ABSTRACT SURVIVAL GEOGRAPHY OF TROPICAL.SCUTH ANERICA BY MARTIN E. MCSUIRE IN RECENT YEARS ESPECIALLY SINCE mbRLD WAR II ANTHROPOLOGY HAS BEEN CALLED UPON To CONTRIBUTE AN INCREASING RANGE OF SERVISES To PUBLIC AND PRIVATE INTERESTS REFLECTING THE EMERGENCE OF THE UNITED STATES IN GLOBAL AFFAIRS. ANTHROPOLOGISTS HAVE CONDUCTED A NUMBER or SUCH STUDIES FOR THE ARTIC, DESERT, TROPIC INFORMATION CENTER OF THE AEROSPACE INSTITUTE OF THE UNITED STATES AIR FORCE. THE PURPOSE OF THESE STUDIES IS To PROVIDE MEMBERS OF THE ARMED FORCES WITH ALL POSSIBLE KNOWLEDGE ABOUT THE GEOGRAPHIC AREAS IN wHICH THEY MUST OPERATE To HELP THEM SURVIVE UNDER THOSE CONDITIONS NHERE THEY Do NOT HAVE NORMAL LCGISTICAL SUPPORT. THIS STUDY IS CONCERNED HITH THE TROPICAL ENVIRONMENTS OF SOUTH AMERICA AND INCLUDE THE FORESTS, THE SAVANNAS. AND THE DESERTS TREATING EACH AS A SEPARATE ENVIRONMENT. ESSENTIAL To SURVIVAL IN THESE ENVIRONMENTS ARE: 1. THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT UPON THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE EXTENT TO wHICH THEY PRC- DUCE PHYSICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS: 3 -.-—————L4... u— a_.._.. El? __.T'_'_— ' "" ABSTRACT MARTIN E. MCGUIRE 2. THE TOPOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS EFFECTING TRAVEL AND DURATION OF THE SURVIVAL SITUATION. AND 3. THE ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT RE- LATING TO SOURCES OF FOOD. NATURAL MATERIALS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF TOOLS AND OTHER IMPLE- MENTS ESSENTIAL To THE EMPLOYMENT OF SURVIVAL TECHNIQUES. AND THE DISTRIBUTION AND USE OF AREAS OF HUMAN HABITATION. IN REVIEWING THE CONTENT OF THIS STUDY FOR ITS ANTHROPOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE, SEVERAL FACTORS ARE TO BE CONSIDERED. THE STUDY IS SEEN AS AN APPLIED ANTHROPOLOGICAL UNDERTAKING IN WHICH NECESSARY DATA IS CONSIDERED AS BEING CONSISTENT NITH ANTHROPOLOGICAL METHODS AS THEY RELATE To THE SPECIAL INTERESTS AND FIELD EXPERIENCES OF ANTHROPOLo- GISTS. THE NEEDS OF THE DATA ARE RELATED To THE BEHAVIOR OF INDIVIDUALS OR GROUPS OF INDIVIDUALS UNDER STRESSFUL CONDITIONS GROWING OUT OF UN— FAMILIAR ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL SITUATIONS. AS DIFFERENT FROM ACA- DEMIC PROBLEMS THE SITUATIONS FOR WHICH THE DATA ARE PRESENTED CON— STITUTE REAL-LIFE BEHAVIOR NITH THE SURVIVAL OF THE INDIVIDUAL AT STAKE. THE GEOGRAPHIC AREA IS ONE OF RELATIVE REMOTENESS IN HHICH MUCH OF THE AVAILABLE INFORMATION HAS COME FROM THE FIELD WORK OF ANTHROPOLOGISTS IN THE STUDY OF THE INDIANS OF SOUTH AMERICA. IT IS FROM SUCH SOURCES THAT DATA PERTAINING T0 SUBSISTENCE ACTIVITIES AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR ARE DERIVED AND EVALUATED IN TERMS OF A SURVIVAL SITUATION- “fl .-_..-_4-. __,-I 4 II t I l. I l I I I 'I I. -~. -_ ABSTRACT MARTIN E. MCGUIRE AS A CONCLUDING STATEMENT IT IS POINTED OUT THAT THE DATA ARE ORDERED IN A PARTICULAR WAY FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. THEY COULD HAVE BEEN REORGANIZED IN SEVERAL DIFFERENT WAYS TO MEET ALTERNATIVE OB’ JECTIVES BY SHIFTING THE EMPHASIS AND RELATIONSHIP OF THE COMPONENTS COMPRISING THE DATA AND THE INCLUSION OF ADDITIONAL DATA OR MAKING EX’ PLICIT MUCH THAT IS IMPLIED HEREIN CR OMITTED AS BEING INAPPLICABLE TO THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY. APPROVED CHAIRMAN a :1. , ' DATE ‘725IQE/45;/{:*(§/ l/éf;414{ SURVIVAL GEOGRAPHY 0F TROPICAL SOUTH AMERICA BY MARTIN E. MCGUIRE A THESIS SUBMITTED To MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY 1964 ’hg ACKNOWIBJQT’EWS I VISH To EXPRESS MY APPRECIATION TO THE MEMBERS OF MY COMMITTEE. DR. JOHN D. DONOGHUE. DR. CHARLES HUGHES. AND DR. BERNARD GALLIN. I AM TAKING THIS OPPORTUNITY To EXPRESS MY SINCERE THANKS To DR. MOREAU S. MAXWELL. IT HAS THROUGH HIS PERSONAL EXPERIENCE AND CONTINUED INFLUENCE HITH THE ARTIC. DESERT. TROPIC INFORMATION CENTER. UNITED STATES AIR FORCE THAT I HAS AFFORDED THE OPPORTUNITY To UNDERTAKE THIS STUDY. I WISH To THANK HIM. Too. FOR THE ADVICE AND SUGGESTIONS CONTRIBUTING To THE COMPLETION OF THIS THESIS. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE IMSKNOWLEDGMENDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II IPTTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 PART I. TROPICAL FORESTS CF SOUTH AWERICA CHAPTER I. THE PHYSICAL ENVIROI‘AENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 DISTRIBUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 TROPICAL DECIDUOUS FORESTS . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 TRANSITIONAL ZONES OF FOREST VEGETATICN . . . . . 19 CLIMATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 RAINFALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 RELIEF AND DRAINAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 TRAFFICABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 LAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 RIVER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 II. REGIONAL TOPOGRAPHY o o o o o o o O o o o o o o o o 39 GUIANA HIGHLANDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 MAGDALENA AND CAUCA RIVER VALLEYS . . . . . . . . 44 ATRATO RIVER VALLEY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 LAKE MARACAIBO BASIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 ORINOCO DELTA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 ”I- I‘DIAAS OF THE TROPICAL FORESTS . . . . . . . . . . 54 HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 DRESS AND ORNAMENTATION o o o o o o o o o O o O o 57 SUBSISTENCE ACTIVITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 AGRICULTURE O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O 0 O O 59 HUNTING O O O O O O I O O O I O O O O a O I O O 61 FISHING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 PREPARATION OF FOOD AND DRINK . . . . . . . . . 67 FOREST PRODUCTS AND MANUFACTURES . . . . . . . . 71 SETTLEMENT PATTERNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 V. V VII. VIII. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL ORGANIZATION . . . . RELIGION: MAGIC, AND MEDICINE . . . . . . CONTACT NITR THE INDIANS FOOD SOURCES . GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 'NSECTS O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O MAMMALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . REPTILES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F.8H O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O BIRDS o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o WILD AND CULTIVATED P A Ts . . . . . . . HEALTH Am HAZARm O 0 O O O O O O O O O O TROPICAL DISEASES . . . . . . . . . . . . STARYATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HEAT AND THIRST o o o O o o o o o o o o o SNAKES O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O ARTHROPODSI INSECTS AND ARACHNIDS . . . DIPTERA (MOSQUITOES, FLIES. ETC.) . . . ARACHNIDS (SPIDERS AND SCORPIONS) . . . HYMENOPTERA (BEES. WASPS. AND ANTS) . . F'SH O O O O O O I O O O O I O O O O O O CROCODILLIANI CAIMAN AND CROCODILES . . MAMM‘LS o C o o o o o o C O o o o o o o o S WNARY O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O I O O 0 PART II THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT DISTRIBUTION CHARACTERISTIC CL'MATE o o o RELIEF AND DRA BIOTIC FACTORS SAVANNA VECETA FAUNA o o o o SAVANNAS CF 0 o o 3 o o o o o 'NAGE o o TION REGIONAL,DESCRIPTION THE LLANOS or VENEZUELA DISTRIBUTION RELIEF AND DRAINAGE . . . . . . . CL'MATE o o o o O o o o o o o o o REGIONAL TRAVEL AND DESTINATIONS O O O O O O O 0 0 O O O O 0 AND SOUTH AMER ICA 00.0000 COLOMBIA I O O O O O O I O O O O O O O 0 PAGE 75 77 83 88 88 91 101 103 104 107 114 114 116 118 120 128 129 131 132 134 136 139 143 151 151 152 153 154 155 159 169 178 178 178 178 187 188 PAGE THE RUPUNUNI SAVANNAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 DISTRIBUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 RELIEF AND DRAINAGE o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 193 CLIMATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 REGIONAL TRAVEL AND DESTINATIONS . . . . . . . 195 THE CAMPOS OF BRAZIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 DISTRIBUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 REL'EF AND DRAINAGE C O O O O O O O O O O O O O 197 CLIMATE o o o o o o o o o o O o o o o o o o o o 200 REGIONAL TRAVEL AND DESTINATIONS . . . . . . . 201 THE GPA" CHACO O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O 203 DISTRIBUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 RELIEF AND DRAINAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 CL.”ATE O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O 0 O 0 205 REGIONAL TRAVEL AND DESTINATIONS . . . . . . . 206 IX. SURV 'VAL FACTCI’E O O O O O O O O O O O O O O C O O 207 GENERAL.0.000000000000000... 207 INHABITANTS or THE SAVANNAS . . . . . . . . . . . 209 FOOD SOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 VEGETATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 ANIMALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 BIRDS O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O 218 REPTILES O I O O O O O I O I O 0 O O O O I O O 225 RIVER ANIMALS o o o o o o o o o O o o o o a o o 225 INSECTS o o o o o o o o o o O o C o o o o o o o 227 HEALTH AND HAZARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 TRAVEL AND NAVIGATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 >ACE TO THE DIETARY DEFICIENCES. As A RESULT MANY OF THE DISORDERS MALNUTRITION ARE ERRONEOUSLY EQUATED wITH TROPICAL CLIMATES. ALSO. ' MATERIAL PRESENTED IS MOSTLY CLINICAL IN NATURE AND RELATES TO ONIC MALNUTRITION. FOR OUR PURPOSES THE TERM "STARVATION" HAS A MORE SPECIFIC STATION EXPRESSING THE FUNDAMENTAL BIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL 3 AND IMPAIRMENT. WHILE MALNUTRITION IIIILL UNDOUBTEDLY OCCUR IN- rLY, THE IMMEDIATE PHYSICAL DEBILITY AND IRRATIONAL BEHAVIOR IATED wITI-I STARVATION ARE THE MORE SERIOUS AFFECTS OF THE Mo- THERE ARE A NUMBER OF INTERRELATED PSYCHo-PHYSOLOGICAL FACTORS VED IN STARVATION THAT MAKE IT DIFFICULT IN CERTAIN ASPECTS T0 in 117 DISTINGUISH THE PURELY PHYSICAL FROM THE PSYCHOLOGICAL. IN DEB- ORIBING THE PROGRESSIVE EFFECTS OF STARVATION. THE READER CAN APPRECIATE THIS LACK OF CLEAR DISTINCTION. THE CONDITIONS OF STRESS INHERENT IN STARVATION ARE FURTHER COMPLICATED AND MAGNIFIED BY THE URGENCY AND THREAT INHERENT IN THE SURVIVAL SITUATION. THE FIRST NOTICEABLE EFFECTS RESULTING FROM THE LACK OF FOOD ARE KNOIIN As HUNGER PANGS. COMMENCING mm A GENERAL FEELING OF RESTLESSNESSI THE INDIVIDUAL PROGRESSIVELY EXPERIENCES TENSENESS IN THE ABDOMINAL REGION GIVING VIAY FINALLY TO GNAVIING AND ACHING SEN- SATIONS ACCOMPANIED BY SPASMOTIC, OFTEN PAINFUL. CONTRACTIONS IN THE EPIGASTRIC AREA. IN COMPLETE STARVATION. THESE HUNGER PANGS SUBSIDE. IN PARTIAL OR SEMI-STARVATION, THE HUNGER PANGS ARE PERSISTENT. THE EMOTIONAL STRESS ACCOMPANYING HUNGER PANGS MAY BE SUCH AS TO BLUNT THE ALERTNESS OF THE INDIVIDUAL AND IN HIS ANXIETY TO OBTAIN FOOD MAKE HIM OBLIVIOUS TO THE PHYSICAL DANCERS OF THE ENVIRONMENT. AS THE SHORTAGE OF FOOD CONTINUES. THE PHYSICAL EFFECTS BECOME ORE PRONOUNCED; LOSS OF STRENGTH AND ENDURANCE. DIZZINESS, AND LACK TACTILE COORDINATION. DEPRESSION SETS IN ACCOMPANIED BY IRRI- SILITY, NERVOUSNESSI AND 'A DEGREE OF APATHY NHICH TENDS TO MAKE THE IVIDUAL MORE EASILY DISCOURAGED IN THE FACE OF DISAPPOINTMENT OR .uRE. PROGRESSIVELY, THE STARVING INDIVIDUAL BECOMES SUBJECT TO STINAL MALFUNCTION EXHIBITED BY DIARRHEA AND DYSENTARY, ABDOMINAL Is AND BLOATINGI AND THE FORMATION OF GASES. EXCEPT IN THE MORE ADVANCED STAGES THE SENSES ARE THE LEAST rED BY STARVATION. A CERTAIN DEGREE OF NIGHT BLINDNESS MAY AND THERE IS AN INCREASED SENSITIVITY TO COOL TEMPERATURES NI GENERAL THE SENSES FUNCTION NORMALLY OR MAY EVEN BECOME MORE 118 ACUTE. ESPECIALLY HEARING. HHILE INTELLIGENCE IS NOT EFFECTED. MENTAL BEHAVIOR IS. CONCENTRATION BECOMES INCREASINGLY MORE DIFFICULT. LAPSES OF MEMORY BECOMES MORE FREQUENT AND oF LONGER DURATION AND RESPONSES TO VARIOUS STIMULI BECOMES SLOwER AND INEFFECTIVE. IN CONCERT. THESE CONDITIONS LEAD To CONFUSION AND ABERRANT BEHAVIOR. SIGNIFICANTLY. THE INSTINCT FOR SURVIVAL IS SUCH THAT EVEN WHEN THE HUNGER PANGS CEASE AND THE OBSESSION FOR FOOD IS NO LONGER COMPELLING. MAN MILL CONTINUE HIS QUEST FOR FOOD. TIME AND AGAIN THIS FACT IS BORNE OUT IN THE ACCOUNTS OF MEN ExPOSED To SURVIVAL EXPERIENCES IN CONNECTION wITH SHIP AND PLANE MRECKS. ExPEDITIONS. AND EXPLORATIONS IN THE ARTICS AND TROPICS. THE TENACITY NITH NHICH MAN HOLDS ON To LIFE ExHIBITED BY THE ORDEALS. ESPECIALLY STARVATION. OF MEN AND HOMEN ExPOSED TO CRUELTIES OF PRISONER OF MAR CAMPS AND THE MORE NOTORIOUS NAZI CONCENTRATION CAMPS ARE ALMOST BEYOND BELIEF. “£61 559 Tu|RSI THE "HOT HOUSE" ATMOSPHERE OF THE TROPICAL RAIN FOREST RE- FERRED TO UNDER CLIMATE CAN SERIOUSLY IMPAIR THE PHYSICAL HELL-BEING OF THE INDIVIDUAL. FORTUNATELY. PREVENTATIVE MEASURES To AVERT ANY INJURIOUS EFFECTS ARE NELL wITHIN THE CAPABILITIES OF THE INDIVIDUAL. THE NATURE OF THE POTENTIAL DANGER INVOLVES THE METABOLIC O PROCESSES OF NORMAL HEAT PRODUCTION. BODY TEMPERATURE CF 98.6 IS MAINTAINED BY BALANCING THE LOSS OR GAIN OF BODY HEAT. THE MAIN SOURCES OF BODY HEAT ARE PHYSICAL ExERCISE AND AIR TEMPERATURE HIGHER THAN BODY TEMPERATURE. ONE OF THE MORE IMPORTANT METHODS OF HEAT CONTROL ENTAILS LOSS OF EXCESSIVE BODY HEAT THROUGH EVAPORATION. THIS IS PARTICULARLY TRUE wHEN AIR TEMPERATURES AND BODY TEMPERATURES ARE NEARLY EQUAL. WHERE 119 THE AIR IS DRY AND MOVING THE BODY SWEAT TENDS T0 EVAPORATE QUICKLY, HOWEVER: UNDER EXTREME HUMID CONDITIONS AS ARE FOUND IN THE RAIN FOREST THE SWEAT CLINGS TO THE BODY AND ONE IS SOON LITERALLY DRIPPING WITH IT. PHYSICAL LABOR, LIKE HACKING ONE'S WAY THROUGH THE UNDERBRUSH, GENERATES EXCESSIVE HEAT AND INDUCES PROFUSE SWEATING. IN ITSELF THIS SWEATING IS DESIREABLE AND ITS COOLING EFFECT SHOULD BE MAXIMIZED BY ALLOWING THE AIR TO CIRCULATE AS FREELY AS POSSIBLE OVER THE SURFACES OF THE BODY. THE NATIVES OF THE FOREST WITH UN' ASSUMING PRACTICALITY RECOGNIZE THE CONDITIONS BY WEARING LITTLE OR NO CLOTHING. FOR VARIOUS REASONS: NOT THE LEAST OF NHICH IS THE PRESENCE OF THE INFINITE INSECT: THE SURVIVOR IS NOT ADVISED TO SHED HIS CLOTHING. HOWEVER: COMMENSURATE WITH PROTECTIVE NEEDS AGAINST THE FLORA AND FAUNA) CLOTHING SHOULD BE AS LIGHT WEIGHT AS POSSIBLE WITH ALL VENTS OPENED TO PERMIT THE GREATER AMOUNT OF AIR FLOW. UNDER CONDITIONS CONDUCIVE TO INTENSE SWEATING THE BODY MAY LOSE IN EXCESS OF TWO QUARTS OF FLUID PER HOUR. OBVIOUSLY THIS LOSS MUST BE REPLACED IF THE HEAT CONTROL MECHANISM OF THE BODY IS TO RE‘ MAIN FUNCTIONAL. A SECONDARY AFFECT OF EXCESSIVE SWEATING IS THE DEPLETION OF SALT IN THE BODY. USUALLY THE BODY ADUUSTS TO THIS SALT DEPLETION BY REDUCING THE AMOUNT OF SALT IN THE SWEAT BUT A PERIOD OF ACCLI' MATIZATION IS NECESSARY. SOMETIMES THIS ADJUSTMENT IS ALMOST IMMEDIATE. PHYSICAL DEFICIENCES ASSOCIATED WITH MALFUNCTION OF THE BODY TEMPERATURE CONTROL ARE RECOGNIZED AS THREE DISTINCT CONDITIONS. FIRST IS HEAT CRAMPS WHICH IS CAUSED BY RAPID AND EXCESSIVE SALT LOSS. MUSCULAR CRAMPS OF THE ARMS AND LEGS GRADUALLY INCREASES IN INTENSITY AND EXTENDS TO THE OTHER PARTS OF THE BODY, PARTICULARLY THE ABDOMEN. 120 REMEDIAL ACTION ENTAILS IMMEDIATE INTAKE OF SALT AND WATER. A SECOND SYMPTOM OF HEAT CONTROL DEFICIENCY Is CALLED HEAT ExHAUSTION AND IS CAUSED BY POOR CIRCULATION FROM PROLONGED ExPOSURE TO HIGH TEMPERATURES. THIS IS MORE A PROBLEM OF THE DRY DESERT EN- VIRONMENT RATHER THAN THE HUMID FORESTS. THE THIRD AND MOST SIGNIFICANT TYPE OF DEFICIENCY IS CALLED HEAT STROKE. HERE THE FAILURE OF THE HEAT CONTROL MECHANISM IS USUALLY CAUSED BY PROLONGED ExERTION AND SWEATING IN A HOT. AIRLESS. HUMID ENVIRONMENT. THE FIRST INDICATION OF HEAT STROKE MAY BE (THOUGH NOT ALWAYS) THE CESSATION OF SWEATING. 'SUBSEQUENT REACTIONS ARE VOMITING. MUSCULAR SPASMS. RESPIRATORY AND CARDIAC DISTRESS. RAPID RISE IN TEMPERATURE. DELIRIUM AND FAINTING. REDUCTION OF HIGH TEMPERATURES BY WATER INTAKE. AND "SPONGING" THE BODY WITH WATER IS THE MOST IMMEDIATELY EFFECTIVE TREATMENT. IN THE RAIN FOREST WATER IS AVAILABLE FROM NUMEROUS SOURCES AND ITS ACQUISITION DOES NOT CONSTITUTE A SERIOUS PROBLEM. HOWEVER. WATER NEEDS MAY EXCEED THIRST. THIS FREQUENTLY HAPPENS WHEN THE IN- DIVIDUAL IS ENGAGED IN A FORM OF LABOR REQUIRING CONCENTRATION. WATER SHOULD BE REPLACED REGULARLY; IDEALLY HOUR BY HOUR. POSTPONEMENT OF WATER REPLENISHMENT CAN CAUSE DIZZINESS AND EVEN FAINTING BEFORE THE INDIVIDUAL IS AwARE OF THE CONDITION. IT CAN ALSO RESULT IN MILDLY ABERRANT BEHAVIOR. UNDER SECURE ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS SUCH AN ex- PERIENCE WOULD NOT BE PARTICULARLY SERIOUS. IN THE UNFAMILIAR EN- VIRONMENT OF THE RAIN FOREST IT COULD BE FATAL. SNAKES BEFORE DESCRIBING THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DANGEROUS SNAKES OF THE TROPICAL RAIN FOREST IT SEEMS ADVISEABLE TO REVIEW SOME GENERAL "N nun-lug; : 121 INFORMATION AND PREVENTATIVE MEASURES APPLICABLE TO ALL SNAKES. CLINICAL INVESTIGATION AND REPORTS FROM COMPETENT FIELD CB“ SERVERS EASILY BELIE MOST OF THE FICTION SURROUNDING THE SNAKE WORLD. SOME OF THE MORE PERTINENT FACTS WHICH HAVE BEEN DEVELOPED ARE: 1. 3. 4. THE OVERWHELMING MAJORITY OF THE SNAKE WORLD IS MADE UP OF NON-POISONOUS SPECIES. SNAKES ARE NOT AGGRESSIVE. THIS IS PARTICULARLY TRUE OF SNAKES IN THE WESTERN HEMESPHERE. SNAKE SITE IN- VARIABLY OCCURS THROUGH INADVERTENCY OR AGGRESSION ON THE PART OF MAN RATHER THAN THE SNAKE. THE RELATIVELY SLOW SPEED OF Loco- MOTION OF A THREE MILE PER HOUR MAXIMUM UNDER THE MOST FAVORABLE CONDITIONS. IN CONNECTION WITH LOCOMOTION. SNAKES CAN CRAWL. CLIMB. AND SWIM ONLY. VENOM IS EXUDED BY THE SNAKES ONLY THROUGH THEIR FANGS ADAPTED TO THAT PURPOSE. THERE ARE NO SNAKES IN THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE CAPABLE OF PR0- JECTING VENOM THROUGH SPACE SUCH AS THE OLD MORLD "SPITTING" COBRAS; NOR IS THE TONGUE OR A "STINGER" INVOLVED IN THE PROJECTION OF THE TOXIN. 122 5. SNAKES DO NOT HAVE MYSTIC HYPNOTIC CAPABILITIES. AT LEAST INSCFAR As HUMANS ARE CCNCERNED. PERSONS MAY BECOME TRANSFIXED FROM THE POWERFUL FEAR BUILT UP IN THEIR OWN MIND. IF SO. LACK OF MOVEMENT MAY PROVE TO BE THE UNINTENTIONAL MEANS OF SAVING THEIR LIFE. 6. THE ODDS ARE SEVERAL To ONE IN FAVOR OF RECOVERY FROM POISONOUS SNAKE BITE EVEN WHEN CLINICAL TREATMENT IS UN- AVAILABLE. FREQUENTLY FATALITIES OCCUR NOT FROM THE TOXIC EFFECTS ALONE BUT RATHER THE COMBINED EFFECTS OF THE TOXINS AND THE GREAT FEAR WHICH IN- DUCES SHOCK AND HELPLESSNESS IN THE VICTIM. PERTAINING To PREVENTATIVE MEASURES THE ONE OVERRIDING RULE CAN BE CITED IN ONE WORD: "AVOIDANCE." DESPITE THE OPTIMISTIC VIEWS EXPRESSED BY TRAINED OBSERVERS AND THE WISHFUL EXPRESSIONS OF SOME WRITERS THAT MANKIND ADOPT A MORE BENEVOLENT ATTITUDE TOWARD THIS ALLEGEDLY MUCH MALIGNED CREATURE. PROSPECTS FOR SURVIVAL IN THE FIELD ADVISE COMPLETE AVOIDANCE EXCEPT WHERE THE MAN IS THE AGGRESSOR AND HE HAS COMPLETE CONTROL OF THE SITUATION. SUCH A SITUATION MAY ARISE BECAUSE OF THE NEED FOR FOOD OF WHICH SNAKES ARE AN EXCELLENT SOURCE. FORTUNATELY. AVOIDANCE CONSTITUTES THE MAJOR ASPECT OF THE SNAKE‘S SURVIVAL TECHNIQUES. IT IS THIS CHARACTERISTIC WHICH Is SO FREQUENTLY 123 CITED AS A REASON FOR THE RELATIVELY RARE SIGHTING OF SNAKES IN THE RAIN FOREST. ON THE OTHER HAND. IT IS THE SNAKE THAT YOU DO NOT SEE THAT BITES YOU. CONSIDER THE MOST LIKELY PLACES IN WHICH A SNAKE CAN HIDE; UNDER LOGS. ROCKS. BRUSH PILES; IN HOLES ANIMAL BURROWS; IN HOLLOW TREES OR RESTING AMONG BRANCHES AND CLIMBERS; UNDER OVERHANGING RIVER BANKS. IN HOLES IN THE RIVER BED. ON AND UNDER LOGS LYING SUB- MERGED OR PARTIALLY SUBMERGED ALONG THE RIVER BANKs--THESE ARE A FEW EXAMPLES OF POSSIBLE HIDING PLACES. THE INDIVIDUAL MUST BE CON- STANTLY ALERT TO THESE SOURCES OF DANGER. THE USE OF A FORKED OR CURVED STICK OF APPROPRIATE LENGTH Is MOST USEFUL IN HOLDING BACK OR PUSHING ASIDE BRANCHES AND FOLIAGE WHILE MAKING PENETRATION OF DENSE UNDERBRUSH. THIS TECHNIQUE IS EFFECTIVELY USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH A MACHETE OR OTHER CUTTING INSTRUMENT. NOT ONLY SNAKES ARE KEPT AT A DISTANCE BUT BITING AND STINGING INSECTS WHICH INFEST THE PLANT LIFE ARE ALSO WARDED OFF. AVOID TRAVELING BY NIGHT IF POSSIBLE. CAREFULLY INSPECT THE AREA IN WHICH A NIGHT STOP IS BEING MADE WHILE THERE IS STILL SUFFICIENT DAYLIGHT. WHEN FURTHER MOVEMENT IS NECESSARY ' AFTER DARK. EVEN AROUND THE IMMEDIATE CAMPSITE. USE A TORCH OR FLASH- LIGHT TO CHECK THE GROUND. LIKE SO MANY OF THE RAIN FOREST DENIZEN. THE SNAKE IS A NIGHT HUNTER. THIS IS ONE OF THE SEVERAL GOOD REASONS FOR CONTRIVING AN OFF-THE-GROUND SLEEPING ARRANGEMENT--SUCH AS HAMMOCKS. GENERALLY. SNAKES DO NOT STALK THEIR FOOD BUT INSTEAD LIE IN WAITING ALONG THE GAME TRAIL FOR PREY. JUDGING EITHER BY SMELL. HEARING. OR HEAT RADIATION. IT DETERMINES THE SIZE. FOOD PROSPECTS. AND POTENTIAL FOR SUCCESS. WITH REGARDS To SIZE OF FOOD SOURCES. ONE OF THE REMARKABLE FACTS ABOUT SNAKES IS THEIR ABILITY TO SWALLOW 124 RELATIVELY LARGE OBJECTS. THROUGH AN INGENIOUS SYSTEM OF LOOSELY CONNECTED BONES OF THE JAWS. AN ELASTIC SKIN AND FORMATION OF TEETH. THE SNAKE LITERALLY PULLS ITSELF AROUND THE OBJECT OF PREY IN A WALKING-LIKE MOVEMENT IN THE MANNER OF PULLING A PILLOW CASE OVER A PILLOW. THEY SUBSIST FOR A CONSIDERABLE PERIOD ON ONE MEAL IF IT IS OF GOOD SIzE. SNAKE BITE COULD RESULT FROM THE LETHARGIC STATE OF THE GORGED REPTILE. LYING IN A STATE OF STUPOR. UNABLE TO CRAWL AWAY FROM AN APPROACHING AND USUALLY UNWARY VICTIM. THE SNAKES STRIKE DEFENSIVELY. WEAR FOOT GEAR AT ALL TIMES; BOOTS IF AVAILABLE. TROUSER LEGS ARE BEST LEFT HANGING OR TUCKED INTO TOP OF BOOTS IF WORN AND ALLOWED To BAG ESPECIALLY WHEN TRAVELING IN DENSE UNDER- BRUSH WHICH MAY CONCEAL SNAKES AND ARE SURE To BE INFESTED WITH NUMEROUS INSECTS. THE POISONOUS SNAKES OF THE RAIN FOREST ARE RARELY EN- COUNTERED. THE BUSHMASTER (LAQHESIS MULA). A SILENT RELATIVE OF THE NORTH AMERICAN RATTLER. IS PROBABLY THE MOST FEARED OF THE POISONOUS SNAKES. IT IS THE LARGEST OF THE PIT VIPERS RANGING UP TO TWELVE FEET IN LENGTH. IT INJECTS A VENOM WHICH IS BOTH HEMA- TOXIC AND NEUROTOXIC IN CONSIDERABLE QUANTITY WHICH MAKES IT Es- PECIALLY DANGEROUS. THE BUSHMASTER IS KNOWN BY SEVERAL NAMES IN SOUTH AMERICA. THE MORE COMMON BEING SURUCUCU. VEKA. AND MAEEEIRE. THE IDENTIFYING CHARACTERISTICS ARE: SLITTED CAT-LIKE EYES. A DARK BROWN OR BLACK STREAK SLANTING FROM THE EYE TO THE HINGE OF THE MOUTH. DEEP PITS HALF-WAY BETWEEN THE NOSTRIL AND EYES. A HALF INCH SONY PLATE EXTENDING OVER EACH EYE. EXTREMELY ROUGH SCALATION SOMEWHAT RESEMBLING A PINEAPPLE. AND A LONG THIN SPINY TAIL. THE GROUND COLOR OF THE BODY IS TAN OR ORANGE'YELLO‘N WITH DARK PATCHES DI” 1': .t wr-fih-niégva‘ «r. -mjwts, ON THE BACK NARROWING TOWARD THE UNDERBELLY. THE FANGS OF THE BUSH- MASTER ARE CURVED AND FUNCTION IN MUCH THE SAME WAY AS A HYPODERMIC NEEDLE. THEY MAY REACH TWO INCHES IN LENGTH. IT IS ESTIMATED THAT APPROXIMATELY TWO WEEKS ARE REQUIRED TO RESTORE THE FULL QUANTITY OF A BUSHMASTER'S VENOM ONCE IT HAS BEEN COMPLETELY EXPENDED. THUS WHEN SNAKE BITE DOES OCCUR IT MAY BE POSSIBLE To DETERMINE THE POTENCY OF THE VENOM BY EXAMINING THE CON- TENTS OF THE SNAKE'S STOMACH FOR SIZE AND RECENCY OF INGESTION. PERHAPS MORE DANGEROUS THOUGH OF LESSER REPUTATION IS ANOTHER PIT VIPER. THE FER-De-LANCE (BQTHROPS A1595). KNOWN LOCALLY BY SEVERAL NAMES. THE MORE POPULAR ARE JARARAQA AND EABBA AMARIhIA. THIS UBIQUITOUS MEMBER OF THE VIPER FAMILY IS AT HOME IN THE FOREST. SAVANNA. AND EVEN IN AREAS UNDER CULTIVATION AND HAS PROBABLY BITTEN MORE PEOPLE IN SOUTH AMERICA THAN ALL OTHER POISONOUS SNAKES TOGETHER. THE DART SHAPED HEAD SET ON A SLENDER NECK GIVES IT THE APPEARANCE OF A LANCE FROM WHICH IT DERIVES ITS NAME. IT AVERAGES ABOUT FIVE TO SIX FEET IN LENGTH BUT MAY RANGE UP TO NINE FEET. IT HAS A GROUND COLOR OF BROWN TO DARK OLIVE. THE PATTERN OF LEMON-YELLOW XS ALONG THE BACK CONTRAST SHARPLY WITH DARK COLORED TRIANGULAR PATTERNS ALONG THE SIDES. THE LEMON-YELLOW SCALES AT THE THROAT GIVE RISE TO THE NAME BABEA AMABLLLQo ONE ASPECT WHICH INCREASES THE DANGER OF THE FER-De-LANCE IS THAT THE-SNAKE IS CAPABLE OF INFLICTING A HIGHLY CONCENTRATED TOXIC POISON IMMEDIATELY AFTER HATCHING. IT IS UNLIKELY THAT A MORE LETHAL NATURAL ENVIRONMENT COULD BE FOUND THAN THE IMMEDIATE VICINITY OF FIFTY TO SEVENTY-FIVE BABY FER-DE-LANCES. WHICH IS THE AVERAGE LITTER. HIGHLY EXCITEABLE, STRIKING AT ANY DISTURBANCE. THE YOUNG CLIMB ALONG 126 THE Low-HANGING VINES AND BRUSH LOOKING FOR INSECTS AND SMALL LIZARDS. THIS EXPLAINS WHY THE HIGH PERCENTAGE OF BITES (OVER 40%) OCCUR ON THE HANDS AND ARMS. LIKE THE BUSHMASTER. THE FER-DE-LANCE GORGES ITSELF TO THE POINT OF IMMOBILITY AND THUS STRIKES DEFENSIVELY AT ANY THREAT To ITS SAFETY. UNDER NCRMAL CONDITIONS IT WILL EVADE A MAN BUT WHEN CORNERED OR COME UPON UNEXPECTEDLY IT IS HIGHLY DANGEROUS. RELATED TO THE FER-DE-LANCE BUT NOT AS FRE UENTLY ENCOUNTERED IS THE POISONOUS TREE VIPER OR HORNED VIPER AS IT IS SOMETIMES CALLED. IT HAS BONY SCALES WHICH CURVE UPWARDS OVER EACH EYE AND SMALLER "HORNS" STICKING UP ON EACH SIDE OF ITS SNOUT GIVING THE HEART SHAPED HEAD A PARTICULARLY VICIOUS. SPINY APPEARANCE. THIS VIPER IS A BLENDER BODIED SNAKE ABOUT TWO FEET IN LENGTH WITH A STUBBY PREHENSILE TAIL. AN ASPECT OF ITS ARBOREAL PURSUITS. IT IS OF TWO COMBINATIONS OF COLORS. ONE A YELLow-GREEN WITH BLACK SPECKS AND THE OTHER GREEN WITH BLOTCHES OF DARK OLIVE OR BLACK. PINK. OR ORANGE. SPECIES OF THE TREE VIPERS ARE FOUND AT ELEVATIONS UP TO 6000 FEET IN THE MONTANA. THE CORAL SNAKE (SEVERAL SPECIES OF THE GENUS MIQRURUS) IS RE- LATED TO THE COBRA OF THE OLD WORLD. ITS VENOM IS AS HIGHLY POISONOUS As THE VIPERS DESCRIBED ABOVE. HOWEVER. THERE ARE SEVERAL CHARACTER- ISTICS PECULIAR To THE CORAL WHICH MAKES IT A LESSER THREAT THAN THE OTHERS. FOR ONE. THE FANGS OF THE CORAL ARE SHORT AND PITCHED BACK- WARDS SO THAT EVEN CLOTH EFFECTIVELY PREVENTS PENETRATION. BESIDES HAVING A RELATIVELY "PEACEFUL" DISPOSITION THEY TEND TO BURROW UNDER- GROUND OR BENEATH OBJECTS THUS ARE LESS APT TO BE ENCOUNTERED. THE CORAL SNAKE HAS A CYLINDRICALLY SHAPED BODY ABOUT EIGHTEEN TO THIRTY- SIX INCHES IN LENGTH WITH A SMALL STUB-SNOUTED HEAD. THE BODY IS 127 COLORED BY ALTERNATING BANDS OF RED AND BLACK SEPARATED BY BANDS OF YELLOW AND WHITE. THE RED BANDS ARE ABOUT THREE TIMES THE WIDTH OF THE BLACK BANDS. FREQUENT REFERENCE IS MADE TO THE HARMLESS "FALSE" CORALS WHICH HAVE A SIMILAR PATTERN OF COLORED BANDS; THE MAIN DIFFERENCE BEING IN THE ORDER OF THE BANDS. UNLESS ONE IS THOROUGHLY VERSED IN THE SKILL OF IDENTIFYING SNAKES. THE BEST RULE IN THE TROPICAL RAIN FOREST IS TO AVOID ALL SNAKES IF POSSIBLE. IF FOOD REQUIREMENTS MAKE CAPTURE OF SNAKES A NECESSITY. USE THE UTMOST CAUTION EVEN WHEN THEY ARE DEAD. A REFLEX ACTION OR THE ACCIDENTAL MIXTURE OF THE VARIOUS TOXIC POISONS WITH THE BODY FLUIDS THROUGH CONTACT WITH SORES. CUTS. ETC. CAN PRODUCE HARMFUL AND PERHAPS FATAL EFFECTS. HAVING DISCUSSED THE POISONOUS SNAKES. IT WOULD BE A DIs- SERVICE TO BOTH THE READER AND THE REPTILE IF THE MOST FABULOUS OF THE SOUTH AMERICAN SNAKES WERE NOT INCLUDED. NAMELY; THE ANACONDA OR WATER BOA (EUNECIES MURINUS). IT CAN BE ASSERTED WITHOUT FEAR OF CONTRADICTION THAT THE ANACONDA. COMMONLY CALLED "SUQURI" IN SOUTH AMERICA. IS THE LARGEST OF THE NEW WORLD SNAKES. FROM THERE ON. REFERENCES AS To ITS SIZE AND DANGER TO MAN ARE IN THE COMPANY OF THE "FISH STORIES." IT PROBABLY AVERAGES LESS THAN TWENTY FEET IN LENGTH AND ALTHOUGH BRAZILIAN AUTHORITIES ACKNOWLEDGE A RECORD THIRTY-SEVEN AND ONE-HALF FEET. SIGHTINGS OF OVER TWENTY FEET ARE RARE. THE SECOND-HAND REPORTS OF SIGHTINGS OF SIXTY TO NINETY FOOT MONSTERS ARE TOO INCREDIBLE. A VERY SIGNIFICANT ASPECT OF THEIR DIMENSIONS Is THEIR UNUSUALLY LARGE GIRTH SOMETIMES IN EXCESS OF THREE FEET. THEY ALSO ATTAIN WEIGHTS OF UP TO 300 POUNDS. SUCH DIMENSIONS SHOULD IN THEMSELVES PROVOKE CAUTION. AS TO THEIR DISPOSITION, AGAIN, THE 128 SECOND-HAND REPORTS REGARDING THEIR ATTACKS ON HUMANS BECOME SOMEWHAT DISTORTED IN THE TELLING. THE ANACONDA IS ALWAYS FOUND IN CLOSE ASSOCIATION WITH ALL THE MAJOR RIVER SYSTEMS EAST OF THE ANDES. IT FREQUENTLY INSINUATES ITSELF AMONG THE LOW HANGING BRANCHES OF THE TREES ALONG THE RIVER ENGAGING ANY SUITABLE PREY WHICH MAY BE ANY- THING FROM A SMALL RODENT UP TO A SMALL DEER OR CAPYBARA. THERE IS NO DOUBT THAT THEY CAN KILL A FULL-GROWN MAN BY CRUSHING OR DROWNING BUT THERE IS LITTLE SUBSTANTIATION TO THE REPORTS THAT THEY DO. THE SNAKES DISCUSSED ARE THE MORE "NOTORIOUS" OF THOSE IN- HABITING THE RAIN FOREST AREAS OF SOUTH AMERICA. THERE ARE No KNOWN SPECIES OF POISONOUS WATERSNAKES SUCH AS THE WATER MOCCASIN OF NORTH AMERICA. HOWEVER. ALL SNAKES CAN SWIM TO SOME DEGREE AND DURING PERIODS OF FLOOD MANY LAND SNAKES MAY BE FOUND IN THE WATER IN TRANSIT To DRY LAND. IT IS VERY PROBABLE THAT THERE ARE OTHER SPECIES WHICH HAVE NOT BEEN REPORTED OR EVEN DISCOVERED. UNDER THE CIRCUMSTANCES THE ADVICE ADVANCED AT THE BEGINNING OF THIS SECTION IS REITERATED: AVOID UNNECESSARY CONTACT WITH ALL SNAKES. ARIHRQPQDS: INSECTS AND ARACHNIQ§ PREVIOUS REFERENCE HAS BEEN MADE TO THE FOOD POTENTIAL OF INSECTS AND CRUSTACEANSS WHICH ALSO BELONG TO THIS LARGEST OF PHYLUMs. IN THIS SECTION: ONLY THE TWO CLASSES LISTED ABOVE ARE BEING EXPLORED PRIMARILY IN RELATION TO THEIR CAPACITY AS VECTORS OF DISEASE AND MISERY. CITING FIGURES IN RELATION TO SPECIES AND POPULATION OF THE INSECT WORLD IS SOMEWHAT LIKE QUOTING STATISTICS RELATING TO ASTRO‘ . NOMY WHICH DEALS IN MILLIONS AND TRILLIONS OF LIGHT YEARS AND AN 80 RAI I‘Is INF FRE: THE IRE 129 EQUALLY INCOMPREHENSIBLE NUMBER OF ASTRAL BODIES. IT HELPS LITTLE TO STATE THAT COMPARATIVELY FEW OF THE SPECIES ARE DIRECTLY INVOLVED IN THE ILL HEALTH OF MAN. IT TAKES ONLY ONE ANOPHELES MOSQUITO To START AN EPIDEMIC OF MALARIA. NOR DOES IT TAKE MANY OF THE EXTREMELY PAIN- FUL STINGS OF THE TINY RED FIRE ANTS. HORMIGA 25 FUEGOS. TO DETERMINE THE LIMITS OF ONE'S ENDURANCE FOR PHYSICAL PAIN. IN TERMS OF LETHAL- NESS. THE INSECT HAS MOST CERTAINLY TAKEN HIS TOLL OF LIVES THROUGH THE TRANSMISSION OF DISEASES. BUT. TO THE INDIVIDUAL INVOLVED IN A SURVIVAL SITUATION THE INSECT IS CHIEFLY A MISERY-DEALING. PATIENCE- TRYING. INFERNAL PEST. DIPTERA (MOSQUITQS. ELIES, ETC.) THIS ORDER OF Two-WINGED INSECTS IS BY FAR THE MOST NOTORIOUS IN PRACTICALLY ALL ASPECTS OF DEALING MISERY. ON TOP OF THE LIST IN TERMS OF NOTORIETY ARE THE SEVERAL SPECIES OF ANOPHELES MOSQUITO WHICH TRANSMITS MALARIA. AND THE AEDES AEQIPTI WHICH TRANSMITS YELLOW FEVER. OF THE OTHER MOSQUITo- BORNE DISEASES. THE SEVERAL FORMS OF FILARIASIS IS THE ONLY ONE THAT RANKS COMPARATIVELY IN PREVALENCE WITH MALARIA AND YELLOW FEVER. ASIDE FROM VECTORING DISEASES. THE CAPACITIES OF ALL MOSQUITOS FOR INFLICTING SUFFERING STEMS FROM THEIR UBIQUITOUSNESS. SWARMING HABITS AND UNERRING INSTINCT FOR HOMING IN ON VULNERABLE TARGETS. CAPABLE OF INFLECTING GREATER TORMENT AT THE MOMENT BUT LESS FREQUENTLY ENCOUNTERED ARE THE VARIOUS SPECIE OF PHLEBOTOMUS FLY. OF THE DISEASES TRANSMITTED BY THE PHLEBOTOMUS FLY. THE TWO MOST NOTORIOUS ARE CARRION'S DISEASE (OROYA FEVER) AND THE SEVERAL FORMS OF LEISHMANIASIS. THE VECTORS OF THE LATTER DISEASES ARE SMALL SAND FLIES COMMON THROUGHOUT THE RAIN FOREST AREA. THE EXPRESSIVE POTENTIAL OF THE ERSTWHILE MULESKINNER‘S INVEC‘ 130 TIVE WOULD SE OF CONSIDERABLE ADVANTAGE IN DESCRIBING THE CHARACTER- ISTICS OF THE NUMEROUS TINY FLIES KNOWN VARIOUSLY AS "GNATS." "MIDGES." "EJUMS." "BORACHUDAS." "MERIH IS." ETC. UNDER THEIR SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATIONS THEY FALL MOSTLY WITHIN THE GENERAL CHIRQNQMIDAE. C R T G D . AND SIMUIIDAE. THESE FLIES USUALLY APPEAR IN DENSE SWARMS ALONG THE STREAMS. PARTICULARLY IN THE FOOT- HILLS OF THE HIGHLANDS SURROUNDING THE AMAZON-ORINOCO BASINS. THEY ARE EXCEEDINGLY VORACIOUS AND THEIR TOXIC BITES RENDERS LIFE PRACTI- CALLY UNENDURABLE IN INFESTED AREAS. A MOST SERIOUS ASPECT OF THEIR BITING IS THE INABILITY OF THE VICTIM TO CONCENTRATE ON THE TASK AT HAND. FREQUENT REFERENCES ARE MADE TO THE DISASTEROUS OR NEARLY DISASTEROUS CONSEQUENCES OF THESE DISTRACTIONS. AMONG THE MORE PAINFUL BITERS OF THE FLIES ARE THE HORSE- FLIES. "MUTUQAS" OR ”T B N S.“ WHICH ARE THE LARGE AND EXTREMELY VICIOUS BLOOD SUCKERS. THEY OCCUR THROUGHOUT SOUTH AMERICA. PROBABLY THE MOST LOATHSOME OF THE FLIES IS THE HUMAN BOTFLY KNOWN SCIENTIFICALLY AS DEBMAIQfilA BQMJNJS- THE BOTFLY DEPOSITS ITS EGGS ON THE ABDOMEN OF A FEMALE MOSQUITO CAUGHT IN FLIGHT. AFTER A FEW DAYS OF DEVELOPMENT TO THE LARVAL STAGE THE LARVA IS DEPOSITED ON THE SKIN OF SOME UNWARY VICTIM SERVING AS A SOURCE OF FOOD FOR THE MOSQUITO. THE LARVA THUS DEPOSITED PENETRATES THE SKIN. USUALLY THROUGH A HAIR FOLLICLE AND BEGINS ITS LIFE-STAGE AS AN ENDOPARASITE. THE INCIPIENT STAGES OF THE INFECTION IS A SMALL BUMP ON THE SKIN WHICH SOON FESTERS INTO A SOIL-LIKE SORE. INSIDE THE SORE THE LARVA HAS DEVELOPED INTO A CARROT SHAPED WORM WITH SHARP BLACK SPINES AT THE LARGER END--THE BETTER To TORMENT YOU WITH--WHICH PROBABLY ASSISTS THE LARVA IN RETAINING ITS "SQUATTERS RIGHTS." OF THE 131 SEVERAL METHODS SUGGESTED FOR ELIMINATING THIS PARASITE THE MOST EFFI- CACIOUS CONSISTS OF SMOTHERING BY APPLYING TAPE OR GUM (FROM ONE OF THE MANY TREES AVAILABLE) OVER THE BREATHER HOLE IN THE SKIN AND SQUEEZING OUT THE DEAD LARVA; USUALLY ABOUT TWENTY-FOUR HOURS ARE SUFFICIENT TO KILL THE LARVA. ARACHNIDS (SPIDERS AND SCORPIONS) OF THE ARACHNIDS THE MOST INJURIOUS. BUT RARELY DEADLY. ARE THE SPIDERS COMMONLY CALLED TARANTULA (AXJQULABUDAE). THE NOTORIOUS BLACK WIDOW (LACIBQDECIUS MACIAfli). AND THE SCORPIONS. THE TARANTULA IS CAPABLE OF PRODUCING MILD AND TEMPORARY SYSTEMIC DISCOMFORT BUT IT IS MORE FEROCIOUS LOOKING WITH ITS LARGE THICK FRIZZY BODY THAN IT IS HARMFUL. THE BLACK WIDOW SPIDER CAN BE MORE SERIOUS ESPECIALLY IF THE VICTIM IS IN AN ALREADY WEAKENED CONDITION. THE VENOM OF THE BLACK WIDOW PRODUCES SYSTEMIC DISORDERS. ACUTE ABDOMINAL CRAMPS. AND HEART AND RESPIRATORY IRREGULARITIES. FEVER AND CHILLS AND MARKED PAIN IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE BODY MAY OCCUR. THE SYMPTOMATIC CONDITIONS OCCUR ABOUT THIRTY MINUTES AFTER THE BITE. a AS IN THE CASE OF THE BLACK WIDOW. SCORPION BITES ARE DAN- GEROUS ONLY To THE VERY YOUNG OR THE VERY WEAK (EXCEPTING INDIVIDUAL IDIOSYNCROCIES). THE SCORPIONS OF THE RAIN FOREST AREA ARE PARTIcu- LARLY VICIOUS LOOKING ATTAINING SIZES UP To SEVEN AND EIGHT INCHES * IN LENGTH. THE VENOM OF THE SCORPION Is INJECTED BY MEANS OF A STINGER LOCATED IN THE LAST SEGMENT OF THE SPINE CURVED VENTRALLY so THAT THE STINGER POINTS FORWARD. ALTHOUGH PAINFUL THE VENOM IS RARELY FATAL. THE POISON EFFECTS BEGIN WITH BURNING PAINS FOLLOWED BY NAUSEA AND VOMITING. PROFUSE SWEATING. RAPID BREATHING AND PULSE. AND MUSCULAR SPASMS. 132 HYMENOPTERA (BEES. WASPSSLAND ANTS) BEES. "ABILHAS." "ABEJAS." ETC. ARE DISCUSSED UNDER FOOD SOURCES. LITTLE DIFFERENCE IS NOTED BETWEEN THOSE OF NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA INSCFAR AS THEY ARE CAPABLE OF DOING HARM. THE VENOM OF THE BEE CONTAINS BOTH FORMIC ACID AS WELL AS A NEUROTOXIN (PERHAPS RELATED TO THE VENOM OF THE RATTLESNAKE). USUALLY THE EFFECTS OF A BEE STING IS LOCAL. HOWEVER. SOME INDIVIDUALS RE- ACT STRONGLY SHOWING SYMPTOMS OF FEVER. DIzzINESS. PAINFUL BREATHING. AND RASH. VMEN THE BEE STINGS THE STINGER IS USUALLY LEFT IN THE WOUND AND THE VENOM CONTINUES TO EJECT THROUGH THE MUSCULAR ACTION. WASPS HAVE AMONG THE SOUTH AMERICAN SPECIES SEVERAL THAT ARE LARGE AND DANGEROUS. THEY ARE KNOWN REGIONALLY BY SEVERAL NAMES. SUCH AS "MARIMBQNQQ§.” "VESEIDEQS." AND"AVISEA ." THE STINGING APPA- RATUS OF THE WASP IS USUALLY LEFT IN THE WOUND. THE STINGER SHOULD BE REMOVED IMMEDIATELY BY A KNIFE. NEEDLE. OR SHARP THORN OR ELSE THE VENOM OF THE WASP WILL CONTINUE TO PUMP INTO THE BODY FROM THE E POISON RESERVOIR. A PERSON SUBJECTED TO MANY WASP STINGS MAY DEVELOP SYSTEMIC SHOCK. DEATH CAN OCCUR FROM EITHER RESPIRATORY OR CARDIAC INJURY OR MORE LIFELY BOTH TOGETHER. ANTS OF THE RAIN FOREST NUMBER SCORES OF SPECIES, AND OFTEN 1*; .__._______-._._- ...-'—_-—-—4.- .—.'~. —,, "’ IT 1". THE COLONIES ARE NUMEROUS AND EACH CONTAINS THOUSANDS OF INDIVIDUALS. A FEW SPECIES CAN STING WITH A VIOLENTLY POISONOUS EFFECT. AND CAN BE VERITABLE SCOURGES AND CAUSE THE ABANDOMENT OF HUMAN HABITATIONS. THE "IUCANDEIRQS." 0R "HORMIGA QQNQAS" (P R P R . BRANDT- figflfiflA). ARE CONSPICUOUS BY THEIR HUGE SIZE (THREE-QUARTERS OF AN INCH). BLACK COLOR. AND HIGHLY VIRULENT POISON. THEY ARE GREATLY RESPECTED AND FEARED AND PROBABLY ARE USED AS AGENTS IN ENDURANCE 133 TESTS AT INITIATION RITES. FORTUNATELY. THE INDIVIDUALS ARE SEMI- SOLITARY AND THE COLONIES ARE SMALL. FIRE ANTS. "FQRMIGAS 2Q EQEQ’" "HQBMLQAE DE EUEQQN (A SM NN . PS MYR . ETC.). ARE SMALL. REDDISH ANTS WITH A TERRIFIC STING. SOME SPECIES FORM COLONIES IN TREES. SOME IN THE GROUND. AND ONE SPECIES ACTUALLY CAUSED THE ABANDOMENT OF THE VILLAGE OF ALVEIROS ON THE TAPAJOS RIVER NEAR THE AMAZON. BRAZIL. PROBABLY. NATIVE VILLAGES SUFFER IN A SIMILAR WAY. FIRE ANTS ARE ALSO UTI- LIZED AS TORTURE AGENTS IN INITIATION CEREMONIES. THE TOXICITY OF THE VENOM FROM THE ABDOMINAL STING IS so GREAT THAT EVEN THE MINUTE QUANTITY INJECTED BY A SINGLE INDIVIDUAL CAN PRODUCE POWERFUL ILL EFFECTS. ARMY ANTS (ECITON) OF THE RAIN FOREST ARE SMALL. COLONIAL. NOMADIC. AND OF SIMILAR POISONOUS POTENTIALITY AND USE AS FIRE ANTS. BUT ARE MORE IMPRESSIVE IN THEIR SOCIAL ORGANIZATION. THEIR No- MADISM CAUSES HORDES TO MOVE THROUGH THE JUNGLE IN MILITARY FASHION 3.”:- CAUSING EVERY LIVING ORGANISM, INCLUDING MAN: TO MOVE FROM THE LINE —;E _A___ OF MARCH. THE FAMOUS LEAF-CUTTER ANTS. “SAUVA" (ATIA). ARE FOUND THROUGHOUT GUIANA-BRAZILIA. CENTRAL AMERICA. AND THE ANTILLES. _ .A __ _ .4... «91‘. v... *4 ._—..—____—_ "L 3 WHERE THEY DAMAGE AND SOMETIMES DEVASTATE PLANTATIONS. THERE IS PROBABLY N0 CULTIVATED PLANT. EXCEPT SOME WITH MILKY SAP. AS MANDIQO. EAEALA’ L NCH CAR S. ETC.. THAT THEY WILL NOT ATTACK. THE VEGE- TATION THAT IS CUT AND CARRIED TO THE NEST IS NOT EATEN. BUT Is USED AS A CULTURE MEDIUM FOR A FUNGUS WHICH FORMS THE FOOD OF THE ANT. THE ALIA ANTS ARE STINGLESS. LARGE. COLONIAL. AND THEIR HUGE UNDERGROUND NESTS IN THE WOODS ARE EASILY IDENTIFIED BY THE FRESHLY 134 EXCAVATED EARTH AND ELEVATED PROFILE. SURROUNDING DEFOLIATION. AND THE GREAT NUMBERS OF CONVERGENT. SMALL. CLEAN TRAILS. THE SOLDIER CASTE OF THE FAMOUS LEAF-CUTTER ANT. COMMONLY CALLED "SAUYA." OR "SAUBAS (ALLA). IS LARGE WITH HUGE. OPPOSING. SICKLE-SHAPED MANDIBLES WHICH ARE USED BY CERTAIN INDIAN TRIBES TO CLOSE WOUNDS. THE ANT TENACIOUSLY HANGS ON AFTER BITING THROUGH BOTH SIDES OF AN APPRESSED INCISION. THE HEAD IS SEVERED. LEAVING IT AND THE CLOSED MANDISLES ATTACHED AS A SUTURE. THE ATTA IS PRIMARILY AN AGRICULTURAL SCOURGE. EJSU. CF THE GREAT NUMBER OF FISH WHICH INHABIT THE GREAT RIVERS AND THOUSANDS OF STREAMS OF THE RAIN FOREST. ONLY THE STING RAY IN- JECTS A POISON INTO THE WOUND IT MAKES. THE FRESH WATER STING RAY. "ARAIAS." "angg." OF THE AMAZON AND ORINOCO HAVE A ROUND BODY WITH A WHIP-LIKE TAIL TWELVE To SIXTEEN INCHES LONG. THE UPPER SIDE OF THE TAIL IS ARMED WITH A BARBED SPINE CONNECTED To A POISON APPARATUS. A FURTHER COMPLICATION MAY OCCUR FROM THE INOCULATION OF TETANUS ""1 BACILLI (WHICH IS NOT A PROBLEM IF TETANUS SHOTS ARE UP‘TO‘DATE). a“ n... n. STING RAYS FREQUENTLY FEED IN SHALLOW WATER. PARTICULARLY AROUND SUNDOWN. THEY LIE CONCEALED IN THE SAND OR MUD AND THUS BE- COME A MENACE TO A WADING PERSON. FOR THIS REASON, WHERE THERE IS 17-.“4‘ v- ‘a‘at—u‘ ANY REASON TO SUSPECT THE PRESENCE OF THE RAYS, OR EVEN IF NOT SUB- PECTEDI IT IS BEST TO SLIDE ONE'S FEET ONE AFTER THE OTHER. USUALLY THE STING RAY WILL MOVE AWAY FROM APPROACHING OBJECTS BUT IF IT DE‘ CENDS UNSUSPECTINGLY UPON IT, THE RAY WILL INSTINCTIVELY USE ITS BARBED TAIL AS A MEANS OF DEFENSE. WHILE'STING RAYS ARE A CONTINUING SOURCE OF CONCERN NEITHER 135 IT NOR ANY OTHER FRESH WATER FISH (AND POSSIBLY SALT WATER FISH) CAN MATCH THE LETHAL POTENTIAL. REAL OR FANCIED. OF THE NOTORIOUS PIRANHAS. KNOWN REGIONALLY ALSO AS "QAR|§S" AND "giggl." IT OCCURS THROUGHOUT THE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS OF THE AMAZON. THE ORINOCO. AND THE PARAGUAY. THE TALES OF THEIR FEROCITY BORDERS ON THE APOCRYPHAL. IT IS NOT POSSIBLE TO ARRIVE AT ANY FIGURE EVEN APPROXIMATING THE HUMAN FA“ TALITIES ATTRIBUTABLE TO THESE RIVER FURIES. THERE IS NO DOUBT THAT ATTACKING PIRANHAS CAN REDUCE A MAN OR LARGE ANIMAL TO A SKELETON IN A FEW HOURS. NOR Is THERE ANY DOUBT OF THE SINGLE MINDED FEROCITY OF THEIR BEHAVIOR WHEN AROUSES RENDERING THEM COMPLETELY OBLIVOUS To COUNTERACTION DESTRUCTIVE TO THE FISH ITSELF. WHERE OPINIONS TEND To VARY LIES IN THE UNPRE- DICTABILITY OF THE FISH WITH REGARDS TO ITS RANGING HABITS AND CON- DITIONS PROVOKING ATTACK. THERE IS CONCENSUS THAT PRESENCE OF BLOOD AND OPEN WOUNDS OR SORES IS AN INVITATION TO THE FEAST. THERE IS A DECIDED PREFERENCE FOR CLEAR WATER STREAMS RATHER THAN MUDDY OR STAGNANT WATERS. INSTANCES HAVE BEEN REPORTED WHERE INDIVIDUALS HAVE BEEN ATTACKED WITHOUT THE USUALLY ACCEPTED PROVOCATION (BLOOD SCENT) IN AREAS WHERE SUPPOSEDLY NO PIRANHAS WERE PRESENT. FOR THE MOST PART, HOWEVER, INHABITANTS OF THE REGION TREAT THE ENTIRE SITUATION QUITE CASUALLY. THE ELECTRIC EEL. "EURAQUE." OR "TEMBLADQR" (ElggTRQPHQRUS ELEQTRIQUS)9 OF THE AMAzON AND ORINOCO DRAINAGES. IS LARGE (UP TO 9 FEET; AVERAGE 3 TO 5 FEET). AND IS CAPABLE OF EMITTING RAPIDLY PULSATING ELECTRIC SHOCKS UP TO 500 VOLTS (AVERAGE 300) LASTING ONLY 2/1000 SECOND. AT FREQUENCIES OF 400 PER SECOND. AND WITH AN AVERAGE WATTAGE OF 40. THIS DISCHARGE CAN UPSET A HORSE OR RENDER UN' 136 CONSCIOUS A MAN IN THE WATER. AND THE EEL IS GREATLY FEARED BY SWIMMERS. BATHERS. AND WADING FISHERMAN. THE EEL APPARENTLY BREEDS IN SHALLOW CLEAR WATER ON INUNDATED LANDS IN THE RAINY SEASON. THE ELECTRIC ORGANS LIE IN THE POSTERIOR THREe-FIFTHS OF THE BODY. AND ARE ANALOGOUS TO A STORAGE BATTERY. THE CURRENT PASSING FROM HEAD TO TAIL. THE EYES ARE APPARENTLY USELESS BECAUSE OF CATARACTS. WHICH MAY BE THE RESULT OF A FISH'S OWN ELECTRIC DISCHARGES OR OF THOSE OF ITS NEIGH- BORS. THE EEL HUNTS BY UNDERWATER "RADAR." WHICH IS EFFECTED BY SHORT IMPULSES OF ABOUT FIFTY VOLTS AT FREQUENCIES OF FIFTY PER SECOND; THESE REBOUND FROM THE PREY AND ARE RECEIVED BY A SERIES OF SPECIAL- IZED PITS ON THE HEAD. THE CATFISH OF THE AMAZON-ORINOCO DRAINAGE SYSTEM ARE REPRE- SENTED BY AN. AS YET. UNCOUNTED NUMBER OF SPECIES. TWO OF THE MORE NOTORIOUS ARE CONSPICIOUS FOR THEIR.SIZE EXHIBITING AS IT WERE THE LARGE AND THE SMALL OF THE CATFISH FAMILY. THE LARGEST. THE EIRAIEA. HAS PROBABLY BEEN UNJUSTLY ACCUSED BECAUSE OF ITS ENORMITY. RANGING UP TO THIRTEEN AND FOURTEEN FEET IN LENGTH AND WEIGHING WELL OVER 1000 POUNDS. SUPPOSEDLY. THIS HUGE FISH SURGES UP FROM THE BOTTOM OF THE AMAZON WHERE IT LURKS AWAITING SOME HAPLESS SWIMMER WHOM IT IMMEDIATELY SWALLOWS WHOLE. WHILE THIS IS POSSIBLE IF THE PERSON WERE SMALL (IT HAS A LARGE ENOUGH MouTH) THE ACCOUNTS OF SUCH OCCUR- RENCES ARE QUITE DUBIOUS. R I C MAN ND CR D S THERE ARE No TRUE ALLIGATORS IN SOUTH AMERICA. THE CAIMAN (CAYMAN). "UACARE." HAS A BROAD SNOUT LIKE THE ALLIGATOR WHICH Is ONE OF THE PRINCIPAL FEATURES DISTINGUISHING IT FROM THE CROCODILES 137 INHABITING THE SAME AREAS. THERE ARE SEVERAL SPECIES OF CAIMAN PRE- VAILING THROUGHOUT THE AMAZON-ORINoco-PARAGUAY RIVER SYSTEMS. OF THE SPECIES. THE BLACK CAIMAN (MELANQSUCHHS NLEEB) IS THE MOST FORMIDABLE ATTAINING LENGTHS OF OVER NINE FEET AND IS GENERALLY CONSIDERED DANGEROUS. WHETHER THEY WILL ACTUALLY PURSUE AN INDIVIDUAL OTHER THAN WHEN THREATENED IN QUESTIONABLE. THEY WILL. HOWEVER. AGGRESSIVELY DEFEND THEIR POSITION. WHEN LURKING UNDER THE RIVER BANKS OR HIDDEN AMONG THE AQUATIC VEGETATION WAITING FOR SOME UNSUSPECTING PREY. AN ExTENDED LEG. ARM. OR HEAD MIGHT WELL BE CONSIDERED SUITABLE. THE SEVERAL OTHER SPECIE ARE GENERALLY SMALLER THAN THE BLACK CAIMAN AND DO NOT HAVE SUCH A VICIOUS REPUTATION. NEVERTHELESS. THEY ARE TREATED RESPECTFULLY EVEN WHEN BEING HUNTED FOR FOOD. THE CROCODILES LIKE THE CAIMAN ARE FOUND THROUGHOUT THE MAUOR RIVER SYSTEMS BUT ARE MORE PREVALENT IN THE UPPER AMAZON AND IN THE ORINOCO RIVER. THEY ARE DISTINGUISHED FROM THE CAIMAN MOSTLY BY THEIR RELATIVELY NARROW SNOUT. IN GENERAL. THEY ARE CONSIDERED MORE DANGEROUS THAN CAIMAN--EXCEPT THE BLACK CAIMAN--AND ARE TREATED Ac- CORDINGLY. THEY ARE SURPRISINGLY QUICK ON LAND THOUGH APPEARING AWK- WARD. AND WHILE THEY USUALLY SLITHER ALONG ON THEIR BELLIES THEY CAN RAISE THEMSELVES ON THEIR LEGS AND CHARGE FOR SHORT DISTANCES. THE CAIMAN AND CROCODILES ARE AMPHIBIAN AND THOUGH THEY CAN REMAIN SUBMERGED FOR LONG PERIODS THEY ARE LUNG BREATHERS AND MUST RISE TO THE SURFACE FOR AIR. TWO ASPECTS OF SURFACING ADD ANOTHER HAZARDOUS DIMENSION. FOR ONE. THEIR NOSTRILS ARE AT THE VERY TIP OF THE NOSE SO THAT ONLY A SMALL PORTION NEED BE EXPOSED; SECONDLY. THE EYES ARE ENCLOSED IN PROJECTIONS ABOVE THE HEAD SO THAT EXCEPT FOR THESE FEATURES IT IS ENTIRELY HIDDEN UNDER THE WATER. IN THE WATER ' 'ii. -.- = II ‘Y t’fig" ‘J _-...P »_ £117!”- A!" 138 THEY ARE VERY SWIFT AND CAN EASILY OVERTAKE ANY LAND ANIMAL WHERE DISTANCE PERMITS. WHEN ON LAND IF ATTACKED OR ATTACKING BOTH REP- TILES USE THEIR TAIL AND SNAPPING UAWS WITH TERRIFIC FORCE. THE VICTIM OR ADVERSARY WILL BE DRAGGED INTO THE WATER. THE CAIMAN AND CROCODILES FREQUENTLY BUILD LAIRS UNDER OR INTO THE BANKS OF THE RIVERS AND STREAMS FOR SEVERAL YARDS WITH THE ENTRANCE SUBMERGED AND THE REAR OPENING INTO A DRY CAVE. HERE IS WHERE THE VICTIM MAY BE DRAGGED. THEY CONCEAL THEMSELVES ALONG THE RIVER BANKS USUALLY SUB- MERGED WITH UUST THE EYES PROTRUDING. AS AN ANIMAL COMES TO DRINK THEY MOVE WITH GREAT SPEED SNAPPING AT WHATEVER AREA OF THE VICTIM IS EXPOSED. IT IS THEN DRAGGED INTO THE WATER FOR FINISHING. THE FEMALES LAY THEIR EGGS ON DRY LAND USUALLY SEEKING AN AREA NEAR SHALLOW WATER. SEVERAL DOZEN GOOSE SIZED EGGS. WHICH ARE MUCH SOUGHT AFTER AS A SOURCE OF FOOD. ARE DEPOSITED IN A HOLE AFTER WHICH THE FEMALE WILL GO TO CONSIDERABLE LENGTH TO COVER AND CONCEAL THE NEST. DURING THIS PERIOD THEY ARE EXTREMELY DANGEROUS AND WILL RUSH ANYONE OR ANYTHING WHICH MAY APPROACH THE NESTING PLACE. DURING THE DRY SEASON--PARTICULARLY IN THE ORINOCO WHEN THE WATER RECEDES. THE CAIMAN AND CROCODILES TEND TO COLLECT IN THE RE- SIDUAL WATER. AS THIS TOO DRIES UP THEY BURY THEMSELVES BENEATH THE MUD AND REMAIN IN A STATE OF SEMI-HIBERNATION UNTIL THE RAINS COME. DESPITE THE POTENTIAL DANGER OF THE CAIMAN AND CROCODILES. INSTANCES OF ATTACKS ON MAN ARE VERY UNUSUAL EXCEPT UNDER PROVOCATION. NEVERTHELESS. WHERE PROXIMITY IS UNAVOIDABLE. CARE AND CAUTION ARE ADVISED. 139 MAMMALS THE MOST FORMIDABLE OF THE LAND ANIMALS OF THE RAIN FOREST IS THE SPECIES OF CAT KNOWN To NORTH AMERICANS AS THE UAGUAR. IN SOUTH AMERICA IT IS CALLED THE "TIGRE." "ONCA PINTADO." OR SIMPLY "ONCA.“ THEY ARE EITHER OF THE MORE COMMON SPOTTED VARIETY OR THE BLACK AND RATHER SINISTER LOOKING CAT. WEIGHING FROM 125 TO 200 POUNDS ON THE AVERAGE. SOME HAVE BEEN REPORTED AS WEIGHING WELL OVER 250 POUNDS. THEY ARE GREATLY RESPECTED BY THE INDIANS AND THOUGH NOT GENERALLY FEARED AS A COMMON PREDATOR OF MAN IT IS RECOGNIZED THAT THERE ARE CERTAIN CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH THEY MAY ATTACK WITHOUT PROVOCATION ON THE PART OF MAN. EXAMPLES OF SITUATIONS IN WHICH THERE IS DANGER OF ATTACK USUALLY INVOLVE SUCH CONDITIONS AS (1) A MOTHER WITH CUB. (2) OLD OR PHYSICALLY DISABLED JAGUARS; THESE ATTACKS USUALLY IN- VOLVE ATTACK ON A CHILD OR LONE INDIVIDUAL. (3) ABNORMAL SCARCITY OF NATURAL FOOD. (4) CIRCUMSTANCES WHERE THE CAT IS CORNERED. AND (5) CIRCUMSTANCES WHERE THE BIG CAT IS THE PREY AND TURNS UPON THE HUNTER. NUMEROUS INCIDENTS ARE CITED CONCERNING THE NOCTURNAL VISITS OF THE UAGUAR INTO AREAS OF HABITATION. OR EVEN TEMPORARY ENOAMPMENT. THEY WILL FREQUENTLY KILL LIVESTOCK OR AS IN ONE INSTANCE CITED MERELY MEANDER INTO AND OUT OF THE CAMP SITE. MOST EPISODES WHERE THE FORMIDABLE CHARACTER OF THE ANIMAL IS CITED AS A THREAT TO MAN ARE THOSE OF THE HUNT IN WHICH THE UAGUAR IS THE QUARRY. UNDER THESE CONDITIONS NOT ONLY WILL HE ATTACK BUT wILL ENTICE THE HUNTER INTO AN AREA OF ITS CHOICE BEFORE DOING SO. IN OPEN AREAS THEY WILL USUALLY BREAK AND RUN BUT ONCE IN DENSE FOREST OF SECONDARY GROWTH HE MAY ATTACK EITHER FROM HIGH BRUSH ON THE GROUND OR FROM A WELL __ _ __ ___.”_’_'§ ‘3- “fin... a—y-d --e--—-—.—--—--— In - A L 14o CONCEALED OVER-HANGING BRANCH. UNDER THESE CONDITIONS HIS STEATH AND NATURAL CAMOUFLAGE MAKE HIM A MEAN ADVERSARY. THEY ATTACK QUICKLY WITH NO PERCEPTIBLE WARNING. SPRINGING FROM A BELLY-To-THE- GROUND POSITION BY WHICH IT HAS ADVANCED. IT WILL ATTEMPT TO HIT THE BACK. BITING THE NECK AND SHOULDERS. THE UAGUAR IS A NIGHT HUNTER BUT IS FREQUENTLY ABOUT DURING THE DAY. THEIR NOISY ROARS DURING THE EARLY EVENING AND THE MORE SINISTER RASPING COUGH INDICATING PROXIMITY ADD TO THE ALREADY TERRI- FYING NIGHT SOUNDS OF THE FOREST. IT IS AN EXCELLENT SWIMMER AND IS USUALLY FOUND IN CLOSE PROXIMITY To RIVERS AND STREAMS. IT IS ALSO AN EXCELLENT CLIMBER. DURING PERIODS OF FLOOD. THE UAGUAR WILL SPEND MUCH OF HIS TIME IN THE TREES OF THE RIVERINE AREAS WHERE THE LOWER STORY OF THE FOREST ATTRACTS NUMEROUS OTHER ANIMALS. FROM THIS POSITION ABOVE THE GROUND. HE MAINTAINS A SURVEILLANCE OF THE ANIMAL PATHS BELOW AND CAN ATTACK WITH EASE ANY SUITABLE PREY--INCLUDING A MAN. ‘I THEY ARE INDISCRIMINATE FEEDERS BUT AS A RULE WILL RETURN TO p’5“: 1LT ‘ FINISH ANY GAME LEFT OVER FROM A PREVIOUS KILL. THEY EAT PRACTICALLY '0:" ALL THE ANIMALS AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS LISTED UNDER FOOD SOURCES- THE UAGUAR IS POTENTIALLY DANGEROUS AT ALL TIMES BUT PARTIcu- I—i,._,-.-$ a. = 15 T I 1.1” LARLY AFTER HAVING CUBBED. As MOST ALL OTHER FOREST ANIMALS. IT RARELY ATTACKS MAN AND IS IN FACT NOT OFTEN SEEN BY THE SHORT-TIME VISITOR. A PROFESSIONAL UAGUAR HUNTER OF CONSIDERABLE REPUTATION. SACHA SIEMEL. KNOWN AS "TIGERMAN." HAS KILLED OVER 300 JAGUARS. MANY OF THEM WITH A SPEAR. HIS TECHNIQUES. HOWEVER. ARE BASED UPON KNOW- LEDGE GAINED OVER THREE DECADES OR MORE OF PROFESSIONAL HUNTING. HE PROPOSES THAT A GOOD STURDY SPEAR IS PROBABLY THE BEST DEFENSIVE 141 WEAPON AGAINST THE JAGUAR. WHILE THE NEOPHYTE MAY FIND THIS QUESTIONABLE. IF ONE DOES NOT HAVE AN ADEQUATE FIREARM THE SPEAR COMES HIGHLY RECOMMENDED. THE PUMA. CALLED "COUGAR" AND "MOUNTAIN LION" IN THE SOUTH- WESTERN PART OF NORTH AMERICA. HAS SEVERAL REGIONAL NAMES IN SOUTH AMERICA. THE MORE COMMON BEING "QMQA sgsgugagua" AND "LEQuo" THESE CATS. GENERALLY SMALLER THAN THE JAGUAR. WEIGH FROM 100 TO 165 POUNDS. IT IS A TAWNY-BROWN COLOR. UNMARKED. SHADING TO LIGHT CREAM UNDER THE CHEST. BELLY. AND FLANKS. AND AROUND THE MOUTH. IT IS CONSIDERED EVEN MORE EVASIVE THAN THE JAGUAR AND INSTANCES WHERE ONE HAS ATTACKED MAN ARE VERY EXCEPTIONAL. THE WHITE-LIPPED PECCARY WHICH FREQUENTLY CONGREGATE IN LARGE HERDS CAN BE COLLECTIVELY DANGEROUS WHEN AROUSED. THEIR BEHAVIOR Is UNPREDICTABLE. AS A RULE THEY ATTACK IN GROUPS GRUNTING AND SQUEALING. CLACKING THEIR TUSKS. AND EMITTING OFFENSIVE GLANDULAR SECRETION FROM A LUMBAR GLAND. THILE THEY COULD. AND PROBABLY WOULD. KILL A FALLEN MAN. THE CHIEF DANGER LIES IN THE SERIOUS WOUNDS THEY I CAN INFLICT WITH THEIR HOOVES AND VICIOUS TUSKS. IN CONCERT. THEY I CAN AND DO KILL UAGUARS AND PUMAS WHICH PREY ON THEM. UPON HAVING I"«‘"-f TREED AN ADVERSARY: THEY WILL WAIT HIM OUT UNTIL SOMETHING FINALLY "'-r._. -5..- COMES TO DISTRACT THEM OR FINALLY THEIR OWN HUNGER AND THIRST PULLS THEM AWAY. THE VAMPIRE BAT. "VAMPIRQSF (DESMQQUS RQIUNDUS. DIAEMUS YOUNG]. DIEHYLLA EQAUDAIA) OF THE TROPICAL SOUTH AMERICA AND CENTRAL AMERICA ARE THE ONLY BLOOD DRINKING BATS IN THE WORLD. THEY ARE SMALL. TWO TO FOUR INCHES; WINGSPREAD EIGHT TO TWELVE INCHES. WITH SMALL EARS AND LONG THUMBS. EACH UPPER CENTRAL INCISOR IS LANCE-LIKE 142 WITH AN ACUTE POINT AND A RAZOR-SHARP SLOPING LATERAL EDGE; EACH UPPER CANINE IS LONG. SHARP. AND WITH A REAR CUTTING EDGE; THE OTHER TEETH ARE VESTIGIAL. VAMPIRE BATS CAN CRAWL ACTIVELY ON WALLS OF THEIR CAVE HOMES. ALONG THE GROUND. OR ON THEIR INTENDED VICTIMS. THE SKIN OF THE VICTIM Is OPENED BY THE CUTTING INCISOR AND THE FLOWING BLOOD. SUSTAINED BY AN ANTI-COAGULANT IN THE SALIVA OF THE BAT. IS LAPPED UNTIL THE BAT IS FILLED TO THE POINT THAT IT FALLS FROM THE VICTIM FROM THE SURFEIT OF BLOOD. BESIDE THE GENERALLY REPELLENT ASPECTS OF IT FEEDING HABITS THE BAT MAY BE A RABIES CARRIER. CHAPTER VI SUMMARY IN ASSEMBLING THE DATA PERTINENT TO SURVIVAL IN THE TROPICAL FORESTS OF SOUTH AMERICA. THE FOLLOWING BASIC CONDITIONS ARE ASSUMED: 1. ITHE SURVIVAL SITUATION WAS PRECIPITATED BY BAIL-OUT OVER THE FOREST AREA. THIS CONCURS WITH THE CONSENSUS THAT ANY ATTEMPT TO RIDE THE PLANE DOWN IS UN- FEASIBLE. THERE ARE "LONG ODDS" OF FINDING A CLEARING OR A SMALL SAVANNA AT THE TIME OF THE MALFUNCTION BUT THEY ARE VERY LONG INDEED. 2. BECAUSE OF THE MOTION. TIME. AND SPACE FACTORS THE CREW MEMBERS WILL BE SEPA- RATED IN DESCENT. 3. BECAUSE OF THE EXTREME DENSITY OF FOREST VEGETATION THERE IS STRONG LIKELIHOOD THAT THE CREW WILL REMAIN INDIVIDUALLY ISOLATED DURING THE SURVIVAL PERIOD (ALTHOUGH IMMEDIATE EFFORTS SHOULD BE MADE TO EFFECT ANY REGROUPING POSSIBLE. THE COMBINED EFFORTS OF MORE THAN ONE GREATLY INCREASES THE SURVIVAL PROSPECTS.) 143 4. 5. 144 MATERIELS REQUIRED FOR SUSTAINED SURVIVAL ACTIVITIES WILL BE LIMITED TO WHAT THE INDIVIDUAL HAS ON HIS PERSON UPON REACHING THE GROUND AND THAT WHICH HE CAN MANUFACTURE FROM THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT. RESCUE OPERATIONS WILL BE SERIOUSLY AF- FECTED BY: A. WHETHER OR NOT THERE WAS AN OPPORTUNITY To RADIO THE SIG- NIFICANT DETAILS OF THE SITU— ATION PRIOR TO ABORT. B. ACCURACY OF DETAILS SENT AND RECEIVED. C. PROXIMITY AND COMPOSITION OF RESCUE FACILITIES. D. RESTRICTED OR NO VISIBILITY BECAUSE OF DENSITY OF FOREST COVER. E. LIMITED TRANSMISSION CAPA- BILITIES OF RADIO (IF AVAILABLE) UNDER THE DENSE FOREST COVER. F. ACCESSABILITY TO SURVIVAL AREA. THE SURVIVOR IS PHYSICALLY CAPABLE OF NEGOTI- ATING THE ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AND THAT ANY INJURY SUSTAINED DURING THE INITIAL CATASTROPHE CAN BE EFFECTIVELY OVERCOME. 145 LACK OF FAMILIARITY WITH THE RAIN FOREST ENVIRONMENT HAS THE USUAL EFFECT OF CREATING FEAR AND APPREHENSION IN THE MINDS OF AVERAGE INDIVIDUAL. INCREASED FAMILIARITY SERVES TO ELIMINATE FEAR AND MAY RELIEVE THE APPREHENSION. AMONG THOSE INDIVIDUALS HAVE MAIZE THE TROPICAL FOREST OF SOUTH AMERICA A SIGNIFICANT PART THEIR LIVES. EVEN THE MORE INTREPID RECOGNIZE ITS INHERENT AD- RSITIES AND REACT TO THEM WITH RESPECT AND CIRCUMSPECTION. THE MOST SERIOUS THREAT TO THE INDIVIDUAL LOST IN THE FOREST ILDERNESS LIES IN THE VASTNESS OF ITS COMPLICATED PHYSIOGRAPHY. 'HOUSANDS OF SQUARE MILES ARE UNINHABITED AND UNEXPLORED. To SOME EXTENT THIS CONDITION IS MITIGATED BY THE MECHANICS OF FIIIGHT-ROUTE SCHEDULING WHICH DIVIDES THE DISTANCE INTO INCREMENTS EACH TERMINATING IN A FIXED TERRAIN CHECK POINT. EVEN SO. THE PERIOD OF TRAVEL MAY BE EXTENDED To SEVERAL WEEKS BECAUSE OF THE NATURAL OBSTACLES AS WELL AS THE PHYSICAL CONDITION OF THE INDIVIDUAL. BECAUSE OF THIS PARTICULAR ASPECT THE INDIVIDUAL MUST MAKE A CAREFUL AND DELIBERATE APPRAISAL AT THE INITIAL STAGE OF THE SURVIVAL SITUATION. THIS “STOCK-TAKING" SHOULD BE SYSTEMATIC CONSISTING OF: 1. A MENTAL REVIEW OF EVENTS LEADING UP TO THE SITUATION To INCLUDE: A. LAST KNOWN POSITION IN RELATION TO PRESENT POSITION. B. ANY RIVERS OR STREAMS MOST RECENTLY SEEN AND RELATION TO PRESENT POSITION. C. LAST ACKNOWLEDGED RADIO COM- MUNICATION AND SIGNIFICANCE FOR THE IMMEDIATE SITUATION. 146 2. A MENTAL REVIEW OF ALL RECOLLECTED DATA PERTAINING TO THE GEOGRAPHY AND THE SUR- VIVAL ASPECTS RELATED THERETO. 3. A MENTAL REVIEW OF ALL RECOLLECTED DATA PERTAINING TO THE HELPFUL AND THE HARM- FUL ASPECTS OF THE IMMEDIATE ENVIRONMENT. 4. AN APPRAISAL OF PHYSICAL MATERIELS ON HAND. AND ITS APPLICATION TO THE SUR- VIVAL SITUATION. A SELECTIVE PROCESS OF DECISIONS Re- \n O GARDING THE COURSE OF ACTION BASED UPON ALL KNOWN FACTORS AND CONSIDERED RISKS OF UNKNOWN FACTORS. 6. AN EXAMINATION. AS OBJECTIVE AS IS POSSIBLE. OF THE IMMEDIATE MENTAL. EMOTIONAL. AND PHYSICAL STATE AND A COURSE OF ACTION DESIGNED TO ACHIEVE AND SUSTAIN ALL THREE AT THE HIGHEST POSSIBLE LEVEL OF EFFICIENCY. IMPLICIT IN THIS ANALYSIS OF THE SITUATION IS THE ACCEPTANCE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF AN EXTENDED PERIOD OF LIVING WITHIN THE EN- VIRONMENT AND THE NECESSARY ADJUSTMENT To ITS DEMANDS. THE IMMEDIATE CSECTchw THE SURVIVOR IS TO REACH A NAVIGABLE WATERWAY. HAVING Dmm MAIN CAN THEN CONTEND WITH THE NUMEROUS HAZARDS OF THE RIVER SYSTEM"THE FOREMOST BEING THE RAPIDS AND FALLS CF THE HIGHER ELE- VATIONS. VARIOUS MATERIALS ARE AVAILABLE FOR CONSTRUCTION OF A SUIT" 147 ABLE WATER CRAFT. THE MOST EFFICIENT CRAFTS ARE SIMPLE RAFTS MADE OF SALSA. TRAVEL BY LAND IS EXTREMELY SLOW EVEN WHERE THE FOREST FLOOR IS RELATIVELY FREE OF DENSE UNDERBRUSH AS IN THE PRIMARY UPLAND FORESTS. THE SWAMPY AREAS OF THE VARzEA AND THE JgAgQ ARE To BE AVOIDED AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE ALTHOUGH THEY MAY HAVE To BE NEGOTIATED IF THERE ARE IN— DICATIONS OF A RIVER BEYOND. SUCH INDICATIONS ARE THE OCCURRENCE OF EXTENSIVE. DENSE UNDERGROWTH. LESS DENSITY IN THE OVERHEAD CANOPY. A GENERAL LOWERING OF THE CROWNS OF THE TREES AND AN INCREASE IN ANIMAL ACTIVITY BOTH IN THE CANOPY AND ON THE GROUND. THE EXTREMELY LUSH NEARLY SOLID WALL OF CREEN PLANTS THAT BOR- DER THE RIVERS AND STREAMS WILL ENTAIL A GREATER CONCENTRATED EFFORT To PENETRATE THAN ANY OTHER FOREST AREA. THE EFFORT IS SUSTAINED. HOWEVER. BY THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE RIVER'S PROXIMITY PLUS MANY OTHER FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE FURTHERANCE OF THE SURVIVAL EFFORT. HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH THE TROPICAL FORESTS OF SOUTH AMERICA ""1 ARE MANY AND VARIED BUT LIKE SO MUCH OF THE CHARACTER OF THE REGION NUMERICAL UNITS ARE SWALLOWED UP IN ITS VASTNESS. POISONOUS SNAKES I AND JAGUARS ARE RARELY SEEN. THE ALLIGATOR-LIKE CAIMAN. STING RAYS. ELECTRIC EELS ARE THERE BUT GENERALLY AVOID MAN. THE DREAD PIRANHA IS FOR THE MOST PART A CASUAL INCIDENT TO THE PEOPLE OF THE AMAZON. TROPICAL DISEASES. EVEN MALARIA. ARE MAINLY A CHRONIC CONDITION OF THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT OF SOUTH AMERICA RATHER THAN THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT. OF ALL THE HAZARDS THAT DO EXIST THE ONE WHICH CANNOT BE WRITTEN OFF CASUALLY IS THE HIGH RATE OF INCIDENCE OF THE INSUF- FERABLE BITING AND STINGING INSECTs--EVEN THESE. HOWEVER. ARE MAINLY PESTS RATHER THAN LETHAL THREATS. 148 .A 'TFMREAT OF REAL IMPORTANCE IS STARVATION. THERE ARE {RALLY THOUSANDS OF EDIBLE SPECIES OF PLANTS INCLUDING FRUITS, ENS 3 ROOTS. LEGUMES. ETC. YET THERE IS NEVER BE PLANTS ARE ALWAYS PRESENT ANY ASSURANCE THAT IN ANY GIVEN AREA IN SUFFICIENT NUM' 8 TO AFFORD SUSTENANCE. THE MOST CONSPICUOUS FEATURE OF THE IMARY RAIN FOREST IS THAT MORE THAN 90% OF ITS GREEN LIFE AS WELL ITS ANIMAL LIFE EXIST HIGH AMONG THE FOREST CROWNS AND GETTING I THE AREA OF LIFE REQUIRES CONSIDERABLE TECHNIQUE AND RISK. I_IFE: ABOUNDS IN THE RIVERS AND ALONG THE LITTORAL BUT AGAIN 'HE OBTAINING OF FOOD FROM THESE SOURCES REQUIRE TECHNIQUES APPRO" PRIATE TO HUNTING, TRAPPING. AND FISHING MOST PROBABLY WITH PR IM IT IVE EQUIPMENT. GAME FCOD CONSIST OF FISH. TURTLES (AND TURTLE EGGS). DEER, TAPIRS. PECCARIES: PACAS, AGOUTI, MONKEYS, WATER FOWL, LAND FOWL, ETC. IN ADDITION TO THE GAME FOODS, THERE ARE INSECTS, INSECT LARVAE AND VARIOUS REPTILES. FOR THE MOST PART THE INDIANS OF THE FOREST CONSTITUTE A SOURCE OF AID: PARTICULARLY IN MATTERS OF FOOD AND GUIDANCE TO AREASIN'CIVILIZATION. NEVERTHELESS. CIRCUMSPECTION IS ADVISED IN MJ.MNHERSCW SOCIAL CONTACT. THE ONE TRIBE OF INDIANS KNOWN TO BE STIu.HOSTuE TO THE WHITE MAN IS THE MOTILONE TRIBE IN THE REGION SOUTH OF LAKE MARACAIBO. THE DISPOSITION OF MANY OTHER TRIBES IS NOT KNOWN 0R THEY MAY BE UNDERGOING A TEMPORARY PERIOD OF HOSTILITY FOR REASONS PECULIAR TO A GIVEN SITUATION. INASSEMBLING AND PREPARING THE FOREGOING MATERIAL IT WAS NOT NWEWNDTHM’THE ADVERSE CONDITIONS OF THE FOREST AREAS OF SOUTH AMERICA BE OVER-EMPHASIZED. HOWEVER, THIS IS OFTEN THE RESULT WHEN SUCH DATA AS THESE ARE PRESENTED IN A COLLECTED FORM. ON THE OTHER 149 HAND. IT IS NOT INTENDED TO MINIMIZE THE THREATS TO LIFE AND HEALTH THAT THESE TROPICAL FORESTS CONTAIN. INDEED. THE NUMBER OF MEN WHO HAVE FALLEN VICTIM TO THE EXISTING DANCERS ARE TOO SIGNIFICANT To IGNORE. EVEN THE INDIANS WHO MAKE THE FOREST THEIR HOME CONTRIBUTE THEIR SHARE OF VICTIMS. RATHER IT IS THE INTENT TO PRESENT NOT ONLY THE HAZARDS IN A PROPER PERSPECTIVE; BUT ALSO TO DEVELOP CON- FIDENCE BASED UPON FAMILIARITY AND THE KNOWLEDGE THAT THE FORESTS OFFER MUCH GREATER PROSPECTS FOR SURVIVAL WHEN ONE IS NOT RESIGNED TO HELPLESS OR HOPELESS FAILURE. IN MANY INSTANCES THE ADVERSITIES. WHETHER REAL OR IMAGINED. ARE REDUCED OR EVEN UTILIZED TO AN ADVANTAGE. SURVIVAL IN THE "JUNGLE" IS NOT A MATTER OF CHANCE AND ANYONE WHO DELIVERS HIMSELF UP TO SUCH A NOTICE HAS STACKED THE ODDS AGAINST HIMSELF AT THE START. SURVIVAL IS A MATTER OF APPLICATION OF KNow- LEDGE AND TECHNIQUES APPROPRIATE TO THE PHYSICAL AND CULTURAL EN- VIRONMENT. SPECIFICALLY. THE INTENT HERE HAS BEEN TO PRESENT THE SINGULAR CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TROPICAL FOREST ENVIRONMENT WHICH WILL FACILITATE OR DETER ULTIMATE SURVIVAL. PART I I SAVANNAS OF SOUTH AI‘I'ERICA __ .L ._‘E_.._ -.—__.__— ‘1‘ 1' CHAPTER VII THE PHYSICAL EW ROI-I‘MCATT DISTRIBUTION THE TERM "SAVANNA" HAS BEEN USED SOMEWHAT FLEXIBLY TO INCLUDE VARIOUS TYPES OF TROPICAL GRASSLANDS. PERHAPS NOT SURPRISINGLY. THE GEOGRAPHIC REGION MOST FREQUENTLY DESCRIBED IS NOT THE SAVANNAS OF DOUTH AMERICA FROM WHERE THE TERM APPARENTLY ORIGINATED BUT THE MORE WELL-KNOWN PLAINS OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA TO WHICH THE TERM HAS BEEN ADAPTED. THE VAST GRASSLANDS OF SOUTH AMERICA ARE KNOWN ONLY PARTIALLY AND THE DESCRIPTIVE LITERATURE. FOR THE MOST PART. IS SKETCHY DEALING WITH SCIENTIFIC DATA. OR DATA DERIVED FROM VARIOUS TYPES OF EXPLORATORY. HUNTING. AND ADVENTURE EXPEDITIONS USUALLY APPLICABLE TO SPECIFIC LOCALES. AS USED IN THIS MONOGRAPH. SAVANNAS ARE TROPICAL. OPEN GRAss- LANDS IN WHICH SCATTERED TREES. SHRUBS. AND OTHER HERBACIOUS PLANTS OCCUR SINGLY. lN ISOLATED STANDS. OR AS EXTENSIONS OF PERIPHERAL FORESTS. THE DOMINANT PLANT LIFE Is OF THE SORT CAPABLE OF WITH- STANDING LONG PERIODS OF DROUGHT AND IN MANY INSTANCES IS ALSO FIRE- RESISTANT. FOR PURPOSES OF CONGRUENCY. REGIONAL DESCRIPTIONS WILL INCLUDE FRINGE OR GALLERY FORESTS EXTENDING INTO THE SAVANNAS FROM THE PRIMARY RAIN FORESTS OR OCCURRING AS ISOLATED STANDS ALONG THE PERMANENT RIVERS COURSING THROUGH THE SAVANNAS. THERE ARE FOUR MAJOR SAVANNA REGIONS OF SOUTH AMERICA. NORTH OF THE AMAZON, THE LLANOS OF THE CRINOCO BASIN ARE THE MOST EXTENSIVE, 151 ' .III III III.III‘I 152 , 0 OF. 0 o STRETCHING FROM THE ORINOCO DELTA (64 -66 k. 8 -10 N). WEST TO THE COASTAL RANGE AND EXTENDING SOUTH INTO COLOMBIA AS FAR AS THE RIO 0 0, O o GUAVIARE (68 -76 W. 2 -4 N). THE OTHER NORTHERN SAVANNA REGION OF CONSIDERABLE IMPORTANCE IS THE RUPUNUNI-RIO BRANCO SAVANNAS LOCATED O O, IN THE BORDER AREA BETWEEN BRAZIL AND BRITISH GUIANA (58 -61 W, o O 2 -4 N). SOUTH OF THE AMAZON. THE SAVANNA AREAS CONSIST OF THE VAST CAMEQS OR GRASSLANDS OF THE BRAZILIAN PLATEAU WHICH INCLUDES THE MATO GROSSO AND MUCH OF THE EASTERN STATES OF BRAZIL. ALSO WITH- IN THE USED DEFINITION IS INCLUDED THE GRAN CHACO OF NORTHWESTERN PARAGUAY AND SOUTHEASTERN BOLIVIA. AMONG THE SEVERAL INTERRELATED FIELDS OF SCIENCE. CON- SIDERABLE CONTROVERSY ENSUES WHENEVER CAUSAL THEORIES ARE PROPOSED REGARDING THE ORIGIN OF SAVANNAS. ALTHOUGH THE VALIDITY OF THESE THEORIES IS NOT THE CONCERN HEREIN. THE PHYSIOGRAPHIC FACTORS UPON WHICH THE THEORIES ARE BASED Do OCCUR WITH SUCH CONSISTENCY AND IN VARYING DEGREES OF EFFECT UPON THE ENVIRONMENT THAT THEY FORM THE BROAD OUTLINE WITHIN WHICH THE NATURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SAVANNAS CAN BE DESCRIBED. ESSENTIALLY THE MAIN FACTORS ARE: 1. CLIMATE - ALTERNATING WET AND DRY SEASON WITH PROLONGED PERIODS OF MOISTURE DE- FICIENCY. 2. SOIL CONDITIONS - VARYING SOIL CONDITIONS INCLUDING: A. CHEMICAL DEFICIENCIES DUE TO CON- STANT LEACH INS, 153 B. FLATLAND TOPOGRAPHY RESULTING IN POOR DRAINAGE AND A PERMEABLE TOP LAYER OF SOIL SUBJECT TO RAPID DRYING. C. UNDERLYING GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS CREATING IMPERMEABLE SUB-SOIL STRATA CONDUCIVE TO RAPID RUNOFF OF MOISTURE AND PROHIBITING AC— CUMULATION. 3. BIOTIC - FIRE MAKING ACTIVITIES OF MAN CAUSING THE INITIAL DESTRUCTION OF THE FOREST AND SUBSEQUENT CONSTANT FIRING RESTRICTING RE- GROWTH. THE RELATIONSHIP OF THESE FACTORS TO EACH OTHER ARE OF LESS IMPORTANCE TO THE SURVIVOR THAN IS THE SPECIFIC NATURE OF THE FACTORS AND THEIR AFFECTS UPON THE SURVIVOR. IN GENERAL THEY DO OCCUR THROUGH- OUT ALL OF THE SAVANNA REGIONS OF SOUTH AMERICA IN VARYING DEGREES OF COMPLEMENTAT ION . I“ lMeIC THE SAVANNAS ARE SUBJECT TO A FAIRLY WIDE RANGE OF LOCALIZED AND DAILY METEOROLOGICAL VARIATIONS WITHIN A GIVEN REGION AS WELL AS BETWEEN REGIONS. THE ONE ASPECT OF CLIMATE WHICH TENDS TO REFLECT ANY RELATIVE CONSISTENCY Is THAT THERE ARE ALTERNATING WET AND DRY SEASONS. THE WET MONTHS IN SOUTH AMERICA ARE DESIGNATED AS THE WINTER SEASON. CALLED NV ERN . AND THE DRY MONTHS ARE THE VERANQ OR SUMMER. IN BRAZIL. WHERE PORTUGUESE IS SPOKEN. THESE BECOME [NVERNQ AND VERAQ. 154 SIGNIFICANTLY. THESE TERMS ARE DESCRIPTIVE OF THE METEOROLOGICAL As- PECTS OF THE CLIMATE RATHER THAN BEING COINCIDENT WITH THE SOLAR RELATIONSHIP. THERE IS NO GREAT SEASONAL VARIATION IN TEMPERATURES. THEY AVERAGE 650 TO 850F THROUGHOUT THE SAVANNAS. NEVERTHELESS. THERE ARE REGIONAL VARIATIONS WHICH TEND TO INCREASE OR REDUCE THE IMMEDIATE EFFECTS OF THE TEMPERATURE. THE ANNUAL STATISTICS DO NOT REFLECT THE RELATIVELY WIDE RANGE OF DAILY TEMPERATURE FLUCTUATIONS. 0 FOR EXAMPLE. THERE IS FREQUENTLY A DAILY RANGE OF MORE THAN 40 F IN THE BRAZILIAN PLATEAU. IN THE LIANQS THE DAILY RANGE IS AS HIGH AS 25°F. ANOTHER ASPECT OF THE TEMPERATURE READINGS IS THAT THEY ARE TAKEN IN THE SHADE AND UNFORTUNATELY THE MAIN CHARACTERISTIC OF THE SAVANNA IS THE LACK OF SHADE. THUS. IN DIRECT SUNLIGHT THE TEMPERATURES WILL FREQUENTLY REACH WELL ABOVE 1OOOF ESPECIALLY IN THE INTERIOR OF THE LLANOS. THE GRAN CHACO. AND THE RUPUNUNI SAVANNAS. WHEN DISCUSSING THE WINTER-SUMMER SEASONS IN THE SAVANNAs-- OR IN NEARLY ALL OF TROPICAL SOUTH AMERICA FOR THAT MATTER--THE MOST IMPORTANT SEASONAL ASPECT IS THAT OF RAINFALL RATHER THAN TEMPERATURE. THE REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN RAINFALL IN THE SAVANNAS IS CONSIDERABLE. BOTH IN AMOUNTS OF RAINFALL AS WELL AS PERIODICITY. IN THE VENEZUELAN SAVANNAS THE ANNUAL RAINFALL AVERAGES FORTY TO FORTY-FIVE INCHES WITH AS MUCH AS SEVEN MONTHS OF DROUGHT. IN THE MATO GROSSO. THE RAINFALL OFTEN REACHES A TOTAL OF SIXTY-EIGHT INCHES WITH NO MONTHS OF ACTUAL DROUGHT BUT RATHER A RELATIVELY LESSER AMOUNT OF RAIN DURING SUMMER MONTHS. SPECIFIC DETAILS OF CLIMATE WILL BE DISCUSSED UNDER THE RE- G IONAL DESCRIPTION. RELIEE AND LRAINAGE VMEREAS SAVANNA CLIMATES SHOW CONSIDERABLE VARIATION. THE 155 TOPOGRAPHY IS PREDOMINANTLY CHARACTERIZED BY PLAINS OR PLATEAUS. THE LAND FORM IS GENERALLY LEVEL OR GENTLY ROLLING BROKEN ONLY BY THE RIVER INCISED VALLEYS. AND STREAM BEDS. SCATTERED STANDS OF TREES OR SINGLE TREES. BRUSH. AND THE CONSPICUOUS TERMITE MOUNDS WHICH ARE A FREQUENT OCCURRENCE IN THE SAVANNAS. SAVANNAS. FOR THE MOST PART. COVER WHAT IS KNOWN GEOLOGICALLY AS "SENILE" TOPOGRAPHY. THESE ARE AREAS OF GEOLOGIC STABILITY THE AGE OF WHICH IS RECKONED IN MILLIONS OF YEARS SOME BEING ANCIENT ALLUVIAL PLAINS OR OLD AGE HIGHLANDS. THE BRAZILIAN PLATEAU. ONE OF THE WORLD'S LARGEST UPLAND MASSES. IT IS ALSO ONE OF THE OLDEST. POSSIBLY HAVING BEEN UNSUBMERGED SINCE THE EARLIEST KNOWN GEOLOGIC PERIOD. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FLATNESS OF THE LAND LIES IN ITS GENERALLY POOR DRAINAGE. THE TYPE OF SOILS RESULTING FROM EROSION. SLOW RUN-OFF WATER. AND THE EFFECTS OF THESE FACTORS ON THE SAVANNA VEGETATION. THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF THE NATURE OF THE SAVANNA SOIL CONDITION TENDS TO BE COMPLEX AND LENGTHY. ESSENTIALLY. THE SANDY TOP SOILS ARE OVER-LYING VARYING TYPES OF HARDPAN STRATA OF CLAY. ROCK. OR EQUALLY IMPERMEABLE SOIL. DURING THE RAINY SEASON THE TOP SOIL BECOMES WATER-LOGGED AND THE IMPERMEABLE SUB-STRATA To- GETHER WITH THE FLATNESS OF THE LAND CAUSES THE WATER TO SPREAD AND STAND FOR LONG PERIODS OF TIME. THIS RESULTS IN INTERMITTENT STAG- NATING BOGS. MARSHES. AND SWAMPS. THE IMPERMEABLE SUB-STRATA PREVENT A WATER TABLE FROM FORMING SO THAT WHEN THE DRY SEASONS OCCUR THE STANDING WATER EVAPORATES AND THE SANDY TOP SOIL IS QUICKLY DRIED OUT BY THE COMBINING INFLUENCES OF WIND AND SUN. B T F T RS THESE FACTORS INVOLVE THE VARIOUS WAYS IN WHICH MAN AND 156 ANIMAL EFFECT THE NATURAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENT. THE MORE SIGNIFICANT FEATURE OF THE SOUTH AMERICAN SAVANNAS IN THIS RESPECT IS THAT MAN HAS BEEN THE MOST INFLUENTIAL ELEMENT FOR CHANGE OR STABILITY. THERE ARE NO NATURALLY OCCURRING LARGE HERDS OF GRAZING ANIMALS WITH THE ATTENDENT PREDATORY ANIMALS SUCH AS EXIST IN AFRICA. NEARLY ALL OF THE ANIMALS OF SOUTH AMERICA ARE FOREST ANIMALS OF WHICH ONLY A FEW MAKE FORAYS INTO THE SAVANNAS PERIODICALLY. THE TRUE SAVANNA INHABITANTS ARE THE INSECTS. ANTEATERS WHICH LIVE OFF THE ABOUNDING TERMITES AND ANTS; THE SMALL RODENTS. LIZARDS. AND SNAKES. ONE SNAKE. THE CASCABEL OR RATTLESNAKE (QRQLALU§,DURISSU§ TERRIEICUS). IS ESPECIALLY DANGEROUS. HOWEVER. THE MOST ABUNDANT LIFE FORM OF ALL. ESPECIALLY DURING THE RAINY SEASON. IS THE UBIQUITOUS AND IN- ESCAPABLE FLYING INSECTs--BOTH FLIES AND MOSQUITOS. #AN HAS ALWAYS PLAYED A DOMINANT ROLE IN EFFECTING CHANGE IN HIS IMMEDIATE ENVIRONMENT. AT THE PRIMITIVE OR NON-TECHNICAL LEVEL THE CHANGE MAY BE CONTEMPORARY WITH THE RESIDENCE AND SUBSISTENCE ACTIVITIES OF THE PEOPLES WHO ARE LIVING WITHIN A SPECIFIC ENVIRON- MENT. HOWEVER. THERE ARE INSTANCES WHERE THE EFFECTS MAY BE MORE LASTING. THE INDIANS OF SOUTH AMERICA HAVE BEEN BURNING OFF THE LAND APPARENTLY SINCE EARLIEST DAYS OF OCCUPATION. USUALLY THE GRASS IS FIRED FOR THE PURPOSE OF SOARING UP GAME. MORE RECENTLY IT IS FIRED AS A MEANS OF IMPROVING PASTURAGE. IN SOME INSTANCES IT IS A TRADITIONAL METHOD OF MAINTAINING OPEN AND UNRESTRICTED AREAS AND WHEN PASSING THROUGH AREAS OF FAIRLY MATURE DEVELOPMENT THE LOCAL INHABITANTS FIRE THE GRASSES AS A MATTER OF COURSE. THE EFFECTS OF SUCH BURNING IS BELIEVED BY MANY AUTHORITIES TO BE ONE OF THE IMPOR- TANT CAUSAL FACTORS IN THE ORIGIN AND STABILITY OF SAVANNA-TYPE CLIMAXES. 157 THE CONSTANT BURNING OF LARGE TRACTS OF LAND HAS RESULTED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF A VARIETY OF PLANTS IN WHICH THE FIRE—RESISTENT CAPABILITIES ARE A SIGNIFICANT ASPECT OF THE SAVANNA VEGETATION. AGAIN. THE TECHNICAL DISCUSSIONS REGARDING CAUSALITY IS BEYOND THE SCOPE OF THE MONOGRAPH. NEVERTHELESS. THE FREQUENT OCCURRENCE OF FIRES. EITHER MAN-MADE. OR FROM NATURAL CAUSES SUCH AS LIGHTNING. DOES PRESENT POTENTIAL PROBLEMS FOR SURVIVAL BOTH DIRECTLY AND IN- DIRECTLY. THE MOST IMMEDIATE EFFECTS OF COURSE ARE THOSE RESULTING FROM ENCOUNTERING A FIRE IN PROGRESS OR OF RECENT OCCURRENCE. THE DANGER FROM A FIRE IN PROGRESS IS PERHAPS OBVIOUS THOUGH NOT so DANGEROUS AS IT MAY APPEAR CONSIDERING THE FREQUENT AND DELIBERATE FIRING BY THE INHABITANTS. NEVERTHELESS. SHOULD ONE BE CAUGHT IN FRONT OF AN ADVANCING FIRE ESPECIALLY WHEN THERE IS A HIGH WIND. IMMEDIATE EVASIVE ACTION WILL PROBABLY BE NECESSARY. IN THAT THE FIRING OF THE SAVANNAS USUALLY COINCIDES WITH THE PERIOD OF DROUGHT. THERE IS LITTLE LIKELIHOOD OF SWAMP WATER BEING CONVENIENTLY AVAIL- ABLE. VERY PROBABLY THE STREAMS WILL ALSO BE DRY ALTHOUGH EVERY AD- VANTAGE SHOULD BE TAKEN OF SUCH STREAMS OR SWAMPS. PHERE THERE IS NO AVENUE OF ESCAPE OR PLACE OF IMMEDIATE REFUGE. THE MOST APPROPRIATE ACTION WILL BE THAT OF BACK-FIRING WHICH SHOULD BE IMMEDIATE AND AS WIDE AND AS DEEP AN AREA SHOULD BE BURNED AS TIME PERMITS. DURING THE BURNING. THE CLOUDS OF SMOKE ATTRACT BIRDS FOR MILES AROUND WHICH. SEEMINGLY OBLIVIOUS TO THE SMOKE AND FLAMES. DART ABOUT WILDLY GORGING ON THE EXPOSED RODENTS AND INSECTS WHICH ARE ALREADY DEAD OR FLEEING FROM THE FIRE. LAND BOUND ANIMALS WHICH NORMALLY PREY UPON EACH OTHER BECOME OBLIVIOUS TO THE USUAL THREATS IN THE FACE OF A COMMON DANGER. NEVERTHELESS. IN THE PANIC THE 158 NORMALLY EVASIVE ANIMALS. ESPECIALLY THE SNAKES. PRESENT POTENTIAL IF UNPREDICTASLE SOURCE OF DANGER. WHERE THE LAND HAS BEEN RECENTLY BURNED. WITHIN A PERIOD OF SEVERAL DAYS. THE ANIMAL LIFE Is PRACTI- CALLY NIL. HOWEVER. AS SOON AS THE NEW GROWTH OF TENDER GREEN SHOOTS BEGINS THE ANIMAL LIFE BECOMES TEMPORARILY INTENSE AS THE IN- SECTS AND HERBIVAROUS ANIMALS SUCH AS DEER ARE ATTRACTED TO THE GOOD GRAZE. THE HERBIVAROUS ANIMALS IN TURN ATTRACT THEIR CARNIVOROUS PREDATORS SO THAT. FOR THE TIME. THE AREA ASSUMES A COMPLETELY DIF- FERENT ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIP. INDIRECTLY. THE AFFECTS ARE PROBABLY EVEN MORE IMPORTANT IF NOT SO OBVIOUS. ON THE ONE HAND. THE EDIBLE PORTIONS OF THE PLANT LIFE ARE VERY FREQUENTLY FOUND UNDERGROUND THUS BEING AVAILABLE EVEN IMMEDIATELY FOLLOWING A FIRE; ON THE OTHER HAND. THE WILD GAME IS BEING CONTINUALLY DEPLETED AND THE COMPARATIVE DESCRIPTION BETWEEN THE ABUNDANCE OF GAME SIGHTED DURING EXPLORATIONS OF THE 18TH AND 19TH CENTURY AND THE SCARCITY OF SUCH GAME TODAY IS VERY NOTABLE. WITH THE EUROPEAN INFLUENCE IN SOUTH AMERICA. CONTINUOUS EFFORTS HAVE BEEN MADE TO INTRODUCE CATTLE RAISING TO THE VARIOUS SAVANNA REGIONS. SO FAR. THESE EFFORTS HAVE MET WITH RATHER IN- DIFFERENT SUCCESS FOR REASONS BOTH SOCIAL AND ECOLOGICAL. MANY OF THE CATTLE HAVE TURNED WILD. AND EVEN WHERE HERDING CONTROL IS EXERCISED THE CATTLE ARE NOTED FOR THEIR "SPOOKINESS" AND CAN BE DANGEROUS. AT ANY RATE. THEY DO NOT EXIST IN SUCH NUMBERS AS TO BE A SERIOUS INFLUENCE ON THE CHARACTER OF THE VEGETATION. THEY DO CON- STITUTE A POSSIBLE SOURCE OF FOOD FOR THE SURVIVOR IF A MEANS OF CAPTURE CAN BE DEVISED. MORE SIGNIFICANTLY THEIR APPEARANCE IN NUMBER INDICATE PRO3ABLE HABITATION NEARBY. 159 SAVANNA VEGETATION THE PREDOMINANCE OF GRASSLANDS HAS ALREADY BEEN CITED AS ONE OF THE DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SAVANNAS. CONSIDERING THE VARYING CONDITIONS TO WHICH SUCH WIDELY DISPERSED AREAS MAY BE SUBJECTED. IT IS NOT SURPRISING THAT THERE ARE VARYING TYPES OF SAVANNA GRASSLANDS. THE NATURE OF THESE VARIATIONS ARE DUE MAINLY TO THE AMOUNT OF MOISTURE AVAILABLE To A SPECIFIC AREA TOGETHER WITH THE DURATION OF THE PERIODS OF DROUGHT. IN SOUTH AMERICA THE GRAss- LANDS MOST WIDELY ENCOUNTERED ARE THOSE OF A BUNCH-GRASS TYPE ESPECIALLY THAT WHICH IS CALLED "TALL" BUNCH-GRASS. THE GRASSES (QBAMJNACEAC) WHICH CONSTITUTES 90% OR MORE OF THE SAVANNA VEse- TATION ARE TYPICAL OF DROUGHT-RESISTANT. OR XEROMORPHIC PLANTS. MORE THAN FORTY SPECIES OF GRASSES HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED IN THE LLANOS OF VENEZUELA ALONE. HOWEVER. THERE ARE ONLY SIX TO EIGHT SPECIES WHICH PREDOMINATE THROUGHOUT ALL OF THE SAVANNAS. IN THE SWAMPY AND RIVER AREAS SEVERAL SPECIES OF SEDGES (QIEERACEAE) OCCUR. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE VARIETIES OF GRASS, EVEN IN APPEARANCE, ARE USUALLY DISTINGUISHABLE ONLY TO THE TRAINED OBSERVOR. THE LEAVES ARE STIFF, NARROW AND COARSE AND ARE FREQUENTLY SHARP'EDGED APPEARING MORE LIKE SPIKES. IF ALLOWED TO MATURE THEY FREQUENTLY REACH AN AVERAGE HEIGHT OF FIVE FEET. DURING THE DRY PERIODS THE AVERAGE HEIGHT OF THE VEGETATION IS SELDOM GREATER THAN FOURTEEN TO TWENTY INCHES. HOWEVER, THERE ARE PATCHES THROUGHOUT THE SAVANNA REGIONS WHERE THE GROWTH IS SHOULDER HIGH AND IN AREAS OF THE RUPUNUNI WILL GROW MORE THAN SIX FEET HIGH. IN AREAS WHERE THERE IS A PREVALENCE OF WATER SUCH AS IN THE 8068 OR SWAMPS, THE SHORTER GRASS‘LIKE SEDGE PLANT (CYEERACEAE) DEVELOPS WHICH HAS SPIKED LEAVES WITH EDGES THAT 160 ARE OFTEN RAZOR-SHARP AND ARE ACTUALLY USED FOR CUTTING INSTRUMENTS. THE PLANTS wHICH MAKE UP THE REMAINDER OF THE VEGETATION CON— SISTS MAINLY OF TREES AND SHRUBS. THE TREES ARE USUALLY SMALL AND wELL SPACED EXCEPT WHERE THEY LINE THE PERMANENT FLOWING STREAMS AND RIVER BANKS. OR MORE PERMANENT SWAMP AREAS. THE VARIETY OF TREES IS RELATIVELY LIMITED. THE MOST IMPORTANT FOR SURVIVAL PURPOSES ARE THE VARIOUS PALM TREES NHICH OCCUR THROUGHOUT THE SAVANNA AND THE POD- BEARING ALGARROBA TREES OF THE GRAN CHACO. THE SHRUBS ARE OF THREE GENERAL TYPES: (1) THOSE THAT HUG THE GROUND USUALLY CONSISTING OF STIFF: LARGE LEAVES; THE MAIN PART OF THE PLANT BEING THE WOODY STEM LYING UNDERGROUND; (2) SHRUBS WHICH ALSO HAVE THE UNDERGROUND, HOODY, STEM-ROOT SYSTEM BUT AFTER A FIRE SENDS UP SHOOTS TwO OR THREE FEET HIGH FORMING A THICKET SEVERAL FEET IN DIAMETER; AND (3) SINGLE- STEMMED SHRUBS SOMEWHAT RESEMBLING A SMALL TREE Two OR THREE FEET IN HEIGHT. THE TREES: OTHER THAN THOSE OF THE GALLERY FORESTS, ARE USUALLY Low-BRANCHING AND VERY GNARLED AND TWISTED. THE WOOD IS HARD AND BRITTLE WHILE THE BARK IS THICK, CORK-LIKE. AND EASILY FLAKED AWAY. THE CROHNS OF THE TREES ARE THIN AND SOMEWHAT UMBRELLA- LIKE IN SHAPE. THE LEAVES ARE STIFF AND LARGE. EITHER FELT-LIKE IN TEXTURE OR ROUGH AND WAXY AND DROOP SO THAT THEY AFFORD LITTLE SHADE FROM THE SUN. LIKE MUCH OF THE SAVANNA VEGETATION THEY ARE FIRE- RESISTANT. THE MOST COMMON SPECIES OF TREES ARE QHEAIELLA AMERICANA, BQHDIQHIA V R DES, AND BYRSQNIMA QRQSSIFQL|A. THERE THE TREES ARE IN CONSIDERABLE DENSITY, ALTHOUGH RARELY CLOSER THAN TEN TO TwENTY YARDS APART ON THE AVERAGE, THEY ARE REFERRED To AS QHAEEARAL. THIS IS NOT THE SAME As THE gHAEEARAL AS IT IS KNOWN IN THE SOUTH- WESTERN PART OF THE UNITED STATES OR NORTHERN MEXICO. SUCH CONCEN- 161 TRATIONS ARE ORCHARD~LIKE OR PARK-LIKE IN APPEARANCE. IN THE BRAZILIAN PLATEAU OR "ELAE ALLQ" AREAS THERE ARE FAIRLY EXTENSIVE CPEN "WOODLANDS." THE REGIONAL TERM FOR THESE AREAS IS CAMEO CERRADO WHICH MEANS "CLOSE, DENSE OPEN COUNTRY." THE CON- TRADICTION LIES IN THE LACK OF DENSE FOLIAGE OR SHADE BUT THE RATHER CLOSE PROXIMITY OF THE SCRUB TREES WHICH COMPRISE THE "WOODLAND." THE OVERALL LANDSCAPE OF THE INTERIOR OF THE BRAZILIAN PLATEAU TENDS TO PRESENT AN UNENDING. MONOTONOUS VIEw. THE DETAILS OF THE VEGETATION IS SOMEWHAT LOST IN THE SEEMINGLY ENDLESS EXPANSE. THE VEGETATION OF THE PLATEAU FALLS INTO FOUR GENERAL CLASSIFICATIONS: TREELESS SAVANNAS CALLED "CAMPOS LIMPOSa" TREE SAVANNAS CALLED "CAMPOS CERRADOES," SCATTERED PALMS, AND FORESTS. WITHIN THESE GENERAL CLASSIFICATIONS ARE GRADATIONS WHICH ARE SIGNIFICANT FOR SURVIVAL. IT WILL BE NOTED THAT THE TERM "SAMEQ" INCLUDES NOT ONLY GRASSLANDS BUT ALSO PREDOMINATING TREE FORMATIONS. IN THIS CON- INECTION THE CAMPQS COINCIDES PARTICULARLY WELL WITH THE DESCRIPTIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SAVANNA AS THEY HAVE BEEN DESCRIBED IN THIS MONOGRAPH. IN DETAILS THE DESCRIPTIVE ASPECTS OF THE CAMPOS ARE: 1. TREELESS SAVANNAS. THIS CLASSIFICATION INCLUDES TWO SUB-CLASSIFICATIONS: QAMPQS LIMPO§ OR "CLEAN" SAVANNAS AND CAMPOS §ggg§ OR "DIRTY" SAVANNAS. OBVIOUSLY. THE "CLEAN" SAVANNAS ARE ALMOST PURE GRASSLANDS. THE ONLY VARI- ATION IN SCENERY IS AN OCCASIONAL SINGLE FILE OF MQRICHE OR BURITI PALMS LINING A STREAM. THE CAMPOS LIMPQS OFFER THE LEAST IN FOOD SOURCES EITHER VEGETABLE OR ANIMAL. 2. 162 THE MOST CONSPICUOUS FEATURE TO BE SEEN ARE THE TERMITE MOUNDS. IN THE QAMPQS §2£QEI LOW HERBACIOUS SHRUBS DOMINATE THE LAND- SCAPE. IN CONTRAST TO THE DRAB GRAYNESS OF THE QAMPQS IMP S, THE SHRUB-COVERED AREA IS GREEN. THE ROOT SYSTEMS OF THESE SHRUBS ARE FREQUENTLY TUBEROUS AND EDIBLE. THERE IS ALSO A GREATER VARIETY OF WILD LIFE, IF SOMEWHAT DIFFICULT TO CATCH, IN THE DENSITY OF THE SHRUBBERY. WARNING IS CITED REGARDING PRESENCE OF SNAKES, SPECIFI? CALLY THE RATTLE SNAKE CALLED "CASCAnga" AND THE FER-DE-LANCE. TREE-SAVANNA. EXTENSIVE AREAS ARE COVERED BY THE DROUGHT‘RESISTANT SAVANNA TREES (CURATELLA AMERIQUS, BQWDIQIA VIR DE , BYRSQNIMA CRASSIFQLIA. ETC.). THERE ARE TWO GRADATIONS OF TREE-SAVANNAS; "QAMEQ QERRAQQ" AND "2AMEQ QERRADAQ" (THE SUFFIX AO IN PORTUGUESE DENOTES THE SECOND DEGREE OF COMPARISON INDICATING A GREATER DEGREE OF A QUALITY.) THE £AMEQ QERRAQQ IS THE SECOND MOST EXTENSIVE SAVANNA FORMATION IN THE PLATEAU; THE GRASSY PLAINS BEING THE MOST EXTENSIVE. THE TREES WHICH MAKE UP THE CERRADQ ARE THE CHARACTERISTIC DROUGHT- RESISTANT: GNARLED AND CROOKED TREES OF THE 163 SAME FAMILIES OCCURRING IN THE NORTHERN SA- VANNAS OF THE CONTINENT. IN ADDITION. THERE ARE VARIOUS SPECIES OF TIMOSA. ACACIA AND THORN TREE PRESENT. THE TREES OF THE gERRADQS GROW To AN AVERAGE HEIGHT OF FIFTEEN FEET. THE DENSITY IS CONSIDERABLY GREATER THAN THE ORCHARD FOR- MATIONS OF THE LLANOS BUT PERMIT EASY PASSAGE THE FLOOR OF THE gERRADQ IS MOSTLY BARREN OR SUSTAINS A SPARSE UNDERGROWTH OF LOW SHRUB AND WIDELY SPACED. TUFTED GRASS. THE TREE SPACING. TOGETHER WITH THE DROOPING LEAVES. OFFER LITTLE SHADE. CONSEQUENTLY. NO RESPITE IS GAINED FROM THE HEAT OF THE SUN. IN FACT. THE QERRADQ IS MORE EFFECTIVE AS A WIND SCREEN-- A FEATURE HAVING BOTH GOOD AND BAD AFFECTS. RHILE THE BREEZE IS A COOLING AGENT DURING THE DAY IT IS ALSO FREQUENTLY QUITE STRONG AND CONSTANT AND AT NIGHT CAN BE VERY CHILLING. A MORE BENEFICIAL ASPECT OF THE CERRADQ IS THE INCREASE IN ANIMAL LIFE. PARTICULARLY PECCARY. ARMADILLOS. DEER. AGOUTI. AND COUNT- LESS SPECIES OF BIRDS. THE MAUORITY OF THESE ANIMALS ARE TRANSIENTS FROM THE GREATER FOREST AREAS. AMONG THE MORE SINISTER VISITORS To THE CERRADQ ARE THE JAGUAR AND PUMA. THOUGH THESE BIG CATS GENERALLY AVOID MAN. THEY ARE 164 SOMETIMES UNPREDICTABLE. MANY SMALL FORMS OF ANIMAL LIFE ABOUND IN THE QEBEAQQ AMONG THEM ARE THE RODENTS, VARIOUS REPTILES. AND AN IN- FINITE NUMBER OF INSECTS. THE QAMEQ CERRADAQ DIFFERS FROM THE CERRADQ MAINLY IN THE SIZE AND INTENSITY OF THE VEee- TATION. THE DIFFERENCE IS DUE TO THE SUPPLY OF MOISTURE. WHERE QERRADQS ARE FOUND IN SEEMINGLY UNDIFFERENTIATED AREAS OF RAINFALL AND GROUND WATER IN RELATION TO THE GRASSLANDS, THE QERRADQES SHOW A MARKED PREFERENCE FOR AREAS OF GREATER WATER SUPPLY. CONSEQUENTLY. THEY ARE FOUND ALONG THE LOWER SLOPES OF THE RIVER VALLEYS OR QUITE FREQUENTLY As AN IM- TERMEDIATE STAGE BETWEEN SAVANNA AND EVERGREEN FOREST. THE CERRADAQ CONTAINS A TALLER (FIF- TEEN To THIRTY FEET) AND GREATER VARIETY OF TREES. AMONG THEM SEVERAL HARDWOODS. MORE IMPORTANT TO THE SURVIVAL SITUATION IS THE OCCURRENCE OF SEVERAL TYPES OF FRUIT AND NUT TREES. ANIMAL LIFE. TOO. TENDS TO REFLECT A GREATER INTENSITY AND INCLUDE SOME WHICH ARE FOUND IN THE RAIN FOREST BUT DO NOT VENTURE INTO THE OPEN SAVANNAS. COMPARED TO THE RAIN FOREST. THE OVER- HEAD FOLIAGE IS THIN. NOT MUCH GREATER THAN THE CERR D 3 AND WITH THE ADDED MOISTURE AND 165 SUNLIGHT THE UNDERGROWTH BECOMES QUITE DENSE. PASSAGE THROUGH SUCH AREAS CAN BE DIFFICULT TO AN EXTENT THAT A MACHETE OR SIMILAR CUTTING PLADE WOULD BE VERY USEFUL. IN FACT. DENSITY OF THE QAMEQ QERRADAQ MAY BE SUCH AS TO FORCE A DETOUR AROUND ITS PERIMETER. NEVERTHELESS. IT IS AN AREA OF "BOUNTY” AND FULL ADVANTAGE SHOULD BE TAKEN OF ITS RESOURCEs--KEEPING IN MIND TRAVEL DISTANCE BEFORE ANOTHER SUCH AREA OCCURS. ONE ASPECT OF THE gERRADAQ IS THE VALUE THAT THE REGIONAL INHABITANTS PLACE ON THE FERTILITY OF SUCH FORMATIONS. AS THE "FRONTIER" IS PROGRESSIVELY SETTLED. CERRADQES ARE AMONG THE FIRST AREAS TO BE SELECTED FOR CLEARING AND CULTIVATION. SCATTERED PALMS. AS IN THE SAVANNAS OF THE NORTHERN REGIONS OF SOUTH AMERICA. THE PALMS ARE WIDELY DISTRIBUTED AND HIGHLY PRIZED AS A FOOD SOURCE. ALTHOUGH NOT AS DIVERSE IN EITHER VEGETATION OR ANIMAL LIFE BUT PERHAPS EVEN MORE IMPORTANT IN TERMS OF FOOD POTENTIAL IN RELATION TO SURROUNDING SPARSENESS OF THE LAND Is THE SCATTERED GROVES OF MORIQHE PALMS (MAURITIA [LEXUQSA) AND SAVANNA PALMEIQS (CQEERNIQIA QEBIFERA). THE MQRICHE PALMS. ALSO CALLED "AEDA.” " R T ." AND "ITE." ARE 166 MOST USUALLY REFERRED To IN THE LLANOS AS "MQRICHALES." THE MQRICHE PALM IS A MAINSTAY IN THE FOOD SUPPLY OF THE MATO GROSSO AND CHACO INDIANS AND TO THE INDIANS WHO RESIDE IN THE FOREST AREAS SURROUNDING THE LLANOS OF VENEZUELA AND COLOMBIA. THE SAVANNA PALMETO IS A STUNTED (SIX TO EIGHT FEET). FRIZZY PALM WHICH Is LOCATED THROUGHOUT ALL OF THE SAVANNAS OF SOUTH AMERICA. AS IN THE NORTHERN SAVANNAS. THERE IS VERY LITTLE VARIATION EITHER IN SPECIES. EN- VIRONMENTAL RELATIONSHIP. OR UTILIZATION. THE ONE EXCEPTION IS A COUSIN OF THE NORTHERN SAVANNA PALMETO (CQPERN|9|A IEXIUQSA). IN THE PLATEAU SAVANNAS. ESPECIALLY IN THE SOUTHERN MATO GROSSO AREA. THE PALMETO OR ”CANDARAY" Is THE SPECIES CQEERNIQIA gERIEERA. THE CAB- BAGE OF THIS PALM HAS ALWAYS BEEN A STAPLE OF THE INDIAN DIET. NOT ONLY IN THE MATO GROSSO BUT IN THE GRAN CHACO AS WELL. LIKE ITS NORTHERN KIN IT IS ESSENTIALLY A DROUGHT- RESISTANT MEMBER OF THE PALM FAMILY; MOST OF THE OTHERS USUALLY BEING ASSOCIATED WITH AN ABUN- DANCE OF WATER. IN ADDITION TO THESE PALMS MANY OF THE PALMS LISTED UNDER TROPICAL FOREST ARE FOUND IN ASSOCIATION WITH THE GALLERY FORESTS. 4. 167 FORESTS. OF PRIMARY INTEREST IN THIS CLASS ARE THE EXTENSIVE GALLERY FORESTS EXTENDING FAR UP THE BROAD VALLEYS OF THE AMAZON'S GREAT TRI- BUTARIES. THESE FORESTS REACH TOWARD THE OPEN SAVANNAS LIKE GREAT ARMS LYING BETWEEN THE LIMITING HEIGHTS OF THE QHAPADQE . WHERE LESSER TRIBUTARIES FAN OUT FROM A MAIN TRIeu-' TARY. THE GALLERY FOREST SHOOT OUT LIKE FINGERS ALONG THE BANKS OF THE STREAMS GRADUALLY TAPERING IN WIDTH AS THE WATER BECOMES INSUFFICIENT. THE LOWER STRETCHES OF THE GALLERY FORESTS OFTEN REACH A WIDTH OF MORE THAN TWENTY-FIVE MILES. THE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSOCIATIONS ARE SUF- FICIENTLY DISTRIBUTED AS TO MAINTAIN A RAIN FOREST STATE OF EQUILIBRIUM. THE PROBLEMS OF SUBSISTENCE ARE SIMILAR. FOR EXAMPLE: THE RELA- TIVE ABSENCE OF ANIMAL LIFE AT THE GROUND LEVEL IN THE PRIMARY ZONE; AND THE RICH ANIMAL LIFE BUT THE DIFFICULT PASSAGE ALONG THE LITTORAL. IN THE UPPER STRETCHES THE GALLERY FORESTS ASSUME CERTAIN DISTINCTIVE FEATURES. THE CANOPY BECOMES SINGLE RATHER THAN THREE-STORIED. THE OVERHEAD FOLIAGE BECOMES LESS DENSE; EPIPHYTES GIVE WAY TO LIANES; LIFE IN GENERAL MOVES CLOSER TO THE GROUND AND SEEMS TO BE MORE INTENSE. THE UNDERGROWTH IS NOT CONFINED TO THE LITTORAL AS IN THE LOWER STRETCHES BUT INCREASES IN HEIGHT 168 AND DENSITY. IN MOST RESPECTS THE UPPER STRETCHES MORE NEARLY RESEMBLE THE "UUNGLE" OF POPULAR CONCEPTION. IN THE FINAL STAGES. THE TREES PETER OUT. SOMETIMES TO A SINGLE ROW OF BURITI PALMS (MAURITIA VINIFERA). OR MQRICHE PALMS. ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT FEATURES OF THE SAVANNAS IS THE DEGREE OF FREQUENCY WITH WHICH GALLERY FORESTS OCCUR IN THE SAVANNA AREAS. WHERE THERE IS SUFFICIENCY OF RAINFALL OR WHERE THERE ARE A NUMBER OF PERMANENT FLOWING RIVERS THESE FORESTS ARE FAIRLY EXTENSIVE. SUCH ARE THE CONDITIONS IN THE LLANOS OF THE RIOS APURE-GUAVIARE AREA. NEAR THE MOUNTAINS. THESE CONDITIONS ARE PREVAIL IN THE MATO GROSSO WHERE THE RIOS XINGu-TAPAJOS REGION MERGES INTO THE SOUTHERN FRINGES OF THE AMAZON RAIN FOREST ALONG THE RIO ARAGUAIA AND IN THE EASTERN PORTION OF THE BASIN OF THE RIO PARAGUAY. WHERE THESE GALLERY FOR- ESTS ATTAIN A CONSIDERABLE WIDTH--SEVERAL HUNDRED FEET TO SEVERAL MILEs--THE LIFE FORMS ARE AS INTENSIVE AND DIVERSE AS THOSE OF THE RAIN FOREST. THE VEGETATION AS WELL AS THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE RIVER AND FOREST ARE FOR THE MOST PART A CONTINUATION OF THE RAIN FOREST. IN SUMMARY. THE PLANT FORMATION OF THE SAVANNAS IS CHARAc- TERIZED BY THE PREDOMINENCE OF PERENNIAL BUNCH-GRASS AND SEDGES INTERSPERSED WITH OTHER HERBACIOUS PLANTS ESPECIALLY LOW SHRUBS OF TWO TO THREE FEET IN HEIGHT. THE CHARACTERISTIC SAVANNA TREES. LOW. CROOKED. AND GNARLED WITH THIN UMBRELLA-SHAPED CROWNS AND THICK. CORKY BARK. OCCUR SINGLE OR IN "ORCHARDS" BUT NEVER SO DENSE THAT PASSAGE THROUGH THEM IS SERIOUSLY HINEERED. NEARLY ALL PLANT LIFE IS ESSENTIALLY DROUGHT-RESISTANT AND IN MANY INSTANCES FIRE‘RESISTANT. 169 MOST OF THE HERBS AND SHRUBS HAVE UNDERGROUND ROOT SYSTEMS SOME OF WHICH ARE TUBEROUS. SUCCULENTS. I.E.. CACTUSES. OCCUR ONLY PERIPH- ERALLY MAINLY IN THE MOST ARID PORTIONS OF THE GRAN CHACO WHERE THORN FORESTS ALSO ARE FREQUENTLY PREVALENT. THE MOST IMPORTANT VEGETATION FOR SURVIVAL PURPOSES ARE THE PALMS. ALGARROBA TREES. AND THE TUBEROUS ROOT SYSTEMS OF SEVERAL OF THE SAVANNA HERBS. EAIINA THE ANIMALS FOUND IN THE SAVANNAS OF SOUTH AMERICA REPRESENT THREE DISTINCT ENVIRONMENTS: (1) THE TRUE INHABITANTS OF THE SA- VANNAS. (2) THE FOREST ANIMALS THAT REGULARLY FORAGE IN THE SAVANNAS. AND (3) THE NUMEROUS LIFE FORMS THAT ARE ESSENTIALLY IN OR OF THE MAJOR RIVER SYSTEMS. CONSIDERING THE VAST AREA ENCOMPASSED BY THE THREE INTERRELATED ENVIRONMENTS. THERE IS SURPRISINGLY LITTLE SIG- NIFICENT VARIATION IN THE FAUNA WITHIN EACH SEPARATE ENVIRONMENT. ALMOST ANY KIND OF ANIMAL FOUND IN THE FORESTS OF THE GUIANA HIGHLANDS WILL ALSO BE FOUND RANGING THROUGH THE FORESTS EXTENDING INTO THE MATO GROSSO. THE TENS OF THOUSANDS OF YEARS OF FLUVIAL INTERCHANGE BETWEEN THE MAUOR RIVER SYSTEMS HAVE PRODUCED A SIMILAR HOMOGENEITY IN THE AQUATIC LIFE. EVEN THE SAVANNAS WHICH ARE SEPARATED BY VAST EXPANSES OF FOREST SHOW LITTLE VARIATION IN THE COMPOSITION OF THE FAUNA THAT IS OBVIOUS TO ANY BUT THE TRAINED NATURALIST. THE TRUE SAVANNA DWELLERS ARE FOUND AMONG THE INSECTS. SMALL RODENTS OF THE BURROWING VARIETIES. REPTILES. MOSTLY LIZARDS AND SNAKES; AND THE ANTEATERS. ONE OF THE LARGEST OF THE SOUTH AMERICAN ANIMALS. THE INSECTS ARE BY FAR THE PREDOMINANT FORM OF LIFE. MOST OF THEM ARE EQUALLY AT HOME IN OR IN ASSOCIATION WITH ALL THREE EN- VIRONMENTS. SEVERAL OF THE INSECTS ARE IMPORTANT FOOD SOURCES 170 PARTICULARLY THE GRASSHOPPERS. LOCUSTS. BEES. FOR THEIR HONEY; GRUBS. BEETLES. AND THE ANTS. ESPECIALLY TERMITES. THE PESTS. SUCH AS THE MOSQUITOS. BLOODSUCKING FLIES. "ELWM§:" "B RRA HUDAS." "MUTUCAS." WASPS. FLEAS, GNATS. ETC.. HAVE BEEN DESCRIBED IN DETAIL IN THE SECTION DEALING WITH HEALTH AND HAZARDS OF THE TROPICAL FOREST. IN THE SAVANNAS MANY OF THESE INSECTS ARE FOUND CONCENTRATED ALONG THE- RIVERS. STREAMS AND SWAMPY AREAS. THEY ARE PARTICULARLY OBNOXIOUS DURING THE LATE AFTERNOONS. PRECEDING A RAIN. AND DURING THE RAINY SEASON. IN ADDITION TO THE ABOVE PESTS. THE SAVANNAS CONTRIBUTE A HOST OF SPIDERS. MITES. AND FLEAS. 3UT ONE REAL SCOURGE OF THE SAVANNAS ARE THE VARIOUS SPECIES OF TICKS (IXQDIDAE) OR "GARRAPATQ ." THEY ARE PARTICULARLY PREVALENT. LITERALLY BY THE MILLIONS. DURING THE DRY SEASON. ONE OF THE MORE CONSPICUOUS AND CONSTANT FEATURE OF THE SA- VANNAS THROUGHOUT SOUTH AMERICA ARE THE LARGE TERMITE MOUNDS. THE CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF THESE NESTS BY THE TERMITES OR WHITE ANTS (NASUIITERMES, SYNTERMES) ARE ONE OF THE OUTSTANDING FEATS OF NATURE. THE NESTS FURNISH BOTH A SOURCE OF FOOD AND A POSSIBLE SOURCE OF DANGER. USING SECRETIONS OF SALIVA MIXED WITH THE SANDY SOILS OF THE SAVANNAS. THE TERMITES CONSTRUCT A SHELL OF THE MOUND ALMOST AS HARD AND DURABLE AS CEMENT. THERE ARE GENERALLY TWO TYPES TO BE FOUND. THE ONE APPROXIMATELY TWO TO THREE FEET HIGH AND FIVE To SIX FEET IN DIAMETER; THE OTHER IS IRREGULARLY SHAPED AND APPROXI- MATELY TEN TO TWELVE FEET HIGH. AS A SOURCE OF FOOD THE PRIMARY ITEM IS THE TERMITES THEMSELVES. FREQUENTLY. OTHER INSECTS. LIZARDS. MICE. AND SNAKES MAKE USE OF THE SHELTER AFFORDED BY THE NESTS. WHEN EXPLORING THE FOOD POTENTIAL. SPECIAL CARE MUST BE EXERCISED-'THE 171 CgSCAVEL ARE ALSO OCCASIONAL BOARDERS. OF THE SAVANNA MAMMALS. THE RODENTS ARE THE MOST NUMEROUS AND OF THESE THE MAJORITY ARE BY FAR THE BURROWING KIND. THEY ARE EXTREMELY ELUSIVE AND DIFFICULT TO CATCH AND EVEN THEIR BURROWS ARE QUITE DEEP. THE SAVANNA ANTEATER IS THE LARGEST OF THE SOUTH AMERICAN SPECIES WEIGHING NEARLY 100 POUNDS AND SOMETIMES RANGING UP To 8 FEET IN LENGTH FROM NOSE TO THE TIP OF HIS LONG BANNERéLIKE TAIL. GEN- ERALLY THE ANTEATER IS CONSIDERED A HARMLESS CREATURE BUT DEFENSIVELY THEY ARE VERY DANGEROUS. THEY REPORTEDLY CAN CRUSH A JAGUAR TO DEATH WITH THEIR POWERFUL ARMS. WHETHER THIS IS TRUE OR NOT THE FACT THAT THEY CAN BREAK OPEN THE SHELL OF A TERMITE NEST WITH A BLOW OF A PAW IS SUFFICIENT EVIDENCE OF THEIR STRENGTH. AMONG THE DEER OF SOUTH AMERICA ARE SEVERAL SPECIES CALLED "BROCKETS" OR "VEAQQ" IN BRAZIL. THE QAMEQS aflnflfifilfi ARE SMALL. FLEET. ELUSIVE CREATURES TWO To TWO AND ONE-HALF FEET HIGH. THEY ARE NOCTURNAL FEEDERS HOLING UP IN THE DAYTIME AMONG ROCK FORMATIONS OR IN DENSE THICKETS. WHEN PURSUED THEY COVER THE GROUND IN GREAT LEAPS. ALONG WITH THEIR COUSINS FROM THE FOREST THEY ARE THE OBJECTS OF INTENSIVE COLLECTIVE HUNTS BY THE INDIANS. THE BIRDS COMPRISE A RATHER LARGE IF SOMEWHAT WARY PORTION OF THE SAVANNA FAUNA. MbRE THAN 1500 SPECIES OF BIRDS HAVE BEEN IDENTI- FIED IN SOUTH AMERICA OF WHICH MORE THAN 500 HAVE BEEN FURTHER IDENTI- FIED IN THE QAMEQS OF BRAZIL. ALTHOUGH THERE ARE A NUMBER OF BIRDS SUCH AS QUAIL. PARTRIDGE. DOVE. TINAMOUS. PHEASANT. AND LARK WHICH ARE GENERALLY ASSOCIATED WITH OPEN AREAS. THE MAJORITY OF THE BIRDS FEED IN THE SAVANNAS BUT NEST IN THE FORESTS. HAWKS AND BUZZARDS ARE A COMMON SIGHT OVERHEAD. ONE OF THE MORE UNUSUAL BIRDS OF SOUTH 172 AMERICA IS THE RHEA. A FLIGHTLESS OSTRICH-LIKE BIRD OF THE PAMPAS. GRAN CHACO AND SOUTHERN AREAS OF THE CAMEQ_. RANGING UP TO 100 POUNDS THE RHEA IS AN EXCELLENT SOURCE OF MEAT. OF THE REPTILES OF SOUTH AMERICA. THE RATTLESNAKE (CROTALUS DURISSHS IERRIFIQUS) CALLED "CASCAVEL" OR "CASCABEL" IS THE MOST DANGEROUS INHABITANT OF THE SAVANNAS. IT IS FOUND THROUGHOUT THE DRYER REGIONS EAST OF THE ANDES BUT RARELY UNDER NORMAL CONDITIONS IN THE RAIN FOREST OR IN WET MARSHY AREAS. ALTHOUGH CAPABLE OF SWIMMING. AS ARE MOST SNAKES. IT IS NOT OF AN AQUATIC NATURE. IN APPEARANCE THE QAECAXEL EXHIBITS THE CHARACTERISTIC DIAMOND-SHAPED PATTERNS OF MOST RATTLESNAKES. THESE ARE FORMED IN LIGHTER YELLOW COLORED SCALES FRAMING DARKER BROWN OR GRAY SOLID DIAMOND PATTERNS ALONG THE BACK AND SIDES. PARALLEL STRIPES EXTEND FROM THE HEAD AND THE CORNERS OF THE MOUTH BACK ALONG THE NECK FOR EIGHT TO TEN INCHES. THE CHARACTERISTIC "RATTLE" IS BOTH EVIDENT AND SOUND PRC- DUCING. IT RANGES IN LENGTH UP TO SIX FEET BUT AVERAGES LESS THAN FIVE FEET. THERE ARE SOME IN THE RUPUNUNI WHICH ARE SOMEWHAT SMALLER THAN THE AVERAGE AND ARE PROBABLY A DIFFERENT SUB-SPECIE. THERE IS SOME QUESTION ABOUT THE SOUNDING OF THEIR RATTLE. WHILE STILL CALLED A CASQAVEL IT IS DISTINGUISHED FROM THE LARGER SPECIE WHICH IS CALLED THE ”BUSH" ggsgevgl. BESIDES THE QASQAVEL ANOTHER DANGEROUS SNAKE IN THE SAVANNA IS THE FER-DE-LANCE CALLED THE "JARARAQA." THE JARARAQA IS PROBABLY THE MOST UBIQUITOUS OF THE SOUTH AMERICAN POISONOUS SNAKES AND Is FOUND IN THE FORESTS. SAVANNAS. AND CULTIVATED AREAS AS WELL. PAR- TICULAR CARE IS NECESSARY WHEN SEARCHING THE THICKETS AND BRUSH OR IN HOLES, ROCKS. BURROWS. AND ESPECIALLY TERMITE MOUNDS. OTHER 173 REPTILES INCLUDE NUMEROUS LIZARDS. TORTOISES. AND NON-POISONOUS SNAKES. THE HABITS OF THE FOREST ANIMALS REFLECT THE SOMEWHAT TRANSIENT OR SECONDARY NATURE OF THEIR RELATIONSHIP WITH THE SAVANNA ENVIRONMENT. THE SEASONAL ASPECTS ARE ONE OF THE MAJOR INFLUENCES ON THE INTENSITY OF ACTIVITY. DURING THE RAINY SEASON THE ANIMALS REMAIN MOSTLY IN THE FOREST. FOLLOWING THE RAINY SEASON THE RIVERS AND STREAMS BEGIN To RECEDE AND THE RIVERINE LIFE BECOMES CONCEN- TRATED IN RESIDUAL SWAMPS AND INTERMITTENT STREAMS. THE ANIMAL ACTIVITY INCREASES PROPORTIONATELY AMONG THE CARNIVOROUS ANIMALS Es- PECIALLY THOSE THAT FEED ON THE RIVER ANIMALS. THEN THE GRASSES. BERRIES. NUTS. AND OTHER SAVANNA VEGETATION BECOME EnIBLE. THE HER— BIVORES AND INSECTIVORES INCREASE IN NUMBERS WHICH IN TURN AGAIN ATTRACTS THE PREDATORY CARNIVOROUS ANIMALS. AS THE SEASON OF DROUGHT REACHES ITS GREATEST INTENSITY MOST OF THE ANIMAL LIFE REVERTS TO THE FOREST LEAVING THE DEAD. OPEN GRASSLANDS. LIFELESS SCRUB TREES. BUSHES. AND PARCHED. BAKED EARTH To THE INSECTS. LIZARDS. SNAKES. AND RODENTS THAT BURROW BENEATH IT. OR THE BIRDS THAT FLY ABOVE IT. THE FOREST ANIMALS RARELY RANGE FAR FROM THE MARGINS OF THE FOREST. THIS IS ESPECIALLY TRUE IN THE CAMPQS AND THE LLANOS. IN THE RUPUNUNI WHICH IS NOT SO EXPANSIVE AND SUSTAINS A GREATER DENSITY OF TREES AND VEGETATION THE ANIMAL LIFE IS MORE ACTIVE. THE Ex- CEPTION TO THIS IS WHERE THE CATTLE RAISING ACTIVITIES TEND TO SCARE THE ANIMALS AWAY. IN THE CAMPOS WHERE THERE ARE EXTENSIVE AREAS OF CERADQ CR QEBAQAQ THE ANIMAL LIFE IS ALSO MORE ACTIVE. THE MORE PESISTENT FORAGERS IN THE SAVANNAS ARE THE DEER AND ARMADILLOS THAT FREQUENTLY HOLE UP IN THE SAVANNA; CAVIES. 1'74 TAPIRS. AGOUTIS. PACA. PECCARY. AND THE BIG CATS. THE PUMAS AND JAGUARS. THESE ANIMALS ARE DESCRIBED AT LENGTH UNDER DATA PER- TAINING TO FOOD AND HAZARDS OF THE TROPICAL FOREST. IN THE SAVANNAS THE INDIANS MOST USUALLY RESORT TO COLLECTIVE HUNTING TECHNIQUES FOR SUCH GAME BECAUSE OF THE DIFFICULTY OF STALKING IN THE OPEN AREAS. THE GAME IS DRIVEN TO WAITING HUNTERS OR INTO PREPARED TRAPS AND PITFALLS. ONE OF THE MORE COMMON METHODS OF DRIVING THE GAME IS BY FIRING THE GRASS. WHEN FIRING TAKES PLACE. USUALLY NEAR THE END OF THE DRY SEASON. THE HAZE FROM THE BURNING SAVANNAS ARE A COMMON SIGHT. THE INDIANS MOVE INTO THE BURNT OFF AREAS COLLECTING EVERY FORM OF LIFE THAT HAS BEEN "COOKED" BY THE FIRES. LITTLE IF ANYTHING IS CONSIDERED As INEDIBLE. ONE OUTSTANDING. AND FOR SURVIVAL PURPOSES. UNFORTUNATE ASPECT OF THE ANIMAL LIFE OF THE SAVANNAS IS THE ELUSIVE OR APPARENT ABSENCE OF IT.‘ FOR ONE THING. THE OPEN NATURE OF THE TERRAIN AFFORDS THE ANIMALS A CONSIDERABLE ADVANTAGE. MOST OF THEM ARE BELOW THE LEVEL OF THE VEGETATION WHEREAS A MAN STANDING ABOVE IT IS EASILY SIGHTED. SECONDLY. ANIMAL ALARMS HAVE A CONTAGIOUS EFFECT SO THAT THE REACTION OF A BIRD OR EVEN A GRASSHOPPER IS SUFFICIENT TO WARN ALL THE OTHER ANIMALS IN THE VICINITY. ONE OF THE SHRILLEST AND ANNOYING SOUNDS OF THE CAMPOS IS MADE BY A PARTICULAR GRASSHOPPER. As AN INDIVIDUAL MOVES IN AN AREA THE SILENCE IS PARTICULARLY NOTICEABLE BUT IF ONE REMAINS MOTIONLESS FOR A PERIOD THE ”RACKET" PICKS UP AGAIN. THE HUNTING TECHNIQUES OF THE INDIANS. THE MANY HOURS SPENT IN HUNTING. OFTEN FROM MORNING TO NIGHTFALL. AND THE FREQUENT FAILURE TO FIND ANY SIZABLE GAME REFLECTS THE SCARCITY AND DIFFICULTY OF CAPTURING GAME. VERY FREQUENTLY THE EVENING MEAL OF AN INDIAN FAMILY WILL CONSIST OF 1'76 THE GRASSHOPPERS. BEETLES. GRUBS. BERRIES. FRUITS. AND NUTS THAT THE WOMAN HAS GATHERED WHILE HER HUSBAND WAS HUNTING. THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT COMPOSITION OF THE RIVERS. STREAMS. POOLS. PONDS. SWAMPS. AND BOGS OFFERS THE RICHEST AND MOST RELIABLE SOURCE OF SUSTENANCE WITHIN THE SAVANNAS. IT IS NECESSARY. HOWEVER. TO QUALIFY THE FOREGOING STATEMENT BY POINTING OUT THE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE AND TOPOGRAPHY ON THE DISPERSION OF THE WATERS AND THE DIs— TRIBUTION OF AQUATIC FAUNA AND LAND ANIMALS AND BIRDS WHICH FEED UPON THEM. DURING THE RAINY SEASON THE RIVERS AND STREAMS OVERFLOW IN- UNDATING THE ADJACENT AREAS FOR MILES 0N EITHER SIDE. THE ANIMAL LIFE TOO IS SPREAD OUT THROUGH THE FLOODED AREAS. AT SUCH TIMES CATCHING FISH AND OTHER WATER ANIMALS PRESENTS SEVERAL PROBLEMS. FOR ONE. THE FISH ARE WIDELY DISPERSED AND ARE AFFORDED AN ABUNDANT SOURCE OF FOOD FROM THE FLOOD LAND VEGETATION. MAKING THEM LESS SUSCEPTIBLE TO BAIT FISHING. ANOTHER PROBLEM Is THE PERIPHERAL MARSHY AREAS THROUGH WHICH ONE MUST WADE TO GET TO MOVING WATERS WHERE MOST OF THE FISH ARE. ALSO ASSOCIATED WITH THE PERIPHERAL MARSHES AND THE WADING IS THE DANGER FROM THE VARIOUS HARMFUL ANIMALS LISTED BELOW. DURING THE PERIODS OF DROUGHT WHEN THE WATER OF THE RIVERS. STREAMS. AND SWAMPS BECOME GREATLY REDUCED IN VOLUME THEY BECOME CON- CENTRATED WITHIN THEIR BEDS. DURING THE EARLY PERIODS AS THE STREAMS BEGIN TO DRY UP. THE UNDULATIONS OF THE LAND CAUSES INTERMITTENT STOPPAGE OF FLOW. THE FISH AND OTHER AQUATIC LIFE FORMS BECOME Iso- LATED AND TRAPPED IN THE DIMINISHING NON-FLOWING POCKETS OF WATER. AT SUCH TIMES THE WATER TEEMS WITH ACTIVITY UNTIL THE GREATER PART OF THE FAUNA FINALLY DIE. FISH ARE FOUND BY THE THOUSANDS LYING ON 177 ' THE MUD FLATS ALONG THE RIVERS AND STREAMS OR SURROUNDING THE SWAMPS. THE LIFE STILL REMAINING CONTINUE TO PREY UPON EACH OTHER. ALSO. THE LAND ANIMALS AND BIRDS CONGREGATE IN GREATER NUMBERS IN THE VICINITY OF THE RECEDING WATER. TAKING ADVANTAGE OF THE EASY ACCESS TO FOOD. AT SUCH TIMES. ALTHOUGH THE FOOD-GETTING PROSPECTS ARE GREATLY INCREASED. THERE IS ALSO AN EVER INCREASING THREAT FROM THE CONCEN- TRATION OF THE MORE DANGEROUS TYPE OF RIVER INHABITANTS. NAMELY; THE CAIMAN AND CROCODILES. THE PIRANHA WHICH BECOME ESPECIALLY VICIOUS IN CONCENTRATED AREAS. STING RAYS AND ELECTRIC EELS; JAGUARS WHICH ARE PREYING UPON THE LESSER PREDATORS. AND POISON SNAKES WHICH REMAIN ON THE PERIPHERY ALSO TAKING ADVANTAGE OF THE CONCENTRATED FOOD PRos- PECTS. AGAIN. THE DANGER INVOLVED IS NOT SO MUCH THAT OF BEING DE- LIBERATELY ATTACKED AS THAT OF COMING UNEXPECTEDLY UPON SUCH ANIMALS WHICH IN TURN REACTS DEFENSIVELY. AS THE PERIOD OF DROUGHT REACHES THE STAGE OF EQUILIBRIUM. THE ANIMAL LIFE SURROUNDING THE WATER SOURCES BECOMES MORE SCARCE. THE TURTLE AND CAIMAN FREQUENTLY BURROW DEEP INTO THE MUD AND REMAIN IN A TORPID STATE OF SEMI-HIBERNATION. OTHERWISE. THEY MIGRATE TO AREAS OF MORE PERMANENT WATER. THE FOREST ANIMALS RETREAT TO THE MORE I ABUNDANT AREAS OF FOOD WITHIN THE FORESTS. CHAPTER VIII REGIONAL.DEOCRIPTIDN THE LLANOS QF VENEZUELA AND COLOMBIA DISTRIBUTION. THE MOST EXTENSIVE SAVANNA NORTH OF THE AMAZON ARE THE LLANOS OF VENEZUELA AND SOUTHEASTERN COLOMBIA. THE LLANOS FORM A GREAT ARC BOUNDED ON THE NORTH AND WEST BY THE COASTAL RANGE AND THE EASTERN CORDILLERA. ON THE EAST AND SOUTH BY THE ORINOCO DELTA AND THE WEST-EAST COURSE OF THE RIO ORINOCO AS IT FOLLOWS THE BASE OF THE GUIANA HIGHLANDS; AND THE NORTHEAST COURSE OF THE RIO GUAVIARE WHICH RISES IN THE ANDES AT APPROXIMATELY 750W-20N AND FLOWS NORTHEAST TO APPROXIMATELY 680W-40N WHERE IT JOINS THE RIO ORINOCO. IN ALL. IT ENCOMPASSES MORE THAN 200.000 SQUARE MILES. ALONG ITS ENTIRE SOUTHERN EXTREMITY IT MERGES WITH F THE VAST GUIANA-AMAZON RAIN FOREST AND ON THE WEST THE ANDES DESCEND -.. .2 -—.- \n- p ABRUPTLY TO THE PLAINS WITH ONLY SLIGHT EVIDENCE OF FOOTHILLs. I-\..-%: REIIEF AND DRAINAG . THE MAJOR PHYSIOGRAPHIC FEATURE OF THE -‘-4—..—.-_.-.4:-... . . ENTIRE LLAMQE IS THE RIO ORINOCO ITSELF. EXCEPT FOR TWO RELATIVELY fl MINOR DRAINAGE SYSTEMS IN THE NORTHEASTERN PART OF THE REGION. THE RIO ORINOCO IS THE MAIN ARTERY OF THE ENTIRE DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF THE ORINOCO BASIN. THE RIVER IS FREQUENTLY DESCRIBED IN TWO OR THREE DIVISIONS SOMEWHAT ARBITRARILY SEPARATED ACCORDING TO NAVIGATIONAL CAPABILI- TIES 0R DIRECTION OF FLow. ONLY THE TWO DIVISIONS. CALLED THE UPPER 178 179 ORINOCO AND LOWER ORINOCO. SERVE AS THE FRAME OF REFERENCE FOR THE DESCRIPTIVE DATA THAT FOLLOWS. THE UPPER ORINOCO STRETCHES FROM APPROXIMATELY 620W-20N IN THE SIERRA DE PARIMA TO THE JUNCTION OF THE RIO META. A DISTANCE OF MORE THAN 400 MILES. IT RISES AS A TINY BROOK PERHAPS ONE STEP WIDE BUT SOON BECOMES A RUSHING MOUNTAIN STREAM FED BY NUMEROUS OTHER TINY MOUNTAIN STREAMS AND THE TORRENTIAL RAINS OF THE REGION. BETWEEN 660 TO 670W AND 30 TO 4ON. THE RIVER ENTERS A RELATIVELY LEVEL REGION. WITHIN THIS STRETCH THE RIVER IS CONNECTED WITH THE AMAZON RIVER SYSTEM THROUGH THE CASIQUIARE CANAL INTO THE RIO NEGRO. DURING THE RAINY SEASON THERE ARE SEVERAL INTERCONNECTING WATERWAYS BUT ONLY THE CASIQUIARE IS PREDICTABLE AND CARRIES WATER DURING THE DRY SEASON. EVEN DURING THE DRY SEASON TRAVELERS FREQUENTLY PREFER TRAVELING OVER- LAND BECAUSE OF THE MEANDERING CHARACTER OF THE CANAL. THE FIRST MAJOR TRIBUTARY OF THE RIO ORINOCO IS THE RIO VENTUARI FLOWING WESTWARD FROM THE GUIANA HIGHLANDS. AT THE CONFLUENCE OF THE TWO RIVERS. THE SURROUNDING AREA IS LOW AND SWAMPY AND IS CALLED THE VENTUARI DELTA. FROM THIS POINT THE RIO ORINOCO FLOWS WEST TO THE SMALL RIVER TOWN OF SAN FERNANDO DE ATABAPO (67°45.W-4°10'N) WHERE TWO MAJOR RIVERS ENTER THE GUAVIARE FLOWING NORTHEASTERLY FROM THE ANDES THROUGH THE LLANOS. AND THE ATABAPO FLOWING NORTH THROUGH THE TROPICAL RAIN FOREST EXTENDING FROM THE AMAZON. THE FOREST AREAS SUR- ROUNDING THE JUNCTION OF THE THREE RIVERS IS SUBJECT TO INTENSE FLOODING PERIODICALLY. DENSE TROPICAL FORESTS COVER THIS ENTIRE REGION IS THE SEVERAL SPECTACULAR GRANITE MASSES WHICH RISE ABRUPTLY FROM THE SURROUNDING FOREST. THE MORE PROMINENT OF THESE ARE THE 0 I I O u I CERRO DUIDA (65 35 W-3020 M) AND THE CERRO MARAHUACA (65 25 W-3035 N) 180 WHICH RISE TO HEIGHTS OF OVER 8,000 FEET. FROM THE JUNCTION OF THE RIO GUAVIARE. THE RIO ORINOCO FLOWS DUE NORTH FOR MORE THAN 150 MILES TO THE CONFLUENCE OF THE RIO META. IN THE UPPER COURSE BETWEEN THE JUNCTION OF THE CASIQUIARE AND THE 0 I O I RIO SIPAPo (67 50 W-S 15 N) THE RIVER IS NAVIGABLE FOR PASSENGER AND CARGO LAUNCHES. MUCH OF THE TRAFFIC IN THIS PORTION OF THE RIVER COMES FROM THE AMAZON THROUGH THE RIO NEGRo-CASIQUIARE SYSTEM. BELOW THE RIO SIPAPO. A SERIES OF RAPIDS EFFECTIVELY BAR CONTINUOUS NAVIGATION. CARGO MUST BE RELAYED OVERLAND FOR TRANSSHIPPING ABOVE OR BELOW THE RAPIDS. PASSENGERS. UNLESS THEY DESIRE TO RISK THE HAzARDS OF "SHOOTING" THE RAPIDS BY DUGOUT. ALSO TRAVEL OVERLAND. THE FIRST OF THESE RAPIDS TO BE ENCOUNTERED ARE NAMED THE "AAIEURES." THE NAME OF AN INDIAN TRIBE OF THE REGION NOW MORE OR LESS EXTINCT. THE " AUDAL 2g MAIPURES" DESCEND OVER FOUR MILES THROUGH HIGH GRANITE CLIFFS. HUGE BOULDERS. DIVERSE CHANNELS. SUBMERGED REEFS AND SHELVES. BELOW THE MAIPURES. THE RIVER COURSES THROUGH A SERIES OF LESSER RAPIDS BEFORE REACHING THE "RANDAL Q: A1235" ANOTHER EQUALLY TREACHEROUS STRETCH OF RAPIDS AND ALSO BEARING AN INDIAN NAME. ONCE THE ATURES HAVE BEEN BY-PASSED. NAVIGATION RESUMES ON THE ORINOCO WITH ONLY ONE SERIOUS INTERRUPTION IN ITS MIDDLE COURSE WHERE EL PASO DEL INFIERNA POSES A THREAT. THE UPPER COURSE OF THE RIO ORINOCO RECEIVES THE FLOW OF SEVERAL LARGE RIVERS CROSSING THE LLANOS. THE RIOS GUAVIARE. VICHADA. TOMO. MESETA. AND GUARIPA ARE ALL PERMANENT FLOWING RIVERS. THE REGION THROUGH WHICH THE MAIN RIVER FLOWS IS ALTERNATELY FORESTED OR HAS LLAHQS ALONG ITS LEFT BANK WHILE THE RIGHT BANK IS ENGULFED BY DENSE RAIN FOREST EXTENDING INTO THE GUIANA HIGHLANDS. 181 DURING THE RAINY SEASON THE WATERS RISE THIRTEEN TO FIFTEEN FEET FLOODING THE SURROUNDING AREAS. THE LOWER ORINOCO BEGINS A SHORT DISTANCE SOUTH OF THE CON- FLUENCE WITH THE RIO META. PUERTO AYACUCHO (67040'W-5040.N) IS THE MAIN TRANSFER POINT FOR OVERLAND TRANSSHIPMENT OF GOODS AROUND THE RAPIDS DIVIDING THE UPPER AND LOWER STRETCHES OF THE RIVER. THIS STRETCH OF RIVER FROM THE CONFLUENCE OF THE RIO GUAVIARI TO THE RIO APURE. ANOTHER 150 MILES NORTH OF THE RAPIDS. IS FREQUENTLY CALLED THE "MIDDLE" ORINOCO. AT THE RIO APURE JUNCTION THE MAIN RIVER SWINGS TO THE EAST FOLLOWING THE CURVITURE OF THE GUIANA HIGHLANDS. DENSE RAIN FORESTS EXTEND ALONG THE ENTIRE LENGTH OF THE RIGHT BANK OF THE RIVER. ALONG THE LEFT BANK. OR WEST AND NORTH BANK. THE LLANOS PRE- DOMINATE ALTHOUGH STRIPS OF FOREST OF VARYING DENSITY AND COMPOSITIONS EXTEND FROM SEVERAL FEET TO SEVERAL HUNDRED FEET INTO THE LOWLAND PLAINS. BETWEEN THE RIO META AND THE RIO APURE. THE RIO ORINOCO IS APPROXIMATELY 2.000 YARDS IN WIDTH. THE CURRENT THOUGH NOT SLUGGISH A IS NOT SO SWIFT AS IN ITS UPPER COURSE. SEVERAL LARGER STREAMS AND NUMEROUS SMALL FEEDERS CONTINUE TO FLOW INTO THE RIVER FROM EITHER SIDE. AT THE CONFLUENCE OF THE RIO APURE. THE RIO ORINOCO BROADENS ‘1'! f‘.»')l.~‘h-‘.." APPROXIMATELY To 4.300 YARDS DURING THE DRY PERIODS AND TO MORE THAN 12.000 YARDS DURING THE RAINY SEASON. THE VOLUME BECOMES SO GREAT THAT THE FLOW FROM THE SEVERAL FAIRLY LARGE RIVERS OF THE GUIANA HIGHLANDS. NAMELY; THE RIOS CUCHIVERO. CAURA. AND CARONI HAVE LITTLE VISIBLE EFFECT. NUMEROUS ISLANDS APPEAR. SOME ARE PERMANENT; MANY ARE EXPOSED ONLY DURING THE DRY SEASON. CHANNELS ARE BEING CONTINUALLY CREATED. 182 FLOODED AWAY. AND NEW ONES RECREATED BY THE FLUCTUATION OF THE WATER HIGHS AND LOWS CAUSED BY SEASONAL CHANGE. DURING THE DRY SEASON. MOST OF THE MEANDERING SIDE CHANNELS DRY UP SO THAT EVEN BOATS OF SHALLOW DRAFT CANNOT BE USED. DURING THE RAINY SEASON. THE QURRENT BECOMES QUITE SWIFT. MANY WHIRLPOOLS ARE CREATED. PARTICULARLY WHERE HIGH BANKS CONFINE THE RIVER TO ITS PERMANENT BED. ONE SUCH AREA OF ESPECIAL IMPORTANCE Is "EL PASO DE INFIERNO." LITERALLY "THE PASSAGE OF HELL." LOCATED SEVERAL MILES EAST OF TAPIRE O . O ' (64 45 W-7 50 N). THE RIVER MAKES AN ACUTE ANGLE IN ITS COURSE AT THIS POINT AND ENTERS A NARROWING CHANNEL. THE FLOW IS FURTHER CONSTRIOTED BY A LARGE ISLAND IN THE MIDDLE OF THE RIVER. THE BED OF THE RIVER IS FILLED WITH ROCKS CLOSE TO THE SURFACE. DURING THE RAINY SEASON. THE PASSAGE AROUND THE WEST SIDE OF THE ISLAND IS IM- PASSABLE AND THE FLOW OF WATER IN THE EAST CHANNEL IS FROM TWELVE TO FIFTEEN MILES PER HOUR. AS A RESULT THE UPBOUND BOATS MUST OFTEN BE WINCHED THROUGH THE "INFIERNO" BY THE USE OF ROPES AND TREES ALONG ‘fi... THE BANKS. ._....‘ _-. o I ‘ . O ' CUIDAD BOLIVAR (63 40 W—B 20 N) IS THE MOST IMPORTANT CITY ON THE RIO ORINOCO. IT IS A TRANSSHIPPING POINT FOR GOODS THROUGH- OUT THE ORINOCO RIVER SYSTEM AND MAINTAINS-TRADE-ROUTE CONNECTION BOTH ‘.’—-.. 4—» .— .:.._.-,.-. n...- LAND AND WATER WITH BARCELONA ON THE NORTH COAST. BOGOTA THROUGH SAN FERNANDO DE APURE AND THE AMAZON THROUGH SAN FERNANDO DE ATABAPO AND THE CASIQUIARE-RIO NEGRO SYSTEM. BELOW BARANCAS THE RIO ORINOCO SPREADS THROUGH MANY CHANNELS INTO THE ORINOCO DELTA. THE TIDES FROM THE ATLANTIC ARE FELT WELL ABOVE BARANCAS AND CONTRIBUTE TO THE CONSIDERABLE RISE OF FORTY TO FIFTY FEET AT CUIDAD BOLIVAR DURING THE RAINY SEASON (APRIL TO AUGUST 183 AND NOVEMBER). DURING THIS PERIOD MUCH OF THE Low-LYING AREAS ARE FLOODED FOR SEVERAL MILES BEYOND THE MAIN RIVER CHANNEL. AT SUCH TIMES THE RIVER APPEARS TO BE A LARGE LAKE RATHER THAN A RIVER. WITHIN THE PAST DECADE. TRAFFIC ON THE RIO ORINOCO AND ITS TRIBUTARIES PARTICULARLY THE RIO APURI AND THE RIO META HAS INCREASED TREMENDOUSLY. THE TWO MOST SIGNIFICANT CAUSES FOR THE INCREASE OF RIVER TRAFFIC IS THE DEVELOPMENT OF CATTLE RAISING INDUSTRY AND MINING. IRON ORE BOATS NOW MAKE REGULAR PASSAGE ON BOTH THE UPPER AND LOWER COURSES OF THE RIVZR TRANSSHIPPING AROUND THE MAIPURE AND THE ATURES RAPIDS BY ROAD AND RAIL. AbRTH OF THE RIO APURE AND THE WEST-EAST COURSE OF THE RIO ORINOCO. THERE ARE THREE DISTINCT DRAINAGE SYSTEMS. IMMEDIATELY WEST OF THE ORINOCO DELTA THE STREAMS FLOW TO THE NORTHEAST DRAINING INTO THE DELTA CHANNELS OR DIRECTLY INTO THE GULF DE PARIA. THERE ARE SIX MAJOR STREAMS WITH NUMEROUS SMALL BRANCHES AND TRIBUTARIES OF WHICH FIVE ARE NAVIGABLE TO SMALL CRAFT BUT ONLY ONE OF WHICH SUSTAINS SOME COMMERCIAL TRAFFIC. THESE RIVERS ARE THE URACOA. MORICHAL. F TIGRE. GUANIPA. AMANA AND THE GUARIPICHE. DURING THE DRY SEASON. THE WATER IN THESE STREAMS CONTINUE TO FLOW BUT IN SOME STRETCHES THE ‘--_-—n‘ ~‘u. a-- ___.—.-— .- FLOW IS REDUCED TO A MERE TRICKLE. THEY ARE CHARACTERISTICALLY M- MEANDERING AND FILLED WITH SAND SPITS. SUBMERGED LOGS. AND NUMEROUS SHARP TURNS. ON THE EAST. THE LLANOS IN THIS AREA MERGE WITH THE SWAMP AREAS OF THE DELTA. TOWARD THE WEST THE LAND RISES GENTLY UNTIL IT REACHES AN ELEVATION OF ABOUT 600 TO 700 FEET. IN THE VICINITY o o, O ' 65 -66 W AND 8 40 N. THE LAND FORMS AN ALMOST IMPERCEPTIBLE DIVIDE BETWEEN THE THREE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS. THE RIO UNARE WITH ITS NUMEROUS TRIBUTARIES WHICH FLOWS NORTHWARD INTO THE CARIBBEAN SEA FORMS THE 184 SECOND DRAINAGE SYSTEM. THE MAIN TRIBUTARIES OF THE RIO UNARE ARE THE RIOS CHAPARRITo. TAMANACO. TUCUPIDO. IPIRE. GUANAPE. GUARIBE. AND ARAGUA WHICH IN TURN ARE FED BY NUMEROUS SMALL STREAMS. THEY ARE DRAINED BY THE RIO UNARE SYSTEM AND ARE SUBUECTED TO INTENSIVE FLOODING DURING THE RAINY SEASON. THE THIRD DRAINAGE SYSTEM IS THAT OF THE RIO ORINOCO. FROM THIS AREA ON TOWARD THE WEST AND THE SOUTH. ALL OF THE RIVERS AND STREAMS CROSSING THE LLANOS EVENTUALLY EMPTY INTO THE RIO ORINOCO. THE LLANOS EXHIBIT A GENERAL UNIFORMITY OF ROLLING. OR UN- DULATING PLAINS. IN THIS NORTHEASTERN PORTION THERE ARE EXTENSIVE. GRASSY TABLE LANDS wITH SHARPLY DEFINED. ESCARPED RIMS CALLED "MESAS." THESE MESAS. OCCURRING IRREGULARLY. DO NOT RISE MORE THAN SEVERAL FEET ABOVE THE LEVEL OF THE LAND BUT THEY ARE NOTABLE FOR THEIR Ex- TREME FLATNESS UNINTERRUPTED BY STREAMS AND NEAR ABSENCE OF TREES. IN CONSTRAST. THE LLANOS SURROUNDING THE MESAS ARE INCISED BY NUMEROUS "QUEBRAQAS" OR DRIED-UP STREAM BEDS WHICH BECOME FILLED AND OVERFLOW DURING THE RAINY PERIODS INUNDATING THE AREAS BETWEEN THE MESAS. THIS AREA COMPRISES MOST OF THE STATE OF GUARICO IN VENEZUELA. BETWEEN THE RIO PAO AND THE RIO APURE. THE DRAINAGE SYSTEM FORMS A HUGE FAN-SHAPED ARC FROM EAST TO WEST. THOSE ON THE EAST DRAIN SOUTHWARD INTO THE RIO ORINOCO. TOWARD THE WEST. THE RIVERS DRAIN SOUTHEASTERLY AND FINALLY DIRECTLY EAST FOLLOWING THE CURVI— TURE OF THE COASTAL RANGE AND EASTERN SLOPES OF THE ANDES FROM WHICH THEY FLOW. THE MAIN RIVERS ARE THE PAo. SUATA. IGUANA. MANAPIRE. GUARIOO. GUANAUTA. AND THE PORTUGUESA. THE LATTER BEING A MAJOR TRIBUTARY OF THE RIO APURE. ALL OF THE ABOVE RIVERS HAVE AN Ex- TENSIVE NETWORK OF TRIBUTARIES, HOWEVER, ONLY THOSE NAMED SUSTAIN A 185 i PERMANENT FLOW OF WATER AND EVEN THESE EXCEPT FOR THE RIO PORTUGUESA ARE QUITE LOW DURING THE DRY SEASON. THE TERRAIN THROUGHOUT MOST OF THIS PORTION OF THE LIANQS IS FLAT. DRAB AND MONOTONOUS. IT IS SUBJECTED To FLOODING DURING THE RAINS AND GREAT SHEETS OF WATER FILL THE DEPRESSIONS WHICH ARE CALLED "§STERQS." THIS IS ONE OF THE POOR AREAS FOR CATTLE NOT ONLY BECAUSE OF THE INUNDATION BUT ALSO BECAUSE OF THE SCOURGE OF THE INSECTS. PARTICULARLY THE FLY WHICH DEPOSITS ITS EGGS UNDER THE SKIN OF THE CATTLE CAUSING EXTENSIVE INFECTIONs--THIS FLY IS NOT ADVERSE To USING AN AVAILABLE HUMAN FOR THE SAME PURPOSE. THE WESTERN-MOST PART OF THE LLANOS OF VENEZUELA ARE OFTEN REFERRED TO AS LLANOS ALIQ (HIGH LLANOS) AS COMPARED TO THOSE To THE EAST CALLED THE LLANOS §A22§ (LOW LLANOS). THEY ARE ALSO IDENTIFIED FREQUENTLY BY THE NAME OF THE STATE IN WHICH THEY ARE LOCATED. E.G.. "LIANQS 25 BARIMA ." THEY LIE ALONG THE BASE OF THE COASTAL RANGE AND EASTERN SLOPE OF THE ANDES. THE RIVERS AND STREAMS DRAINING THE BARINAS LLANOS ARE ALL TRIBUTARIES OF THE RIO APURE. THE MAIN RIVERS. EACH HAVING A NETWORK OF TRIBUTARIES. ARE THE RIOS MASPARRO. PAGUEI. I CANAGUA. SURIPA. CAPARO. AND URIBANTE. THE RIO APURE VIES WITH THE RIO META FARTHER SOUTH AS THE MOST IMPORTANT TRIBUTARY OF THE RIO ORINOCO. WITH ITS EXTENSIVE DRAINAGE SYSTEM WHICH INCLUDES THE RIO PORTUGUESA. IT IS ONE OF THE MAJOR RIVERS OF SOUTH AMERICA. AS A WESTERN EXTENSION OF THE RIO ORINOCO. ITS NAVIGATIONAL POTENTIAL COULD BE A MAJOR AVENUE FOR COM- MERCE BETWEEN THE LLANQS AND THE REGIONS To THE WEST. IT DOES CONNECT WITH THE IMPORTANT PASSES OVER THE EASTERN CORDILLERA. DURING THE RAINY SEASON, THE TRIBUTARIES OF THE RIO APURE OVERFLOW AND EXTEND 186 I OVER WIDE AREAS. THE BANKS OF THE RIVERS ARE CONTINUALLY CHANGING BEING CUT AWAY AND REFORMING WHERE NEW DEPOSITS ARE BUILT UP. THE RIO PORTUGUESA WHICH COULD BECOME A TRAFFICABLE RIVER MEANDERS SO THAT THE CHANNEL IS OFTEN COMPLETELY LOST IN THE WIDESPREAD FLOODING OF THE SURROUNDING AREA. THE RIOS APURE. META. TOMA. VICHADA. AND GUAVIARE. ALL OF WHICH DRAIN THE EASTERN SLOPES OF THE ANDES. EACH HAVE AN EXTENSIVE NETWORK OF TRIBUTARIES. LIKE THE RIO APURE. THE RIO META HAS A Po- TENTIAL OF BECOMING ONE OF THE MORE IMPORTANT COMMERCIAL AVENUES OF SOUTH AMERICA. THE RIVERS HAVE EXTENSIVE FLOOD PLAINS OVER WHICH THEY SPREAD DURING THE RAINY SEASONS. THE FLOODING IS MORE WIDESPREAD AND LONGER LASTING IN THE LOWER COURSEs-—ESPECIALLY APPROACHING THE RIO ORINOCO. THE LLANOS OF THE ABOVE RIVERS ARE LESS FLAT TOWARD THE WEST AND PRESENT SOME DIFFICULT TERRAIN TO TRAVEL. AMONG THE FEATURES OF THIS AREA ARE THE "SURALES." A PECULIAR NETWORK OF DITCHES. SUR- ROUNDING RAISED MOUNDS SEVERAL FEET APART. USUALLY THE DITCHES ARE PARTIALLY FILLED WITH STAGNANT WATER CAUSING A THICK MUCK To FORM. IN TRAVELING THROUGH SUCH AN AREA THE INDIVIDUAL EITHER WADES THROUGH THE DITCHES OR ATTEMPTS THE TIRING FEAT OF JUMPING FROM MOUND T0 MOUND IF SPAOING PERMITS. ANOTHER FEATURE OF THE REGION IS THE "S RR N ." LITERALLY MOUNTAIN RIDGES. ACTUALLY. THEY HAVE NOT THE HEIGHT THAT THE NAME IMPLIES. HOWEVER. THEY DO EXHIBIT THE STEEP SLOPES AND "HOG BACKS" WITH THE INTERLYING VALLEYS FREQUENTLY INUNDATED. WITHIN THE VALLEYS. STANDS OF TREES. INCLUDING THE PALMS ARE FREQUENTLY FOUND. FARTHER TO THE EAST WHERE THE LLANQS BECOME FLAT AND MORE POORLY DRAINED 187 LARGE ESTERQS ARE FORMED IN THE BAJOS OR LOWLANDS. CIIMATE. THE CLIMATE OF THE LLANOS IS DISTINCTLY TROPICAL WITH THE WET SEASON "INVIERNQ" AND THE DRY SEASON "VEBANQ" CON- TRASTING MOST SIGNIFICANTLY. THE ANNUAL TEMPERATURES SHOW LITTLE 0 o SEASONAL VARIATION. AVERAGING BETWEEN 75 TO 85 F. HOWEVER. THESE STATISTICS DO NOT REFLECT THE INTRA-REGIONAL VARIATION DUE TO LOCAL TOPOGRAPHY NOR DO THEY INDICATE THE CONSIDERABLE RANGE IN DAILY FLUCTUATIONS. FOR THE MOST PART. THE TEMPERATURE IS UNCOMFORTABLY HOT ESPECIALLY WHEN EXPOSED DIRECTLY TO THE SUN. DURING THE HOTTEST PART OF THE DAY. MOST ACTIVITY CEASES. IN THE NORTHEASTERN PORTION OF THE LLANOS. THE TEMPERATURE AVERAGES 850F. THE DAILY RANGE IS FROM THE LOW 7005 IN THE EARLY MORNING HOURS TO THE MIDDLE 9003 AT NOON. THE HIGHER TEMPERATURES PERSIST THROUGH MOST OF THE DAY WITH A COOLING PERIOD BECOMING NOTICEABLE FAIRLY LATE AT NIGHT. TO AN EXTENT THIS AREA IS IN- FLUENCED BY THE NORTHEAST TRADES TENDING TO REDUCE THE TEMPERATURES BUT ALSO CREATING A DRYING AFFECT WHICH QUICKLY EVAPORATES WHAT LITTLE RAIN FALLS DURING THE DROUGHT PERIOD. FARTHER INLAND THE TEMPERATURES AVERAGE SOMEWHAT HIGHER (89°F). BEING LESS AFFECTED BY THE COOLING WINDS FROM THE COAST. THE DAILY RANGE OF TEMPERATURE IS APPROXIMATELY THE SAME BUT AT THE HIGHER AVERAGES. DUE To THE LESSENING INFLUENCE OF THE TRADEWINDS. THE HUMIDITY IS CONSIDERABLY HIGHER AND ENERVATING. NOT SURPRISINGLY. THIS IS ONE OF THE LEAST DEVELOPED AREAS INSCFAR AS THE RAISING OF CATTLE AND IT IS MOST PESTIFEROUS. IN THE BARINos-SAN FERNANDO DE APURE AREA. THE TEMPERATURES o AGAIN DROP TO AN AVERAGE OF 82 F WITH A SLIGHTLY WIDER RANGE OF 188 DAILY TEMPERATURES BECAUSE OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE ANDES AND THE RELATIVELY HIGHER ALTITUDE (600 T0 800 FEET). To THE SOUTH. THE TEMPERATURES OF THE RIO META-GUAVIARE SAVANNAS REFLECT THE SAME GENERAL INFLUENCE OF THE MOUNTAINS TENDING TO BECOME HOTTER AS ONE TRAVELS FROM WEST TO EAST. ALSO. THE HUMIDITY BECOMES CONSIDERABLY HIGHER AS ONE APPROACHES THE RIO ORINOCO. THE RAINY SEASON EXTENDS FROM APRIL THROUGH MOVEMBER REACHING ITS HIGHEST RATE OF PRECIPITATION DURING THE MONTHS OF APRIL. MAY. AND JUNE. THROUGHOUT THE REGION THE ANNUAL RAINFALL IS BETWEEN FORTY TO FORTY-FIVE INCHES WITH THE AREA IMMEDIATELY EAST OF THE ANDES RECEIVING AN AVERAGE OF TWO TO FOUR INCHES MORE THAN THE EASTERN AND NORTHEASTERN AREAS. DURING THE DROUGHT PERIOD. DECEMBER TO MARCH. THERE IS SOME PRECIPITATION. TWO TO FOUR INCHES PER MONTH. BUT THIS MOISTURE IS RAPIDLY EVAPORATED BY THE COMBINING INFLUENCES OF THE SANDY TOPSOIL. QUICK RUN-OFF OF THE WATER AND THE DRYING EFFECTS OF THE WINDS. RE N TR V ND DEST N TI S. ADVERSE CONDITIONS AF- FECTING TRAVEL IN THE LLANQS ARE DIRECTLY ATTRIBUTABLE To SEASONAL INFLUENCES. DURING THE WINTER RAINS (APRIL TO NOVEMBER). EXTENSIVE TRACTS OF LAND THROUGHOUT THE REGION ARE CONVERTED To SWAMPS AND QUAG- MIRE. AREAS LYING ABOVE THE DEPRESSIONS ARE IRREGULARLY SPACED AND OFTEN DISCONTINUOUS. TO SUSTAIN EVEN A GENERAL LINE OF MARCH FRE- QUENTLY ENTAILS TRAVERSING THE ESTERQ . DURING THIS SAME PERIOD- SMALLER RIVERS AND STREAMS. MOST OF WHICH ARE NEARLY DRY OR COMPLETELY SO DURING THE SUMMER. SPREAD OVER THE COUNTRYSIDE. THEIR CHANNEL AND FLOW BECOME PRACTICALLY INDISTINGUISHABLE. THE LARGER RIVERS ALSO OVERFLOW AND SPREAD FAR AN]: WIDE. IN 189 SC DOING. NOT ONLY IS THE FLOW IN THE MAIN CHANNEL OBSCURED BUT NUMEROUS FALSE CHANNELS ARE CREATED INTERLACED WITH THE CHARACTER- ISTIC OXBOWS OF THE MAIN RIVER. CONSEQUENTLY. ONE FINDS ONE'S SELF PURSUING AN ERRATIC AND INTERMINABLE COURSE. OFTEN THROUGH THE GALLERY FORESTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE RIVER. SUCH CONDITIONS ARE MOST APPLICABLE TO THE LARGE WEST TO EAST FLOWING RIVERS FROM THE RIO APURE SOUTHWARD. IN THE DRY SUMMER MONTHS. ALL BUT THE LARGER RIVERS ARE RE- DUCED TO DRY BEDS OR MERE TRICKLES OF WATER SO THAT NAVIGABILITY IS IMPOSSIBLE. MANY OF THE ESTERQ§ MAINTAIN SEMI-PERMANENT POOLS OF ,I’ STAGNANT WATER BUT THE FLOOD AREA SURROUNDING THE ESTERQS IS GREATLY DIMINISHED. NEAR THE CENTER THE LAND IS A THICK MORASS OF MUD AND SEDGE. BUT MOST OF THE LAND IS EASILY TRAVELED AND No EXTENDED DE- VIATION FROM THE GENERAL LINE OF MARCH IS NECESSARY. TERMINAL AREAS OF RECOVERY. I.E.. AREAS SUCH AS TOWNS. CITIES. RANCHES. ET. WHERE THE BASIC SURVIVAL SITUATION IS RESOLVED. IN THE LLANOS ARE BOTH SECTIONAL AND PERIPHERAL. FROM ANY ONE LOCATION THE SELECTED DIRECTION OF TRAVEL WILL BE DETERMINED BY THE SURVIVOR'S ORIENTATION TO PROXIMAL TERMINAL AREAS AND NO ONE GENERAL DIRECTION OBTAINS FOR THE ENTIRE REGION. THERE ARE VERY MANY INTERMEDIATE AREAS OF RECOVERY. SOME OF WHICH COULD BECOME TERMINAL AREAS. INTERMEDIATE AREAS OF RECOVERY ARE AREAS WHERE FOOD. WATER. AND REST ARE AVAILABLE BUT THE SURVIVAL SITUATION CONTINUES. SUCH AREAS MAY BE ISOLATED RANCHES. FARMS. VILLAGES. INCLUDING INDIAN VILLAGES. OR NATURAL HABI- TAT WHERE PLENTIFUL FOOD AND WATER Is AVAILABLE. THE MOST SIGNIFICANT ASPECT OF THE REGION WITH REGARDS TO RECOVERY IS THE FAST MOVING ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN THE ENTIRE REGION. _4____-_+__._- w--- _- .2, 9". . \fi“ 190 BECAUSE OF THE SECTIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF AREAS OF RECOVERY, THE REGION IS DIVIDED INTO TWO SECTIONS: NORTH SECTION COMPRISING THAT PORTION OF THE LLAMQS NORTH OF THE WEST-EAST EXTENSION OF THE RIO APURE AND THE RIO ORINOCO AND A SOUTH SECTION COMPRISING THAT PORTION OF THE LLANOS SOUTH OF THE RIO APURE. 1. NORTH SECTION. USING A CENTRAL REFERENCE POINT O” on OF 66 M-9 S. FIVE MAJOR TERMINAL AREAS ARE Lo- CATED WITH A DISTANCE OF 180 TO 260 MILES. A NUMBER OF PROBABLE TERMINAL AREAS AND CERTAIN INTERMEDIATE AREAS ARE LOCATED WITH THE RADIUS OF THE PERIPHERAL MAJOR TERMINAL AREAS. READING 0 I 0 I CLOCKWISE. BARCELONA (64 45 W-10 15 N) IS A Dls- TANCE OF APPROXIMATELY 180 MILES. BESIDE BEING A MAJOR PORT FOR THE REGION. IT CONNECTS BY . O ' o ' HIGHWAY AND RAIL TO MATURIN (63 1O W-9 45 N) A o 'r MAJOR TERMINAL AREA AND CIUDAD BOLIVAR (63 40 V- 0 O 8 20 N). CIUDAD BOLIVAR. A DISTANCE OF 260 MILES. IS THE MAIN RIVER PORT CITY ON THE RIO ORINOCO. A MAIN HIGHWAY CONNECTS WITH CARACAS ON ALMOST A DIRECT LINE NORTHWEST ACROSS THE LLANQfi- o I o O ' SAN FERNANDO DE APURE (67 30 W-7 55 N). A DISTANCE OF 250 MILES. IS THE MAJOR PORT CITY ON THE RIO APURE AND CONNECTS WITH CARACAS ON THE NORTH BY HIGHWAY. WITH CIUDAD BOLIVAR DOWN THE RIO APURE AND THE RIO ORINOCO. AND SERVES AS THE MAIN TRANSSHIPMENT POINT BETWEEN 191 THE LLANOS AND THE WESTERN SIDE OF THE ANDES. CALABozo-EL RASTRO. A DISTANCE OF 180 MILES. ARE OF IMPORTANCE BECAUSE OF THE GREAT IRRIGATION DAM WHICH HAS BEEN BUILT BETWEEN THE TWO CITIES. THE PROJECT HAS CREATED A DEVELOPING FARM AREA OF OVER 500 FARMS FOR SUBSISTENCE CROPS. BEEF. AND DAIRY CATTLE. BOTH CITIES CONNECT WITH CARACAS AND SAN FERNANDO DE APURE. CARACAS. THE CAPITOL OF VENEZUELA. IS A DISTANCE OF 200 MILES. SOUTH SECTION. THE LIAMOS SOUTH OF THE RIO APURE ARE LESS DEVELOPED ECONOMICALLY THAN THE NORTH AND DO NOT OFFER THE SAME SELECTION OF TERMINAL AREAS. USING THE WEST-EAST Ex- TENSION OF THE RIO CASANARE AND THE RIO META TO MAKE A NORTH-SOUTH SUB-DIVISION. THE MAIN TERMINAL AREA NORTH OF THE RIVERS WOULD BE SAN FERNANDO DE APURE OR EAST ON THE RIO META TO PUENTO CARRENO AT THE JUNCTION OF THE RIO mETA AND THE HIO ORINOCO. OOUTH OF THE DIVIDING RIVERS. THE MAIN EFFORT IS (1) TOWARD THE WEST TO BOGOTA THROUGH VILLAVICENCIA (73oW-405.N). (2) EAST ON THE RIO NETA TO THE JUNCTION WITH THE ORINOCO AND THE RIVER PORT CITIES PUERTO CARRENO OR PUERTO PAEZ. OR (3) EAST ON THE RIO DUAVIARE TC SAN 192 FERNANDO DE ATABAPO AT THE JUNCTION OF THE RIO GUAVIARE AND THE RIO ORINOCO. SELECTION OF DESTINATION WILL NOT NECESSARILY DEPEND UPON THE SHORTEST DISTANCE ALTHOUGH PRox— IMITY IS A MAJOR CONSIDERATION. IF OVERLAND TRAVEL IS FEASIBLE AND THE DISTANCE IS SHORTER WESTWARD. TRAVEL IS FAVORED TOWARD VILLAVICENCIA OR THE HIGHWAY SKIRTING THE EASTERN FCOTHILLS OF THE ANDES ALONG WHICH THERE ARE NUMEROUS SMALL VILLAGES AND TOWNS. IF THE DISTANCE IS EQUAL. SHORTER TOWARD THE ORINOCO. OR UNKNOWN. OR WHERE THERE IS RELATIVE PROXIMITY TO A MAJOR NAVIGABLE EAST FLOWING RIVER THE CHOICE MAY FAVOR THE RIVER ROUTE. THIS. OF COURSE. ENTAILS THE CONSTRUCTION OF A RAFT (OR OTHER AVAILABLE CRAFT). THE AVAIL- ABILITY OF FOOD AND WATER PLUS THE LESS FATIGUING MODE OF TRAVEL WEIGHS STRONGLY FOR THE RIVER. BETWEEN THE RIO META AND THE RIO GUAVIARE. THE EASTERN PORTION OF THE LLANQE ARE INTENSELY IN- UNDATED AND THE RAIN FOREST EXTENDS A CONSIDERABLE DISTANCE WEST FROM THE RIO ORINOCO. WITH REFERENCE To DIRECTIONAL ORIENTATION. OTHER THAN THE SUN. THE DIRECTION OF FLOW OF THE RIVERS IS MAINLY SOUTH AND SOUTHEAST ABOVE THE RIO APURE AND EAST BELOW THE RIO APURE. THE RUPUNUNI SAVANNAS DISTRIBUTION. THE SECOND LARGEST SAVANNA REGION (APPROXIMATELY 193 6000 SQUARE MILES) NORTH OF THE AMAZON. THE RUPUNUNI SAVANNA. IS Lo- CATED BETWEEN THE PAKARAIMA MOUNTAINS OF BRITISH GUIANA ON THE NORTH. THE ESSEQUIBo-AMAZON WATERSHED ON THE SOUTH. THE SOUTHWESTERN EXTENSION OF THE PAKARAIMA MOUNTAINS ON THE WEST AND THE DENSE TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS PARALLELING THE ESSEQUIBO ON THE EAST. THE SAVANNA DOES NOT PRESENT THE MONOTONY OR UNIFORMITY OF THE LLANOS OR THE TREELESS EXPANSE OF THE BRAZILIAN CAMPQ . THERE IS HARDLY A PLACE WITHIN THE SAVANNA FROM WHERE TROPICAL FORESTS OR DENSE GROVES OF TREES ARE NOT VISIBLE. REIIEF AND DRAINAGE. IN BRITISH GUIANA. THE KANUKU NbUNTAINS (590 TO 60°D-30N) DIVIDE THE RUPUNUNI SAVANNA INTO TWO NEARLY EQUAL PARTS. THE NORTHERN PART IS THE MORE LEVEL AND EXHIBITS THE TYPICAL GRASSY PLAINS ASSOCIATED WITH SAVANNA AREAS. HOWEVER. THE AREA AS A WHOLE CONTAINS NUMEROUS LOW HILLS AND HOLLOWS. THE LATTER BECOMING SWAMPS OR SMALL LAKES DURING THE HEAVY RAINS. IMMEDIATELY SOUTH OF THE KANUKU MOUNTAINS. THE TERRAIN IS RELATIVELY LEVEL. TO THE SOUTH AND EAST. THE LAND BECOMES INCREASINGLY IRREGULAR EXHIBITING A SERIES OF ROLLING HILLS AND VALLEYS. ABOVE THE GENERAL SURFACE. SEVERAL ISOLATED "MOUNTAINS" RISE ABRUPTLY TO A HEIGHT OF 500 TO 1,000 FEET. THE EASTERN HILLS ARE REGULARLY MARKED BY OUTCROPPINGS OF WEATHERED BLACK GRANITE. IN THE RAINY SEASON. THE LOW DEPRESSIONS THROUGHOUT THE REGION ARE FILLED WITH WATER. SWAMPS. PONDS. AND LAKES. OFTEN FIVE TO SIX MILES ACROSS. CALLED "BAIXO." CORRESPOND TO THE §STERQS OF THE LLANOS. IN THE DRY SEASON. WATER IN THE NUMEROUS TRIBUTARIES OF THE MAJOR REGIONAL RIVERS RECEDES AND THE FLOW LACKS CONTINUITY. THIS RESULTS IN MANY DISCONNECTED POOLS OF STAGNATING WATER THAT ATTRACTS A HOST 194 OF INSECTS AND WILDLIFE. THESE "WATER HOLES" ARE FREQUENTLY FIFTEEN To TWENTY MILES APART. REQUIRING THAT A TRAVELER INSURES AGAINST THIRST BEFORE LEAVING A SOURCE OF WATER AT HAND. THE FOUR MAIN REGIONAL RIVERS OF SIGNIFICANCE TO THE SUR- VIVAL SITUATION ARE: 1. 3. THE RUPUNUNI. RISING IN THE NARUDI MOUNTAINS (59030'h-20N). BISECTS THE SAVANNA REGION FROM SOUTH TO NORTH FOR NEARLY THE ENTIRE LENGTH OF BOTH THE REGION AND THE RIVER. AT APPROXIMATELY 4ON. THE RIO RUPUNUNI TURNS EAST EFFECTING A JUNCTION WITH THE ESSEQUIBO WITHIN A SHORT DIs- TANCE. THIS CONSTITUTES ONE OF THE MAJOR AVENUES FOR TRAFFIC BETWEEN GEORGETOWN TO THE NORTH ON THE ATLANTIC COAST AND THE SAVANNA AREA. THE TAKUTU RISING ON THE NORTHWESTERN SLOPES o 1. 3 OF THE ACARAI MOUNTAIN (59 50 W-IOBO N) THAT FORMS THE ESSEQUIao-AMAZON WATERSHED. THE RIO TAKUTU. FLOWING NORTH. SKIRTS THE MAIN SAVANNA ALONG THE WESTERN EDGE TO 3030'N(APPROXIMATE) WHERE IT EFFECTS A JUNCTION WITH THE SOUTH- FLOWING RIO IRENG. BOTH RIVERS TURN SOUTH- WESTERLY AND FLOW INTO THE RIO BRANCO. THIS RIVER SYSTEM (TAKUTu-IRENG-BRANCO) FORMS THE MAIN AVENUE FOR TRAFFIC BETWEEN THE ESSEQUIBO RIVER SYSTEM AND THE AMAZON RIVER SYSTEM. THE IRENG. RISING IN THE PAKARAIMA MOUNTAINS O ' o (60 20 W-5 N). FOLLOWS A MEANDERING COURSE SOUTH 195 I O I GENERALLY ALONG THE CO H PARALLEL SOMEWHAT IN EXTENSION OF THE RIO TAKUTU. 4. THE ESSEQUIBO. THOUGH NOT PHYSICALLY A FEATURE OF THE SAVANNA. DOES PARALLEL THE ENTIR: EASTERN FLANKS OF THE REGION AND CONSTITUTES THE MAIN AVENUE OF COMMUNICATION BETWEEN THE NORTH COAST AND THE ENTIRE REGION INCLUDING THE FOREST AREAS. CIIMATE. THE AVERAGE RAINFALL IN THE RUPUNUNI SAVANNA IS HIGHER THAN IN THE OTHER SAVANNA REGIONS OF SOUTH AMERICA. PROBABLY THIS FACTOR ACCOUNTS FOR THE GREATER FREQUENCY AND DENSITY OF TREES IN THE RUPUNUNI. THE ANNUAL RAINFALL AVERAGES SIXTY TO SEVENTY INCHES MOSTLY CONCENTRATED DURING THE MONTHS OF NAY THROUGH AUGUST AND AGAIN IN DECEMBER AND JANUARY. "0 n O TEMPERATURES ARE RELATIVELY HIGH AVERAGING 85 TO 08 F WITH LITTLE SEASONAL VARIATION. THE DAILY TEMPERATURES REFLECT A GREATER QO 0 ,o O RANGE VARYING FROM 60 TO 75 F IN THE EARLY MORNING. TO 90 TO 96 F 0 O - _ IN MID-AFTERNOON. TO 75 TO 80 F IN THE LATE EVENING. LURING DECEMBER. 0 0 JANUARY. AND FEBRUARY EXCEPTIONALLY LOW TEMPERATURES OF 58 AND 60 F HAVE RESULTED FROM COMBINED RAIN AND WIND CONDITIONS BUT SUCH COOLNESS IS RARE. NORTH OF THE KANUKU NOUNTAINS THE HEAT IS PARTIALLY ALLEVI- ATED BY THE NORTHEASTERLY TRADEWINDS. IN THE SOUTHERN PART OF THE RUPUNUNI THE WEATHER BECOMES PARTICULARLY HOT AND HUMID. REGIONAL,TRAVEL AND DESTINATION. THERE ARE NO SERIOUS DE- TERRENTS TO EGRESS FROM THE RUPUNUNI SAVANNAS. THE CHARACTERISTIC FLOODED SWAMPS ARE A TEMPORARY HINDERANCE DURING THE RAINY SEASON PRE- SENTING THE USUAL DIFFICULTIES IN TRAVERSING. THE KANUKU AOUNTAINS. 196 WHICH LIE ACROSS THE REGION AT MID POINT CAN BE NEGOTIATED BY RIVER (MAY-AUGUST. DECEMBER-JANUARY). OR BY-PASSED ON THE WEST DURING THE DRY SEASON. IN THE RAINY PERIODS MOTOR LAUNCHES AND CARGO BARGES CAN NAVIGATE THE ENTIRE INTER-CONNECTING RIVER SYSTEMS. RIO ESSEQUIBO TRAFFIC REACHES ABOUT MIDWAY INTO THE SOUTH HALF OF THE SAVANNA. THE MAIN AVENUE OF EVACUATION FROM THE RUPUNUNI IS THE NORTH-FLOWING RIO RUPUNUNI AND THE RIO ESSEQUIBO. DURING THE DRY SEASON RIVER TRAFFIC 0 O IS LIMITED TO ANNAI (59 W—4 N). A SMALL VILLAGE ON THE RUPUNUNI RIVER. AT THE NORTHEAST CORNER OF THE REGION. EVEN A CANOE CANNOT TRAVEL CONTINUALLY ABOVE THIS POINT. ALTHOUGH MANAUS ON THE AMAZON CAN BE REACHED THROUGH THE IRENG-TAKUTu-RIO BRANCO RIVER SYSTEM. THIS MEANS OF EXIT IS A SECONDARY SELECTION. ANOTHER MEANS OF EGRESS FROM THE RUPUNUNI SAVANNA IS BY WAY OF THE BERBICE CATTLE TRAIL. THE TRAIL IS USED DURING THE DRY SEASON TO MOVE CATTLE FROM THE RUPUNUNI TO THE NORTH COASTAL REGIONS. AL- THOUGH TRAVEL ON THE RIVER IS PREFERABLE BEING FASTER AND LESS EXPOSED TO ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES. THE CATTLE TRAIL DOES EXIST AS AN ALTER- NATIVE. THE RUPUNUNI SAVANNAS IS ONE OF THE MOST POPULATED INTERIOR - 4.4-0, ..... ' REGIONS OF BRITISH GUIANA BECAUSE OF THE CATTLE INDUSTRY AND SEVERAL RANCHES ARE LOCATED IN THEM. BESIDES ANNAI. THE MOST IMPORTANT RE- O'o'. COVERY AREA IS THE GOVERNMENT STATION AT LETHEM (59 45 W-3 30 N). BOTH LETHEM AND ANNAI HAVE AIRSTRIPS THAT CAN HANDLE PLANES UP To THE SIZE OF A DC3. THE CAMPQSGDF BRAZJL DISIBIBNTIQN. SOUTH OF THE AMAZON THE VAST SAVANNAS OF BRAZIL LIE IN THE SOUTH PORTION OF THE STATE OF PARA, ALL OF THE STATES OF 197 IMATO GROSSO AND GOIAS. AND IN WESTERN PORTIONS OF THE STATES OF BAHIA AND MINAS GERAIS. CONTAINED WITHIN THE INTERIOR OF THE BRAZILIAN PLATEAU. THE REGION EMBRACES NEARLY A MILLION SQUARE MILES. ALTHOUGH FORESTS OF VARYING COMPOSITION DOT THE LANDSCAPE. SOME BEING GALLERY FORESTS. OTHERS DROUGHT-RESISTING SAMEQ FORESTS. MORE THAN Two-THIRDS OF THE LAND IS PREDOMINATELY SAVANNA GRASSLANDS. THE REGION IS BOUNDED ON THE NORTH BY AMAZON RAIN FOREST Ex- TENDING NORTHEAST FROM THE CERROS DOS PARECIS. IN THE STATE OF GUAPORE. TO THE STATE OF MARANHAO IN NORTHEASTERN BRAZIL; ON THE WEST THE MARSHLANDS AND RAIN FOREST ENGULFING THE WATERSHED OF THE MARMORE RIVER SYSTEM OF NORTHEASTERN BOLIVIA; ON THE SOUTH THE RIO PARAGUAY RISES ON THE SOUTHERN WATERSHED DIVIDING THE NORTH-FLOWING AMAZON TRIBUTARIES AND THE SOUTH-FLOWING RIO PARAGUAY. HERE THE MATO GROSSO SAVANNAS MERGE INTO GREAT MARSHLANDS OF THE UPPER PARAGUAY. CALLED "EL PANTANAL." THESE "SWAMP-SAVANNAS" EXTEND APPROXIMATELY 400 MILES To THE SOUTH AND MAINTAIN A WIDTH OF 50 TO 150 MILES; ON THE EAST THE REGION IS BOUNDED BY THE CHAIN OF LOW MOUNTAINS. OR "SERRAS." Ex- TENDING NORTHEAST BY SOUTHWEST. THESE SERRAS END ABRUPTLY ALONG THE GREAT ESCARPMENT WHICH RISES ABOVE THE ENTIRE EASTERN COASTLINE FROM 608 TO 3008. RE EF ND DR INAG . THE BRAZILIAN PLATEAU HAS REMAINED STRUCTURALLY UNCHANGED FOR PERHAPS SIXTY MILLION YEARS OR MORE. DURING THIS PERIOD. THE EROSIVE EFFECTS OF WIND AND WATER AND CLIMATE HAVE PRODUCED A REMARKABLE SURFACE UNIFORMITY THROUGHOUT THE REGION. THE PLATEAU SUSTAINS A GRADUAL SLOPE To THE NORTH-NORTHWEST FROM AN ELEVATION OF ABOUT 3.000 FEET ALONG THE EASTERN ESCARPMENT TO GENERAL LEVEL OF ABOUT 1.500 FEET. MOST OF THE RIVERS DRAIN TO THE NORTH AS 198 AAAIN TRIBUTARIES OF THE AMAZON. THE MAIN WATERSHED BETWEEN THE NORTH-FLOWING RIVER SYSTEMS OF THE LARGER AMAZON RIVER SYSTEM. AND THE MAJOR RIVER SYSTEMS OF SOUTHERN BRAZIL AND THE PARAGUAY RIVER BASIN CONSIST OF AN EXTENSIVE CHAIN OF SERRAS. STARTING FROM THE SOUTHEASTERN HIGHLANDS OF THE STATE OF GOIAS. THE CHAIN EXTENDS NORTHWEST To THE 560W-14OS PARALLELS THEN SWINGS TO THE SOUTHWEST. THE UPPER BASIN OF THE RIO PARAGUAY WITH ITS GREAT MARSHY TRACT OCCUPIES THE CONCAVITY FORMED BY THE SOUTH DRAINING SLOPES OF THE SERRA . NEARLY ALL OF THE PANTANAL. EXCEPT FOR THE PERIPHERAL OVERFLOW. LIES WITHIN THE SOUTHWESTERN SECTION OF THE MATO GROSSO. ON THE WEST THE MARSHLANDS MERGE WITH THE GRAN CHACO OF SOUTHEASTERN BOLIVIA AND NORTHERN PARAGUAY. THE RIVERS OF THE PLATEAU WITH EONS OF TIME TO WORK HAVE CUT DEEPLY INTO THE SURFACE OF THE LAND CREATING BROAD NORTH-SOUTH VALLEYS WITH REGULAR. GENTLE SLOPES ASCENDING ON EITHER SIDE. THE TABLELANDS LYING BETWEEN THE MAJOR RIVER VALLEYS ARE CALLED "CHAPAQQES" (PLURAL FOR QHAEADAQ). THE ELEVATIONS BETWEEN THE LESSER STREAMS WITHIN A MAJOR PLATEAU ARE CALLED "OHAEADAS." THE CHAPADAS ARE THE MORE OB- VIOUS FEATURE OF THE TOPOGRAPHY AND ARE DISTINGUISHED BY SHARP BLUFFS OUT BY THE STREAMS. THE MAJOR CONFIGURATION TENDS TO BE OBSCURED BY THE VASTNESS OF THE DISTANCES INVOLVED. THE MAJOR RIVERS DRAINING NORTH FROM THE PLATEAU ARE. FROM EAST TO WEST: 1. THE TOCANTINS WHICH RISES IN THE CENTER OF THE STATE OF GOIAS (500D-15ON). IT FLOWS THROUGH A WIDE. DEEP VALLEY AND IN THE EARLY STAGES OF ITS COURSE RECEIVES THE FLOW OF NUMEROUS TRIBU~ TARIES THAT DRAIN THE SLOPES OF THE HIGHLANDS 4. 199 ON EITHER SIDE. AT 49OW—5OS (APPROXIMATE). THE RIO TOCANTINS RECEIVES THE FULL FLOW OF THE RIO ARAGUAIA. FROM THIS JUNCTION. THE RIO TOCANTINS. ALMOST AS GRAND AS THE AMAZON. CONTINUES NORTH TO THE AMAZON DELTA WHERE IT RAMIFIES INTO NUMEROUS CHANNELS BEFORE ENTERING THE MAIN CHANNEL BETWEEN BELEM AND THE ISLAND OF MARANHAO; THE RIO ARAGUAIA WHICH RISES IN THE SERRO DO VERDINHO (55oW-18OS (APPROXIMATE) AND FLOWS DUE NORTH FORMING A NATURAL BOUNDARY BETWEEN THE STATE OF GOIAS AND THE STATES OF MATO GROSSO AND PARA ON THE WEST BEFORE JOINING THE RIO TOCANTINS. A MAJOR TRIBUTARY OF THE RIO ARAGUAIA IS THE RIO DAS MORTES WHICH RISES To THE WEST 0 0 (55 w-14 S) AND FLOWS EAST FOR APPROXIMATELY 200 MILES AND THEN NORTH PARALLELING THE RIO ARAGUAIA FOR AN ADDITIONAL 250 MILES BEFORE EF- FECTING A JUNCTION; THE XINGU RISES IN EASTERN MATO GROSSO. AN IN- TRICATE NETWORK OF FEEDERS EFFECTS A FAN-SHAPED DRAINAGE PATTERN BETWEEN THE PARALLELS 520 To 550w AND 110 TO 1498. THE DIRECTION OF FLOW OF THE MAIN RIVER IS GENERALLY DUE NORTH; THE RIO TAPAJOS IS FORMED FROM A NUMBER OF SIZEABLE TRIBUTARIES. TWO OF WHICH ARE MAJOR RIVERS DESCENDING THE PLATEAU BEFORE MERGING AS THE RIO TAPAJOS AT THE JUNCTION OF THE 200 POLITICAL BOUNDARIES OF THE STATES NATO GROSSO. or O ' PARA. AND AMAZONAS (58 N-7 20 S). THE TRIBU— TARIES ARE THE RIO TELES PIRES WHICH RISES O, O 55 W-15 8. AND THE RIO JURUENA WHICH RISES 0'0! 59 w-14 30 S. BOTH OF THESE RIVERS HAVE THE CHARACTERISTIC NETWORK OF FEEDERS DRAINING THE SLOPES OF THE ELEVATED CHAPADQES BETWEEN THE MAJOR RIVER VALLEYS. CLIMA g. BECAUSE OF THE ELEVATION AND THE VAST AREA INCLUDED. THERE ARE SOME LATITUDINAL VARIATIONS. IN MANY RESPECTS THE GENERAL CLIMATE IS MORE NEARLY TEMPERATE RATHER THAN TROPICAL. WHILE SEA- SONAL VARIATIONS ARE RELATIVELY MINOR. THE DAILY RANGE IS OFTEN BET- o o WEEN 40 AND 50 F DURING THE DRY WINTER MONTHS. JUNE THROUGH AUGUST. THIS IS DUE IN PART To THE CLEARNESS OF THE ATMOSPHERE AT THIS ELE- VATION. DURING DAYLIGHT HOURS MAXIMUM INSOLATION PERMITS RAPID HEATING AND BY MID-AFTERNOON THE TEMPERATURES MAY REACH A GROUND READING OF 0 O O OVER 100 F AND AT NIGHT DROP TO 50 TO 55 F DUE To RADIATION. ANOTHER PHENOMENON OCCURRING DURING THIS PERIOD IS THE R EM. A COLD SOUTH WIND PRODUCED BY THE NORTHWARD PRESSURE OF COLD ANTARTIC AIR. WHEN THE ERIAGEMS ARE BLOWING. TEMPERATURES MAY DROP To FREEZING. THE HOTTEST AND MOST HUMID MONTHS OCCUR DURING THE RAINY SEASON. THE DAILY TEMPERATURES TEND TO BECOME STABLE AS THE NORTHERN LIMITS OF THE PLAINS ARE REACHED AND THE RAIN FOREST BEGINS TO PREDOMINATE. THE RAINY SEASON BEGINS IN SEPTEMBER ACCOMPANIED BY VIOLENT THUNDER AND LIGHTNING STORMS. THE RAINS REACH THEIR PEAK DURING NOVEMBER AND BEGIN TAPERING OFF AT THE END OF MARCH IN THE WESTERN AREAS AND IN APRIL IN THE EAST. FROM MAY THROUGH AUGUST. PRECIPI- 201 TATION IS PRACTICALLY ZERO. ANNUAL RAINFALL AVERAGES SIXTY TO SEVENTY INCHES FOR THE ENTIRE REGION BUT GOIAS ON THE EAST WILL AVERAGE SIXTY- EIGHT TO SEVENTY INCHES. WHEREAS CORUMBA ON THE RIO PARAGUAY AVERAGES LESS THAN FIFTY INCHES. NEARING THE SOUTHERN LIMITS OF THE AMAZON RAIN FOREST. THE RAINFALL LOSES THE SEASONAL DISTINCTION ALTHOUGH NOT ATTAINING ANY GREATER INTENSITY. REGIONAL TRAVEL.AND DESTINATIONS. FIRST OF ALL--TRAVELING AWAY FROM THE SITE OF THE DOWNED PLANE IS IN THE NATURE OF A "LAST RESORT" AND BECOMES A PRIMARY CONSIDERATION ONLY WHEN THERE IS LITTLE OR NO CHANCE OF BEING FOUND THROUGH ORGANIZED SEARCH AND RESCUE OPER‘ ATIONS. WHILE THIS IS TRUE OF ALL THE SAVANNA REGIONS IT IS ESPECIALLY TRUE OF THE QAMEQS BECAUSE OF THE VAST DISTANCES INVOLVED. IN THE LLANOS OF THE ORINOCO AND IN THE RUPUNUNI. PROBABLE TERMINAL AREAS ARE GENERALLY RECKONED IN DISTANCES OF 50 TO 150 MILES. IN THE OAMPQS. DISTANCES MAY BE SEVERAL HUNDRED MILES. TOPOGRAPHICALLY. THE REGION PRESENTS No INSURMOUNTABLE BARRIER TO THE MORE POPULATED SOUTH AND SOUTHEASTERN STATES BEGINNING WITH THE "FRONTIER" STATE OF GOIAS AND THE UPPER PARAGUAY BASIN. THE OBVIOUS ADVANTAGES OF ”CIVILIZATION" NEED NOT BE CITED. HOWEVER. THESE AREAS OF HABITATION ARE ALSO THE MOST NATURALLY ACCESSIBLE AREA OF SAFETY FROM THE INTERIOR REGIONS. THE AVENUES OF APPROACH FROM THE PLATEAU ARE THE LEAST ARDUOUS AND HAZARDOUS AND GENERALLY EXPOSED NATURE OF THE TERRAIN OFFER GREATER CHANGES OF BEING SPOTTED BY SEARCH PARTIES. THE GENERAL LINE OF MARCH FROM ALMOST ANY LOCATION IN THE QAMEQS IS SOUTH OR EAST. DEVIATION FROM THIS GENERAL DIRECTION WOULD BE BASED PRINCIPALLY UPON THE SURVIVOR‘S ORIENTATION To PROXIMAL AREAS INHABITED BY THE KNOWN HOSTILE INDIANS ALONG THE EASTERN BANKS OF THE 7.] ._. .-r_—.:‘_: .*, , .11 Tim—F‘t. . ‘uu—uimf 202 RIO TAPAJOS AND THE HEADWATERS OF THE RIO XINGU. NORTH OF THE 1503 PARALLEL AND WEST OF THE RIO ARAGUAIA TERMINAL AREAS ARE UNCERTAIN. CHANCE DISCOVERY OF A BRAZILIAN AIR FORCE INSTALLATION MIGHT PROVIDE A MEANS OF EXIT FROM THE REGION BUT THE TRANSITORY NATURE OF SUCH INSTALLATIONS RENDER THEM HIGHLY UNDE- PENDABLE. POSSIBLE TERMINAL AREAS ARE NUMEROUS BUT ARE FOR THE MOST PART FORTUITOUSLY ENCOUNTERED. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CATTLE IN- DUSTRY AND THE SLOW PUSH TOWARD THE FRONTIER REGION HAS RESULTED IN A NUMBER OF ISOLATED RANCHES AND FARMS. THESE ARE GENERALLY LOCATED NEAR RIVER VALLEY AREAS AND PREDOMINATING OERRADOES AND FORESTED AREAS. SOUTH OF THE 1508 PARALLEL THE UPPER PARAGUAY BASIN CONTAINS A MAJOR CONCENTRATION OF POPULATION OF THIS REGION. CUIABA (560W- 15040'3) IS A FOCAL POINT FOR THE ENTIRE AREA DRAINED BY THE HEAD- WATERS OF THE RIO TAPAJOS AND RIO XINGU. FROM CUIABA. A RAILWAY RUNS ALL THE WAY To RIO DE JANEIRO AND SAO PAULO. ON THE RIO PARAGUAY. CORUMBA (57°30'w-19OS) SERVES AS A COMMUNICATION CENTER LINKED WITH SANTA CRUZ IN BOLIVIA BY HIGHWAY. WITH SAo PAULO BY A RAILWAY. WITH LA PAZ BY RAILWAY. AND WITH CUIABA ON THE NORTH AND BUENAS AIRES ON THE SOUTH BY RIVER. FOR THE AREA BETWEEN THE RIO ARAGUAIA AND THE RIO TOCANTINS AND SOUTH OF THE 1098 PARALLEL. THE FOCAL POINT OF TRAVEL IS THE GENERAL AREA OF SOUTHEASTERN GOIAS WHERE THE CITIES OF BRAZILIA. THE COUNTRY'S NEW CAPITOL. GOIANA AND ANAPOLIS ALL REPRESENT TERMINAL AREAS. ABOVE THE 1008 PARALLEL AND EAST OF THE RIO TOCANTINS RIVER BASIN. THE GENERAL ORIENTATION IS TO THE NORTHEAST ALONG THE AXIS OF THE RIO PARNAIBA. ‘3',- «mi. N LL." 203 TRAVEL IN THE CAMPQS IS ALMOST ENTIRELY OVERLAND. ABOVE THE LINE OF RAPIDS ON THE PLATEAU THE CURRENT IS NOT SO SWIFT THAT HEAD‘ WAY CANNOT BE MADE IF A SUITABLE CRAFT CAN BE OBTAINED. HOWEVER, THE CONSTANT BRANCHING OF THE STREAMS. THE IRREGULARITY OF DEPTH AND THE MEANDERING CHARACTERISTIC TEND TO DISSUADE THE USE OF THE RIVERS FOR TRAVEL. THE MAJOR EXCEPTION To THIS IS IN THE PANTANAL WHERE A BOAT IS DESIREABLE NOT ONLY TO SUSTAIN DIRECTION OF TRAVEL BUT TO NEGOTIATE THE FLOODED LAND. THE MOST DESIREABLE TRAVEL CONDITIONS ARE THOSE PERMITTING THE PARALLELING OF A RIVER AND GALLERY FOREST USING THE HIGH GROUND. UN- FORTUNATELY. THE RIVERS SNAKE BACK AND FORTH FOR MILES. BECAUSE OF THE RELATIVE FLATNESS OF THE TERRAIN. THIRTY OR FORTY MILES OF RIVER MAY BE ENCOMPASSED IN A TEN MILE DISTANCE (AS THE CROW FLIES). THIS MEANDERING PROJECTS THE ACCOMPANYING GALLERY FORESTS SO THAT THE TRAVELER IS CONSTANTLY CONFRONTED WITH EXTENDED STRETCHES WHICH MUST BE CIRCUMVENTED OR PASSED THROUGH. DESPITE THE TIME INVOLVED. A DETOUR IN MOST CASES IS PREFERABLE TO PENETRATION OF THE FOREST ESPECIALLY L“? WHEN THE DISTANCE OF PASSAGE CANNOT BE DETERMINED. THE GRAN CUAQQ DISTRIBUTION. THE GRAN CHACO (GREAT HUNTING GROUND) EXTENDS FROM APPROXIMATELY 17030.3 To THE NORTHERN EXTENSION OF THE ARGENTINE PAMPA. A DISTANCE OF MORE THAN 1.000 MILES. IT IS BOUND ON THE NORTH BY THE NORTHWEST-SOUTHEAST EXTENSION OF THE DIVIDING WATERSHED BETWEEN THE AMAZON RIVER BASIN AND THE PARAGUAY RIVER BASIN. ON THE WEST BY THE LOW RANGE OF HILLS ASCENDING THE EASTERNSLOPES OF THE ANDES. ON THE SOUTH BY SIERRAS DE CORDOBA AND GUAYASAN AND ON THE EAST BY THE RIO PARAGUAY FLOWING FROM THE NORTH AND THE RIO PARANA FLOWING FROM 204 THE NORTH AND THE RIO PARANA FLOWING FROM THE SOUTH OR NEARLY A DIRECT NORTH-SOUTH COURSE. IT ENCOMPASSES APPROXIMATELY 400,000 SQUARE MILES OF RELATIVELY FLAT. POORLY DRAINED LAND ALMOST ENTIRELY DESOLATED BY THE GENERAL HOSTILITY OF ITS PHYSIOGRAPHY. THE AREA NORTH OF THE RIO PILCOMAYO IS ONE OF THE LAST STRONGHOLDS OF THE "UNTAMED" INDIANS AGAINST THE INCURSIONS OF CIVILIZATION. THE CHACO IS PROBABLY THE LEAST KNOWN AND EXPLORED REGIONS OF SOUTH AMERICA. THIS IS PARTICULARLY TRUE OF THE CENTRAL AREA LYING WITHIN THE TRIANGLE FORMED BY THE RIO PILCOMAYO AND THE RIO PARAGUAY. EVEN THE INDIANS WHO INHABIT THE NORTHERN CHACO MAKE ADEQUATE PREPA- RATIONS WHEN MAKING FORAYS INTO THE PLAINS DURING THE DRY SEASON. THEY. OF COURSE. KNOW THE LOCATIONS OF NATURAL RESERVOIRS BUT THEY ALSO MAINTAIN A SYSTEM OF ARTIFICIAL WELLS. RELIEF AND DRAINAgE. THEIEGION SLOPES GENTLY TO THE EAST AND SOUTHEAST. IN THE NORTH. THE RIO PARAPITI DRAINS NORTHWARD INTO AN EXTENSIVE SWAMP WHICH IN TURN DRAINS INTO A TRIBUTARY OF THE AMAZON. ALL THE OTHER CHACO RIVERS DRAIN TO THE EAST. NUMEROUS RIVERS AND STREAMS RISE IN THE ANDES BUT ONLY THE RIOS PILCOMAYO. BERMEJO. AND SALADO REACH THE RIO PARAGUAY OR THE RIO PARANA--THE MAIN RECIPIENT RIVERS. THE OTHER RIVERS BECOME LOST IN THE SANDY SOIL OR MARSHES (ESTERQS) FILLING THE EXTENSIVE DEPRESSIONS THROUGHOUT THE REGION. THE RIO PILCOMAYO IS THE ONLY MAJOR RIVER CROSSING THE CHACO THAT FLOWS ABOVE THE 2408 PARALLEL AND THIS IS ONLY IN ITS UPPER COURSE. ALONG THIS PORTION THE RIVER IS PARALLELED BY DRY RIVERBEDS AND RA- VINES OR "OANADAS"WHICH RECEIVED THE OVERFLOW OF THE PILCOMAYO DURING THE FLOOD PERIODS. IN ITS MIDDLE COURSE. THE BANKS OF THE RIVER DIS- ° W SOLVE COMPLETELY INTO A GREAT MARSH NAMED ESTERO PATINA (59 -60 I AND 205 240-24030'8). BEYOND THE ESTER . THE RIVER HAS A NORTH BRANCH AND SOUTH BRANCH THROUGH WHICH IT DRAINS INTO THE RIO PARAGUAY. THROUGH- OUT THE ENTIRE COURSE OF THE RIVER THE ADJACENT LAND IS FLOODED FOR MANY MILES IN EACH DIRECTION. THESE FLOODED TRACTS OF SWAMPS. LAGOONS. AND CANADAS ARE THE MOST CHARACTERISTIC FEATURE OF THE ENTIRE LAND- SCAPE DURING THE WET SEASON. SOME OF THE DEEPER AND MORE EXTENSIVE FLOODED LOWLANDS RETAIN WATER EVEN DURING THE DRY SEASON. HOWEVER. THE WATER IS STAGNANT AND OFTEN FILLED WITH RESIDUES OF DEAD LAND ANIMALS AND RIVER LIFE; THE FORMER TRAPPED BY THE INITIAL FLOODING AND THE LATTER BY THE RECEDING WATERS. WHERE EVAPORATION EFFECTS THE PROCESS OF DRYING. LARGE AREAS OF SALT INCRUSTED DEPRESSIONS RESULT. CLIMATE. THE CHACO PRESENTS GREATER EXTREMES OF TEMPERATURE THAN ANY OTHER REGION EAST OF THE ANDES. ESSENTIALLY. IT IS AN Ex- TENSION OF THE BRAZILIAN PLATEAU CLIMATIC BELT. BUT. WHERE FROSTS ARE RARE IN THE MATO GROSSO. THEY OCCUR WITH CONSIDERABLE FREQUENCY Es- PECIALLY IN THE NORTHERN CHACO. THE HIGHEST TEMPERATURES IN SOUTH AMERICA ALSO OCCUR IN THE CHACO WHERE READINGS OF 1200F ARE NOT UN- USUAL DURING THE SUMMER. THE MOST STRIKING ASPECT OF THE CHACO CLIMATE IS ITS SOMEWHAT VIOLENT DAILY FLUCTUATION. DROPPING AS MUCH AS SIXTY DEGREES OR MORE IN A MATTER OF HOURS. THIS OCCURS MOST GENERALLY DURING THE WINTER MONTHS. JUNE THROUGH AUGUST. THIS IS THE PERIOD OF THE COLD SOUTHWINDS CALLED FR GEMS. WHICH ARE THE NORTHERN EXTREMES OF AN ANARTIC CLIMATIC PHENOMENON. THE RAINY SEASON IN THE CHACO IS FROM NOVEMBER THROUGH MAY. IN THE EAST. THE RAINFALL IS HEAVIER AVERAGING FIFTY INCHES ANNUALLY. TO THE WEST. THE RAINFALL IS REDUCED TO ABOUT TWENTY-FIVE INCHES AND ENDS IN APRIL. THE HUMIDITY IS CONSIDERABLY LESS THAN THAT EXPERIENCED 206 IN MOST OF THE TROPICAL LATITUDES AND DURING THE DRY PERIOD MORE NEARLY APPROXIMATES A DESERT DRYNESS. REGIONAL TRAVEL_AND DESTINATION. IN THE GRAN CHACO. ASIDE FROM HEAT. THIRST. AND POSSIBLY HOSTILE INDIANS. THE MAJOR DETERRENT TO TRAVEL IS THE EXTENSIVE AREAS OF INUNDATION. THE PERIOD OF INUN- DATION IS FROM NOVEMBER TO MAY. THE RAINY SEASON. AND THE PERIOD OF THIRST IS FOR THE REMAINDER OF THE YEAR WHEN WATER SOURCES ARE FEW AND FAR BETWEEN AND GENERALLY KNOWN ONLY TO THE RELATIVELY UNPRE- DICTABLE INDIANS. THE TOBA AND NATACO TRIBES. INHABITING THE RIO PILCOMAYO AREA. THE MAJOR. AND PRACTICALLY THE ONLY. TERMINAL AREA OF RECOVERY o O . IN THE NORTHERN PART OF THE REGION IS SANTA CRUZ (63 W-17 40 S) LYING IN THE FCOTHILLS OF THE ANDES AND CORUMBA. A MAJOR RIVER PORT ON THE RIO PARAGUAY. A MAIN HIGHWAY CONNECTS SANTA CRUZ WITH CORUMBA. ON THE WEST A NUMBER OF TINY VILLAGES ARE LOCATED AT THE BASE OF THE ANDES AND A MAIN HIGHWAY SKIRTS THE BASE OF THE MOUNTAIN SOUTHWARD FROM 2308 PASSING THROUGH A NUMBER OF TOWNS AND CONNECTING WITH A MAJOR CITY. TUCUMAN. IN ARGENTINA. THE RIO PARAGUAY EXTENDS ALONG THE ENTIRE EASTERN BOUNDARY OF THE GRAN CHACO CARRYING A FAIRLY CONSTANT FLOW OF TRAFFIC. THE RIVER IS THE MAIN AXIS OF COMMUNICATION INTO THE INTERIOR CONNECTING WITH CUIABA. THE CAPITOL OF MATO GROSSO AT ITS HEADWATERS. CHAPTER IX SURVIVAL FACTORS GENERAL THE PROCEDURES INVOLVING EMERGENCY SITUATIONS INCLUDING CRASH LANDING. BAIL OUT PROCEDURES. CREW FUNCTIONS. DISPOSITION OF SURVIVAL GEAR AND SUCH OTHER DETAILS ARE PROPERLY MATTERS OF AIR FORCE OPERATING PROCEDURES AND NOT WITHIN THE SCOPE OF THIS MONOGRAPH. IN THIS CON- NECTION IT IS RECOMMENDED THAT THE READER REVIEW AIR FORCE MANUAL 64-3. ESPECIALLY CHAPTERS I. III. AND IV. OF SPECIFIC APPLICATION IN THE SAVANNAS IS THE ADVISABILITY OF REMAINING WITH THE AIRCRAFT AND CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH TRAVEL MIGHT BE UNDERTAKEN. BECAUSE OF THE VAST DISTANCES INVOLVED IN SUCH AREAS AS THE OAMPOS OF BRAZIL. OR THE EXPANSES OF RAIN FORESTS THAT LIE BETWEEN THE SAVANNAS AND AREAS OF HABITATION SUCH AS IN THE RUPUNUNI. THE ADVANTAGES OF REMAINING IN THE VICINITY OF THE PLANE ARE INCREASED CONSIDERABLY. I CERTAIN UNDERLYING ASSUMPTIONS ARE BEING MADE (1) THAT THE PLANE IS ‘n—n—u—fi arr .. v. INTACT AFTER CRASH LANDING. OR (2) THAT AFTER BAIL OUT THE CREW (OR SINGLE PILOT) Is ABLE TO GET TO THE CRASHED PLANE. OR (3) THAT IF THE CRASHED PLANE IS NOT ACCESSIBLE THE CREW (OR PILOT) WILL ESTABLISH A CAMP IN THE VICINITY OF BAIL OUT UTILIZING HIS CHUTE AND SUCH OTHER IMPROVISATIONS SUGGESTED BY THE NATURAL SURROUNDINGS. IT IS HOPED THAT THE INITIAL CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE EMERGENCY ENABLES THE SURVIVOR(S) TO UTILIZE WHATEVER SURVIVAL GEAR WAS CARRIED 207 208 ON THE PLANE. OR THAT THE PLANE ITSELF CAN BE UTILIZED FOR MAKING THE IMPLEMENTS NECESSARY FOR SURVIVAL. THE MOST IMPORTANT REQUIREMENTS ARE SUCH ITEMS AS GUNS AND AMMUNITION. KNIVES. AXES. MACHETES. MATCHES. FISH HOOKS. AND COOKING UTENSILS. NEARLY ALL OF THESE. IF NOT ON HAND. WILL HAVE TO BE MANUFACTURED FROM THE AVAILABLE MATERIALS OR AN ADE- QUATE SUBSTITUTE DEVISED. THIS IS PARTICULARLY TRUE OF THE GUN AND AMMUNITION. ALTHOUGH TRAPS AND SNARES SHOULD BE USED AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE. THERE ARE NUMEROUS OCCASIONS WHEN A PROJECTILE IS REQUIRED. THESE CAN BE IN THE FORMS OF SLING SHOTS. SPEARS. BOW AND ARROWS IF TIME AND PROFICIENCY WARRANT THEM; OR EVEN A SUPPLY OF SUITABLE SIZED STONES FOR THROWING. HOW MUCH THE MATERIALS OF THE PLANE AND SUCH GEAR AS THE PARACHUTE CAN BE UTILIZED IS MOSTLY A MATTER OF IMAGINATION AND RESOURCEFULNESS. THE MATTER OF OBTAI”ING FOOD AND WATER ESPECIALLY SHOULD BE OF IMMEDIATE CONCERN EVEN THOUGH THERE MAY BE EMERGENCY SURVIVAL RATIONS AVAILABLE. TO OBTAIN THESE ITEMS THERE MAY BE A NEED FOR TRAVELING SOME DISTANCE FROM THE ESTABLISHED CAMP SITE. PRECAUTIONS MUST BE TAKEN FOR FINDING THE WAY BACK TO THE CAMP. IF ONLY ONE SUR- VIVOR IS INVOLVED A MESSAGE MUST BE LEFT AT THE CAMP SITE SHOWING DIRECTION TAKEN. TIME OF DEPARTURE AND EXPECTED TIME OF RETURN. HUNTING AND FORAGING ACTIVITIES SHOULD BE PLANNED SO THAT ALL INDIVIDUALS ARE BACK AT THE CAMP BEFORE DARKNESS EACH DAY. BECAUSE OF THE GENERAL LACK OF FOOD AND WATER DURING CERTAIN SEASONS IN THE SAVANNAS IT MAY BE ADVISABLE TO MOVE THE CAMP NEAR TO A SOURCE OF FOOD AND WATER SUCH AS A GALLERY FOREST. IF A CONSIDERABLE DISTANCE IS INVOLVED. MESSAGES SHOULD BE LEFT AT THE SITE OF THE DOWNED PLANE GIVING ADEQUATE IN- STRUCTIONS ON WHERE TO LOCATE THE CAMP SITE. .35... ..- “5.. {LTD—ET; 1 W.) 91' 2'. 209 THE DATA CONTAINED IN THIS MONOGRAPH IS NOT PRIMARILY CON- CERNED WITH TECHNIQUES. ‘IN FACT. IT NECESSARILY REQUIRES THAT THE INDIVIDUAL WILL HAVE RECEIVED THE MINIMUM SURVIVAL TRAINING To RECOG- NIZE THE NATURE AND CONDITIONS OF THE ENVIRONMENT TO INCLUDE THE HABITS OF ITS POPULATION AS DESCRIBED AND To BE FAMILIAR WITH THOSE TECHNIQUES APPLICABLE TO ANY GIVEN CONDITION OR INCIDENT ARISING IN THE SURVIVAL SITUATION. WHEN A MEMBER OF A TECHNOLOGICALLY ADVANCED SOCIETY IS REDUCED TO THE PRIMITIVE LEVEL OF SUBSISTENCE MORE THAN JUST THE BASIC TECHNIQUES OF HUNTING AND GATHERING AND SELF PRESER- VATION ARE NECESSARY FOR SURVIVAL. JUST AS IMPORTANT. IF NOT MORE S0. IS THE PSYCHOLOGICAL ADJUSTMENT NECESSARY To ACCEPT ANY EDIBLE SOURCE OF NOURISHMENT. IN THE RAIN FORESTS WHERE THERE IS A GREATER VARIETY OF GAME AND VEGETATION IT IS DIFFICULT ENOUGH To OBTAIN FOOD OF A MORE ACCEPTABLE PALATABILITY. IN THE SAVANNAS. EVEN MARGINAL To THE FORESTS. THE SCARCITY OF GAME SERIOUSLY LIMITS ANY SELECTIVITY. AS IS OFTEN THE SITUATION EVEN WITH THE INDIANS. THE SURVIVOR WILL BE FORCED To ACCEPT A DIET OF INSECTS. REPTILES. RODENTS. ROOTS. NUTS. BERRIES; WHATEVER HE IS ABLE TO GATHER. W SURPRISINGLY. THE MAJORITY OF INHABITANTS IN THE SAVANNAS ARE NOT INDIANs--OR AT LEAST HOT INDIANS IN THEIR ABORGIHAL STATE. THE FACT IS. THE INDIAN VERY PROBABLY HAS NEVER BEEN A TRUE INHABITANT OF THE SAVANNAS. LIKE MUCH OF THE FAUNA SEEN IN THE SAVANNA. THE INDIAN IS ESSENTIALLY ORIENTED TO THE FORESTS. HE FORAGES IN THE SAVANNA ACCORDING TO SEASONAL RIPENING OF CERTAIN FRUITS AND NUTS OR FOR COM- MUNAL HUNTS WHEN THE GRASS IS BURNED TO DRIVE THE GAME OR To COLLECT THE SMALL RODENTS, LIZARDS, INSECTS: ETC. KILLED BY THE FLAMES. 210 IN THE LLANOS THE INHABITANTS. IN THE MORE REMOTE AREAS. ARE THE RANCHEROS AND LLANEROS--RANCHERS ANE cowBOY3--ENGAGED IN CATTLE RAISING. THE LLANEROS ARE MOSTLY MESTIZQS CR INDIANS WHO HAVE BECOME "WESTERNIZED." THERE ARE CONFLICTING REPORTS REGARDING THE DISPOSITION OF THE LLANERo--RANGING FROM THAT OF BEING HIGHLY SUSPICIOUS. DISTRUST- FUL. UNTRUSTWORTHY (BUT NOT DANGEROUS). To BEING A MOST GENEROUS AND TRUSTNORTHY " M NER ." AS wITH MOST PEOPLE HE IS PROBABLY A COM- BINATION OF MOODS DEPENDING UPON THE SITUATION. A VERY PROGRESSIVE PROGRAM OF AGRICULTURAL. PETROLEUM. AND MINING HAS BEEN UNDER WAY IN THE LLANOS AND UPPER ORINOCO FOR AT LEAST A DECADE. AT THE PRESENT TIME APPROXIMATELY 30% OF THE EXPORTS OF VENEZUELA COME FROM THE PROVINCES OF ANZOATEQUI AND MATURIN AND RECENT DISCOVERIES INDICATE THAT EVEN LARGER OIL RESOURCES ARE LOCATED IN THE LLANQS OF THE RIO APURE. A LARGE AREA. MORE THAN 5.000 SQUARE MILES HAVE BEEN BROUGHT UNDER CULTIVATION IN THE NESTERN AREAS OF THE LLANOS AS A RESULT OF AN EXTENSIVE IRRIGATION PROJECT COMPLETED IN 1957. THE MINING ACTIVITIES OF THE UPPER ORINOCO HAVE RESULTED IN AN INCREASE OF TRAFFIC AND ROAD BUILDING BETWEEN THE RIO ORINOCO AND THE WESTERN AND COASTAL URBAN AREAS. MANY EUROPEAN IMMIGRANTS. DISPLACED SINCE flbRLD WAR II. HAVE TAKEN UP RESIDENCE IN THIS REGION. THE CON- SEQUENCE OF ALL THIS ACTIVITY IS THAT THE LLANOS ARE BECOMING LESS AND LESS A VAST AND ISOLATED REGION. IN THE RUPUNUNI SAVANNA. THE INDIVIDUAL MOST LIKELY TO BE EN- COUNTERED IS ALSO THE INDIAN cowBOY. THERE ARE SEVERAL FOREST TRIBES OF THE ARAWAK AND CARIB FAMILIES INHABITING THE PERIPHERAL FORESTS OF THE REGION. NONE OF THESE ARE KNOWN To BE HOSTILE AND DIRECTLY OR IN- DIRECTLY ARE ACQUAINTED WITH WESTERN MAN. AMONG THE INDIAN TRIBES ARE 211 THE HAI TAI_AND THE tAPISIANA WHO HAVE ON VARIOUS OCCASIONS FURNISHED GUIDES. HUNTERS. AND BOATMEN FOR ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND EXPLORING PARTIES IN THE RUPUNUNI REGION. SOUTH OF THE AMAZON THE MAJOR PORTION OF THE BRAZIL PLATEAU C MP S ARE VIRTUALLY DEVOID OF ANY INHABITANTs--INCLUDING INDIANS. IN THE AREAS OF THE HEADWATERS OF THE MAJOR RIVER VALLEYS. NUMEROUS INDIAN TRIBES. MEMBERS OF THE GE-LANGUAGE FAMILIES. ENGAGE IN BASICALLY TROPICAL FOREST SUBSISTENCE ACTIVITIES WHICH THEY SUPPLEMENT BY FOR- AGING IN THE SAVANNAS. ETHNOGRAPHERS GENERALLY CLASSIFY THESE TRIBES AS "MARGINAL TRIBES." AMONG THESE ARE SEVERAL TRIBES WHO HAVE. IN THE RECENT PAST. BEEN NOTORIOUS FOR THEIR FEROCITY AND HOSTILITY TOWARD ANY AND ALL STRANGERS. WHITES. AND OTHER INDIANS INCLUDED. THEY ARE THE KAIOPO (ALSO SPELLED KAYOPO AND CAYOPO). THE TAPAYUNA. THE TUPI-CAWAHIB. AND THE NAMBIKUARA WHO INHABIT THE EAST BANK OF THE RIO TAPAJOS. AND THE CHAVANTE (SHAVANTE. XAVANTE) WHO OCCUPY THE REGION BETWEEN THE HEADWATERS OF THE RIO DAS MORTES AND THE RIO XINGU. THE KAIOPOS HAVE CAUSED MOST OF THE SETTLERS ON THE UPPER TAPAJOS To EVACUATE THE AREA BECAUSE OF THEIR RAIDING ACTIVITIES. LITTLE IS KNOWN ABOUT THE ABOVE NAMED TRIBES ON THE TAPAJOS. HOWEVER. THE CHAVANTE HAVE BEEN THE OBJECT OF AN INTENSE PACIFICATION PROGRAM ON THE PART OF THE INDIAN COMMISSION OF THE BRAZILIAN GOVERN- MENT. THEY HAVE BEEN CITED ON A NUMBER OF OCCASIONS IN CONNECTION WITH THE KILLING OF VARIOUS INTRUDERS INTO THEIR TERRITORY INCLUDING SOME MEMBERS OF THE PACIFICATION TEAM. HITHIN THE PAST SEVERAL YEARS THE EFFORTS OF THE INDIAN PROTECTION SERVICE HAVE MET WITH CONSIDER- ABLE SUCCESS. MANY INDIVIDUAL INDIANS OF THE CHAVANTE HAVE BEEN EN- GAGED IN BUILDING GOVERNMENT AIR STRIPS AND ARE IN CASUAL CONTACT WITH 212 "OUTSIDERS." THE BRAZILIAN AIR FORCE HAVE RECRUITED A NUMBER OF THE CHAVANTE AS SCOUTS. GUIDES. AND INTERPRETERS; ONE EVEN HOLDS THE RANK OF SERGEANT. VOLUNTARY ACCESS TO THE CHAVANTE AREA IS STILL CON- TROLLED BY THE INDIAN PROTECTION SERVICE AND THERE IS STILL A DEGREE OF CAUTION AND UNPREDICTABILITY INVOLVED IN CONTACT WITH THE CHAVANTE. WITH REGARDS To THE SOCIAL. POLITICAL. AND RELIGIOUS ORGANI- ZATIONS AND ACTIVITIES OF THE MARGINAL INDIAN TRIBES. THERE IS LITTLE APPARENT DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THEM AND THE TROPICAL FOREST TRIBES. IN THAT THEY DO FORAGE IN THE SAVANNAS DURING THE PERIODS OF SEASONAL RIPENING OF THE PALM FRUITS AND OTHER VEGETABLE SOURCES. THIS ASPECT OF THEIR CULTURE PRESENTS A POSSIBLE CONTACT SITUATION. UNDER MOST CONDITIONS THE BEHAVIOR OF THE SURVIVOR IS THE SAME AS WITH THE TROPI- CAL FOREST INDIANS. HHAT MIGHT CONSTITUTE "OTHER" CONDITIONS IS UN- PREDICTABLE AND THE SURVIVOR CAN ONLY BE ADVISED To ATTEMPT TO INITIATE A FRIENDLY EXCHANGE; ACT CALMLY AND RATIONALLY; REFRAIN FROM PRovoc- ATIVE ACTS OR GESTURES AND BE ALERT FOR POSSIBLE CLUES AS To A COURSE OF ACTION. FOOD SOURCES VEGETATION. SAVANNA VEGETATION OFFERS LITTLE IN THE WAY OF RELIABLE SOURCES OF FOOD. THE MAJOR EXCEPTION TO THIS IS THE oc- CURRENCE OF PALM TREES THAT ARE FOUND ALONG THE STREAMS AND RIVERS OR IN FAIRLY PERMANENT AREAS OF MOISTURE SUCH AS SWAMPLANDS. OCCASION- ALLY. SINGLE PALM TREES ARE SEEN STANDING OUT CONSPICUOUSLY AGAINST AN OTHERWISE EMPTY LANDSCAPE. THE MQRICHE PALM. "MIRIII" OR "11;" (MAURITIA FLEXUOSA). IS THE MOST COMMON TO THE SAVANNAS AND IS PARTICULARLY IMPORTANT To THE INDIAN DIET. THE ORANGE COLORED FRUIT 213 PULP IS HIGHLY NUTRITIOUS. THE SMALL PALMETO OR "CANDARAY” PRODUCES A TERMINAL SHOOT OR CABBAGE WHICH IS BEST TASTING WHEN COOKED ALTHOUGH IT CAN BE EATEN RAW. FOLLOWING THE PALMS. THE MORE PERSISTENT VEGETABLE OF ANY VALUE ARE THE TUBEROUS ROOTS OF THE SAVANNA HERBS. DUE TO THE CONSTANT FIRES AND DROUGHT THE SAVANNA VEGETATION DEVELOPS EXTENSIVE UNDER- GROUND ROOT SYSTEMS. MOST OF THESE TEND To BE FIBEROUS AND TOUGH Es- PECIALLY THE OLDER PLANTS. NEVERTHELESS. THEY CAN BE SOAKED. POUNDED INTO A PULP. AND BOILED. INSECTS. MEAT FROM THE SMALL RODENTS. OR PORTIONS OF MEAT THAT ARE GENERALLY CONSIDERED REPELLENT. SUCH AS ENTRAILS. HEADS. EYES. ETC. MAY BE MADE MORE PALATABLE BY STEWING WITH ROOTS OR TUBERS. THIS SORT OF "DISGUISE" CAN ALSO BE EFFECTED BY COOKING WITH NUTS. BERRIES. OR ANY TYPE OF EDIBLE "GREENS" THAT CAN BE FOUND. IN CONNECTION WITH BOILING OF FOODS. THE LACK OF A SUITABLE COOKING POT THAT CAN BE PLACED DIRECTLY OVER A FIRE COULD BE A SERIOUS PROBLEM. IF ANY STURDY CONTAINER CAN BE IMPROVISED. THE SURVIVOR IS REMINDED OF THE METHOD OF HEATING ROCKS AND PLACING THEM IN THE FOOD "POT" INSTEAD OF PLACING IT OVER THE FLAME. AS TO CONTAINERS. THERE ARE GOURDS. PALM FRUIT SHELLS. SHELLS OF THE TURTLES. HOLLOWED OUT WOOD WHICH CAN BE HARDENED BY FIRE. AND METAL UTILIZED FROM THE PLANE. BERRIES. FRUITS. AND GREENS BLOOM AND RIPEN QUICKLY IN THE SAVANNAS. ON OCCASIONS. THE DULL. LIFELESS APPEARANCE IS CHANGED AL- MOST IN HOURS AFTER THE OCCURRENCE OF A PROLONGED RAIN. USUALLY. HOWEVER. THE HARVEST IS SEASONAL AND SHORT. IN THE GRAN CHACO. THE MAJORITY OF THE VEGETABLE SOURCES ARE OBTAINED FROM THE BUSH TYPE VEGETATION SUCH AS THE PODS FROM THE ALGARROBA IS USUALLY GROUND INTO A MEAL FROM WHICH IT IS PREPARED IN DIFFERENT FORMS OF FOOD AS WELL 214 AS BEING FERMENTED FOR BEVERAGES. OTHER FRUITS OF THIS SORT IN THE GRAN CHACO ARE IUQAS (AQAQIA: SEVERAL SPECIES). QUAMAB (GOURLIEA DECORTICAN). MISTAL (ZYzYPHUS MISTAL). AND VARIOUS CACTUS FRUITS. THESE FRUITS ARE HARVESTED FROM NOVEMBER To FEBRUARY. MOST FRUIT TREES ARE FOUND IN CLOSE ASSOCIATION WITH THE GALLERY FORESTS OR NOT TOO DISTANT FROM MORE PERSISTENT AREAS OF MOISTURE. AMONG THE REGULARLY SOUGHT AFTER FRUITS ARE THE PEACH- LIKE ERUCTQ 29 OB . THE WILD PINEAPPLE AND THE MANGABARA. IN MANY OF THE SWAMPY AREAS ESPECIALLY IN THE PANTANAL. WILD RICE IS FOUND IN CONSIDERABLE ABUNDANCE. ANY CULTIVATED FOOD PLOTS. EITHER CUR- RENTLY USED OR ABANDONED ARE FOUND ONLY IN THE FORESTED AREAS IN- CLUDING THE GALLERY FORESTS. IN THE RUPUNUNI SAVANNAS. THERE IS A CONSIDERABLY GREATER INTENSITY OF FRUIT AND NUT TREES AND BERRY BUSHES BUT AGAIN THEY ARE SEASONAL. RIPENING SOON AFTER THE RAINY SEASONS DURING SEPTEMBER AND OCTOBER OR MARCH. APRIL AND MAY. GROVES OF PALM TREES OCCUR WITH CONSIDERABLE FREQUENCY IN THIS REGION. SIGNIFICANTLY. THE SEASONAL "NOMADIC" FORAGING IN THE SAVANNAS BY THE MARGINAL INDIAN TRIBES IS NEITHER HAPHAZARD NOR RANDOM. THEY ARE THOROUGHLY FAMILIAR WITH THE AREAS OF CONCENTRATION AND RIPENING HABITS OF THE VEGETATION. AS WELL AS THE HUNTING AND FORAGING HABITS OF THE FAUNA THAT MAKE UP THE ENTIRE ECOLOGICAL COMPLEX OF THE SAVANNA ENVIRONMENT. THEY TRAVEL FROM ONE AREA OF ABUNDANCE To ANOTHER EX— HAUSTING EACH IN TURN UNTIL THE SEASON ENDS RETURNING FINALLY TO THE MORE PERMANENT TROPICAL FOREST ENVIRONMENT DURING THE RAINY SEASON OR WHEN THE SAVANNAS ARE IN THE FINAL AND LIFELESS STAGES OF DROUGHT. EVEN KNOWING THE NATURE AND DISTRIBUTION OF SAVANNA FOOD PLANTS. THE INDIANS CARRY SUPPLIES OF MANIQQ MEAL HELD IN RESERVE FROM THEIR CUL" 215 TIVATED PLOTS FOR THIS SEASONAL TREK. THE LONG SEASONAL MARCHES ARE BECOMING LESS AND LESS A MEATS OF SUBSISTENCE AS THE INCREASING AVAIL- ABILITY OF METAL AXES AND OTHER MORE "MODERN" TOOLS ALLOW THE INDIANS To CLEAR LARGER AREAS OF THE FORESTS FOR CULTIVATION WITH CONSIDERABLY LESS ENERGY. THE SAVANNAS ARE STILL HARVESTED BUT MUCH MORE AS SUPPLE- MENTAL RESOURCES THAN FORMERLY. ANIMAI . HUNTING OR STALKING ANIMALS IN THE SAVANNAS IS To A CONSIDERABLE EXTENT A MATTER OF LEARNING THEIR MOVEMENT PATTERNS. AS CREATURES OF HABIT THEY FOLLOW A SOMEWHAT PREDICTABLE ROUTINE. FOR EXAMPLE. THE NOCTURNAL FEEDERS HOLE UP DURING THE DAY. THE SURVIVOR SHOULD BE ALERT TO ANY INDICATION OF A BURROW. NEST. CREVICE. HOLE. HOLLOW TREE. OR ANY SUCH HABITABLE PLACE WHERE THE NIGHT FEEDERS MAY BE. EVEN EMPTY HABITATIONS CAN BE RIGGED WITH TRAPS OR SNARES IN THAT MANY ANIMALS UTILIZE SUCH PLACES SOMEWHAT INDISCRIMINATELY. THE ANIMALS THAT ARE ACTIVE DURING THE DAY USUALLY REGULATE THEIR MOVEMENTS Ac- CORDING To THE INTENSITY OF THE SUN'S HEAT. MOST ACTIVITY OCCURS DURING THE EARLY MORNING CR LATE EVENING HOURS. IN THE HEAT OF THE MIDDAY SUN. THE LAND IS GIVEN OVER TO THE GRASSHOPPERS AND LOCUSTS. AT SUCH TIMES THE SAVANNA INHABITANTS FIND RESPITE IN THEIR BURROWS. UNDER OR BEHIND CLUMPS OF GRASS. OR DEEP AMONG THE THICKETS AND BUSHES. THE FOREST ANIMALS RETREAT To THE COOLER SHADE OF THE FOREST. AS IN THE FOREST. THERE SEEMS To BE CONTINUOUS NIGHT LIFE GOING ON IN THE SAVANNAS. NIGHT SOUNDS CARRY A CONSIDERABLE DISTANCE AND UNLESS ONE IS EXPERIENCED IT IS DIFFICULT TO DETERMINE HOW FAR AWAY THE ANIMALS ARE OR WHAT THE SOUNDS SIGNIFY. IN THE EARLY MORNING HOURS WHILE THE DEW IS STILL ON THE GROUND THE PATTERN OF TRACKS MOVING OUT OF THE FORESTS SHOW UP QUITE WELL WHERE GRASS COVER IS DENSE AND STILL 216 SHORT. HOWEVER. IN THE TALLER BUNCH-GRASS THE SOIL IS MORE EXPOSED AND THE TELLTALE DEW TRAILS ARE LESS EVIDENT. THEN THE HUNTER MUST RELY ON KNOWN GAME HABITS AND MOVEMENTS. GAME TRAILS IN AND OUT OF THE SAVANNAS GENERALLY FOLLOW TWO DIFFERENT PATTERNS. IF THERE ARE INTERMEDIATE AREAS OF FOOD SOURCES WITHIN A GIVEN EXPANSE OF OPEN TERRAIN THE TRAILS LEAVE THE FOREST EDGE AT THE POINT CLOSEST To IN- TERMEDIATE AREAS. INTERMEDIATE AREAS IN THIS CASE REFER TO GROVES OF PALMS. OR OTHER TREE COVERED AREAS. AREAS OF EXTENSIVE BUSH GROWTH. CERRADOS. SWAMPS. Eglfiagg. OR OTHER ISOLATED BODIES OF WATER. IN OTHER WORDS. ANY AREA WHERE THERE IS AN INCREASE OF VEGETATION OR ANIMAL LIFE IN COMPARISON TO THE SURROUNDING AREA. WHERE THERE ARE No INTERMEDIATE AREAS. THE TRACKS REFLECT A MEANDERING PATTERN OF FORAGING--CIRCLING AMONG THE CLUMPS OF TALL GRASSES. SCATTERED BUSHES. TERMITE MOUNDS. BURROWS. ETC. THESE FORAGING TRIPS ARE NEVER A GREAT DISTANCE FROM THE FRINGES OF THE FORESTS. WHERE THE MARGIN OF THE FOREST ENCIROLES'A FAIRLY EXTENSIVE OPEN AREA. RARELY WILL THE MAJORITY OF THE ANIMALS CUT ACROSS THE EXPANSE USUALLY PREFERRING TO FOLLOW THE EDGE OF THE FOREST. THIS IS NOT ALWAYS SO. THE JAGUAR APPARENTLY HAS LITTLE TO FEAR AND OCCASIONALLY HERDS OF PECCARY WILL ROOT THEIR WAY ACROSS SUCH AREAS. THE LITTLE RED gAung_BROCKETS. TRAVELING IN HERDS OF TEN OR MORE. ARE CONSTANTLY ON THE ALERT FREQUENTLY LEAPING UP TO SCAN THE HORIZON. THE SURVIVOR IS REMINDED THAT IN THE SAVANNAS HE IS THE TALLEST ANIMAL OF ALL. THERE ARE CERTAIN AREAS AND TIMES OF THE YEAR WHEN THE GRASSES ARE AS TALL AS A MAN. NEVERTHELESS. ABOUT 99% OF THE FAUNA. OTHER THAN INSECTS. FUNCTION BELOW THE HEIGHT OF THE VEGETATION OR UHEN SENSING DANGER CAN EASILY BLEND OR MERGE WITH THE TERRAIN BECOMING 217 QUITE INVISIBLE. UNDER THESE CONDITIONS THE HUNTER. OR SURVIVOR IN THIS INSTANCE. MUST UTILIZE ALL THE CUNNING AND IMAGINATION HE POSSESSES. WHATEVER HIS WEAPONS THEY ARE VALUELESS IF THE GAME CANNOT BE BROUGHT WITHIN EFFECTIVE RANGE. THE INDIAN IS OF COURSE UNRIVALED IN ALL THE LORE OF THE REGIONAL FAUNA. IT IS UNLIKELY THAT THE SURVIVOR CAN Ao- QUIRE THE SAME PROFICIENCY IN SO SHORT A TIME. HOWEVER. A REVIEW OF THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF INDIVIDUAL CAMOUFLAGE MIGHT BE HELPFUL. USE THE NATURAL VEGETATION TO MAKE A SCREEN OR AMBUSH ALONG TRAILS. FEEDING. OR WATERING PLACES. IF STALKING. USE BUSH TYPE VEGETATION TO BREAK UP ONE'S SILHOUETTE. THE INDIANS TIE THE BUSH BRANCHES ALL ABOUT THEM- SELVES LEAVING THE ARMS FREE FOR ACTION. ONLY MOVE WHEN THE GAME IS OBVIOUSLY UNAWARE AND DISTRACTED BY FEEDING OR SUCH OTHER ACTIVITY. A WORD OF CAUTION--IF A PARTICULAR ANIMAL IS BEING STALKED. REMEMBER TO SCRUTINIZE THE AREA OF APPROACH FOR OTHER ANIMALS WHICH MAY EITHER REACT AND SOUND AN ALARM OR PRESENT A BETTER SOURCE OF FOOD AND OPPOR- TUNITY OF CAPTURE. AS A SOURCE OF FOOD FEW ANIMALS CAN EQUAL THE ARMADILLO. WHILE NOT ABUNDANT IT IS PROBABLY MORE COMMON IN THE SAVANNAS THAN MOST OF THE OTHER ANIMALS WHICH ARE USUALLY ASSOCIATED WITH THE FORESTS. THE ARMADILLO IS A BURROWER AND WHEN THE OCCASION DEMANDS A VERY SWIFT ONE DISAPPEARING IN AN AMAZINGLY SHORT TIME WHEN ATTEMPTING TO ESCAPE CAP- TURE. THEY DO NOT BURROW DEEPLY AND CAN BE DUG OUT OR FORCED OUT BY PRODDING WITH A SHARP POINTED STICK OR SMOKE. ONCE THE OTHER BURROWING ANIMALS SUCH AS SMALL FIELD MICE AND SHREWS DISAPPEAR INTO THEIR UNDERGROUND NETWORK OF RUNWAYS. THEY ARE ALMOST IMPOSSIBLE TO GET OUT. THESE MUST BE SNARED OR TRAPPED IN VARIOUS WAYS. BURNED TO DEATH BEFORE THEY CAN GET TO THEIR HOLES (BY 218 GRASS FIRES) OR CLUBBED OR STONED--FEATS REQUIRING BOTH ALACRITY AND ACCURACY. RABBITS AND HARES OCCUR SOMEWHAT IRREGULARLY. THEY APPEAR To BE MORE ABUNDANT IN THE RUPUNUNI SAVANNAS THAN IN THE CAMPQS OR THE LLANOS. CAPTURE BY TRAPPING. SNARING. OR BY HAND WHEN THEY CAN BE FORCED OUT OF A BURROW OR CREVICE ARE THE MORE USUAL METHODS OF HUNTING THESE ANIMALS. THEIR SMALL SIZE AND ELUSIVENESS MAKE THEM A SOMEWHAT DOUBTFUL CHOICE FOR EXPENDITURE OF CRITICAL AMMUNITION Ex- CEPT IN MORE EXTREME CONDITIONS OF SCARCITY OF LARGER GAME--AND HUNGER. THE PECCARIES. AGOUTIS. DEER. FOXES. TAPIR. PACAS. OPPOSSUM. ANTEATERS. AND MONKEYS ARE ALL REMUNERATIVE GAME FOR EXPENDITURE OF AMMUNITION. IF AMMUNITION IS A CRITICAL FACTOR. THE SURVIVOR MUST UTILIZE THE GREATEST SKILL AND PATIENCE TO BE ASSURED OF A SUCCESSFUL SHOT. WHERE THERE IS ALREADY SOME MEAT ON HAND THE SURVIVOR MUST ALSO CONSIDER THE ADVISABILITY OF USING AMMUNITION ON TARGETS OF OPPOR- TUNITY. EVEN THOUGH THE MEAT CAN BE CUT. DRIED AND/OR SMOKED. IT CANNOT BE PRESERVED FOR VERY LONG. IT IS NEARLY IMPOSSIBLE To KEEP FLIES AWAY FROM MEAT BEING PREPARED FOR PRESERVATION ESPECIALLY IF THE STRIPS OF MEAT ARE BEING SUN DRIED. THE LARVAE OF THE FLIES AND OTHER INSECTS GET INTO THE MEAT AND IN A SHORT TIME PRODUCE PUTRI- FYING ACTION EVEN IN THE HARD. DRIED STRIPS. STILL. THE CHRONIC SCARCITY OF SUCH PRIZED GAME MUST BE CONSIDERED. UNDER THESE CON- DITIONS THE SURVIVOR MAY ATTEMPT SOME OF THE ALTERNATE IF LESS RE- LIABLE MEANS OF CAPTURE AND SAVE THE AMMUNITION FOR A MORE CRITICAL TIME. ALTHOUGH THE JAGUAR AND PUMA ARE FOOD SOURCES. STALKING AND KILLING THESE ANIMALS WITHOUT PREVIOUS EXPERIENCE POSES A SERIOUS RISK. EVEN WITH A GUN. BIRDS. THERE ARE MANY EXCELLENT GAME BIRDS ASSOCIATED WITH 219 THE SAVANNAS ALTHOUGH QUITE A NUMBER ONLY FEED IN THE SAVANNAS AND NEST IN THE SURROUNDING FORESTS. THE CURASSOWS AND GUANS DESCRIBED ‘ UNDER TROPICAL FORESTS ARE ALSO FOUND IN THE GALLERY FORESTS PENE‘ TRATING INTO THE SAVANNAS BUT ARE RARELY FOUND IN THE OPEN AREAS. THIS IS TRUE OF MANY OF THE RAIN FOREST BIRDS. SOME OF THE BIRDS WHICH ARE MORE SPECIFICALLY OF THE SAVANNA ARE IN MANY RESPECTS SIMILAR TO THE PRAIRIE BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA. THE HUNTING TECH- NIQUES ARE ALSO MUCH THE SAME IF ONE HAS THE PROPER GEAR. THAT IS; SHOTGUN. BIRD DOGS. BIRD CALLS; AND IF ONE USES THE PROPER TACTICS. THAT IS; STALKING. CAMOUFLAGE. COVER. ETC. WHETHER ANY TYPE OF GUN IS AVAILABLE IS A MATTER OF CIRCUMSTANCES AS INDICATED ABOVE. WHETHER ANY OTHER TYPE OF WEAPON IS AVAILABLE IS VERY MUCH A MATTER OF IMAGINATION AND RESOURCEFULNESS ON THE PART OF THE INDIVIDUAL. IT IS UNLIKELY THAT THE SURVIVOR CAN LEARN TO LURE THE BIRDS IN CLOSE WITH CALLS AS DO THE INDIANS. HOWEVER. HE CAN LEARN To USE THE STALKING TECHNIQUES IN ORDER TO BRING HIS WEAPONS INTO PLAY. IN THE SURVIVAL SITUATION ANY KIND OF BIRD THAT CAN BE CAP- TURED BY SNARING. SHOOTING: STONINGS CLUBBING IN ANY WAY IS A PRIZE. ”'Il-I: '_-.--. 1:”. .Lv THE FOLLOWING IS A LIST OF SOME OF THE MORE COMMON BIRDS ASSOCIATED WITH THE SAVANNA: ‘F'aaraz._~s- BBEA ALSO "EMU"(BUEA AMERICANA)--KNOWN LOCALLY AS "AVESTRgz" OR "UAflauo" THESE OSTRICH-LIKE BIRDS RANGE IN THE SOUTHERN CAMPOS OF BRAZIL. IN THE GRAN CHACO. AND THE PAMPAS OF ARGENTINA. THEY WEIGH UP To 100 POUNDS. ARE FLIGHTLESS BUT VERY SWIFT RUNNERS AND ARE PARTICULARLY ADEPT AT WEAVING ERRATICALLY THROUGH THE CLUMPS OF TALL GRASS: THORN BUSHES AND 220 THORN TREES. THEY ARE OF VARIOUS COLORS RANGING FROM DIRTY MOTTLED GREY TO DARK BROWN AND IN AP- PEARANCE CANNOT BE MISTAKEN FOR ANY OTHER SOUTH AMERICAN BIRD. BREEDING SEASONS VARY WITH THE LOCAL. THEY USUALLY BUILD THEIR NESTS. A SHALLOW HOLE THIRTY-SIX TO FORTY INCHES IN DIAMETER. ON LOOSE SANDY SOIL AMONG THE TALLER GRASSES. THICKETS. OR COPSE OF SAVANNA TREES. THE NUMBER OF EGGS VARY. ON ONE OCCASION FORTY-THREE WERE FOUND IN ONE NEST. THE EGGS ARE LARGE AND GOOD TASTING. USUALLY WHEN A NEST IS FOUND THE MALE WILL BE IN THE VICINITY. HE WILL ATTEMPT TO DISTRACT ATTENTION FROM THE NEST BY RUNNING ABOUT ERRATICALLY WITH OUTSTRETCHED WING BUT WILL NOT ATTACK. THE INDIANS CONSIDER ALL PARTS OF THE RHEA AS EDIBLE ALTHOUGH THE WINGS ARE THE MORE DESIREABLE. THE CALL OF THE RHEA HAS A DISTINCTIVE BOOMING SOUND. IINAMQNS,(IINAIIDA§)--THERE ARE NUMEROUS SPECIES OF THIS REPRESENTATIVE OF THE QUAIL THROUGHOUT_SCUTH AMERICA. THEIR BODY COLORING AND MARKINGS ARE AS VARIED AS THE SPECIES. LIKE THEIR NORTH AMERICAN COUSINS. THEY ARE USUALLY OPEN AREA BIRDS SPENDING ALL OF THEIR TIME ON THE GROUND. ONLY WHEN FLUSHED BY AN ENEMY DO THEY TAKE FLIGHT. RISING IN A WHIRR OF WINGS ABOUT TEN TO FIFTEEN FEET. THEY HEAD DIRECTLY FOR THE NEAREST RISE. NEVER FAR ABOVE GROUNDS AND DISAPPEAR BEHIND THE SCREEN AFFORDED IT” “W” ' 221 BY THE TERRAIN. THEIR PATTERN CF FLIGHT IS A SERIES OF STROKES AND GLIDES FOLLOWING THE CONTOURS OF THE TERRAIN. THEY ARE MUCH THE SAME SIZE AS THE NORTH AMERICAN QUAIL ALTHOUGH ONE SPECIE. THE "GREY" TINAMOUS. WEIGHS UP To THREE AND FOUR POUNDS. NESTS CONSIST OF SMALL HOLLOWS IN THE CLUMPS OF THE GRASSES OR THICKETS. THEIR BREEDING AND NESTING HABITS ARE AS VARYING AS THE SPECIES AND LOCALES IN WHICH THEY ARE FOUND. THEY RANGE THROUGHOUT THE SAVANNAS AND GRASSLANDS OF SOUTH AMERICA INCLUDING THE GRAN CHACO. THERE ARE SOME SPECIES FOUND IN A LOOSE ASSOCIATION WITH OPEN WOODLANDS AND MARSHY AREAS BUT THE MAJORITY ARE MORE COMMONLY FOUND IN THE OPEN AREAS. MOST OF THE TINAMOUS HAVE A MELODIOUS SERIES OF CALLS INCLUDING A SERIES OF LOW PIPING WHISTLES. TER- MINAL TRILLS AFTER A SERIES OF SINGLE NOTES. As- CENDING NOTES WITH TERMINAL TRILLS. OR ALTERNATING NOTES AND TRILLS. THE WHISTLING EFFECT IS PREVA- LENT AMONG NEARLY ALL OF THE TINAMOUS. FINCHES (FUNGILLIDA§)—-THERE ARE MANY SPECIES OF THIS BIRD FAMILY RANGING THROUGHOUT SOUTH AMERICA. MANY OF THEM ARE CONSIDERED FOREST BIRDS BUT THEY ARE AMONG THOSE WHICH FEED SOMEWHAT INDISCRIMINATELY IN BOTH FOREST AND SAVANNA ENVIRONMENT. THERE IS A DECIDED PREFERENCE FOR AREAS OF EXTENSIVE BUSH OR mama-3" TREE-COVERED AREAS ESPECIALLY IN THE CERRADOS AND THE GRAN CHACO. THEY USUALLY PERCH AMONG THE SMALL TREES OR IN THE THICKETS DARTING AFTER FLYING IN- SECTS OR DROPPING TO THE GROUND FOR FOOD AND RE- TURNING TO THE THICKETS OR TREES. SEVERAL SPECIES OF THE NATO GROSSO DO FEED ON THE GROUND ESPECIALLY DURING THE BREEDING SEASON. (THESE ARE FOUND IN _SMALL STREAMS OR MARSHES. THEIR NESTS ARE FOUND IN CLUMPS OF GRASS SEVERAL INCHES ABOVE THE GROUND. THE EGGS. USUALLY FOUR TO SIX IN A NEST. ARE MOTTLED GREY GREEN AND BROWN AND ARE VERY THIN SHELLED. THEIR CALLS ARE THOSE OF A SONGBIRD. INTRICATE AND MELODIOUS. THEY ARE SMALL. QUICK. EXCITABLE. AND DIFFICULT To KILL IN FLIGHT. SNARING APPEARS TO BE THE BEST MEANS OF CAPTURE. CUCKQQ (CUQULIDAE)--NUMEROUS SPECIES INCLUDE LOCAL OR INDIAN NAMES OF Afli OR ANo-J. GUIRA. EIRIRI (GUARANI. INDIAN NAME) AND EIRINCHQ. THESE BIRDS RANGE THROUGHOUT THE SAVANNAS. THE CHACO AND EAMPA . THEY ARE GREGARIOUS. FLOCKING IN NUMBERS UP TO TWENTY OR MORE. THEY FEED ON THE GROUND BUT MAIN- TAIN A MEMBER OR GUARD PERCHED WHERE IT CAN SURVEY THE COUNTRYSIDE. THEY ARE FREQUENTLY ATTRACTED BY RECENTLY BURNED AREAS. THEY RESEMBLE THE MAGPIES OR JAYS. THE CALLS ARE USUALLY A DISCORDANT SERIES OF NOTES. WHICH SOUND LIKE A PERSON FORCING AIR OVER A LEAF COMPRESSED BETWEEN THE TONGUE AND THE 223 ROOF OF THE MOUTH (AS MOST BOYS LEARN To DO). THEIR ALARM SOUNLS LIKE THE CRACKLING NOISE OF A BRUSH FIRE. OR WALKING THROUGH DRY LEAVES. FLIGHT IS SLOW AND WEAK USUALLY ENDING AT THE NEAREST TREE WHERE THE ENTIRE FLOCK WILL ROOST. ON COOL MORNINGS THEY GATHER IN A SUNNY SPOT WITH WINGS AND TAILS DROOPING AND FEATHERS FLUFFED. THEY HAVE A STRONG AND DISAGREEABLE ODOR AND THE MEAT THOUGH EDIBLE BECOMES MORE PALA- TABLE WHEN THOROUGHLY BOILED (A RECOMMENED TREAT- MENT FOR MOST OFFENSIVE MEATS). THEY FORAGE AMONG THE CLUMPS OF GRASS. IN DENSE THICKETS. BUSH. OR TREES. PIGEQNS (COLUMBIDA§)--THESE BIRDS. OF WHICH THERE ARE NUMEROUS SPECIES. ARE MUCH LIKE THE QUAIL IN HABITS. THEY ARE FOUND THROUGHOUT THE SAVANNAS SHOWING A PREFERENCE FOR LOW BRUSH OR TREE COVERED AREAS. THEY REMAIN ON THE GROUND FREQUENTLY FEEDING IN OPEN AREAS FREE OF UNDERBRUSH. WALKING ABOUT WITH BOBBING HEADS. LHEN ALARMED THEY WILL EITHER FREEZE IN POSITION OR FLUSH RAPIDLY WITH QUICK DARTING FLIGHTS ACCOMPANIED BY WHIRRING SOUNDS OF WINGS AND A SHRILL WHISTLING. THEY MAY FLY TO THE NEAREST DENSE COVER OR To THE NEAREST TREE WHERE THERE IS SOME COVER--EVEN THOUGH THE TREE MAY BE A FEW YARDS AWAY. THEY ARE VERY GREGARIOUS. ESPECIALLY WHERE FOOD IS ABUNDANT. WITH FLOCKS OF UP TO TWENTY-FIVE OR THIRTY NOT UNUSUAL. NESTING HABITS ARE VARIED. SOME IN TREES. THICKETS. ‘P-.-.‘u§¢*n‘:'y '— m COT". .Iu: 224 SINGLE BUSHES OR IN CLUMPS OF TALL GRASS. THE FOREGOING ARE JUST A FEW OF THE MANY BIRDS THAT FREQUENT THE SAVANNA REGIONS OR THE WOODS IN CLOSE ASSOCIATION WITH THE SAVANNAS. OTHER FAMILIES OF BIRDS REPRESENTED ARE PLOVERS. WOODPECKERS. PARROTS. SNIPES. MINERS. HUMMINGBIRDS. LARKS. ORICLES. BLACKBIRDS~~THE LIST GOES ON ALMOST INTERMINABLY. BESIDE THE "LAND" BIRDS. THERE ARE MANY AQUATIC OR SEMI— AQUATIC BIRDS WHICH ARE FOUND IN ASSOCIATION WITH ALL OF THE RIVER SYSTEM AS WELL AS THE MARSHLANDS ANL SWAMPS. AMONG THESE ARE HERONS. TERNS. SANDPIPERS. IBIS. GEESE. DUCKS. ETC.. ETC. PROBABLY THE MORE IMPORTANT OF THESE ARE THE SEVERAL SPECIES OF DUCKS AND GEESE THAT ARE COMMON ALONG MOST OF THE WATERWAYS THROUGHOUT SOUTH AMERICA. THE NON- MIGRATORY ORINOCO GOOSE NESTS IN PAIRS ALONG MOST OF THE TRIBUTARIES OF THE RIO ORINOCO. IN THE SAVANNAS AND GALLERY FORESTS. THEY ARE PARTICULARLY ABUNDANT IN THE RIO APURE-PORTUGUESE AREA WHERE THEY ARE COMMONLY SEEN FEEDING OR RESTING IN HOLLOW TREES. THEY ARE RELATIVELY TAME. AND CAN BE APPROACHED QUITE EASILY. THE BREEDING PERIOD IS FROM APRIL TO AUGUST. EGGS ARE VERY PALATABLE. MOST OTHER GEESE OF THE RIVER SYSTEMS ARE MIGRATORY BIRDS. OF THE DUCKS: PROBABLY THE MOST u‘ m... A ... COMMONLY KNOWN IS THE MUSCOVY DUCK. ALTHOUGH FOUND IN THE GRAN CHACO 1 n -‘L._'_" OF PARAGUAY. THEY ARE NOT COMMON IN THE OTHER SAVANNA AREAS BEING MORE ASSOCIATED WITH THE FOREST. THERE ARE. HOWEVER. SEVERAL OTHER SPECIES OF DUCK WHICH ARE To BE FOUND IN THE SWAMPS. RIVERS AND STREAMS. THESE ARE THE WHITE-BILLED AND RED-BILLED WHISTLING DUCKS WHICH ARE FOUND IN THE MARSHES AND SWAMPS AS WELL AS THE RIVERS AND STREAMS. THEY NEST IN THE TALL REEDS OR GRASSES ALONG THE MARGINS OF THE WATER OR IN HOLLOW TREES. THEY ARE GREGARIOUS AND NOISY CONGREGATING IN 225 FLOCKS. USUALLY BREEDING DURING THE RAINY SEASONS WHEN THEY LAY UP TO TWELVE To FIFTEEN EGGS PER NEST. THEY FEED AT NIGHT. ARE QUITE TAME. AND EASILY APPROACHED. THE PINTAIL IS ANOTHER SPECIE OF DUCK WHOSE APPEARANCE USUALLY COINCIDES WITH THE PERIODS OF FLOOD. DURING THE PERIODS OF ARRIVAL IN THE FEEDING AREAS OR TERMINAL AREAS ALONG ROUTES OF MIGRATION. THESE BIRDS SHOW LITTLE FEAR OR AWARENESS OF DANGER FROM HUMANS. AT SUCH TIMES CONTINUOUS FLIGHTS OF MORE THAN 20,000 INDIVIDUAL DUCKS MAY ARRIVE IN ONE AREA OF FLOODED LAND. BE- SIDES THE ABOVE. OTHER SPECIES OF DUCK INCLUDE THE YELLow-BILLED OR TREE TEAL. BRAZILIAN TEAL. CINNAMON TEAL. GREY TEAL. ROSY-BILLED DUCK. BLACK-HEADED DUCK. AND THE RUDDY DUCK MOST OF WHICH ARE FOUND IN THE MARSHES. LAGOONS. OR OTHER WATERWAYS. REPTILE . THE MORE IMPORTANT FOOD SOURCES AMONG THE REPTILES OF THE SAVANNA ARE THE TURTLES AND TORTOISES. THESE ARE MOST USUALLY FOUND IN ASSOCIATION WITH AREAS OF MORE PERMANENT WATER EITHER THE RIVERS AND STREAMS OR THE SWAMPS AND MARSHES. LIKE THE OTHER AQUATIC 0R SEMI‘AQUATIC REPTILES: PARTICULARLY THE CROCODILES AND CAIMAN, THE my- .0! TURTLES DISPERSE OVER THE FLOODED AREAS ADJACENT TO THE RIVERS AND STREAMS DURING THE RAINY SEASONS. DURING PERIODS OF RECESSION AND DROUGHT, THEY ARE FREQUENTLY TRAPPED IN ISOLATED BODIES OF WATER. I ’E'Z‘.‘ 23': _'_‘:"“_'f"‘" 1...... ““1" ' ’ ALSO LIKE THE CAIMAN. AT SUCH TIMES THEY MAY BURROW INTO THE MUD AND REMAIN IN SEMI-HIBERNATION UNTIL THE RAINS "REDISTRIBUTE" THEM. FOR THE MOST PART. HOWEVER. THEY FOLLOW THE RECEDING WATERS BACK To THE FLOWING RIVERS. RIVER ANIMAIS. AS DESCRIBED UNDER FOOD SOURCES OF THE TROPICAL FORESTS. THE SPECIES OF FOOD FISH OF THE SOUTH AMERICAN RIVER SYSTEMS NUMBER IN THE THOUSANDS AND THE NUMBER OF FISH IN THE 226 MILLIONS, THE MAJORITY OF WHICH ARE EDIBLE. IN ADDITION TO THE FISH, THERE ARE THE ABOVE MENTIONED CROCODILES AND CAIMAN, MANATEES ES" PECIALLY IN THE ORINOCO RIVER SYSTEM, DOLPHIN, OTTERS’ AND OTHER NOT TO BE OVERLOOKED ARE THE VARIOUS AMPHIBIANS SUCH WATER ANIMALS. TWO SPECIES ARE BEST AS FROGS, TADPOLESS NEWTSS AND SALAMANDERS. ONE IS THE GIANT TOAD. "SAPAQ" OR "SAPO." WHICH WEIGHS UP AVOIDED: TO FIVE POUNDS AND HAS HUGE EXTERNAL GLANDS ON ITS BACK THAT EXUDE A HIGHLY TOXIC SECRETION WHICH AFFECTS THE DIGESTIVE TRACT; THE OTHER IS A SMALL) BRILLIANTLY COLORED FROG WHICH HAS A SKIN SECRETION WHICH WHEN FRESH IS HIGHLY TOXIC TO THE DIGESTIVE TRACT AND wHEN DRY AF‘ FECTS THE BLOOD STREAM. THE DRIED SECRETION IS USED AS A POISON FOR BLOWGUN DARTS. OTHER SOURCES OF ANIMAL FOOD ALONG THE RIVERS. SWAMPS AND MARSHES ARE THE EGGS FROM TURTLES, CROCODILES, CAIMAN, VARIOUS TYPES OF FRESH-WATER SNAILS) MOLLUSKS, AND AQUATIC BIRDS; CRABS: AND OTHER TYPES OF SHELLFISH WHICH ARE ALL EASILY GATHERED. IN THE SAVANNAS ONE OF THE MORE SERIOUS CONSIDERATIONS AF- FECTIAKS‘HNE UTILIZATION OF AQUATIC ANIMAL LIFE IS THE SEASONAL VARI- 'h4IS HAS BEEN DISCUSSED BRIEFLY ABOVE. DURING PERIODS OF ATIONS. WELL AS THE SWAMPS ARE DRIED UP AND DROUGHT MOST OF THE STREAMS AS ONLY THE MAJOR TRIBUTARIES MAINTAIN A PERSISTENT FLOW OF WATER AND CONVERSELY: DURING THE RAINY SEASONS THE ADJACENT LANDS ANIMAL LIFE. IS WIDELY DISTRIBUTED ARE THOROUGHLY INUNDATED AND THE ANIMAL LIFE OVER THE FLCODED AREAS MAKING THE NORMAL TECHNIQUES OF FISHING FROM THE BANKS (WHICH IS VERY ARID ESPECIALLY IN THE REGION NORTH OF THE ho PILOOMAYO. THE PERIODS OF FLOOD WERE PARTICULARLY IMPORTANT TO HE INDIANS BECAUSE OF THE SEASONAL RUN OF FISH WHICH WERE LEFT TO IE BY THE THOUSANDS AS THE WATERS RECEDED. 227 THE TERMITE HAS BEEN MENTIONED SEVERAL TIMES: INSECTS. THE IN THE FORESTS AND SAVANNAS. VARIOUS SPECIES BEING FOUND BOTH IN MOUNDS OF THE TERMITES SEEM TO FILL A SPECIFIC ECOLOGICAL NICHE INSECTS, LIZARDS, THE SAVANNAS. NOT ONLY DO OTHER ANIMALS SUCH AS SNAKES, AND RODENTS UTILIZE THE MOUNDS AS SHELTERS BUT FREQUENTLY THE ONLY «NEPImwa VEGETATION IN AN AREA WILL BE CONCENTRATED AROUND THE SURVIVOR CAN USE THE OCCUPANTS OF THE MOUND AS A THE MOUND. ITSELF CAN BE BURNED AND SOURCE OF FOOD AND THE MATERIAL OF THE MOUND USED AS FUEL (IT CAN ALSO SERVE AS A SIGNAL FIRE FOR SEARCHING PARTIES). GRASSHOPPERS AND LOCUSTS ARE A PARTICULARLY NUTRITIOUS SOURCE OF FOOD AND HAVE BEEN UTILIZED AS SUCH BY PEOPLES THE WORLD OVER. THE MORE USUAL METHOD OF PREPARING THEM IS BY ROASTING BUT THEY CAN INTO A PASTE OR BOILED WITH OTHER FOODS: ESPECIALLY VEGE‘ BE MASHED THE NECESSITY OF INTRODUCED CONCERN ING A NOTE OF CAUTION IS TABLES. REMOVING THE LEGs--THIS APPLIES TO MOST EDIBLE THE LEGS ARE NOT ONLY INSECTS BUT PART ICU" LARLY THE GRASSHOPPERS, LOCUST39 AND ANTS. IRRITATION TO THE THROAT AND STOMACH. INDIGESTIBLE BUT ALSO CAUSE TTNE VALUE OF THE HONEYBEE WAS DISCUSSED AT LENGTH THEY ARE PARTICULARLY PREVALENT IN THE CERRADOS AS PREVIOUSLY MENTIONED-- IN THE TROPICAL FOREST DATA. SOME OF THE QAMPQS AND THE WESTERN [LANDS AREAS. THE HONEYBEES OF SOUTH AMERICA ARE STINGLESS BUT THEY DO BITE. SEEM TO HAVE A PARTICULAR AFINITY FOR HUMAN SWEAT AND WILL LITERALLY BLANKET A PERSON'S FACE OR EXPOSED AREAS. SOME ARE ALSO ATTRACTED TO THE EYES APPARENTLY AND IN THE _C_A_MPQS ARE CALLED "LAMBE ALHOS" OR 'THE HONEYBEES THEMSELVES ARE AN EXCELLENT FOOD. THE EYE LICKERS. VASPS ARE ALSO QUITE PREVALENT AND WHILE THE COMBS AND LARVAE OF SOME 228 SOURCE OF FOOD THE DANGER FROM THE WASPS THEMSELVES ARE AN EXCELLENT INSECTS OF FOOD VALUE ARE MOST OF THE OTHER IS QUITE FORMIDABLE. IS TRUE OF THE VARIOUS GRUBS AND ASSOCIATED WITH THE FORESTS. THIS BEETLE LARVAE FOUND IN THE DEAD OR DYING TREES. HEALTH AND HAZARDS IN THE SAVANNAS ONE OF THE MORE SERIOUS CONSIDERATIONS OF OF WATER DURING THE PERIODS OF DROUGHT. IS THE PROCUREMENT SURVIVAL IMME" AFTER THE INITIAL PROBLEMS OF ORGANIZATION HAVE BEEN DEALT WITH, DIATE ATTENTION SHOULD BE GIVEN TO FINDING AN ADEQUATE SOURCE OF INDIVIDUAL OR INDIVIDUALS IS BEST ACCOMPLISHED WHILE THE WATER. THIS ONCE THE DEBILITATING EFFECTS OF MOISTURE ARE STILL STRONG AND ABLE. DEFICIENCY SET IN THE LESS ENERGY CAN BE AFFORDED, OR EVEN GENERATED, IN SEARCH. I."HERE THERE ARE SEVERAL IN THE SURVIVAL PARTY, AREAS CAN BE APPORTIONED SO THAT THE SEARCH PARTIES ARE OPERATING SIMULTANEOUSLY. WHEN A SEARCH PARTY DOES LEAVE THE CRASH OR BASE AREA. EVERY PRECAUTION MUST BE TAKEN TO INSURE THEIR SAFE RETURN. DIRECTION MAINTENANCE TECHNIQUES SHOULD BE USED, TRAILS BLAZED WHERE NECESSARY: AND DIS- TINCTIVE CHECK POINTS CLEARLY IDENTIFIED. TO THE EXTENT POSSIBLE: EACH PARTY SHOULD BE EQUIPPED WITH WEAPONS, COMPASS. SIGNAL MIRROR. MATCHES. KNIVES. AXE OR MACHETE. FOOD. WATER. INSECT REPELLENT. AND ANTI-VENOM THE PARTY SHOULD BE PREPARED AS IF IT WERE AN INDE- FOR SNAKE BITE. FROM THE BASE AREA. PENDENT SURVIVAL UNIT WHILE IT IS SEPARATED IT IS RECOGNIZED THAT THE ABOVE MEASURES ASSUME OPTIMUM CONDITIONS PRE" ‘EVERTHELESS. PRIMARY VAIL. VERY PROBABLY THE REVERSE WILL BE TRUE. EFFORT SHOULD BE EXPENDED AND SUPPORTED TO THE ENDS THAT ADEQUATE IS AVAILABLE TO MEET CONTINUED NEEDS. OBVIOUSLY, PERHAPS THE WATER IT MAY BE 0F SEARCH FOR FOOD SHOULD NOT BE OVERLOOKED ALTHOUGH N I0 ‘0 SECONDARY IMPORTANCE UNTIL WATER IS FOUND. FRIMARY SOURCES OF WATER ARE THE RIVERS. STREAMS. AND RESIDUAL SWAMPS BUT AS WAS POINTED OUT ONLY THE MAIN RIVERS SUSTAIN A RELIABLE FLOW OF WATER DURING THE DRY SEASON. THE MOST CONSPICUOUS LANDMARKS INDICATING THE PRESENCE OF WATER ARE THE PALM TREES, ESPECIALLY THOSE OCCURRING IN GROVES OR IN ROWS. EVEN IF THE STREAM ALONG WHICH THE TREES ARE ALIGNED IS DRIED UP THE PALM FRUIT CONTAINS CONSIDERABLE JUICE. ALSO, IT IS POSSIBLE THAT WATER CAN BE STRUCK AT A DEPTH THAT CAN BE REACHED WITH LITTLE DIGGING. WHEN SUCH A TREE FORMATION IS FOUND AND WATER IS NOT IMMEDIATELY AVAILABLE, THE STREAM BED SHOULD BE FOLLOWED DOWNSTREAM IN SEARCH OF POOLS OR SIGNS OF SUB-SURFACE MOISTURE. IN SWAMP OR FLOODED AREAS THAT HAVE DRIED UP. THE DEEPEST PORTIONS OF THE DEPRESSION SHOULD BE PROBED FOR SEEPAGE- ALTHOUGH THE WATER WILL BE MUDDY AND STAGNANT, IT CAN BE STRAINED THROUGH PARACHUTE CLOTH OR OTHER MATERIAL AND BOILED. CAUTION IS ADVISED WHEN MOVING THROUGH SUCH AREAS WITH REGARDS TO CROCODILES OR CAIMAN THAT MAY BE SUBMERGED IN THE MUD-'ALSO WATCH FOR TURTLES. UNDERGROUND ROOTS AND TUBERS DO NOT YIELD MUCH MOISTURE NOR ARE THERE SUCCULENTS SUCH AS CACTUSES EXCEPT IN THE GRAN CHACO AREA. IEVEN THERE THEY ARE NOT ABUNDANT. OCCASIONALLY. WELLS DUG BY THE huaIANS ARE ENCOUNTERED IN THE GRAN CHACO BUT THESE TOO ARE FREQUENTLY DRY. IN SURVEYING THE LAY OF THE LAND FOR PROBABLE AREAS OF WATER) THE LLANQS AND THE RUPUNUNI FOR THE MOST PART DO NOT HAVE "HIDDEN" VALLEYS 0R DEEP DEPRESSIONS THAT WOULD OBSCURE THE INDICATION OF WATER FROM THE OBSERVER. IN THE MP S, HOWEVER. THE VALLEYS MAY BE 230 WELL BELOW THE HORIZON IF ONE IS IN THE CENTER OF A CHAPADAO OR TABLELAND BETWEEN THE RIVER VALLEYS. REMEMBER THAT THE VALLEYS RUN NORTH-SOUTH AND TO REACH ONE ENTAILS TRAVELING EAST OR WEST. HEAT IS CERTAINLY A FACTOR IN THIRST AND THE SURVIVOR SHOULD AVAIL HIMSELF OF ANY MEANS TO REDUCE THE EFFECTS OF THE SUN. ENERGY WILL NEED TO BE EXPENDED BUT NOT WASTED. CLOTHING SHOULD BE WORN so AS To GIVE THE MAXIMUM VENTILATION. FASHION SOME SORT OF HEAD COVERING; IF POSSIBLE ONE THAT HAS A BRIM. FOR CONCENTRATED DANGER PROBABLY THE TWO MOST SERIOUS THREATS ARE THE CASCAVEL AND THE FER-DE-LANCE. THE FER-DE-LANCE HAS BEEN DESCRIBED AT SOME LENGTH UNDER HAZARDS OF THE TROPICAL FOREST WHERE IT IS EQUALLY AT HOME. THE CASCAVEI. HOWEVER. IS ESSENTIALLY A DRY ITS VENOM IT IS PROBABLY LAND SNAKE. BY NATURE AS WELL AS TOXITY OF THE MOST DANGEROUS OF THE SOUTH AMERICAN SNAKES AND ACCORDING TO IT HAS CAUSED MORE DEATHS THAN ANY OTHER SNAKE IN AVAILABLE RECORDS BRAZIL. LIKE MOST OTHER SNAKES, IT IS NOT GIVEN TO UNPROVOKED ATTACKS ON HUMANS, HOWEVER, IT DOES HAVE A GENERALLY VICIOUS DEFENSIVE DIS" POSITION USUALLY STANDING ITS GROUND WHEN APPROACHED OR ATTACKED. THE VENOM OF THE QAEQAEEL HAS A RELATIVELY HIGH PERCENTAGE OF NEURo- TOXIN. THE EFFECTS ARE RAPID AND EVEN WHEN NOT FATAL FREQUENTLY RESULT IN LONG AND SOMETIMES PERMANENT IMPAIRMENT: MOST PARTICULARLY OF THE EYES. THE SYMPTOMS OF A BITE IS PARTIAL OR COMPLETE BLINDNESS FROM PARALYSIS OF THE EYEBALLS AND EYELIDS. THE MUSCLES THROUGHOUT THE BODY BUT ESPECIALLY IN THE NECK AND SHOULDERS BECOME FLACCID AND IN" CAPABLEz