrgm in one meter high grass and bare ground shows that C02 still will be the limiting factor. At 50 centimeters above the ground (50 centimeters below the plant cover), the intensity weakens only from 1.08 calories per square centi- meter per minute to 1.04. In view of the fact that light intensity is, in most cases, abundant, this small change will not affect the fact that C02 still acts as the limiting factor. How C02 is Absorbed by the Leaf and Its Absorption Power Brown and Escombe (1900) showed that a leaf takes C02 from quiet air almost as rapidly as an equally large surface of alkali solution. It was soon found that this high rate of diffusion has nothing to do with the physiological pro- perties of the leaf, but is a general prOperty of multiper- forate septa, i.e., barrier containing many small openings. Therefore, the absorption of C02 through stomata by a leaf is purely a diffusion problem within reasonable range, e.g.,' the higher the gradient of C02 the higher the absorption, providing the CO2 is still the limiting factor of photo- synthesis rate. And this is usually true under average to high light intensity. 14 The efficiency of leaf surface and its stomata can be illustrated by an experiment with corn in which 100 liters of air was drawn through a cellophane envelope containing 2 about 100 cm of the tips of corn leaves. The air made ir- regular contact with the leaf in a stream as much as one centimeter thick and passed over the leaf in an average time of less than two seconds. At this Speed, with the stomata so nearly closed that no Opening could be observed micro- scopically, 50 to 75 per cent of the C02 was removed from the air stream by the absorbing leaf. It may be concluded that the leaf is highly efficient in C02 absorption as long as enough CO2 is available in the immediate air surrounding the plant. Air Pollution by C02 due to Enriching Air with C02 Carbon dioxide is colorless and odorless, only harmful . when it reaches the concentration of 0.5 per cent by volume, which is almost seventeen times the average C02 content in normal air. Enrichment practice seldom requires 002 concen- tration over 0.2 per cent (six times enrichment) and further increase of C02 enrichment is not economical due to high diffusion loss and light saturation phenomenon. Therefore, CO; enrichment will not pollute the air as far as human health and comfort are concerned. ABSORPTION ECONOMY Absorption economy will only reveal the economic re- lationship of carbon invested (or applied) and net extra economic return in crop yield without consideration of car- bon dioxide distribution power cost, equipment depreciation, labor cost, and other necessary expenditures which may be involved in the carbon dioxide fertilization practice. Absorption economy depends on two factors: 1. Net salable crop return for each unit weight carbon absorbed by plants. 2. The quantity of carbon dioxide applied for each unit weight carbon absorbed. Information about chemical composition of crop yield (includ- ing all plant parts), weight ratio between the different parts of the plant, and the reSpective prices for each part are necessary to calculate factor (1). The second factor may be determined if knowledge of carbon dioxide losses is known under proposed distribution methods. This matter will be investigated in the following sequence: 1. Derivation of a relation (Absorption Economy Equation) between the different factors. 2. Conduct a chemical analysis and a survey of weight ratios and prices of the different parts of a crop yield to obtain the various constants needed in absorption economy equation. 3. Collection of information about carbon sources and prices. 4. Use of absorption economy equation for rice. 15 16 5. Values for the various parameters in the equation. 6. Develop a nomogram for the solution of ab- sorption economy equation. 7. The absorption economy for the four main crops in Taiwan. Derivation of a General Absorption Economy Equation Weight Ratio of Carbon to Total Matter: R Salable products like grain, straw, etc. will be in natural marketing condition and non-salable products will be in dry matter condition. wsrs * Wnrn 53 wsirsi I €§ wn'r ' R: 1 - ----1 * Ws : Fractional weight of salable matter in total matter Wn : Fractional weight of non-salable matter in total matter rs : Fractional weight of carbon in salable matter rn : Fractional weight of carbon in non—salable matter ‘ W may be broken down into W51, W52, W53 ------- r5 = r51. r52, fs3 -------- Wn : W01! W32, wn3 ------ rn : rnl’ rnz, rn3 -------- Weight of Normal Matter (yield) per Unit Area: N This term will be eliminated in the final equation. It is introduced here to eXplain the derivation of the equation. I : Fractional increase 17 N x I = Extra matter produced by C02 fertilization N x R = Carbon needed to produce normal yield N (1 + I) R = Total carbon needed to to produce the normal yield and extra yield It is assumed that, after fertilization, even carbon needed for the production of normal yield is supplied by the 002 fertilizer. w: Net Increase = N1 carEon needéd for fertilization N (I + II R = I Let M = I (I + 15 R Price of Yield to Price of Carbon: A Price of yield is defined as the price per unit weight of yield composed of salable and non-salable products. A = Na . PS + wn - Pn z ws - P3 C IC Ps : Price of l kilogram salable matter Pn : Price of non-salable matter = 0 Pc : Price of l kilogram carbon . Ws : May be broken down into W51, W32, ......... Ps : May be broken down into P51, P52, ......... So: ws P5 = wsl" Psl * ”82 ° P52 -------- or: = wsl ' Psl * W52 ' ng 5 W3 18 Conversion Economy: EC It is defined as the ratio of the commercial value of net increased yield to the cost of carbon absorbed. EC = M - A Absorption Economy; Ea It is defined as the ratio of the commercial value of net increased yield to the cost of the carbon applied (in- cluding those being absorbed and lost in wind). Let CA represent absorption coefficient: CA = forgiagiifigiiea (by weight) Then: EA = M . A . cA = TT—jli7~§- EgEZS - CA Let K = (11+wi) R ------- Weight ratio _ P . . Pr - Rf ------- Pr1ce ratio Then: EA = K - Pr - CA will be the final form for the absorption economy equation. Chemical Analysis and Yield Weight Ratio Past experiments have yielded little information needed in this study; therefore, field,as well as laboratory work, was conducted to collect these variables. However, only four major crops planted by the farmers in Taiwan were covered. A mere glance at the varied chemical composition and weight ratio of their final products will show that the 19 importance of the need of a general Absorption Economy Equation is not overemphasized. It is the author‘s hope that, with these data and the relevant information discussed in the next section, a rough estimate of the Absorption Economy of these four crops may be obtained under a few reasonable assumptions. TABLE 1. The chemical composition of'rice. Unhulled Straw or Dried Composition Rice (%) Stalk (%) Root (%) Moisture 12.72 10.84 14.80 Ashes 4.60 13.82 15.20 Protein 6.74 5.13 11.34 Cellulose 9.25 27.86 23.54 Carbohydrates (starch) 64.18 40.93 28.13 Fat . 2.51 1.42 6.99 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 TABLE 2. The price and weight ratio of rice. Name of Crop Product Weight (%) Price (NTS/kg.) Unhulled rice 41.00 3.8 Straw 42.00 0.4 Root 17.00 No commercial value __ Total 100.00 I 20 TABLE 3. The chemical composition of soybeans. Leaves & Composition Root (A) Bean (1) Shell (%) Stalk (I) Moisture 5.96 9.25 12.00 16.00 Ashes 14.30 4.96 8.10 10.20 Protein 17.10 35.41 6.30 7.40 Cellulose 25.80 4.84 30.10 26.10 Carbohydrates (starch) 27.94 29.32 42.00 38.30 Fat 8.90 16.22 1.50 2.00 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 TABLE 4. The price and weight ratio of soybeans. Name of Crop Product Weight (%) Price (NTS/kg.) Bean or seed 54.15 8.2 Shell 22.30 -- Leaves & stalk 19.32 -- Root 4.23 No commercial value Total 100.00 21 TABLE 5. The chemical composition of sweet potatoes. Hair Sweet Leaves & Composition Root (%) Potato (%) Stalk (%) Moisture 6.55 75.28 88.50 Ashes 9.00 1.25 1.40 Protein 12.00 1.11 1.40 Cellulose 22.00 0.99 3.30 Carbohydrates (starch) 40.31 20.94 5.00 Fat 10.14 0.43 0.40 Tbtal 100.00 100.00 100.00 TABLE 6. The price and weight ratio of sweet potatoes. Name of Crop Product Weight (%) Price (NTS/kg.) Hair root 4.56 No commercial value Sweet potato 51.16 ‘ 2 Leaves & stalk 44.28 0.4 Total 100.00 22 TABLE 7. The chemical composition of sugar cane. W Composition Root (%) Stalk (I) Leaf (%) Moisture ' 5.18 73.50 14.64 Ashes 12.00 0.95 7.12 Cellulose 32.70 9.70 32.50 Carbohydrates (starch) 34.01 15.00 30.51 Fat 5.39 3 5.43 i 0.85 . Protein 10.72 I 9.80 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 TABLE 8. The price and weight ratio of sugar cane. Name of Crop Product Weight (%) Price (NTS/kg.) Root 20.68 No commercial value Stalk (cane) 42.20 1.7 Leaf 37.12 0.1 Total 100.00 Remarks: (1) Price and weight ratio are referred to the different crops under the same conditions as indicated in the chemical composition table. (2) Price unit is in New Taiwan currency (NT$) per kilogram (conversion rate 1 US$ = 42 NT$, 1 kilogram = 2.2 lbs.). 23 Possible Carbon Source and Its Cost As to the source of C02 used in C02 fertilization, both C02 in the air and in the flue gas from a power gener- ating plant would be ideal because the only cost involved will be the equipment and handling charge. The former con- stitutes a source only when 002 exhaustion effect exists, but the flue gas may be used in the whole region of C02 fertilization. The only cost for obtaining these materials is the transmission cost. The cost for distributing C02 to the whole crop area will be discussed later. In other words, this cost covers only the transmission expenditure from source of C02, such as power plant to the site of applic- ation. Because the length of delivery pipe can be defined only when the size of land under one operating unit and the site of power plant is decided, and also due to the small plot generally existing in Taiwan and other densely popu- lated countries, 1/10 of a hectare will be selected as an operating unit. As to the C02 in the air used for eliminating C02 ex- haustion, the only cost will be the expenditure to compress the air to the desired pressure of distribution. The cost for carbon in flue gas consists of: (1) transmission from power plant or from where the flue gas is generated to the site of application, and (2) purification cost, if necessary, for the elimination of harmful elements in the flue gas. The elements that should be removed will vary for different crops. 24 For economic reasons it is apparently necessary to lo— cate the flue gas source as near as possible to the site of application. The efficiency of a steam power plant is re- duced when its generating capacity is too low and it is also necessary to limit the size of the power plant in order to not occupy too much arable land. For the rough estimate of carbon cost needed in this research, a power plant generating enough power and COZ for 100 hectares of land will be selected. Distance of Transmission For a power plant site located at the center of 100 hectares of land, the representative distance of transmission line is equal to 1,000/2 = 500 meters, approximately. Power Consumption The power needed for the delivery of 15 cfm (maximum COZ required per 1/10 hectare (see appendix)) to a distance of 500 meters will be estimated in the following steps: A. Determination of pipe diameter Select V = 1,800 fpm as distribution speed, use equation —a—_————.~» =; 576 g =‘376 x 15 = 1 235 d i xt? 1,800 X‘m‘ ' use d = 1-1/4" Then v = 11%; x 1,800 = 1.730 fpm B. Determination of pressure loss in pipe _ 0.03 FL v 1.84 P - W (m) (gror‘hggference 2, 25 F = factor for roughness (for average pipe F = 1) L = lengh of pipe, ft. d = diameter of pipe, in. P = pressure loss, in. of water V = velocity in pipe, fpm Then: P = 0.0:1x22):.320 x 3.3 x (%f%%%)1.84 = 49.5 x fi—éi = 108 in. water C. Total air horsepower ahp 0.000157 pav. (From reference 2, p. 392) 2 0.000157 x 108 x 4 : i324 x 1,780 = 0.25 Actual ahp = ahp/eff. = 0.25/0.65 = 0.38 (eff. from p. 538, ASHVE Guide, 1945) C02 delivered (cu. ft. per hr.) versus power con- sumption Q = 15 x 60 = 750 cu. ft. Power consumption = 0.38 Hp-hr. = géggr = 0.28 kilowatt-hour ' Carbon delivered by 0.28 kw-hr. z 750 x %% 1b. = 24 lb. Or 11 kg. (1 lb. carbon dioxide at 60°F. = 8.545 cu. ft.) Power cost for each kg. carbon tranSported to distribution site 0.23 kw-hr. x NT$ 0.4 (US$ 0.01)/11 = 0.011 NTS/kg. or 0.00023 05$ 26 Pipe and Installation Cost for 500 Meter 1-1/4fi_¢ Steel Pipe 250 US$ = 10,000 NT$ (Asia Pipe Manufacturing Company, Taipei, Taiwan) Interest and Dgpreciation Cost per kg Carbon Carbon delivered per year (actual need of 1/10 hectare) 11 kg/hr x 3.5 hr/day x 180 days/year 16,830 kg or 16.8 tons Life of pipe = 20 years Interest = 5% annual Straight line formula is used for the calculation of interest Salvage value of pipe = 10% original cost 250 x 90% ‘20 = U33 11.2 ---------- annual depreciation (250 3 1'1) X T00 = USS 6.85 -- annual interest. Total cost per kg of carbon power cost + depreciation cost + interest 11.2 6.85 0.00028 U53 + IETEUU * 107300 0.00028 + 0.00109 US$ 0.00137 USS or 0.055 NT$ per kg carbon C Application of Absorption Economy Equation to Rice Crop Equation Assumption All carbohydrates, fat protein, cellulose are assumed to have C6H1206 structure for calculation. In view of other 27 unknowns, this assumption should be precise for this study. 72 1 Carbon in 06H1206 = 73 + 12 g 96 --§T§ (fraction of total) . Calculation of rS and rn r = 100 - (moisture + ash) x 1 2.5’ _ 100 = 100 - (12.74 + 4.60) 1 g 0.33 r51 (unhulled rice) .2.5 x 100 r52 (straw) : 100 - (10.34 + 13.82) X = 0.30 1 2.5 100 100 ' (14.50 + 15.20) x 1 = 0.28 or 28% ’n (r°°t) = 2.5 100 Calculation of-R + 1 élwsi rsi 7; wni rni R = 0.41 x 0.33 + 0.42 x 0.30 + 0.17 x 0.23 1 0.308 Calculation of K (for varying I) p - - I ws (1+1ym For I ranging from 0.7 to 1.3 K values are listed in Table 9 . TABLE 9. K values for rice crop. W I 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 n. k 1.11 1.19 1.27 1.34 1.41 1.47 1.52 1.57 1.61 ‘ 23 Calculation of Pr - P W51 + P32 W52 t --- - 0.41 x 3.8 + 0.42 x 0.4 _ ps .. _al_ ”5 - 0.83 - 2.15 Absorption Economy EA = K - Pr - CA = 1.41 x 39 x 0.5 = 27.5 for K = 1.41 and CA = 0.5 Values for the Various Absorption Economy Equation Parameters TABLE 10. Vn, Vs, W5, P5, and Pr values for four Taiwan crops. Constituents Crop of W8 W5 rs rn R Ps Pr Rice Unhulled rice, straw .83 .31 .28 0.308 2.15 39 Soybean Bean .54 .34 .32 0.332 3.2 150 Sweet Potato, leaf potato and stalk .95 .06 .33 0.080 1.21 22 Sugar cane Cane, leaf .79 .20 .31 0.242 0.95 17 TABLE 11. K values for four Taiwan crops. Crop 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Rice 1.11 1.19 1.27 1.34 1.41 1.47 1.52 1.57 1.61 Soy- bean 0.67 0.72 0.77 0.81 0.85 0.89 0.92 0.95 0.97 29 TABLE 11 (continued) Cr0p 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Sweet potato 4.88 5.27 5.62 5.92 6.21 6.46 6.68 6.90 7.12 Sugar cane 1.34 1.45 1.54 1.62 1.71 1.78 1.84 1.90 1.95 A Nomogram for the Solution of Absorption Economy Equation For a general solution of the absorption economy equation, a nomogram (Figure 2) was constructed and it will save the drudgery of tedious calculation for every individual set of data. Nevertheless, due to the large variation of parameter data between different crops and the endeavor of using large scale to cover maximum range, this nomogram will produce only an approximate answer. For more accurate re- sults, at least one nomogram should be constructed for every crop. The Absorption Economy for Four Crops in Taiwan For CA ranging from 10 per cent to 50 per cent and I from 0.7 to 1.5, values of absorption economy range for four Taiwan crops are tabulated in Table 12. 3O loo mmam - M OHOH Tl [0.8 [0.8 [0.9V .IQOA .uocw fined“ .noom ..ooo_ :.ooN_ Awouoog UOHdJOSQV - '3 2885 P::.a_omn,d UN oesowl J; :7; 4 [LL] x\ < -0.0003 Key - 0.2- OJZS— loss of carbon in kilograms/hectore-hour DL- Diffusion 0.0030— 0.002 5— ‘ 0.00l5— 0.00io4 leg {on o< - CO2 Enrichment in ’r 3 :3 Height of Plants and the Releasing Point of C02 Refer to the introduction of this section for discus- sion on this point. Although these factors have been considered together in this section, nevertheless they carry different weight in the two different systems. The first two factors are im- portant in the system for Type I crop and the last two are important for Type II crop. Type I needs a windbreak fence and Type II has no such need. In View of the majority of crops belonging to Type II category and the huge labor con- sumption for putting and taking down a windbreak fence in a large area, the design to be discussed will be based on Type II crop. However, the distribution system will be Similar in the two different types; therefore, it is reason- able to expect that the design system will be also applic- able to Type I crop. DESIGN OF A CARBON DIOXIDE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM FOR TYPE II CROP Based on the previous analysis of absorption economy, a rough conclusion may be reached that carbon dioxide fertilization is profitable only when a proper method of controlling such economy parameters as CA’ Pr, etc. is available. Hence, this design will try to keep these para- meters within profitable range. Since the Size of most plots of oriental farms are 1,000 square meters approximately, the operating unit Size will be selected accordingly for this design. However, the design may be enlarged for larger size field plots with little -difficulty. Also, as the plants absorb carbon only in the 002 gas phase, it is no question that carbon must be con- verted into carbon dioxide gas before being distributed to the plants. Due to the fact that carbon dioxide may be generated on the farm as well as in a central plant, the decision in this reSpect is again a matter of economy. From the foregoing economy analysis, it is apparent that carbon fertilization is only practical when carbon could be Supplied at a considerably lower price in contrast to the price of average farm yield. Although carbon price is al- ready considerably lower than most of the farm yield, it would be even lower and more desirable if its energy could be 39 40 utilized first and then only the valueless carbon dioxide exhaust gas is collected for supplying the crops as a fertilizer. This method of obtaining carbon dioxide obvi- ously has a definite advantage to the one of burning coal at the field, which wastes its valuable heat energy while energy is definitely needed for distributing carbon dioxide. Fortunately most densely populated countries for which this system is designed are expanding their industry and are badly in need of more electric power. Coupling these two needs into one project by building thermo-electric power plant with carbon dioxide collecting equipment will lower both the cost of electricity and carbon dioxide fertilizer. In view of this possibility, the proposed design will use ready-made carbon dioxide gas from'power plants as the carbon dioxide source. Considering the transmission cost of carbon dioxide from the source to the point of application, the power plant should be located as near to the farm as possible. But a moderate-Sized power unit has to be selected on account of the extremely low efficiency of a very small capacity power plant. In addition to the few design principles explained above, many other assumptions have to be made because this project is such a new one in nature that not a single\paper is available. However, the assumptions based on relevant researches conducted in other scientific domains will lie within reasonable range so that conclusions may be in the 41 right direction and easy adjustment of the design also may be easily made to accommodate local situations deviating from the assumptions. Furthermore, economy parameters discussed before vary from one place to another due to especially biological and climatic differences and their interaction. Hence, the field experiment will have to wait until the author returns to his country and final proof of the conclusions reached in this Study secured. However, this design will help pin down the carbon dioxide distribution cost and achieve the ob- jective of this study which is indiSpensible in the beginning stage of this type research. The general design specifications are listed below: 1. Operating Unit: 1,000 square meters 20 by 50 meter rectangular shape 2. Type of Crop: Any Type II crOp or plants with upright stalk and medium amount of leaves 3. Maximum Supply of C02: 15 cubic feet per minute per 1,000 meter square (rice is used as the plant for estimation, see Appendix) 4. Releasing Point of 002: Near the ground surface and as low as possible In addition to the demand for a greater throw of car- bon dioxide efflux discharged by the releasing outlet for the maximum coverage of plants by each single hole, there are many other factors, such as entraining ratio, angle of Spread ££_31. which will affect the economy of carbon di- oxide fertilization too. They are the major parameters which deserve consideration in the design. Since ventilation 42 engineers have done considerable work similar in nature, their terminology with a little modification will be adopted in this study and the definitions are given below: 1. Throw: The horizontal distance an air stream travels on leaving the outlet to a position at which air motion reduces to a maximum velocity of 50 feet per minute. Spread: The divergence of the air stream in a horizontal or vertical plane after it leaves the outlet. ’ Terminal velocity: The average air stream velocity at the end of the throw. Drop: The vertical distance, the lower edge of the air stream drops between the outlet and the end of its throw. Rise: The converse of drop. ASpect ratio: The ratio of the length to the width of the outlet. Induction: The entrainment of free air by an air stream. Total mixture: The mixture of carbon dioxide discharged from outlet and free air. Induction ratio: The total mixture divided by the primary air stream (carbon dioxide mixture). Also, in addition to the adoption of the terminology, their data and relevant formulas are used freely to design a carbon dioxide design procedure or method, but the fitness of each formula or information used remains to be proven at later eXperiments. Nevertheless, these valuable formulas will help tremendously in the beginning of this Study even if, at a later time, discrepancy should be discovered.‘ Without them, no one would know how to start to design and 43 the man trying to do any research on this topic would be left in a real vacuum. The carbon dioxide distribution de- sign Study will be done in the following sequence: A. Develop a lateral pipe arrangement, outlet dia- meter, outlet Spacing, and mixture (C02 and air) design procedure. B. Develop a lateral pipe and main pipe pressure, friction, and horsepower calculation procedure. C. Application of these design procedures in a 20 by 50 meter rice field. DevelOp a Lateral Pipe Arrangement, Outlet Diameter, Outlet Spacing, and Mixture Design Procedure Throw Formula L = 0.52 ”c (from ASHVE Guide, 1949, p. 783) J 7:l L : Throw, ft. A1: Effective outleg area (free area x discharge co- efficient), in. The use of this formula is limited only to straight flow outlet with aSpect ratio less than 16 and the discharge coefficient is approximately 0.8. Also rice is planted in check rows with the conventional 10 in. by 10 in. Space between plants. Spread of Air Stream from Two Different Type Outlets Z ' Straight Outlet Diverging Outlet 44 Vertical Drop and Rise Formula Hl = L x tan (spread angle) 2 H1 : DrOp due to Spread (air stream temperature at same temperature as free air), ft. L : Throw, ft. When there is a temperature difference between the carbon dioxide stream and free air, then use the following equation to find the additional drop. n2 H2 = nl (tr ' tas) L V1 H2 : Additional drop due to temperature difference, feet n1 and n2: Constants (suggested values for n1 = 5 and 112 = 1.2) tr : Free air temperature, degree F tas : Carbon dioxide stream temperature, degree F v1 : Jet or efflux velocity, feet per minute Total vertical drop or rise = H1 + H2 From these formulas and data quoted above, the follow- ing design procedure is developed. Known Quantigy Qc : Carbon dioxide required in cfm per 1,000 square meters Vm : Maximum outlet allowable discharging stream velocity, ft. per minute Design Procedure 1. Select throw and lateral arrangement in accordance with field plot shape. It is better to mount the laterals along the longer sides of the field plot and keep a 45 minimum number of lateral pipe in the field. But too large a throw generally require large discharge quantity even the carbon dioxide requirement is low, therefore, more power consumption. It is a matter of compromise. Use chart in Figures 5 and 6 to find Spread. Calculate the projection area of the stream from a dis- charge outlet. Projection area = 1/2 L x Spread, meter square Calculate the number of discharge outlets needed for a definite area. N = No. of outlet = total area to be covered, SQ, meter projection area of each outIét, sq. meter Calculate the net quantity of carbon dioxide to be dis- charged by each outlet. Qn = Discharge quantity by each outlet = QC fi‘ Select trial values for discharge outlets dimensions which will keep discharging velocity smaller than Vm (varies according to crops) and still delivers the re— quired Q. The narrowest optimum slot outlet Shape is preferred for its ability to obtain high entrainment ratio and therefore better mixing of carbon dioxide and fresh air. Let A be its area. Find the effective discharge area of each outlet Ae = the effective area of an outlet = A x 0.8 Use the formula: 0.82 46 5.50 @5925 one .2 30:: 3mm; 32% :8: 325. om ON om 0m ov om J _ A _ _ .2828: m 8:9... 8 o. a q cow 1 one cow I (wait poems 47 .250 2925 .2 38.: 882, 38% :3: 30:: .2828: m 8:9“. ox. ow on ov on ON 0. a . a 4 m a . _ p o. .. m S .m a o m 03 D. / -. .. W 48 to find the actual quantity of carbon dioxide and air mixture discharged by each outlet. 9. Check actual velocity of discharge efflux against Vm. 10. Calculate the actual mixture ratio by using Qn and Q obtained in (5) and (8) and check against the desired mixture ratio which should be smaller than Qn/Q. 11. Make a lateral pipe arrangement drawing. Develop a Lateral Pipe Pressure, Main Pipe Pressure, Pipe Friction, and Air Horsepower Calculation Procedure The successful evaluation of these variables depends on the proper selection of optimum flow velocity in the pipes, which could only be decided after a laborious test. For the present work values recommended by ventilation engineers for air condition work will be adopted, but for future Carbon Dioxide Fertilization Engineering work new experiments should be conducted. Values recommended by the ventilation engineers are listed below: Description Maximum Velocity_in fpm Main pipe 1,300 - 2,200 Lateral pipe 1,000 - 1,800 Calculation Procedure 1, Selection of lateral and main pipe Size. Determine lateral and main pipe flow according to the pipe arrangement drawing and substitute these flow data into the following formula. d = V/flffi pipe. 49 d : Size of lateral or main pipe diameter, in in. V : Recommended flow velocity in the pipe, in fpm Q : Flow in pipe, in cfm 2. Determine the minimum pressure in the lateral v = 4,005 J Hw V : Recommended flow velocity, fpm ’ Hw : Minimum pressure in the lateral pipe, in inches of water 3. Calculation of input pressure or pumping pressure to insure desired flow rate and discharge velocity at the farthest outlet. Use the following formula to find friction loss both in the main and lateral. then, 0.03 FL ( V )1.84 (From Heating and Air Pf = dI.24 Ijfififi' Conditioning, p. 433, by John‘Kl Allen, et a1.) Pf : Pressure loss due to friction, in in. of water Factor for roughness (F = l for average pipe) F L Length of pipe, in feet ' d : Diameter of the pipe, in inches V Velocity of flow in pipe, in fpm Pumping or input pressure = minimum pressure in the lateral + friction pressure loss 4, Air horsepower calculation . av x 144 _ (From Heatin “‘9 - m - 0-00015" P“ and Aim-‘8 ditioning, p. 392) Actual Ahp = Ahp/eff. p : Pumping pressure, in in. of water a : Cross sectional area of pipe, in square feet v : Flow velocity in fpm 50 Application of the Design Procedures to a 20 by 30 Re Part A 10. Meter Rice Field 15.3 cfm/1,000 meter2 7,900 fpm (this is the core velocity of the dis- charge stream which will not hit the rice plants. The average velocity = 1/3 x 7,900 fpm 30 mph. Rice can have a normal growth at wind Speed about 30 mph at least. Further experiments are needed to discover the exact Vm for different plants.) L = = 33.3 ft. or 10 meters Throw selected S = 8.2 ft. or 2.5 meters Projection area 1/2 x 8.2 x 33.3 130 ft.2 or 12.5 m2 N = 1000 = 80 12.3 Q :Qc n N— = 15.3 = 0.191 cfm 80 Try 3" x 1/4" outlet (aSpect ratio = T9? = 12) A = 3 x 1/4 = 0.75 in.2 A1 = 0,8 x 0.75 = 0.6 in.2 Q = L XJ A1 a 33.3 J 0.6 = 31.4 cfm 77.32— 0.82 Actual discharge velocity 31.4 x 14.4 o 6 = 7,550 fpm (< 7.900 fpm) 0.61% (> 0.1% which is the de- sired enrichment) 8n See Figure 7 for lateral arrangement. 51 2 5 l L A if!’///JI//.//////////MWM\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\~§ i - . -1!!//////1////////////v\\ -127///.//1//4////// \I// A_ A IL L / LATERAL 0. N LATERA N0 2 LATERAL N0 3 / O l// . -5///////1////.//////ll -.5/////////./////////2. -.r/////////l//////////§\\\N§siii foca— caa EOE .\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\~i 4\\\\\\\\\\\\\§: ..5//// //..x Z/MMW\\\\\\\\\\\\\\§§ \\ \\‘§\\‘§\~D i ll.\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\§i . -r/x///////////////§ \xli- . -.?//////.///////////2..V\\\\\\\\\\$ \\\\\si aw\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\§l v ' V \r j /\l 50 meters _,| 2 5 meters];- ,1 9.29.: ON ’ ‘ Covered by lateral Nal drain m Discharge Outlet "‘9 2.5 meters 0 s r .Wd mm NF em g.‘ “R a 2 r s e r a .... Mn. N W at mm“ em ms.m.mD. In ncnuii r1... P0 74 Wixfil. 5 8:333' mx .8 m .u. .m0 mesQLz u 7 e r U 9 F olr nSD. 52 Part B 1. Q1 = Flow in lateral No. l = 20 x 31.4 = 628 cfm Q2 = Flow in lateral No. 2 = 40 x 31.4 = 1,256 cfm Q3 = Flow in lateral No. 3 = 20 x 31.4 = 628 cfm V = 1,300 in the lateral pipe = 628 X 576 = u d1 1800 x 8 - 1256 x 576 - d2 ‘ 1800 x ' 11" _ 628 x 576 _ ." d3 ‘ 1300 x ‘ 5 2. - V 2 - 7550 2 = ' Hw'- (4003) - (4005) 3.57 in. of water 3. Pressure loss in No. 1 lateral 1.54 _ 0.03 x 1 x 33.3 x 5 (1800) = 1.11 P - in. of 1 gI.24 1000 water Pressure loss in No. 2 lateral . l 84 0 03 x l x 33 3 x 5 1800 ' . P = ‘ ‘ (-———0 = 0.75 in. of 2 1117.24 1000 water Pressure loss in No. 3 lateral P3 = 1.11 in. water Pressure loss in main pipe . 0.03 x 1 x 33.3 x 2 1800 1-34 0 445 ~ Pmaln = 8T.24 (1-0-0-0) .wate:n . ll (for main pipe length see Figure 7) Pf 1.11 + 0.75 + 1.11 + 0.445 3.415 in. of water 53 Pumping pressure p = 3.415 + 3.57 = 6.985 in. : 4_pav x 144 Ahp 12 x 2.31 x 33,000 .2 - 2 . 2 gfll£;i_) + ¢_E;§_§_) + (El—$.13.) a= 4 4 4 - 144 - 1.3 ft. p = 6.985 in. of water V = 1800 fpm Ahp = 2.57 hp or 1.9 kw Actual ahp = 1.9/0.65 = 2.92 kw water ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF CARBON DIOXIDE FERTILIZATION The economy of carbon dioxide fertilization depends on absorption economy and distribution cost. For this analysis the term "distribution economy" is introduced and defined as "the ratio of carbon price of each kilogram to the cost of tranSporting one kilogram carbon to the immediate vicinity of plant leaves plus carbon original cost." Let ED repre- sent it. For further analysis, another term "fertilization economy" is also defined as "the profit or net return for each unit investment of carbon" and using the terms dis- cussed before, this fertilization economy may be defined mathematically as: BF = EA x ED while ED = carbon price per kg! distribution cost per kg + carbon price perikg It is the author's belief that absorption economy is governed mainly by the biological parameters, such as leaf absorption power, light effect on the rate of photosynthesis, etc. The distribution economy is governed solely by the de- sign of distribution system, which will improve tremendously after more new engineering principles and technology could be introduced in this study. Therefore, they are treated separately so that the improvement of one will not change the data obtained painstakingly for another. Also, the 54 55 author believes that the carbon price and grain price will remain unchanged for quite a long time and this will make the data obtained for absorption economy valid for a long time. Since one of the main objectives of this study is to analyze the economical possibility of carbon dioxide fertilization, BF will be estimated on the proposed distri- bution system. Cost Analysis of the Proposed Distribution System Equipment Cost 4 hp, 3 phase motor NT$ 2,000.00 Fan 2,512 cfm 2,000.00 Air duct or pipe 8" diameter, 100 meters 825.00 11" diameter, 50 meters 565.00 Total NT$ 5, 390.00 I Power Cost per Kilogram Carbon Actual air hp = 3.96 horsepower or 2.92 kilowatt CO delivered per hour in cubic foot ' 15 cu. ft/min. x 0 min/hr = 750 cu. ft. per hr. Carbon delivered per hour 11 kg. Power cost per kg. carbon 2.92 x 0.4/ll = 0.106 (For calculation details, see Absorption Economy section.) Note: 1. Electric power 0.4 NT$ per kilowatt-hour 2. One NT$ equivalent to 0.025 US$ 56 Interest and Depreciation of Eguipment Total Annual carbon distributed by the system 11 kg./hr. x 8.5 working hour/day x 180 days/year 16,830 kg./year Life of equipment = 20 years Annual interest 8 5% Straight line formula 10% salvage value Annual depreciation 3 NT$ 54390 x 90% = NT$ 242.00 720 Annual interest = 51$ 513:0 x 1-1 x T00 = NT$ 148,00 Maintenance cost =NT$ 5,290 x 32 = NT$ 161.00 Total fixed cost per kg. carbon = NT$ 242 + NT$ 148 + NT$ 161 = 16,800 kg. 0.0326 NT$/kg. Distribution Cost per Kg, Carbon Dc = 0.106 NT$ + 0.0326 = 0.138 NT$/kg. carbon Fertilization Economy BF ‘ EAang-ggm “' ”85 BA or at EF 8 l (the breakeven point of fertilization practice) EA should be equal to 3.5. Note: 1. 0.055 (see pages 24 and 25 for details) is the carbon price in NT$ per kg. carbon. 57 2. '0.1wfi3is the distribution cost in NT$ per kg. carbon. With proper knowledge of absorption economy, it is possible to estimate fertilization economy now for each individual crop. The conclusion will be given in the next chapter. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION The results of calculations based on the previous ex- periments tend to prove that carbon dioxide fertilization, at least for the densely populated regions, is a highly profitable practice, which promises a reasonable solution for the food crisis in the region where population has out- grown the land resource. This general conclusion was based on the following secondary conclusions: 1. 3. Absorption Economy For yield increase I and absorption coefficient CA ranging from 0.7 to 1.5 and 10 per cent to 50 per cent, respectively, absorption economy varies from 2.54 to 89.00 and the average values of BA for rice, soybean, sugar cane, and sweet potato are 18.75, 46.37, 10.52, and 50.54, reSpectively. Absorption economy EA is directly proportional to CA. Higher I increase K value (k = IW ), which, . (I + 15R in turn, improves EA. Distribution Economy 3. b. Increasing carbon distribution cost decreases distri- bution economy ED. For the design discussed in the study, ED is 0.285. Fertilization Economy 3.. Fertilization economy BF is proportional to both BA 58 59 and ED. b. Based on the ED of the distribution system of this study, the breakeven point of EF is reached when EA reaches to 3.5, which is much lower than the values obtained for the crops. Therefore, Ep is likely to be very high and it is profitable to fertilize crops with carbon dioxide. However, due to lack of a suitable device for the pre- vention of carbon dioxide diffusion loss for Type I crop, carbon dioxide fertilization can only be applied to Type II crop. Nevertheless, the air tight fence method is still practical for nursery bed, such as rice Seedling bed, etc. This study was originally intended to prove the possi- bility of utilizing carbon dioxide as a fertilizer and make decision whether any further field experiments are worthy of study, and also the type of experiments that should be attempted if the results should be on the positive side. —Therefore, the conclusions resulting from this study will _ not lead to any practical method of applying carbon dioxide, but will Shed only light on the problem of selecting future experiments, which will eventually lead to a concrete method of applying this fertilizer in an economical way. The recom- mendations for future experiments will be: 1. Conducting experiments concerning improvement of distribution System power consumption. 2. To apply the distribution design to actual crops in order to obtain actual crop increase I, 60 absorption coefficient CA and other basic parameters. which will yield more precise information by plug- ging them into the derived equations. This check is definitely needed for the confirmation of the conclusions reached in this study and testing the validity of this evaluating method. Measurement of carbon dioxide content in the air near the plant leaves to determine the degree of carbon dioxide exhaustion effect, which is Sus- pected to be very low. Conduct ventilation of crop experiments if the degree of exhaustion is found to be severe. Determine the possibility of using high wind Speed above the crops as a power Source for distributing carbon dioxide and for cr0p ventilation purposes. APPENDIX Calculation of Maximum CO Required by 1/10 Hectare Rice ield Rice Normal Yield Unhulled rice 600 kg/0.1 ha. straw 615 kg/0.1 ha. root 249 kg/0.l ha. Total yield N 600 t 615 + 249 1,464 kg/0.l ha. Carbon Needed I = 1.5 Carbon for normal yield is also assumed to be supplied by C02 fertilizer. R = 0.308 (for rice) Carbon needed N (I + l) R 1,464 (1.5 + 1) 0.308 1,100 kg. Fertilization Time 8.5 hours/day Growth period of rice = 110 days Total time = 8.5 x 110 x 60 = 56,100 minutes Carbon to be Delivered Every Minute 1 100 = 0 0195 k ' s 567100 . g/min. 61 , 62 Volume of C02 to be Delivered per Minute 0.0195 X 1,000 grams X 26 3 12 . 42.7 liters/min. or 1.5 cfm Note: 1. Each 44 grams CO contains 12 grams carbon and 44 grams C02 and will have a volume of 26.3 liters at l atmOSphere and 80°F. 2. 1 liter = 0.0353 cu. ft. Maximum CO; Required Assume absorption coefficient CA = 10%, then Maximum 002 required per 1/10 ha. per minute = 1.5 = 15 cfm "I0 I00 10. ll. 12. 13. REFERENCES ASHVE (1949). Heating ventilating air conditional guide. 27th edition. ASHVE, New York. 1,384 pp. Allen, John K. and J. H. Walker and J. W. James (1946). Heating and Air Conditioning. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. 667 pp. Baly, E. C. C. (1940). Photosynthesis. D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York. 248 pp. Baver, L. 0. (1948). Soil Physics. 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York. 489 pp. Bonner, James, Arthur W. Galston (1951). Principles of Plant Physiology. W. H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, California. 499 pp. Brown, Samuel P. (1947). Air conditioning and elements of refrigeration. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York. 644 pp. Brown, H. T. and F. Escombe (1902). The influence of varying amounts of carbon dioxide in the air on the photosynthetic process of leaves and on the mode of growth of plants. Proc. Roy. Soc. 70:397-413. Buckingham, E. (1904). Contributions to our knowledge of the aeration of soils. U.S. Bur. Soils Bull. 25. Cummings, M. B. and C. H. Jones (1918). The aerial fertilization of plants with carbon dioxide. Vt. Sta. Bull. 211. Eckman, Donald P. (1958). Industrial Instrumentation. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York. 396 pp. Fenton, F. C. and C. K. Otis (1941). The design of barns to withstand wind loads. Kansas State College, Manhattan, Kansas, Kansas State College Bul., Vol. XXV, No. 7. 76 pp. Geiger, Rudolf (1950). The climate near the ground. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. 482 pp. Johnston, E. S. (1935). Aerial fertilization of wheat plants with carbon dioxide gas. Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 94: No. 15:1-9. 63 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 64 Levens, A. S. (1948). Nomography. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York. 176 pp. Littleton, Charles T. and R. A. Dickson (1951). Indus- trial Piping. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York. 393 pp. Loo, S. K. (1956). Cheng Chun Publishing Company, Taipei, China, 534 pp. Mallette, Frederick S. (1955). Problems and Control of Air Pollution. Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York. 272 pp. Miller, Edwin C. (1938). Plant Physiology. 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York. 1201 pp. Owen,O. and P. H. Williams (1923). The preparation of an atmOSphere rich in carbon dioxide. Ann. App. Biol. 10:318-325. Rabinowitch, Eugene I. (1945). Photosynthesis and Related Process. Vol. I and Vol. 2. Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York. 2088 pp.